To create this photo, I took a broken egg and placed it on top of an LED flashlight on my dining room table. When editing, I cooled down the photo to show more detail on the egg's shell. I also took out the glow that surrounded the egg to give it more of a defined shape. This photo meets the project's goal because without light this photo would be nonexistent. If I were to have taken the same picture just without the flashlight being turn on, the photo would have turned out to be a dark mess with an image of nothingness. A strength this photo captured is the detail in the egg's shell that you could not have seen without having to shine a light through the egg. Finally, a weakness this photo displays is a lack of depth. If I were to change one thing, I would position the egg in a way where shadows could be seen.

A nonexistent creature made from Playdoh, marbles and Photoshop

I am on a desperate search for an unspectacularly looking musician. Based on my current sample, the odds are slim. They seem nonexistent when it comes to guitarists

The Relativistic World of the Soul and Spirit - Some Recent Concepts by Daniel Arrhakis (2026)

  

The Relativistic World of the Soul and Spirit - Some Recent Concepts

 

The relativistic conception of the soul proposes that spirituality acts outside conventional physical laws. While materialistic science hesitates, quantum physics offers a new language to understand what ancient traditions such as Advaita Vedanta (**) have already affirmed: time is an illusion (Maya) and consciousness is eternal.

 

The Soul as Interface, Not a Prisoner

 

In this view, linear logic loses its meaning. The soul is not a solid or measurable object, but an entity that transcends matter:

 

- The Brain as Receiver: The physical body does not generate consciousness; it functions as a biological interface. Consciousness does not "live" in neurons; the brain only tunes into the frequency of universal consciousness.

 

- Transmitter vs. Receiver: The brain captures consciousness, allowing the experience of lucidity in the dense world. The observer (the soul) is necessary for physical reality to manifest.

 

- Transcendence: Existence unfolds in non-physical dimensions, where space-time imposes no limits.

 

Non-Locality and Ubiquity

 

The idea that the soul is "non-local" resolves the dilemma of spatial separation. Through the notion of "Entanglement" (*), phenomena such as intuition or the deep connection between people are explained, regardless of distance. The concept of non-locality is thus the meeting point between mysticism and quantum science:

 

- Spiritual Entanglement: Just as entangled particles influence each other instantaneously, regardless of spatial separation, the soul connects instantaneously to different points in the universe.

 

- Ubiquity (Non-locality): Consciousness does not occupy a specific "place"; it manifests itself omnipresently, ignoring distances. Consciousness can process information from multiple planes simultaneously, just as an electron exists in a cloud of probabilities.

 

- Universal Freedom: The soul does not reside in the body; It manifests itself through it, maintaining its infinite and non-local nature.

 

The End of Linear Time

 

The Vedanta concept of Maya (illusion) aligns with Einstein's relativity:

 

- The Eternal Now: If time is relative, the soul has neither "beginning" nor "end," only states of presence.

 

- Multidimensionality: Existence is not limited to the three spatial dimensions, allowing the spirit to inhabit spaces of greater mathematical complexity. Thus, the spirit is not limited to the three-dimensional body and can inhabit higher frequencies (often called 4th, 5th, or higher dimensions).

 

In this view of the nature of the soul, relativistic spirituality thus proposes a bridge between spiritual metaphysics and the concepts of modern theoretical physics. This view suggests that spiritual reality does not violate science, but operates on a scale that classical physics does not yet fully encompass or explain.

 

Expanded Notes

 

(*) Quantum Entanglement - The Instant Connection

 

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where particles interact and share a quantum state, making their properties deeply connected, regardless of distance. In other words, when two particles are entangled, an action performed on one affects the other instantaneously, even if they are kilometers (and even light-years) apart.

 

Albert Einstein ironically called this "spooky action at a distance," as this phenomenon defied the speed of light limit. The speed of light in a vacuum is a fundamental physical constant (approximately 300,000 km/s). It is considered the maximum speed limit of the universe because, according to Einstein's Theory of Relativity, objects with mass would need infinite energy to reach it.

 

(**) Maya in Vedanta – The Illusion of Reality

 

In Vedanta philosophy, especially in Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), Maya is the fundamental concept that explains the appearance of the material world and the apparent multiplicity of existence. Often translated as "illusion," Maya does not mean that the world is nonexistent or illusory, but rather that it is not what it seems to be: an independent and permanent reality.

 

According to this view, Maya describes the illusory nature of experience, where things appear separate and distinct, but are in fact manifestations of a single universal consciousness. Understanding Maya allows one to transcend the limited perception of the physical world, aligning with modern ideas about the relativity of time and the eternity of consciousness.

  

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

  

O Mundo Relativista da Alma e do Espírito - Alguns Conceitos Recentes

 

A conceção relativista da alma propõe que a espiritualidade atua fora das leis físicas convencionais. Enquanto a ciência materialista hesita, a física quântica oferece uma nova linguagem para compreender o que tradições milenares como o Advaita Vedanta (**) já afirmavam: o tempo é uma ilusão (Maya) e a consciência é eterna.

 

A Alma como Interface, não Prisioneira

 

Nesta visão, a lógica linear perde o sentido. A alma não é um objeto sólido ou mensurável, mas uma entidade que transcende a matéria:

 

- O Cérebro como Recetor: O corpo físico não gera a consciência; ele funciona como uma interface biológica. A consciência não "mora" nos neurónios; o cérebro apenas sintoniza a frequência da consciência universal.

 

- Emissor vs. Recetor: O cérebro capta a consciência, permitindo a experiência da lucidez no mundo denso. O observador (a alma) é necessário para que a realidade física se manifeste.

 

- Transcendência: A existência desdobra-se em dimensões não físicas, onde o espaço-tempo não impõe limites.

 

Não-Localidade e Ubiquidade

 

A ideia de que a alma é "não-local" resolve o dilema da separação espacial. Através da noção do "Emaranhamento" (*), explicam-se fenómenos como a intuição ou a ligação profunda entre pessoas, independentemente da distância. O conceito de não-localidade é assim o ponto de encontro entre a mística e a ciência quântica:

 

- Emaranhamento Espiritual: Tal como partículas entrelaçadas que se influenciam mutuamente de forma instantânea, independentemente da separação espacial, a alma liga-se instantaneamente a diferentes pontos do universo.

 

-Ubiquidade (A não-localidade): A consciência não ocupa um "lugar" específico; ela manifesta-se de forma ubíqua, ignorando distâncias. A consciência pode processar informação de múltiplos planos simultaneamente, tal como um eletrão existe numa nuvem de probabilidades.

 

-Liberdade Universal: A alma não reside no corpo; ela manifesta-se através dele, mantendo a sua natureza infinita e não-local.

 

O Fim do Tempo Linear

 

A conceção de Maya (ilusão) do Vedanta (**) alinha-se com a relatividade de Einstein:

 

-O Eterno Agora: Se o tempo é relativo, a alma não tem "início" nem "fim", apenas estados de presença.

 

- Multidimensionalidade: A existência não se limita às três dimensões espaciais, permitindo que o espírito habite espaços de maior complexidade matemática. Assim, o espírito não se limita ao corpo tridimensional e pode habitar frequências mais elevadas (frequentemente chamadas de 4ª, 5ª ou dimensões superiores).

 

Nesta visão sobre a natureza da alma, a espiritualidade relativista propõe assim uma ponte entre a metafísica espiritual e os conceitos da física teórica moderna. Esta visão sugere que a realidade espiritual não viola a ciência, mas opera numa escala que a física clássica ainda não abrange e não explica totalmente.

  

Anotações Expandidas

 

(*) Emaranhamento Quântico - A Ligação Instantânea

 

O Emaranhamento Quântico (ou Entrelaçamento Quântico) é um fenómeno onde partículas interagem e compartilham um estado quântico, tornando as suas propriedades profundamente conectadas, independentemente da distância. Em outras palavras, quando duas partículas estão entrelaçadas, uma ação efetuada numa delas afeta a outra instantaneamente, mesmo que estejam a quilómetros (e até anos-luz) de distância uma da outra.

 

Albert Einstein chamou-lhe ironicamente de "ação fantasmagórica à distância", pois este fenómeno desafiava o limite da velocidade da luz. A velocidade da luz no vácuo é uma constante física fundamental (aproximadamente 300.000 km/s). É considerada o limite máximo de velocidade do universo, pois, de acordo com a Teoria da Relatividade de Einstein, objetos com massa precisariam de energia infinita para alcançá-la.

 

(**) Maya no Vedanta – A Ilusão da Realidade

 

Na filosofia Vedanta, especialmente no Advaita Vedanta (não-dualismo) de Adi Shankara, Maya é o conceito fundamental que explica a aparência do mundo material e a aparente multiplicidade da existência. Frequentemente traduzido como "ilusão", Maya não significa que o mundo é inexistente ou ilusório, mas sim que ele não é o que parece ser: uma realidade independente e permanente.

 

Segundo esta visão, Maya descreve a natureza ilusória da experiência, onde as coisas parecem separadas e distintas, mas na verdade são manifestações de uma única consciência universal. O entendimento de Maya permite transcender a percepção limitada do mundo físico, alinhando-se com ideias modernas sobre a relatividade do tempo e a eternidade da consciência.

     

I recently acquired this in an auction box lot. It's a typewritten draft of what seems like a short piece for a magazine. My hunch is it was never published. I also suspect that the true author is Charlotte G. Moulton; her contact info is furnished at the end of the piece and her middle name is Glidden. Ms. Moulton was for several decades the UPI wire correspondent covering the Supreme Court. She was among the very first to report some momentous decisions in the 20th century, among them Brown v. Board of Education, Roe v. Wade, and the Miranda case.

 

Here's a transcript of the article:

Moteling — 1955

By Susan K. Glidden [probably a pseudonym of Charlotte G. Moulton]

To those who have never moteled may I say that in this pursuit, as elsewhere in life, it’s the little things that count.

Motel owners please note.

Having just returned from a grand circle vacation tour of the United States, where three of us located for a night in 16 different motor courts and three cabins in national parks, I speak with the voice of experience — not bitter but pretty well seasoned.

Of course after a daily 350 miles or so of dusty wayfaring, any modest billet with a clean-sheeted bed looks like a corner of heaven.

Cabins in national parks are designed to rent as cheaply as possible and naturally have to be rustic, with no fancy extras. The government now hopes to embark on an ambitious development program to meet the needs of an ever-increasing tourist load.

But the better motels go all-out for the motorist’s comfort. Wall-to-wall carpeting is usual, with gay draperies, easy chairs, radio and/or TV (usually the “insert a coin” type), immaculate tiled shower and air-conditioning. One motel clerk asked us to select either foam rubber or inner spring mattresses. All for prices ranging from $7 to $10 a night.

But, as I said, it’s the little things that count. And we soon had our own list of small desirables. After a few days on the road it became a standing joke to them off on arrival to see how the night’s stopping place met the test.

A shelf in the bathroom and a hook on the inside of the door headed the list. It’s right difficult to dispose of your toothbrush and toothpaste, lotion, soap flakes, pajamas and robe, soiled undies and other accessories when the bathroom offers no place to hang anything or set anything down. When even the toilet seat lacks a cover, it’s downright frustrating.

A wastebasket in both the bathroom and bedroom is also a help. We were always walking from one room to the other with crumpled paper or other rubbish in search of that essential article.

Small nightly laundry is highly important to the traveler but apparently seldom enters the thinking of motel designers. Bathroom basins are usually small, with no rim to hold wet garments between washing and rinsing. After the laundry is finished there is no place to hang it up to dry.

A shower curtain rod is a life-saver. But the trend in showers appears to be toward glass doors rather than curtains. Stretch clotheslines are obtainable at department store notion counters, but motels seldom provide any convenient appurtenances between which the line can stretch.

So bedtime usually found nylons panties draped on doorknobs, socks dangling from uplifted covers of vanity cases, and T-shirts on wire coat hangers balanced on door frames.

Many motels provide water glasses wrapped carefully in crisp little paper bags labeled “sterilized for your health and safety.” We had added this fine idea to our list until we observed the “sterilizing” being effected in something less than a super-safe manner. But even after that the little bags with their reassuring message made us feel protected anyway.

There were other acceptables — nice but not necessary. They included a real closet, instead of a clothes rack, a separate dressing alcove with a shelf for toilet articles, etc. (seldom found), and more than one luggage rack.

Frequently a room with two double beds would boast only one rack for a suitcase. The only other out-of-the-way space was often between wall and bed or even under the bed. Access to the bag’s contents could be had most conveniently by lying flat across the bed on the stomach.

Most motor courts had their own ideas of the “little extras” a traveler likes. A bottle-opener attached to a door jamb was a virtual certainty. Also small cakes of soap and bath mats, either cloth or fiber. Ice cubes were usually readily available, frequently in enormous quantity in a freezer in either the motel office or outside in the patio.

About a third of the motels provided face cloths along with the towels. Some had paper cups and facial tissue. One had a couple of super-fine quality tissues in envelopes inscribed with the management’s compliments. Another supplied two tough-fiber utility cloths for bathroom use which we used on the car for three weeks afterwards.

Free post cards bearing a picture of the motel were common. A few supplied stationery. In one or two we found packets of instant coffee for an early bracer. One advertised a continental breakfast of coffee and sweet roll for a quarter. And one even offered hot coffee and a doughnut “on the house.”

We seldom found a telephone in our room but there was always one in the office or in an outside booth.

Free reading matter included newspapers, the Bible and the Book of Mormon. One motel office offered borrowers an assortment of recent magazines.

Eating is always a travel problem. Some motels also operate cafes, with fairly good food at reasonable prices. But restaurants that would be considered A-1 in New York or Chicago simply don’t exist in small cities and towns. The motel manager directed us to the nearest eating place and we hoped for the best.

In first-class motels, serious defects are virtually nonexistent. In one place, however, the bathroom fixtures came off at the slightest encouragement. Sometimes the faucets dripped. A rodent gnawing away in the woodwork overhead caused one wakeful night.

We never realized how many systems there are for turning a shower on and off. But we always solved the mystery after a few tries. Soundproofing in all but one instance was excellent.

Of course we had to take in stride the afflictions suffered by the local residents themselves. For instance, as we approached one court in Oklahoma, we saw the manager pacing back and forth menacingly, with fly swatter in hand. It turned out that a horde of king-size crickets, different from the reassuring Eastern chirpers, had descended on the town, invading stores and homes. We found only one in our room, which we promptly dispatched.

Because motels must be on highways, we were sometimes disturbed at night by traffic noises. But this disadvantage was more than offset by the convenience of driving in and obtaining comfortable accommodations in less than five minutes.

Sometimes we didn’t even have to get out of the car. The manager came out to meet us, determined our needs and directed us to a room. Later we registered at the office, stating name, address, license plate and make and model of car.

From there we were on our own. Motels offer no bellboy service. Managers offered in a half-hearted way to carry our bags but they never insisted.

Names of motels run to a pattern. The country is dotted with Knotty Pines, Sunsets, Skylines, Westerns, Holidays and Trail’s Ends. Many owners concentrate on the atmosphere of their own region — El Rancho, Sea Breeze, Coral Sands, Plantation, Westward Ho, Desert Inn, etc. But some go to great expense to be different. One owner was importing blue spruce trees from another state so his patio would justify the name Blue Spruce Motel.

We soon became expert at telling from the outside what the inside of a motor court would look like. The safest bet is to choose one recommended by the American Automobile Association or some other reputable travel agency. That way you can’t go wrong.

[END]

Charlotte G. Moulton

Falls Church, Virginia

 

Marty “Fitz” Fitzgerald is a “good cop” in contrast to his partner. He is quiet and calculating in his approach to his job. A true professional, Fitz keeps to himself and relies on his unwavering confidence to find the answers needed to complete his task. He has deep respect for his partner and his loyalty has kept Jon out of trouble more times than can be counted. Fitz is very intelligent and his math skills are unrivaled within the department. A transplant from Blocston, Fitz has an uncanny calmness to him when approaching a crime scene. He has a highly developed photographic memory and specializes in criminology to get the job done. He has passed on promotions because he loves being in the field. His affection for New Blok City has kept him here and his love of the job keeps him going. Fitz has a different opinion than his partner when it comes to the super powered heroes within NBC. He loves the challenge of discovering new individuals and clues that would otherwise be nonexistent without them. He believes in justice, but isn’t as opposed to the vigilantes as his partner.

 

Built for the League of Lego Heroes

www.flickr.com/groups/llh/

for nonexistent babies

Instagram | Facebook | Vimeo

 

Céfiro (Del lat. Zephyrus); Viento suave y apacible. Brisa primaveral.

 

The b-east wind has been lashing the strait for a few days. Or a few weeks. When it happens, the ocean turns out a bit greenish and the waves fade away. Then, you can see on the crests of the undulating water how minusculous drops begin to fly off.

 

When the sun of May just got out, some of them landed on our window. From the misted up glass, I heard a murmur about rebuilding an empire and becoming a wave again. Then, as I used to do when I was a child, I told them that I have found someone who truly empathises and whose breeze does not destroy us. Neither deliberately, nor unconciously. As an answer, a new murmur appeared speaking about a confluence of the guardian, the healer and the oracle. All in one. Each for each. We, all together, as a team.

 

Meanwhile, on my side, I am learning how to deal with what is nonexistent on my inner-world but pretty common in the one I live, and trying to make something beautiful out of all of this.

 

Listening to:

Pequeña Gran Revolución, Izal.

 

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Thank you to W., for following my strict directions and making this photograph possible.

  

Los áfidos o pulgones, son insectos muy particulares, de diminutas dimensiones. En los climas templados, tienen ciclos de vida complejos: durante la primavera y verano se reproducen las hembras partenogenéticamente, dando a luz juveniles que son todas hembras. Cuando la densidad de población se acrecienta, entonces dan a luz hembras de una morfología distinta, estas tienen alas para poder desparramar la especie, y no son de tan alta reproductividad como las hembras ápteras.

Solo en el otoño, antes de los fríós invernales que eliminaran a casi todos, se aparean con machos y se reproducen por medio de huevos, los cuales resisiten el frío de las heladas hasta la primavera siguiente.

Es un hecho notorio que en los climas tropicales, la reproducción sexual prácticamente no existe, y lo hacen solo por medio de partenogénesis.

Aparentemente las altas temperaturas inhiben la producción de machos, pero si las temperaturas bajan algunas hembras pueden llegar a producirlos, aún en climas tropicales.

 

English

The aphids are very particular insects, tiny dimensions. In temperate climates, have complex life cycles: spring and summer, females reproduce parthenogenetically, giving birth to juveniles who are all female. When population density increases, then give birth to females of different morphology, they have wings to spread the species, and are not as high reproducibility and wingless females.

Only in the autumn before the cold winter which would eliminate nearly all, mate with males and reproduce by laying eggs, which resisting the cold of frost until the following spring.

It is well known that in tropical climates, sexual reproduction virtually nonexistent, and do so only through parthenogenesis.

High temperatures apparently inhibit the production of males, but if temperatures drop some females can produce, even in tropical climates.

  

I passed by this place one night in Manhattan's lower east side. I've never seen this sort of a store, looking like a refrigerator turned inside out.

I tried looking this place up, to find some more information about it, but the website on their awning doesn't exist. That's strange. Why promote a nonexistent site? I did find reviews of the places though. They run the gamut from "rude and surly" to "friendly and helpful", so I guess it's hit or miss what sort of service you may get. Everyone seemed to agree the prices were on the expensive side though. I'd like to go back and do some shooting here with a tripod some night.

 

Twitter Instagram

 

APPROXIMATE RELEASE DATE: 2016-2021

DOLLS IN LINE: Willa; Camille; Ashlynn; Kendall; Emerson

HEAD MOLD: "Willa"

 

***The girl on the far right is wearing Glitter Girls Ladybug Shimmer.

 

PERSONAL FUN FACT: For me, I always knew Wellie Wishers were a "when" scenario, not an "if." By that I mean I had immediately connected with the Wellies, but held out for the perfect timing. These dolls debuted in 2016, when I was a full blown American Girl addict. There were so many delightful things to ogle online or in the pages of the catalogue back then. Yet, I still felt drawn to the Wellie Wishers. Admittedly the concept of the line was a tad baffling. Were the doll designers huddled up at a meeting too long, tossing back and forth new ideas for a doll line? Were they cooped up so long that some over caffeinated, under slept business person jumped up and said, "AHA! We can give them wellies and call them...wait for it...WELLIE WISHERS!!!" Why I ask myself constantly. It's not like every outfit has wellies either...as if they possess some magical power that the girls acquire when wearing them. Maybe I'm missing something...I'm not familiar with the background of the dolls. Despite the obvious idea reach, I love the dolls. Even the name is charming (although I can imagine how my dad would twist it to be inappropriate, but I'll spare you). The outdoorsy, cutesy, innocent vibe of these charming dolls is compelling.

 

Right away, Colleen and I clicked with Kendall and Willa. Emerson was a close third...but Ashlynn and Camille were the "bland" ones. I felt a bond to the dolls because they reminded me a bit of an updated version of the Hopscotch Hill line. In the early 2000s, the Hopscotch Hill gals were the middle aged American Girls. You had Bitty Baby for the young girls, Hopscotch Hill for the early elementary school aged, and of course the 18" dolls for the oldest. The Hopscotch Hill dolls were short lived...and questionably homely. They featured these strange grimacing smiles and jointed bodies (which were notorious for going limp...and the doll hospital stopped repairing them years ago). Don't misinterpret me though...I wanted a Hopscotch Hill doll as a kid (which is why I pounced on Gwen at the local Salvation Army in 2017). I am a lustful doll glutton after all, and American Girl could sell me just about anything if you give them 45 minutes to make a pitch (or if you leave me unattended and bored with a catalogue for 30 minutes). In a strange way, the Wellie Wisher brought me back to my childhood, because they filled in the empty spot that the Hopscotch Hill dolls left behind. Honestly, I expected this line to be a flop, which is part of why I didn't bother putting much thought into getting a Wellie Wisher.

 

The more time progressed, the more I couldn't resist the lure of the Wellies. They had some of the most eye catching spreads in the catalogue. The photos reminded me of my elaborate outdoor garden setups I'd painstakingly put together as a kid. It also was even harder to resist the dolls when they started appearing at non-American Girl stores. American Girl licensed the Wellies to some other retailers, like Barnes and Noble, Kohl's, Toys 'R' Us, and even Amazon. There were even exclusive outfits only sold at some of these locations. This meant I was likely to encounter one of the cuties in the "wild." I remember before Toys 'R' Us closed, Colleen and I spent WAY too much time ogling the Wellie Wishers. It was the last time we ever went before the store permanently closed its doors. To our disappointment, all the fashion dolls were either not marked down, or not interesting. The Wellies weren't discounted either...but American Girl is strict with things going on sales (like you can't use a store discount on them). There was a moment of strong contemplation...do we buy one? In the end, my rational, responsible side won out. I did not need to splurge $60 on a Wellie Wishers doll and heaven knows how much more on an elaborate wardrobe for her. The time would come...but that occasion wasn't it.

 

I was pleasantly surprised by how well the Wellies seemed to sell (pun intended). Rather than being discontinued, their little world seemed to develop more and more. I was astonished by how many outfits American Girl cranked out for them. When Colleen and I realized that the Wellies had a matching Star & Snow Dress made for them in 2020, we both desperately wanted a Wellie of our own. What could be cuter than having a Bitty Baby, Truly Me, and Wellie Wishers dolls all wearing MATCHING dresses?!!! I guess fate decided that the time had finally come. If things had played out any other way, I don't think Willa would be standing in this photo before you. It was a dreary Sunday in April...what was supposed to be our second flea market weekend of the year. Since we had done some online shopping that week (cough, Cave Club bonanza), I was hesitant to spend MORE money on dolls. It was cold, dark, and wet from the snow that had melted. We had just gotten a little storm that Friday that left us with four inches of super slushy snow. While it had melted on Saturday, the ground was muddy. I woke up that Sunday morning determined not to go to the flea market. Colleen had also had her second COVID vaccine the day before. We were anticipating that she'd be sick from side effects. However, she felt like her usual ray of sunshine and we were both restless. It's very hard to resist going to the flea market during the first month of the season. The BEST deals are always at the start or end of the season...and we hadn't even reconnected with regular sellers (since the opening week was so slow).

 

I thought we would go home empty handed as we strolled around the last two aisles of the flea market. Despite the fact that there were a considerable amount of sellers, nobody had anything worthwhile. Then I spotted two friendly faces, and a very distinctive pile of dolls. The elderly couple Colleen and I had been buying from since 2012 had returned!!! They love the flea market as much as we do. It had become a wonderful buyer/seller relationship over the nine years we'd known them. It all started with three "ugly" Bratz dolls they were happy to unload in 2012 (one of them being my first Pretty 'N' Punk Cloe). After that they kept bringing in more and more dolls...and the more we bought, the more deals we got. I was so distracted by "Doll Mountain" that I didn't even look over at the other end of the booth where their more expensive items were usually displayed. It wasn't all that uncommon for this couple to have some sort of American Girl (obviously ones we already had, generic ones we weren't interested in, or overpriced ones). I had already paid for the four fashion dolls when I spotted three Wellie Wishers.

 

I assumed at a distant glance they'd be expensive. But curiosity compelled me to book it over to the Wellies. It turns out they were just $20 and fully dressed. Well, one of the Willa dolls was missing her boots. I pretended I needed "time" to ponder this purchase. Secretly I'd already made up my mind, but I was feeling guilty about buying two Wellie Wishers because I knew I'd have to get them clothes. You can summarize my personality with "If You Give A Mouse A Cookie." However, my story would go more like this: "If you give Shelly a doll, she'll have to buy her an outfit. Once she has the outfit, she'll have to make her accessories. Once she's done that, the doll will need a friend...." You get the idea...I may or may not have a problem. Anyways, we double backed to the booth after finishing the last aisle and getting some money from the ATM (I was like $5 short). The seller was not surprised that we bought the Wellie Wishers. She knew they'd sell that day since they were affordable and American Girl. She even made sure we snagged the Willa who had her boots (doll on left side of photo). Other than the missing hair accessories, Willa and Camille were complete. Camille had some staining on her face, and part of Willa's wig was coming undone. I had to sew down the prominent weft that was hanging off her head by her hairline. After a bath and laundering their clothes, the gals were good as new...and of course we had to hit up the AG website to get some goodies for them.

 

All the stars aligned the day we got Willa. If Colleen had side effects from her vaccine, we wouldn't have gone to the flea market. Likewise, if it had rained sooner or if the snow had not melted we would have stayed home. Had we gone later, Willa and Camille might have been sold to someone else! Somehow, I always knew Willa would be one of our first Wellie Wishers. I also had a similar feeling about Camille, despite the fact that I thought she was more boring than the other characters. It's also special that both dolls were bought together. I'm guessing they originated from the same previous home. It was a pleasant addition to the story that we got them from our favorite flea market sellers (who share our passion for said flea market). The best part of the story though was the excuse to finally get my hands on the wonders of the world of the Wellies. These dolls have some of the most whimsical fashions I've ever seen! I also found that Willa and Camille were far more attractive in person than I ever anticipated (and that was with a messed up wig and stained face). Willa is the perfect little sister for my 18" dolls, and a friend for Gwen (who hopes to profit off all the Wellie clothes because she can fit some). Timing really is everything, and I'm so glad that the Wellies joined our dolly family in 2021!

 

The longer we had Wellies, the more I fell for their fragile, childlike features and whimsical fashions. That's why I was SO excited when five more showed up at my door. It was a little bit before lunchtime one Thursday in February of 2023. I was listening to a Youtube video, while working on a dolly flooring project. I looked up from the table to see the mail truck pulling out of our driveway. I knew that a package must have been delivered, but I was flummoxed. I wasn't expecting anything...so what could have been dropped off? I opened the door to see an ENORMOUS Chewy box sitting on the mat. I was even more baffled...I hadn't ordered anything for the guinea pigs or chinchillas. Then I realized it was a gift, that had simply been packed into a reused Chewy box. Inside there were fifty some odd dolls. FIVE were Wellie Wishers. The doll in the middle of the photo was from the "Wondrous Wellie Wishers Lot" as we dubbed it. She was in the worst condition of the bunch--given her nicked face and messed up wig. Plus, not a single doll had a stitch of clothing on (other than Kendall, who was sporting a non-AG fashion). Although I didn't "need" this duplicated Willa, the thought of turning her out was nonexistent. She was an extremely generous gift, and was in need of TLC. Plus, Wellies are quite small and don't take up too much space. I named this little lady Willow, and found her a "meet" outfit from a lot on Mercari. I didn't "need" another "meet" getup, but I feel weird when my American Girls are missing them (even if they are a duplicate). Her hair went straight after the boil wash--it was so gnarly and dry I had no other choice. Rather than curling it, I kept it sleek for easier maintenance. Plus, it gives Willow her own personality, separate from Willa's. It's funny that the day we bought our first Willa there was a second one at the flea market booth. In the end, we got a second Willa...just not from the same seller!!!

 

You can tell Willa is a very popular doll...because we ended up with a third. Ironically, the girl on the far right of this photo was also a gift. In July of 2024, my sister and I were surprised with two boxes of dollies! They had been generously sent to us as a surprise. One of the packages contained mostly Barbies. The other, larger one, had bigger scale dolls...like Cabbies and American Girls. This lady needed some work. Her hair was a disaster, she was nude, and she was squalid. Based on the accompanying letter, I believe she was rescued from a thrift store. Wellie Wishers are fortunately very forgiving, so it was easy fixing her up. We opted to name her Wella (keeping the "w" themed name trend going). One day I'd like to get her a "meet" outfit too, but it wasn't a priority when we first got the bin. She too is very special, as she was an incredibly generous gift!

A la derecha España, a la izquierda Portugal (desde donde está hecha esta foto), en el centro el Río Duero: los Arribes del Duero.

 

DONA TU FOTO >>> www.donatufoto.es

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Parque Natural de Arribes del Duero

 

El Parque Natural de Arribes del Duero es el espacio natural protegido que alberga el gran cañón del río Duero en todo su tramo fronterizo, junto a las zonas de valle y de meseta adyacentes. Está situado en el noroeste de la provincia de Salamanca y el suroeste de la provincia de Zamora, en la Comunidad Autónoma de Castilla y León, España.

 

En esta zona, el curso del río Duero hace de frontera natural entre España y Portugal. La otra orilla se conoce bajo la protección del Parque Natural del Duero Internacional, situado en el sureste del distrito de Braganza y el noreste del distrito de Guarda, Portugal.

 

Introducción

Poblado del Salto de Aldeadávila

 

La característica más destacada de este espacio natural es la grandiosidad paisajística de su territorio. Un espectacular paraje en el que se pueden ver los graníticos cañones fluviales y valles frondosos por los que discurren encajonados los cursos de agua del río Duero y sus afluentes Águeda, Esla, Huebra, Uces y Tormes. Dentro de la demarcación del parque, también se incluye una zona de meseta zamorano-salmatina adyacente a la depresión causada por los ríos.

 

El alto caudal del Duero, los grandes desniveles de la zona y los numerosos ríos que en ella desembocan, convierten al parque en uno de los puntos de mayor potencial energético de toda la península Ibérica. Por ello, se ha ido construyendo una red de presas y embalses conocida como Saltos del Duero.

 

La peculiaridad de la orografía hace posible la existencia de un microclima más suave en los valles. Esto contribuye a la diversidad vegetal y convierte al parque en un lugar perfecto para el refugio de numerosos animales, especialmente para las aves.

 

Es una zona alejada con escasez de infraestructuras que se encuentra en un continuo proceso de despoblación debido al envejecimiento de sus habitantes. Gracias al carácter aislado de estas tierras, se han podido conservar numerosas costumbres y tradiciones como el idioma leonés. En los últimos años, las principales iniciativas inversoras de la zona han venido de la mano del comercio minorista transfronterizo y el turismo. Esta circunstancia ha hecho que sea necesario preservar el hábitat natural y desarrollar las tradiciones socioculturales como propulsores de la economía de la zona.

 

Tras años de reivindicaciones, el gobierno del país vecino protegió la parte portuguesa del espacio natural el 11 de mayo de 1998 bajo el nombre de Parque Natural del Duero Internacional.[1] El lado español no goza de la misma protección hasta el 11 de abril de 2002, cuando la Junta de Castilla y León incorporó este paraje a su red de parques naturales bajo el nombre de Parque Natural de Arribes del Duero.[2]

[editar] Extensión y territorio

Casa del parque, en el torreón de Sobradillo

Centro de recepción de visitantes, Trabanca

Arribanzos zamoranos, Torregamones

Cascada del Pozo de los Humos, Pereña

Puente de Requejo en Villadepera y Pino

El Duero a su paso por Saucelle

 

El gran cañón del Duero sirve de frontera natural entre España y Portugal, dividiendo este amplio espacio natural entre estos dos países. El río y sus afluentes son el elemento común y nexo de unión de todo el territorio que se extiende linealmente a lo largo de más de 100 km. La parte española, denominada Parque Natural de Arribes del Duero, se extiende sobre una superficie de aproximadamente 106.105 hectáreas mientras que la parte portuguesa, denominada Parque Natural del Duero Internacional, se extiende sobre una superficie de 85.150 hectáreas. La demarcación de estos parques, protege el territorio que comprende la depresión causada por los ríos y la franja de meseta adyacente. Los dos espacios suman una superficie de 191.255 hectáreas, lo que convierte a esta zona en una de las áreas protegidas más grandes de Europa.

[editar] Demarcación y municipios

 

La demarcación del parque comprende (total o parcialmente) la superficie de 37 términos municipales:

 

* 24 pertenecientes a la provincia de Salamanca: Ahigal de los Aceiteros, Aldeadávila de la Ribera, Almendra, Barruecopardo, Bermellar, La Bouza, Cabeza del Caballo, Cerezal de Peñahorcada, La Fregeneda, Hinojosa de Duero, Lumbrales, Masueco, Mieza, La Peña, Pereña de la Ribera, Puerto Seguro, Saldeana, San Felices de los Gallegos, Saucelle, Sobradillo, Trabanca, Villarino de los Aires, Vilvestre y La Zarza de Pumareda.

* 13 pertenecientes a la provincia de Zamora: Argañín, Fariza, Fermoselle, Fonfría, Gamones, Moral de Sayago, Moralina, Pino, Torregamones, Villadepera, Villalcampo, Villar del Buey y Villardiegua de la Ribera.

 

Durante años se discutió ampliar el área protegida hacia el este, englobando así a la zona del curso del río Tormes desde la presa de Almendra hasta Ledesma. Las características de la fauna y la flora en esta franja son muy similares a las del parque natural. Las zonas de nidificación de muchas especies de rapaces y ciconiiformes protegidas se solapan en ambos lugares. Finalmente se optó por ceñirse al área que hoy conocemos.[cita requerida]

 

En algunas localidades limítrofes, todavía existe el interés por pertenecer al parque. Olmedo de Camaces, Fuenteliante y Bañobárez solicitaron su inclusión en 2004. De hecho, estos municipios estuvieron incluidos en el anteproyecto del parque natural pero finalmente fueron excluidos de la demarcación definitiva.[3]

[editar] Puntos de referencia y accesos

[editar] Casas del parque

 

La peculiaridad de ser un parque a caballo entre las provincias de Salamanca y Zamora, tiene su reflejo en que la Junta de Castilla y León lo concibió con dos casas del parque. En estos puntos, se puede investigar sobre la historia, la arquitectura, las tradiciones, los paisajes, la flora o la fauna de estas tierras, pero también se puede consultar sobre rutas, lugares turísticos, restaurantes, alojamiento o diversas actividades organizadas, así como pedir mapas, folletos informativos o calendarios con las fiestas y eventos de la zona. Una de estas casas, está situada en la zamorana localidad de Fermoselle y la otra, en la población salmantina de Sobradillo. Surgen de la necesidad de aportar al visitante un visible punto de referencia, con información especializada desde la que iniciar su visita, y justifican su existencia en el desarrollo y coordinación de múltiples actividades de promoción e interpretación.

 

* La casa del parque del convento de San Francisco,[4] situada en el zamorano municipio de Fermoselle, tiene las siguientes opciones de acceso:

 

1. Desde Zamora, por la CL-527 directamente hasta Fermoselle.

2. Desde Salamanca, por la SA-300 hasta Ledesma. Allí se toma la SA-302 hacia Almendra, desde donde se siguen las indicaciones hasta Fermoselle.

 

* La casa del parque del Torreón de Sobradillo,[5] situada en la torre del homenaje del municipio salmantino de Sobradillo, tiene las siguientes opciones de acceso:

 

1. Desde Salamanca, por la CL-517 hasta Lumbrales. Allí se toma la DSA-464 hacia Sobradillo.

2. Desde Zamora, por la CL-528 hasta Ledesma. Allí se toma la CL-517 hacia Lumbrales, desde donde se coge la DSA-464 hacia Sobradillo.

 

En el zamorano municipio de Fariza se encuentran las oficinas del parque. Pertenecen a la Junta de Castilla y León y tienen la finalidad de ser el centro de coordinación de las actividades de conservación de la zona.[6]

[editar] Oficinas municipales de información

 

Complementariamente, algunos ayuntamientos de la demarcación del parque han creado sus propias oficinas de turismo. Estas instalaciones, por lo general más modestas que las de las casas del parque, también cuentan con información genérica del espacio natural aunque suelen ser especialmente visitadas por aquellos que buscan profundizar en la información de su área territorial de influencia. Existen oficinas de información turística en las localidades de Aldeadávila, Fermoselle, Hinojosa, La Fregeneda, Lumbrales, Torregamones, Trabanca y Villarino.[7] [8]

[editar] Museos

 

Otros lugares donde se puede estudiar más detenidamente algunos aspectos de la zona, son el museo arqueológico de Lumbrales,[9] las bodegas de Fermoselle, el museo de ecoturismo de Aldeadávila de la Ribera, las ferias agroalimentaria y de artesanía de Trabanca,[10] el museo de la tradición de Moralina,[11] el museo del vino y destilados de Villarino de los Aires, el parque temático de construcciones populares de Trabanca,[12] los museos etnográficos de Fariza, Hinojosa de Duero[13] y Villardiegua, la feria transfronteriza del olivar en Vilvestre, el salón internacional del vino de Trabanca,[14] los museos del aceite de San Felices de los Gallegos y Ahigal de los Aceiteros, la fragua de Trabanca,[15] la feria internacional del queso de Hinojosa de Duero,[16] el taller de alfarería y cerámica de Trabanca, el museo de historia de San Felices de los Gallegos, el museo textil de Lumbrales, los museos harineros de Sobradillo y San Felices de los Gallegos, el museo sacro de Villadepera y el museo casa de los frailes de Vilvestre.[17]

[editar] Etimología

 

Al estar caracterizada esta zona por ser un crisol de culturas, ha llevado a que este espacio natural reciba numerosos nombres dependiendo de la zona en la que nos encontremos. Denominaciones que en todo caso son de carácter popular y transmitidas de generación en generación.[18]

 

"Arribes" es una palabra de origen asturleonés derivada del latín "ad ripam" que significa "a la orilla".[19] Este término aparece publicado por primera vez en una obra escrita en 1885.[20] Era utilizado por los naturales de las comarcas salmantinas de El Abadengo y La Ribera para referirse a los cañones del Duero y demás ríos de este territorio. Sin embargo, en las comarcas zamoranas de Sayago y Aliste, esta misma zona se denominaba "Arribas" o "Las Arribas",[21] término que en la actualidad ha ido perdido presencia a favor del término foráneo "Los Arribes", pero ambos siguen siendo utilizados indistintamente en algunas localidades zamoranas. Existe además el término "Arribanzo", con el que los habitantes de la parte zamorana del parque se refieren a los enormes roquedos o gigantescas rocas graníticas que forman el encajonamiento del Duero.[22]

 

Frente a los nombres locales, es a partir de mediados de los años 70 cuando se ha extendido en la parte zamorana, la denominación masculinizada "Los Arribes", fruto de la fuerte popularidad que le han concedido a la zona los distintos medios de comunicación e instituciones, quienes, ajenos a la terminología local, han influido a los propios habitantes de la zona. De este modo, los zamoranos han generalizado el término Los Arribes mientras que paralelamente en el tiempo, en la parte salmantina se ha comenzado a utilizar cada vez con mayor frecuencia, la versión femenina de este término para referirse a la comarca salmantina de La Ribera, lo que ha implicado la pérdida progresiva de su propio e histórico nombre en favor de la nueva denominación "Las Arribes".[23]

 

"Arribes", tanto en masculino como en femenino, ha evolucionado en los últimos años para incluir también en su denominación, el paisaje de las zonas aledañas al río como es la franja de meseta más próxima al cañón además de todas las laderas intermedias.

[editar] Orografía

 

El relieve del parque se caracteriza por la fuerte incisión que presentan los cursos de los ríos Duero y sus afluentes Águeda, Esla, Huebra, Uces y Tormes sobre la meseta central, que constituye la unidad geomorfológica más antigua de la península Ibérica. Los procesos geológicos endógenos junto con la erosión del agua, han dado lugar a este espacio natural de abruptos cañones y valles escarpados por los que discurren encajados los cursos fluviales de estas tierras, estableciendo así la frontera natural entre España y Portugal.

 

Este inmenso balcón natural con vistas al país vecino, tiene su origen en la era primaria o Paleozoica (600-225 millones de años), cuando la península Ibérica se encontraba bajo el nivel del mar. La orogenia hercínica de esta etapa ocasionó la unión de todas las masas continentales, que se fusionaron formando la Pangea. De este modo, se deformó la litosfera y se produjo la emersión del denominado Macizo Hespérico, una enorme cadena montañosa resultante del choque de las placas, compuesta de granito, pizarra y cuarcita, sobre la que se asienta la actual meseta central y la mayor parte de España. Es por esto por lo que en el cañón del río Duero se pueden ver los denominados arribanzos o gigantescas rocas graníticas.

 

Durante la era secundaria o Mesozoica (225-68 millones de años), comienza a disgregarse la Pangea y formarse la estructua actual de la corteza. Esta gran masa continental se fragmenta originando la Gondwana por un lado y la Laurasia por otro. La erosión desgasta intensamente las formaciones paleozoicas dando como resultado el paisaje actual de la penillanura zamorano-salmantina. Las profundas capas graníticas, al contactar con los sedimentos paleozoicos, originaron en algunos puntos micacita y gneis.

 

Finalmente, la era terciaria o Cenozoica (68-1,7 millones de años) es el periodo en el que se produce el progresivo levantamiento del este peninsular, que tiene lugar gracias a la orogenia alpina. La inclinación de la península Ibérica hacia el océano Atlántico determina la orientación hacia éste de la mayoría de los ríos peninsulares incluido el Duero, que tiene que abrirse camino entre la llanura, dando como resultado el inmenso cañón de Arribes del Duero. Por último, con el inicio del período cuaternario comienzan a formarse las terrazas del río debido a las alternancias climáticas de esta etapa.

[editar] Climatología

 

Existen dos tipos de clima dentro del parque. En las zonas de cañón y valle se puede disfrutar de un microclima mediterráneo que suaviza las temperaturas y contribuye a la diversidad vegetal, mientras que en las zonas de meseta incluidas dentro de la demarcación, se puede observar ya el clima continental propio de la llanura zamorano-salmantina, donde los inviernos son más fríos y acusados. En el observatorio de Mieza, situado a 658 m de altura, se registran 12°C de temperatura media anual mientras que el observatorio de la presa de Saucelle, situado a 162 m de altura, se registran 17°C.

 

Los inviernos duran aproximadamente dos meses en las proximidades del río ya que la climatología es más suave y húmeda. Esto se debe a que los valles están a salvo del viento y más expuestos al sol. En las zonas de meseta se prolongan durante cinco meses al presentarse una climatología más fría y seca.

 

Las temperaturas medias del mes más gélido (enero o diciembre), están en torno a 9°C en las zonas de valle mientras que en las zonas de mayor altitud rondan los 5°C. La diferencia más notable entre una zona y otra son las heladas, prácticamente inexistentes en los valles. Esto posibilita el cultivo de olivos, vides, almendros y naranjos, que no son habituales en la meseta.

 

Durante los veranos, las diferencias no son tan acentuadas puesto que las temperaturas medias del mes más cálido (julio o agosto) son de 27°C en los valles y 25°C en la meseta. Por último, hay que indicar que aunque las temperaturas mínimas en esta época son bastante atenuadas, las máximas suelen ser elevadas, superando con frecuencia los 30°C durante los meses estivales.

 

Las precipitaciones se distribuyen de una forma muy irregular por todo el parque. La zona más lluviosa es el observatorio de Barruecopardo, con precipitaciones cercanas a los 900 mm, sin embargo el observatorio menos lluvioso se encuentra casualmente apenas a 20 km, en la presa de Saucelle, donde la precipitación anual supera escasamente los 500 mm. En términos generales, las precipitaciones son más abundantes al norte del parque, estando cercanas a los 700 mm en casi toda la demarcación zamorana donde se distribuyen de una forma más regular. Van disminuyendo cuanto más al suroeste nos encontremos.

[editar] Ecosistemas: fauna y flora

 

La fauna y la flora de este espacio natural brilla por la gran riqueza y variedad de especies que las componen. La singularidad del clima junto con la peculiaridad de la orografía, favorecen la existencia de un ecosistema natural de singular belleza. Las especies animales y vegetales que habitan en el parque natural, constituyen una síntesis de entre las que se pueden encontrar en el clima mediterráneo de los valles y en el clima continental de la meseta. En esta demarcación habitan cerca de 200 especies de aves, unas 47 clases de mamíferos y 21 tipos de reptiles entre una vegetación de tipo mediterráneo.

[editar] Fauna

 

La diversidad animal es uno de los motivos más importantes por los que la zona se declaró parque natural. Destaca el elevado número de aves, tanto nidificantes como hibernantes. La gran variedad existente se debe a que el cañón del río Duero, las grandes masas forestales y los numerosos cursos fluviales, constituyen en conjunto, el hábitat perfecto para cualquier tipo de ave.

Cigueña negra

Buitre leonado

Alimoche

Milano Real

Águila Real

[editar] Aves más destacadas

 

En 1990, este paraje natural fue declarado Zona de Especial Protección para las Aves (ZEPA).[24] Las especies protagonistas de este logro son el águila perdicera, el águila real, el alimoche, el búho real, el buitre leonado, la chova piquirroja, la cigüeña negra y el halcón peregrino.

 

La cigüeña negra es la más emblemática y extendida en la zona. Los huecos y recodos de los llamados arribanzos o roquedos graníticos del Duero, son el lugar elegido para la nidificación de este ave que en España está incluida dentro de las especies con posible peligro de extinción. Es por tanto este espacio natural, un punto clave para la conservación de esta especie. El 22 de junio de 1998, fue designado como Área Crítica para la Conservación de la Cigüeña Negra.[25] Las 20 parejas de cigueña negra que hay en esta zona, suponen el 8% de la población española y el 25% de la de Castilla y León (datos de febrero de 2005).[24]

 

Las grandes rapaces son las otras nidificantes más significativas e importantes del parque. Entre ellas, la forma del buitre leonado es la más sencilla de reconocer, pues campea a sus anchas por todo el área. En 2005 tenía una población de 550 parejas.[24] También destacan y son relativamente fáciles de reconocer las siluetas del alimoche (75 parejas en 2005),[24] el búho real (25 parejas en 1992),[24] el águila real (24 parejas en 2005),[24] el águila perdicera (17 parejas en 2005),[24] el milano real (9 parejas en 2005)[24] y el halcón peregrino (6 parejas en 2005).[24]

 

También destacan las poblaciones de chova piquirroja (159 parejas en 2005)[24] y cigueña blanca (115 parejas en 1999).[24]

[editar] Otras aves

 

Existen otras aves que dependen del resguardo de los arribanzos para criar o simplemente para sobrevivir. La más común es el avión roquero, que a diferencia del de otras zonas, permanece aquí todo el año gracias al microclima de la zona. También se pueden ver por aquí la chova piquirroja, el cuervo, la golondrina dáurica, la grajilla, el roquero solitario y el vencejo real.

 

En los bosques donde predominan los robles, se encuentran pequeñas poblaciones de arrendajo, becada, camachuelo común, mirlo común, mito, pico menor, pico picapinos, pito real, torcecuello, trepador azul y zorzal común. En los bosques donde predominan las encinas, son más frecuentes los alcaudones comunes, los alcaudones reales, los agateadores, los críalos y los rabilargos.

 

También es habitual la presencia de rapaces forestales como el águila calzada, el milano negro, el milano real y el ratonero común. Durante la noche son frecuentes el autillo, el búho chico, el cárabo y el chotacabras gris.

 

En las riberas de los ríos, se puede ver al chorlitejo chico, la focha común, la gallina de agua, la garza real, el martín pescador y el mirlo acuático.

[editar] Mamíferos

 

Se cuenta con la presencia de ejemplares tan escasos como son el gato montés y el tejón.

 

Destacada es la presencia de murciélagos, de las que se calcula la presencia de 14 especies. En su proliferación ha tenido especial trascendencia el abrigo proporcionado por los roquedales de los acantilados y el especial clima benigno de la zona.

 

Uno de los mamíferos cuya presencia despierta un especial interés, por su escasez y galopante regresión en el continente europeo, es la nutria. La construcción de numerosos embalses fue antaño la principal causa de su casi completa desaparición en el Duero, de la que escasamente se ha ido recuperando con el paso del tiempo.

 

Visitante ocasional del parque es el lobo que, también desde el sector norte, penetra sin haber llegado a mantener una población estable. Otros mamíferos, ya relativamente más abundantes, serían el zorro, jabalí, gineta, conejo, liebre, erizo, comadreja, garduña y lirón careto.

 

El más destacado de todos los mamíferos que han habitado alguna vez en el parque, es el endémico lince ibérico. Aunque actualmente se da por extinguido en la zona,[26] [27] [28] algunos expertos afirman que en los valles más tranquilos y de vegetación mejor conservada, aún podrían quedar algunos ejemplares.[29] De hecho, aunque no esté demostrada su supervivencia en estas tierras, en la mayoría de los carteles, folletos y webs de promoción y publicidad de la zona, así como en la propia ley de declaración como parque natural, todavía lo incluyen entre sus especies.[2] [30]

[editar] Peces, anfibios y reptiles

 

Se puede reconocer en torno a una veintena de especies piscícolas en área acuática protegida y, de ellas, algunas son endemismos: barbo ibérico, boga, bermejuela y colmilleja, la pardilla y calandino.

 

El esturión es otro de los que más escasez de individuos se ha detectado en toda la zona, lo que ha motivado su clasificación como especie "en peligro de extinción". La anguila es también una especie amenazada en la parte española del Duero, ya que solo sobrevive en ríos que desembocan en el Océano Atlántico y los embalses españoles (al contrario que los portugueses) no cuentan con escalas de peces. Frecuentes son también, entre otros, las clásicas carpa, tenca y lucio.

 

Respecto de los anfibios, las condiciones ambientales no son las más idóneas, ya que el menor número de precipitaciones, a pesar de un mayor rigor termométrico, dificulta la proliferación de los anfibios en el parque. Hasta trece especies se han contabilizado, de las que al menos dos son endémicas: tritón ibérico y sapo partero ibérico. Más abundantes son el sapo común, sapo corredor, tritón jaspeado, rana de san Antonio, y la salamandra común.

 

Sin embargo, el Parque es un hábitat idóneo para la proliferación de reptiles, tanto por clima como por relieve, siendo los más abundantes el lagarto ocelado, la lagartija colilarga, el bastardo y la culebra escalera. Estos a su vez se han convertido en elementos clave de la alimentación de las rapaces diurnas, por la disminución progresiva de otros animales como conejo y perdiz. Relevante es también la presencia de la salamandra común, amparada por la mayor benignidad climática, junto al galápago europeo y el galápago leproso.

[editar] Flora

 

La diversidad vegetal está representada por flora de tipo mayoritariamente mediterráneo. La mayoría de los bosques están formados por robles. Coexisten con los de alcornoques y encinas. Las grandes extensiones de matorral están llenas de retamas, piornos, tomillos, jaras, chumberas o enebros.

 

Gracias al microclima, además es posible el cultivo de plantas y árboles que no son habituales en las vecinas comarcas de la meseta, donde se presenta un clima continental. Esta peculiaridad la representan los olivos, las vides, los almendros, los naranjos y los limoneros, aunque actualmente el número de estas plantaciones es mucho menor que antaño. También se llegó a cultivar caña de azúcar a finales del siglo XIX.[31]

 

En la actualidad, el cultivo más importante y extendido en la zona, es el de la vid. Destacan las catorce bodegas de Ahigal de los Aceiteros, Fermoselle, Fornillos de Fermoselle, La Fregeneda, Pereña de la Ribera y Villarino de los Aires, que elaboran los vinos de la Denominación de Origen Arribes. También se pueden ver algunos olivares importantes en Ahigal de los Aceiteros, San Felices de los Gallegos y Vilvestre,[32] [33] y quedan varias extensiones de almendros en Hinojosa de Duero, Mieza, Saucelle y más concretamente en La Fregeneda y Vilvestre.[34] Los naranjos también tienen presencia en esta misma zona, sobre todo en Vilvestre.[35] De las extensiones de limoneros, ya sólo quedan algunos árboles individuales.

[editar] Vestigios, demografía y población

 

Esta zona ha estado habitada desde hace mucho tiempo. Se conservan numerosos vestigios sobre los antiguos pobladores. En la actualidad, la pérdida de población es el gran problema de la zona.

[editar] Hallazgos del antiguo poblamiento

Mula prerromana, Villardiegua

Cabeza del Caballo

La Fregeneda

 

Numerosas huellas dan fe del antiguo servilismo de esta tierra hacia el hombre. De los vestigios existentes, los más antiguos se han fechado en el paleolítico, como las pinturas rupestres de la cueva de Palla Rubia,[36] situada frente al Pozo de los Humos, en la orilla perteneciente al municipio de Pereña. De la misma época son las pinturas rupestres del Risco de Bermellar,[37] próximo al Puerto de la Molinera.

 

Del neolítico se conserva el taller de Vilvestre, al que algunos expertos arqueólogos califican como el más importante de España.[37] En él se afilaban las herramientas que posteriormente serían utilizadas en las actividades cotidianas.

 

La presencia árabe, muy importante en toda la zona, se conserva en la tradición oral leyendas de tesoros, fortalezas y acoso a doncellas... en Pereña de la Ribera, Masueco y Aldeadávila de la Ribera. De esta época también hay restos junto a la Ermita de Nuestra Señora del Castillo en Pereña, y un tramo de cercas árabes del siglo X junto a la Ermita de la Santa en Aldeadávila.

[editar] Población actual

 

En 2010, la población total de los términos municipales incluidos (total o parcialmente) en la demarcación del parque, era de 16.514 habitantes (INE 2010), mientras que en el año 2000, era de 19.718 habitantes (INE 2000). Como se puede obervar, la población arribeña ha sufrido un descenso importante. Desde los años 60, se da una evolución continuamente negativa en el número de habitantes de esta zona. Esto se debe principalmente al acusado envejecimiento, que viene como consecuencia de la emigración de la juventud hacia las ciudades.

 

Esta emigración tiene una primera etapa que va desde principios del siglo XX hasta 1950 en la que algunos habitantes parten hacia Argentina y otros países de Iberoamérica. A partir de los años 50 se origina una emigración, aunque tampoco muy importante, hacia Europa occidental y un poco más adelante, en los años 60, se produce el gran boom de la emigración hacia la ciudades españolas más desarrolladas, orientándose sobre todo, hacia Madrid, Cataluña, País Vasco, Valladolid y en menor medida hacia Andalucía y la Comunidad Valenciana.

 

Veintitrés de los treinta y siete términos municipales incluidos (total o parcialmente) en la demarcación parque, tienen una población inferior a 500 habitantes (INE 2002). Albergan solamente a un tercio de los residentes totales (30,9%) y ocupan una extensión bastante inferior a la mitad de las hectáreas protegidas (39,8%).

 

Nueve términos municipales (la cuarta parte del total) tienen poblaciones que oscilan entre 500 y 1.000 habitantes (INE 2002). Estos albergan al 32,9% de la población total y ocupan el 36,4% del territorio del parque. Son núcleos de población que sólo se diferencian de los anteriores en el censo, ya que a pesar de tener mayor densidad demográfica que los anteriores, no cuentan con la entidad suficiente como para modificar sus rasgos cualitativos y adquirir un cierto rango en la escala funcional de este tipo de espacios.

 

Ese mayor rango es atribuible, aunque sólo parcialmente, a los cinco términos municipales que tienen poblaciones superiores a los 1.000 habitantes. Son Aldeadávila de la Ribera, Fermoselle, Fonfría, Lumbrales y Villarino de los Aires (INE 2002). La población censada en ellos cuantifica el 36,2% de la residente y sin embargo representan algo menos de la cuarte parte de la superficie (23,8%). Estas localidades están algo mejor dotadas y es en ellas donde se puede disfrutar de la mayoría de la actividades organizadas de la zona.

 

Frente a esta tendencia decreciente de la población residente, contrasta el aumento demográfico que se produce en la época estival como consecuencia de la vuelta al pueblo por vacaciones, de la población que emigró y ahora vive en las ciudades. También destaca el número de turistas, que asciende a 90.758 visitantes en 2008, según el servicio de espacios naturales de la consejería de medio ambiente de la Junta de Castilla y León.[38] Una cifra muy elevada en comparación con la del número de personas que vive en estas tierras.

[editar] Lucha contra el despoblamiento

 

Es importante mencionar las actuaciones llevadas a cabo por los ayuntamientos de la zona para frenar la pérdida de población. En un pleno celebrado el 27 de julio de 2007, en el ayuntamiento de Aldeadávila de la Ribera, se aprobó por unanimidad la concesión de una ayuda de 3.000 euros a las familias censadas en este municipio por cada nacimiento de un hijo[39] mientras que en Trabanca lanzaron una amplia oferta de empleo para 36 profesionales de todo tipo, con la intención de revitalizar y dinamizar económicamente la zona.[40]

 

El 14 de marzo de 2009, se constituye la Agrupación Europea de Cooperación Territorial Duero-Douro, una institución o asociación con entidad jurídica, que agrupa varios municipios de España y Portugal con la finalidad de organizar, gestionar y llevar a cabo proyectos de cooperación transfronteriza en los ámbitos del desarrollo económico, laboral, medioambiental y turístico.[41]

[editar] Aprovechamiento hidroeléctrico

Presa de Aldeadávila

Artículo principal: Saltos del Duero

 

El Duero es el tercer río más largo de España y el más caudaloso de la península Ibérica. A su paso por la frontera, su caudal medio es de 570 m³/s.

 

Siendo éste un territorio alejado y mal comunicado, el río es su principal recurso natural. El alto caudal que posee y el gran desnivel que existe en este tramo, junto con la desembocadura de los ríos Águeda, Esla, Uces, Huebra y Tormes en la zona, son los factores que convierten al parque en un lugar idóneo para el levantamiento de grandes presas y embalses cuyo objetivo sea la obtención energía eléctrica. Por ello, el 16 de agosto de 1927 se firmó un acuerdo hispano-luso en el que se asignó a España el tramo entre las desembocaduras de los ríos Tormes y Huebra, y a Portugal los otros dos tramos de frontera del Duero para la construcción de estos aprovechamientos hidroeléctricos.

 

Saltos del Duero es el nombre de la empresa que gestionó la construcción de las grandes presas y actualmente es como se conoce al sistema hidroeléctrico que conforman, cuya potencia instalada supera los 3000 megavatios en la parte española. Este factor hace que Castilla y León, con 5657 megavatios, sea la productora de más del 20% de la energía eléctrica de origen hidraúlico de España.

[editar] Gastronomía

Véanse también: Gastronomía de la provincia de Salamanca y Gastronomía de la provincia de Zamora

 

El arte del buen comer es otro de los atractivos turísticos que ofrece la zona. La calidad de la materia prima y los excelentes modos culinarios, hacen posible la elaboración de una cocina tradicional, rica y variada. Las cinco denominaciones de origen (carne de morucha, garbanzos de Fuentesaúco, jamón de Guijuelo, lenteja de La Armuña y queso zamorano) y las cuatro marcas de garantía (chorizo de Zamora, harina tradicional zamorana, ternera charra, ternera de Aliste y quesos de Arribes) son ejemplo de reconocimiento a la calidad de los productos de las provincias de Salamanca y Zamora.

 

Los entrantes constituyen una parte esencial y muy característica de esta cocina. Los protagonistas indiscutibles aquí son el embutido, el jamón o el queso. Comparten este puesto con la chanfaina, las patatas revolconas y el hornazo, una especie de empanada rellena de embutidos, muy tradicional de la zona.

 

Unos huevos fritos con farinato, un potaje, una sencilla ensalada de la huerta o la típica sopa de ajo podrían constituir una primera parte de la degustación, para dar paso a la carta de carnes, que está sin duda entre los platos fuertes de la cocina de estas tierras. Destacan en primer lugar, las especialidades en ternera, cuya calidad reside en la frescura del género y en el tradicional sistema de cría de las ganaderías de la zona, con razas autóctonas de reconocido prestigio como la morucha, sayaguesa o alistana. Menos conocidos, pero de igual virtud, son otros platos como el cordero lechal, el cabrito al horno, los reconocidos guisos de pollo de corral o los asados de costillares de cerdo. Para los que aún continúen buscando alternativas, la cocina arribeña ofrece sus especialidades en bacalao, especialmente asado, o la tenca escabechada así como las lentejas, las alubias o los garbanzos, que también constituyen una parte importante de la comida de la tierra.

 

Al llegar al postre se pueden degustar dulces típicos como las perrunillas, los repelaos, el piñonate, el bollo maimón, las obleas, los suspiros de monja y el queso de almendra o saborear las naranjas, cerezas, manzanas y peras de la zona.

 

Además, como en toda buena comida, no puede faltar una buena selección de vinos como los de la recientemente creada Denominación de Origen Arribes o de los ya consolidados caldos de la Denominación de Origen Toro y la Denominación de Origen Tierra del Vino de Zamora.

 

Hornazo

  

Sopa de ajo

  

Huevos con farinato

  

Bollo maimón

[editar] Lenguas y literatura

Artículos principales: Habla arribeña, habla sayaguesa, idioma leonés e idioma mirandés

 

Al ser y haber sido ésta una zona aislada y fronteriza, se han podido conservar en mayor o menor grado una larga lista de arraigadas tradiciones, costumbres y peculiaridades autóctonas como es el idioma leonés. De esta forma, en la ribera española todavía son de uso cotidiano por la población de muy avanzada edad, algunas palabras, giros y expresiones en lengua leonesa.

 

En el vecino concelho portugués de Miranda do Douro, el dialecto derivado del leonés, denominado oficialmente mirandés, goza de protección y reconocimiento legal.[42]

[editar] Miguel de Unamuno quiso dejar presente su visita a la zona, con un lugar dentro de la literatura española más conocida

 

El famoso escritor bilbaíno Miguel de Unamuno era un enamorado de este espacio natural. Visitó la zona al menos en dos ocasiones. La primera de ellas fue en marzo de 1898 a modo de retiro espiritual. Llegó a Masueco para visitar el Pozo de los Humos. Se acercó al cañón del Duero en Aldeadávila de la Ribera y quiso contemplar las ruinas del Convento de La Verde. También visitó Vilvestre, donde dice que pudo contemplar una de las mejores puestas de sol de todas las que había visto. Habla con gran cariño de todos estos lugares en el relato (1898) que mandó a la revista bilbaína Ecos Literarios.

 

El escritor visitó la zona por segunda vez en mayo de 1902. En esta visita, Unamuno pudo conocerla más en profundidad. En Por tierras de Portugal y España (1911), aparece una descripción detallada de este espacio natural.

El primer pueblo de La Ribera a donde llegué fue Masueco... Al siguiente día de mi llegada fuimos a ver la cascada de los Humos, en los arribes de uno de los afluentes al Duero... Es singular el atractivo del agua. Estaríase uno las horas muertas contemplándola fluir, dejándose ganar el espíritu por la sensación purísima que su constante curso nos produce. El agua es acaso la que mejor imagen nos ofrece de la quietud en el movimiento, del solemne reposo supremo que del concierto de las carreras de los seres todos surge. En el estanque duerme el agua reflejando al cielo, pero con no menos pureza lo refleja en el cristal de un sosegado río, cuyas aguas, siempre distintas, ofrecen la misma superficie siempre. Y en la cascada misma, por donde se despeña bramando, preséntanos una vena compacta, una columna que acaba por parecer sólida. ¡Enorme fuerza la que sin aparato alguno, con la sencillez del coloso, despliega!... Es una de las más hermosas caídas de agua que pueden verse entre aquellos tajos adustos. Divídese la cascada mayor en dos cuerpos debido a un saliente de la roca, y va a perderse en un remanso de donde surge el vapor que ha valido al paraje el nombre de los Humos. Junto a la inmensa vena líquida, a su abrigo, en las quebraduras y resquicios de la roca, anidan palomas que revolotean en torno del coloso. Este irá desgastando poco apoco el desnivel que le produce, y es seguro que cada año se achica la cascada, aunque sólo sea en un milímetro o en fracción de él. ¡Los siglos que habría necesitado el agua para excavar tales tajos y reducir análogas cascadas!.

 

Al siguiente día de nuestra visita a los Humos, preparamos la expedición a Laverde... Laverde está en territorio de Aldeadávila de la Ribera, la corte de esta región, la villa para los comarcanos... Dimos... vista al Duero y con él a un paisaje dantesco... En lo alto, apuntados picones que se asoman al abismo, peñas y aserradas crestas; a lo largo, inmensas escotaduras que encajándose de un lado y de otro, en la disposición llamada de cola de milano, forman la garganta por cuyo hondón corre el río. Los enormes cuchillos van perdiéndose en gradación de tintas hasta ir a confundirse con la niebla. Allí arribota, arribota, en la cresta del escarpado frontero, verdean trozos de trigo, nuncios de una campiña serena, y asoma su copa algún que otro arbolito que denuncian a un pueblecillo portugués. Juegos de luz animan la dantesca garganta; peñas en claro se destacan sobre el tono oscuro de las peñas en sombra, y allá en lo alto, dominando al ceñudo paisaje, algún milano se cierne bañándose en luz. Suben del río perezosas nieblas que se agarran a los peñascos, y fingen el alma de éstos que de ellos se desprende con pesar. El Duero, que dibujando su vena central, su líquido senderillo de espuma, corre encajonado en el fondo de estas gargantas, es el mismo que pasa amplio y solemne, abrazando a la feraz llanura y como gozándose en ella, por tierra de Zamora. Todas estas gargantas dantescas son obras de él, obra de la lenta labor del agua terca...

 

En una de estas laderas del tajo del Duero, en medio de lo que queda de una que debió de ser huerta frondosa, se alzan las ruinas del convento de Laverde, retiro en un tiempo de los religiosos menores. En la portería, sobre la puerta y debajo de un escudo con los cinco estigmas, se lee, enteramente ahumada, esta inscripción: «Entre la vida y la muerte no ai espacio ninguno; en un instante se acaba lo que se vive en el mundo. Año de MDCCLXIX»... Es una pena la que ofrece aquella desolación. Las celdas deshechas y a la intemperie; la yerba creciendo por todas partes; en el claustro un limonero entre maleza, y en el jardín un boscaje de limoneros y de naranjos... Por la parte que mira al río presenta algún aspecto de fortaleza. Lo hermoso es su escenario y su ambiente, los restos de vegetación de que está rodeado. Frente a él se alza una gigantesca piñal (pino) y en lo hondo zumba el Duero enfrenado entre peñascos. Lo más típico es lo que del huerto queda, aquel rincón umbrío de limoneros y naranjos, a cuya sombra rezarían los frailes sus oraciones, descabezarían sus siestas y gozarían de tranquilo sosiego los ancianos retirados ya del todo del mundo... Hubo un tiempo, hasta eso del año 30, en que floreció en su retiro aquel cenobio, ofreciendo en aquella colosal hendidura de la adusta meseta castellana escuela de recogimiento y meditación a los frailes menores durante algún tiempo del año y refugio para su vejez a los que de ellos pedían acabar allí sus días, en el vivo silencio, rezando a la sombra de los limoneros y al compás del murmullo del contenido río.

 

Es, sí, un silencio vivo el que aquí reina, vivo porque reposa sobre el sempiterno rumor del Duero, que en puro ser continuo acaba por borrarse de la conciencia de quien lo recoge. Allí, en aquel refugio, libertaríanse los espíritus del tiempo, engendrador de cuidados, yendo cada día a hundirse sin ruido con su malicia en la eternidad. ¡Siempre el mismo río, los mismos peñascos siempre, todo inmutable! Cuando lo que nos rodea no cambia, acabamos por no sentimos cambiar, por comprender que es el vivir un morir continuo, que «entre la vida y la muerte no hay espacio ninguno», como reza la inscripción del convento de Laverde... Hay en el camino un punto que se llama el montadero de los frailes; a una peña que forma a modo de un asiento le llaman la silla del guardián. Allí cuentan también que, viniendo Santa Marina perseguida de los moros y cansada del camino, al llegar a una peña, le dijo: «Ábrete, peña cerrada, que viene Marina cansada». En la peña hendida se colocó un altar a la santa, y sobre ella se alzó la capilla de Santa Marina, cercana al convento...

Al siguiente día de nuestra visita a Laverde, fuimos a Vilvestre, un pueblecillo despejado y limpio que se tiende a la falda de una colina coronada por las ruinas de un castillo. Y en Vilvestre nos asomamos a dos picones que dominan los arribes, a Peño Corvo y el Castillo de Narbona, nombre extraño para un desnudo peñasco. Domínase desde ellos, como desde elevada comisa, un sitio en que la barranca se ensancha dulcificándose el paisaje... Al retirarnos al pueblo poníase tras las colinas portuguesas el rojo disco del sol. Fue una de las más hermosas puestas que he visto. El inmenso globo candente, de rojo cereza, se ponía en paz y sin herir la vista, entre nubecillas que a ratos le ocultaban en parte, fingiendo en su encendida esfera paisajes de adustos peñascos, remedo de los que acabamos de ver.

 

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To the right of Spain, left Portugal (from where I took this photo), in downtown Rio Douro: Douro Arribes.

 

DONATE YOUR PHOTO>>> www.donatufoto.es

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Natural Park of Douro Arribes

 

Natural Park of Douro Arribes the nature reserve is home to the Grand Canyon of the Duero River in all its border stretch along the valley areas and adjacent plateau. Located in the northwestern province of Salamanca and the southwestern province of Zamora in the Autonomous Community of Castilla y León, Spain.

 

In this area, the river Douro is the natural border between Spain and Portugal. The other side is known under the umbrella of the International Duero Natural Park, located in the southeastern district of Bragança and the northeastern district of Guarda, Portugal.

 

Introduction

Jump populous Aldeadávila

 

The most striking feature of this natural area is the scenic grandeur of its territory. A spectacular place where you can see the granite lush river canyons and valleys through which run streams encased the Douro River and its tributaries Agueda Esla Huebra, Uces and Tormes. Within the boundary of the park, also includes a plateau area Zamora-salmatina adjacent to the depression caused by rivers.

 

The high flow of the Douro, the steep slopes of the area and the many rivers that flow into it, turn the park into one of the major points of potential energy of the entire Iberian Peninsula. Therefore, it has been building a network of dams and reservoirs known as Saltos del Duero.

 

The peculiarity of the terrain makes the existence of a milder microclimate in the valleys. This contributes to plant diversity and makes the park a perfect place for the refuge of many animals, especially birds.

 

It is a remote area with poor infrastructure that is in a continuous process of depopulation due to the aging of its population. Thanks to the isolated nature of these lands have been preserved many customs and traditions as Leonese language. In recent years, major investment initiatives in the area have become possible with cross-border retail trade and tourism. This has made it necessary to preserve the natural habitat and develop cultural traditions as drivers of the economy of the area.

 

After years of demands the government of the neighboring country the Portuguese protected natural area on 11 May 1998 under the name of the International Duero Natural Park. [1] The Spanish side did not enjoy the same protection until April 11 2002, when the Junta de Castilla y León joined this site in its network of natural parks under the name of Parque Natural del Duero Arribes [2].

[Edit] Extension and territory

Park House, the tower Sobradillo

Visitor Reception Center, Trabanca

Arribanzos Zamora, Torregamones

Cascada del Pozo de los Hood, Pereña

Requejo Bridge in Villadepera y Pino

The Douro step Saucelle

 

The Grand Canyon del Duero forms a natural boundary between Spain and Portugal, dividing the large natural area between the two countries. The river and its tributaries are the common and link all the territory that extends linearly along over 100 km. The Spanish called Arribes Natural Park of Douro, extends over an area of approximately 106,105 hectares while the Portuguese called the International Duero Natural Park, covers an area of 85,150 hectares. The demarcation of these parks, protect the borders of the depression caused by the rivers and the adjacent plateau fringe. The two areas have a combined area of 191,255 hectares, making this area one of the largest protected areas in Europe.

[Edit] Demarcation and municipalities

 

The demarcation of the park is (totally or partially) the area of 37 municipalities:

 

* 24 belong to the province of Salamanca: Ahigal of oil, Aldeadávila de la Ribera, Almond, Barruecopardo Bermellar, La Bouza, Head of the Horse, Cerezal of Peñahorcada, La Fregeneda, Hinojosa de Duero, Lumbrales, Masueco, Mieza, The Peña, Pereña de la Ribera, Puerto Seguro, Saldeana, San Felices de los Gallegos, Saucelle, Sobradillo, Trabanca, Villarino of Aires, and La Zarza Vilvestre Pumareda.

* 13 belong to the province of Zamora: Argañín, Fariza, Fermoselle, Fonfría, Gamones, Moral de Sayago, Moralina, Pino, Torregamones, Villadepera, Villalcampo, Villar del Buey and Villardiegua de la Ribera.

 

Discussed for years to expand the protected area to the east, thus encompassing the area of the river Tormes from prey to Ledesma Almond. The characteristics of the fauna and flora in this age are very similar to the natural park. Nesting sites for many species of raptors and protected Ciconiiformes overlap in both places. Finally we decided to stick to the area we know today. [Citation needed]

 

In some border towns, there is still interest in joining the park. Camaces Olmedo, Bañobárez Fuenteliante and requested its inclusion in 2004. In fact, these municipalities were included in the draft natural park but were eventually excluded from the final demarcation. [3]

[Edit] Reference and Access Points

[Edit] Holiday Park

 

The peculiarity of being a park straddling the provinces of Salamanca and Zamora, is reflected in the Junta de Castilla y León conceived with two houses of the park. At these points, you can research the history, architecture, traditions, landscapes, flora and fauna of these lands, but can also be found on routes, tourist attractions, restaurants, accommodation and various activities organized and ordering maps, brochures and calendars with festivals and events in the area. One of these houses, is located in Fermosella Zamora and the other in the town of Salamanca in Sobradillo. Arise from the need to provide the visitor with a visible point of reference, specialized information from which to start your visit, and justify their existence in the development and coordination of multiple advocacy and interpretation.

 

* The Park House Convent of San Francisco, [4] in the municipality of Fermoselle Zamora, has the following access options:

 

1. From Zamora, by the CL-527 directly to Fermoselle.

2. From Salamanca, the SA-300 to Ledesma. They take the SA-302 toward Almond, where you follow the signs to Fermoselle.

 

* The house of the Tower of Sobradillo Park, [5] on the tower of the town of Salamanca Sobradillo has the following access options:

 

1. From Salamanca, by the CL-517 to Lumbrales. There is taken into Sobradillo DSA-464.

2. From Zamora, by the CL-528 to Ledesma. There is taken into Lumbrales CL-517, from where you take the DSA-464 to Sobradillo.

 

In the municipality of Fariza Zamora are the offices of the park. Belong to the Junta de Castilla y León and are intended to be the focal point for conservation activities in the area. [6]

[Edit] Municipal Information Office

 

Additionally, some municipalities in the demarcation of the park have created their own tourist offices. These facilities, generally more modest than those of the houses in the park, also have general information of the countryside but are often particularly visited by those seeking in-depth information of its land area of influence. There are tourist information offices in the towns of Aldeadávila, Fermoselle, Hinojosa, La Fregeneda, Lumbrales, Torregamones, Trabanca and Villarino. [7] [8]

[Edit] Museums

 

Other places where you can explore further some aspects of the area are the archaeological museum of Lumbrales, [9] Fermoselle cellars, the museum's ecotourism Aldeadávila de la Ribera, food fairs and craft Trabanca [10 ] Museum Moralina tradition, [11] the museum of wine and distillates Villarino of Aires, the theme park construction Trabanca popular [12] Fariza ethnographic museums, Hinojosa de Duero [13] and Villardiegua The Olive Fair Vilvestre border, the international fair Trabanca wine, [14] Oil Museum of San Felices de los Gallegos and Ahigal of oil, Trabanca Forge [15] the International Cheese Fair Hinojosa de Duero, [16] and ceramic pottery workshop Trabanca, the history museum of San Felices de los Gallegos, Lumbrales the textile museum, museums Sobradillo Flour and San Felices de los Gallegos, the museum's sacred Villadepera and the museum house of the friars of Vilvestre [17].

[Edit] Etymology

 

To be characterized this area for being a melting pot of cultures, has led to this natural area receives numerous names depending on the area where we are. Names that are in any case popular character and transmitted from generation to generation. [18]

 

"Up" is a word derived from Latin origin Leonese ad IRPCAS "which means" the shore. "[19] This term is published for the first time in a work written in 1885. [20] was used by natural Salamanca counties of El Abadengo and La Ribera to refer to the guns of Duero and other rivers of this territory. However, in the counties of Zamora Sayago and Ready, this area was called "Up" or "The Top", [21] term that has now been lost ground in favor of the foreign term "The Top", but both are still used interchangeably in some localities Zamora. There is also the term "Arribanzo", with which the inhabitants of the park Zamora referred to the huge granite rocks and huge boulders that form the narrowing of the Duero. [22]

 

Faced with local names, is from the mid-70 when it has spread in the Zamora, the masculine name "The Top", the result of the strong popularity which has been attached to the area various media and institutions who, outside the local terminology, have influenced the inhabitants of the area. Thus, the widespread Zamora's term up as parallel in time, in the Salamanca has begun to use more and more frequently, the female version of this term to refer to the Salamanca district of La Ribera, This has meant the progressive loss of its own historic name for the new name "The Above." [23]

 

"Up", both masculine and feminine, has evolved in recent years to include in its name, the landscape of the areas along the river as is the strip of plateau near the canyon as well as all the intermediate slopes.

[Edit] Terrain

 

The highlight of the park is characterized by strong incision presents the courses of rivers Duero and its tributaries Agueda Esla Huebra, Uces and Tormes on the central plateau, which is the oldest geomorphological unit of the Iberian Peninsula. Endogenous geological processes with water erosion, have led to this natural area of steep canyons and steep valleys that run embedded by the rivers of this land, thus establishing the natural border between Spain and Portugal.

 

This immense natural balcony overlooking the neighboring country, has its origin in the primary or Paleozoic era (600-225 million years ago), when the Iberian Peninsula was under sea level. The Hercynian orogeny in this stage resulted in the union of all the continents, which merged to form the Pangea. Thus, the lithosphere is deformed and there was the emergence of the so-called Hesperian Massif, a vast mountain chain resulting from the collision of plates, made of granite, slate and quartzite, which is based on the current central plateau and most Spain. It is for this reason that in the Duero River Gorge can be seen the so-called arribanzos or giant granite rocks.

 

During the secondary or Mesozoic era (225-68 million years ago), Pangea began to break up the current and form the structure of the crust. This great landmass Gondwana fragments originating the one hand and the other Laurasia. Erosion wears intensely Paleozoic formations resulting in the current landscape of the peneplain Zamora-Salamanca. The deep layers of granite, the contact with the Paleozoic sediments, originated at some points micacita and gneiss.

 

Finally, the Tertiary or Cenozoic (from 68 to 1.7 million years) is the period that produced the progressive lifting of the eastern peninsula, which takes place through the Alpine Orogeny. The slope of the Iberian peninsula into the Atlantic Ocean it determines the orientation of most of the peninsular rivers including the Duero, which has cut through the plains, resulting in the huge canyon of Arribes del Duero. Finally, with the beginning of the Quaternary period, begin to form the terraces of the river due to climatic alternations of this phase.

[Edit] Climatology

 

There are two types of climate in the park. In the canyon and valley areas can enjoy a Mediterranean microclimate which makes the temperatures and contributes to plant diversity, whereas in the plateau areas included within the boundary can be observed as the continental climate typical of the plain Zamora -Salamanca, where winters are colder and defendants. In Mieza Observatory, located at 658 m in height, is a 12 ° C mean annual temperature while the observatory Saucelle Dam, located 162 m high, recorded 17 ° C.

 

The winters last about two months in the vicinity of the river because the weather is mild and wet. This is because the valleys are safe from more exposed to wind and sun. In the plateau areas are extended for five months to present a more cold and dry weather.

 

The average temperatures of the coldest month (January / December) are around 9 ° C in the valley areas while the higher elevations around 5 ° C. The most notable difference between one area and another frost are virtually nonexistent in the valleys. This allows the cultivation of olive trees, vines, almond and orange trees that are rare on the plateau.

 

During summer, the differences are not as pronounced as the average temperature of the warmest month (July or August) are 27 ° C in the valleys and 25 ° C on the plateau. Finally, it should be noted that although the minimum temperatures at this time are quite dim, the maximum tends to be high, often exceeding 30 ° C during the summer months.

 

Rainfall is distributed in a very irregular throughout the park. The wettest area is the Barruecopardo observatory, with rainfall around 900 mm, but less rainfall observatory is just 20 km casually in Saucelle Dam, where annual rainfall rarely exceeds 500 mm. In general, rainfall is most abundant north of the park, with close to 700 mm in most of the Zamora river where they are distributed in a more regular basis. Are decreasing the further south we are.

[Edit] Ecosystems: flora and fauna

 

The fauna and flora of this natural area is conspicuous by the richness and variety of species composition. The uniqueness of the climate together with the peculiarity of the terrain favors the existence of a natural ecosystem of unique beauty. Plant and animal species that inhabit the natural park, are a synthesis between which can be found in the Mediterranean climate of the valleys and continental climate of the plateau. In this river live about 200 species of birds, some 47 species of mammals and 21 types of reptiles from a Mediterranean-type vegetation.

[Edit] Fauna

 

Animal diversity is one of the most important reasons why the area was declared a natural park. Highlights the high number of birds nesting and wintering. The existing range because the Duero River Canyon, the large forests and numerous rivers, together form the perfect habitat for any bird.

Black Stork

Griffon Vulture

Egyptian Vulture

Milano Real

Golden Eagle

[Edit] Bird highlights

 

In 1990, this natural area was declared a Special Protection Area for Birds (SPA). [24] The protagonists of this achievement species are the eagle, golden eagles, Egyptian vultures, owls, the griffon vulture, the Chough Tern, black stork and the peregrine falcon.

 

The black stork is the most emblematic and widespread in the area. The holes and corners of the so-called arribanzos or granitic rocks of the Duero, are the venue for this bird nesting in Spain is included within species with possible extinction. It is therefore the natural space, a key point for the conservation of this species. On June 22, 1998, was designated as Critical Area for Conservation of the Black Stork. [25] The 20 pairs of black storks are in this area, accounts for 8% of the Spanish population and 25% of that of Castilla and León (as of February 2005). [24]

 

Large raptors are the other most significant and important nesting in the park. Among them, the shape of vultures is the easiest to recognize, because at home abounds throughout the area. In 2005 had a population of 550 pairs. [24] are excellent and relatively easy to recognize the silhouettes of the Egyptian vulture (75 pairs in 2005), [24] the eagle owl (25 pairs in 1992), [24] the golden eagle (24 pairs in 2005), [24] Bonelli's eagle (17 pairs in 2005), [24] Red Kite (9 pairs in 2005) [24] and the peregrine falcon (6 pairs in 2005). [24]

 

They also stress the chough population (159 pairs in 2005) [24] and white stork (115 pairs in 1999). [24]

[Edit] Other birds

 

There are other birds that depend on the receipt of arribanzos to breed or simply to survive. The most common is the airplane rocker, that unlike other areas, stays here all year thanks to the microclimate of the area. You can also see here the chough, crow, swallow dáurica, the jackdaw, the blue rock thrush and real swift.

 

In forests dominated by oaks, there are small populations jay, woodcock, common finch, blackbird, myth, Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Great Spotted Woodpecker, woodpecker, wryneck, nuthatch and song thrush. In forests dominated by oaks, are more frequent common shrike, gray shrikes, the agates, raise them and the magpies.

 

It is also common to find forest birds of prey like the eagle, black kite, red kite and buzzard. During the night are often the tawny owl, the owl, the owl and Nightjar.

 

On the banks of the rivers, you can see the little ringed plover, the coot, the water fowl, herons, kingfishers and dippers.

[Edit] Mammals

 

It has the presence of copies are as rare as the bobcat and badger.

 

Outstanding is the presence of bats, which calculates the presence of 14 species. In their proliferation has special significance shelter provided by the rocky cliffs and the special mild climate of the area.

 

One of the mammals whose presence arouses special interest, because of its scarcity and soaring regression on the European continent, is the otter. The construction of numerous dams was once the main cause of its almost complete disappearance in the Douro, which has recovered slightly over time.

 

Occasional visitor of the park is the wolf, also from the north, enters without ever having to maintain a stable population. Other mammals, and relatively more abundant, would be the fox, wild boar, genet, rabbit, hare, hedgehog, weasel, marten and dormouse.

 

The most prominent of all mammals that have ever lived in the park, is the endemic Iberian lynx. Although now taken for extinct in the area, [26] [27] [28] Some experts say that in the quiet valleys and best preserved vegetation, they may still be some copies. [29] Indeed, although not shown survival in these lands, most of the posters, brochures and websites to promote and advertise the area as well as in the act itself declared a natural park, still include among their species. [2] [30]

[Edit] Fish, amphibians and reptiles

 

You can recognize about a dozen fish species in protected water area, of which some are endemic: Iberian barbel, vogue, roach and loach, the duck and calandino.

 

The sturgeon is one of the most shortage of individuals has been detected throughout the area, which has led to its classification as a species "endangered." The eel is also a threatened species in the Spanish part of the Duero, and survives only in rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and the Spanish reservoirs (as opposed to the Portuguese) do not have fish ladders. Frequently they are also, among others, the classic carp, tench and pike.

 

With regard to amphibians, environmental conditions are not the most suitable, since the lower amount of rainfall, despite the tightening thermometric hinders the proliferation of amphibians in the park. Thirteen species have been recorded, of which at least two are endemic: Newt Iberian Iberian midwife toad. More abundant are the common toad, natterjack toad, marbled newt, frog, St. Anthony, and spotted salamander.

 

However, the Park is an ideal habitat for the proliferation of reptiles, both emphasized climate as being the most abundant of the lizard, the long-tailed lizard, and snake bastard step. These in turn have become key elements of the diurnal feeding, the progressive decline of other animals like rabbits and partridge. Significant is also the presence of the salamander, covered by more benign climate, together with the European pond turtle and the terrapin.

[Edit] Flora

 

Plant diversity is represented by mostly Mediterranean-type flora. Most of the forests consist of oak. Coexist with cork and holm oak. Large tracts of scrub are full of brooms, broom, thyme, rock rose, prickly pears and junipers.

 

Thanks to the microclimate, it is also possible to grow plants and trees that are not common in the neighboring districts of the plateau, which has a continental climate. This peculiarity is represented by the olive trees, vines, almond, orange and lemon trees, but now the number of these plantations is much lower than before. Also came to grow sugar cane in the late nineteenth century. [31]

 

Currently, the most important and widespread crop in the area, is the vine. Highlight the fourteen wineries Ahigal of oil, Fermoselle, Fornillos the border with La Fregeneda, Pereña of the Bank and Villarino Aires, which produce wines of the Appellation of Origin Arribes. You can also see some important olive Ahigal of Aceiteros, San Felices de los Gallegos and Vilvestre, [32] [33] and there are several extensions of almond Hinojosa de Duero, Mieza Saucelle and more specifically in the Fregeneda and Vilvestre. [34] The orange trees are also present in this zone, especially in Vilvestre. [35] extensions of lemon, there are only a few individual trees.

[Edit] Vestiges, demography and population

 

This area has been inhabited for a long time. It retains many vestiges of the old settlers. Today, the population loss is the major problem in the area.

[Edit] Findings of the ancient settlement

Mula pre-Roman Villardiegua

Horse Head

The Fregeneda

 

Many attest to the ancient footprints of this land subservience to man. Of the existing remains, the oldest have been dated to the Paleolithic, such as the cave paintings of Palla Blonde, [36] in front of the Smoke Pit, on the shore in the municipality

can you hear them scream???

 

I feel empathy for nonexistent things!

"...it was once my home long ago. Now I can't look at it or it's people anymore without feeling terribly ill. Rather it's just the revolting population spreading their filth all over it or the awful memories. The memories of cruelty and loss I witnessed on a daily---no, actually hourly basis come to think of it. Mindless murder of those I loved. Yes, I loved once. To be young, hopeful, to see the blinding light over the horizon in hopes of a better day. How stupid can one be, am I right? Every time I tried to have some sense of optimism, to try to see the nonexistent good in men, I was never shot down. I was violently ripped from the sky and chained to the ground so I'd never escape from the fires below. I was never the only one, either. Why do think I have such large, expendable forces?...."

Alfred walked back and forth between the various monitors located in Bruce's old lair. HE had rarely visited it since Bruce died.

 

-Bruce Wayne- Did ya miss me Alfie?

 

Alfred spun around in shock when he heard this.

 

-Alfred- Master Wayne! You know as surprised as i am to see you, I had no doubt that Barry would be successful in taking you to Ras.

 

-Bruce Wayne- Barry? Barry took me there?

 

-Alfred- After the crash the League decided that you were a valuable member of the team and that you had to be saved. So they made a literal deal with the devil.

 

-Bruce Wayne- What is the crime rate like since I've been gone?

 

-Alfred- actually not so high, other than some major threats, small crime has been kept almost nonexistent by a young man who approached me.

 

-Bruce Wayne- And who was this?

 

-Alfred- His name is Dick Grayson.

  

more to come soon, school just started and is kind of fully time consuming though.

Free Photoshop actions to make kaleidoscopic and mirrored images:

 

podsville.wixsite.com/actions

Fellas! Ever have a long night out that ended with an encounter with an "unsavory" lady? Ever have that "not so fresh feeling" after said encounter?

 

Well worry no more! Introducing Ireland's "Stank Remover". It removes "Stank" from anywhere....namely your hangdown.

 

If you are lucky enough...you can see the background story on this inside joke right here.

Orono, ME

Cold, cold water surrounds me now

And all I've got is your hand

Can you hear me now?

Can you hear me now?

Can you hear me now?

Or am I lost?

 

{"Cold Water", Damien Rice}

Though personalized art appeared during World War I, and occasionally grew to incorporate the entire aircraft, most pilots carried a saying or a slogan, or a family crest, or squadron symbol. Some were named, but nose art was not common. During World War II, nose art not only saw its true beginnings, but its heyday.

 

No one knows exactly who started nose art first--it appeared with both the British and the Germans around the first time, with RAF pilots painting Hitler being kicked or skulls and crossbones on their aircraft, while German nose art was usually a personal symbol, named for a girlfriend or adopting a mascot (such as Adolf Galland using Mickey Mouse, something Walt Disney likely didn't approve of). It would be with the Americans, and a lesser extent the Canadians, that nose art truly became common--and started including its most famous forms, which was usually half-naked or completely naked women. This was not always true, but it often was.

 

The quality of nose art depended on the squadron or wing artist. Some of it was rather crude, while others were equal to the finest pinup artists in the United States, such as Alberto Vargas. For men thousands of miles away from home and lonely, a curvaceous blonde on a B-17 or a P-51 made that loneliness a bit easier. Others thought naked women were a little crude, and just limited themselves to names, or depicted animals, cartoon characters, or patriotic emblems, or caricatures of the Axis dictators they were fighting.

 

Generally speaking, there was little censorship, with squadron and group commanders rarely intervening on names or pictures; the pilots themselves practiced self-censorship, with profanity almost unknown, and full-frontal nudity nearly nonexistent. After the loss of a B-17 named "Murder Inc.," which the Germans captured and used to make propaganda, the 8th Air Force, at least, set up a nose art committee that reviewed the nose art of aircraft--but even it rarely wielded its veto. For the most part, nose art was limited only by the crew's imagination and the artist's ability. The British tended to stay away from the lurid nudes of the Americans, though the Canadians adopted them as well. (The Axis also did not use nose art in this fashion, and neither did the Soviets, who usually confined themselves to patriotic slogans on their aircraft, such as "For Stalin!" or "In the Spirit of the Motherland!")

 

When World War II ended, so did nose art, for the most part. In the peacetime, postwar armed forces, the idea of having naked women were wives and children could see it was not something the postwar USAF or Navy wanted, and when it wasn't scrapped, it was painted over. A few units (especially those away from home and family) still allowed it, but it would take Korea to begin a renaissance of nose art.

 

"In the Mood" is B-25J 44-29199, which never saw combat; instead, it served as a TB-25N navigation trainer during its postwar USAF service, and retired in 1958. After a decade as a firefighting aircraft, it was restored back to its wartime appearance, and today is part of the collection at the National Museum of World War II Aviation at Colorado Springs, Colorado. 44-29199 is still flyable.

 

"In the Mood" is today painted in the colors of the 345th Bomb Group, based in New Guinea during World War II. The Varga Girl pinup is very World War II-appropriate (though more than likely the wartime version's negilgee would be see-through). Naturally, it's named for Glenn Miller's 1938 jazz hit, which became very popular during the war.

This city is inspired by inland seaports such as Hamburg, a bit of Copenhagen, and the Dutch 'Drechtsteden'. The city draws upon the port for its existence, plus some universities, a zoo, and quite good leisure opportunities. Large parts fall outside the sheet, so imagine that there're many sleep towns attached beyond the map's edges. Otherwise, such a small population could never justify so large a port, which likewise extends far beyond the paper.

 

Dimensions: 35×43 cm. For the making-off process, see www.flickr.com/photos/31322479@N04/17686915191/in/datepos...

 

More is explained in a blog called Urban Geofiction: urbangeofiction.stadtkreation.com/zuverdam/

 

2015.

Our guide holds an original basketball fundraiser shirt from the Barcelona Olympics by artist Greg Speirs, tie-dyed in the colors of the Lithuanian flag -- quite the collectible now.

 

Lithuania's 1992 basketball team was a contender, but they didn't even have the money to pay their way to Barcelona. Lithuania had just declared independence from the Soviet Union, it's economy was in shambles, and state support for athletics was nonexistent.

 

The Grateful Dead learned of their plight and not only made an angel donation but also brought in Speirs, who created this shirt as a fundraiser. The team ended up on the medal platform -- in their tie dyes. The victory was all the sweeter because in the bronze medal game they defeated Russia, their country's old occupier (and their own former teammates). Not bad for a country of 3 million people!

 

Our guide came by the shirt circuitously. She always shows her tour groups the documentary "The Other Dream Team", which recounts the above events. One year an attendee went home, dug their 1992 souvenir shirt out of a drawer, and sent it to her as a gift.

Capitol Reef National Park is an American national park in south-central Utah. The park is approximately 60 miles (97 km) long on its north–south axis and just 6 miles (9.7 km) wide on average. The park was established in 1971 to preserve 241,904 acres (377.98 sq mi; 97,895.08 ha; 978.95 km2) of desert landscape and is open all year, with May through September being the highest visitation months.

 

Partially in Wayne County, Utah, the area was originally named "Wayne Wonderland" in the 1920s by local boosters Ephraim P. Pectol and Joseph S. Hickman. Capitol Reef National Park was designated a national monument on August 2, 1937, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to protect the area's colorful canyons, ridges, buttes, and monoliths; however, it was not until 1950 that the area officially opened to the public. Road access was improved in 1962 with the construction of State Route 24 through the Fremont River Canyon.

 

The majority of the nearly 100 mi (160 km) long up-thrust formation called the Waterpocket Fold—a rocky spine extending from Thousand Lake Mountain to Lake Powell—is preserved within the park. Capitol Reef is an especially rugged and spectacular segment of the Waterpocket Fold by the Fremont River. The park was named for its whitish Navajo Sandstone cliffs with dome formations—similar to the white domes often placed on capitol buildings—that run from the Fremont River to Pleasant Creek on the Waterpocket Fold. Locally, reef refers to any rocky barrier to land travel, just as ocean reefs are barriers to sea travel.

 

Capitol Reef encompasses the Waterpocket Fold, a warp in the earth's crust that is 65 million years old. It is the largest exposed monocline in North America. In this fold, newer and older layers of earth folded over each other in an S-shape. This warp, probably caused by the same colliding continental plates that created the Rocky Mountains, has weathered and eroded over millennia to expose layers of rock and fossils. The park is filled with brilliantly colored sandstone cliffs, gleaming white domes, and contrasting layers of stone and earth.

 

The area was named for a line of white domes and cliffs of Navajo Sandstone, each of which looks somewhat like the United States Capitol building, that run from the Fremont River to Pleasant Creek on the Waterpocket Fold.

 

The fold forms a north-to-south barrier that has barely been breached by roads. Early settlers referred to parallel impassable ridges as "reefs", from which the park gets the second half of its name. The first paved road was constructed through the area in 1962. State Route 24 cuts through the park traveling east and west between Canyonlands National Park and Bryce Canyon National Park, but few other paved roads invade the rugged landscape.

 

The park is filled with canyons, cliffs, towers, domes, and arches. The Fremont River has cut canyons through parts of the Waterpocket Fold, but most of the park is arid desert. A scenic drive shows park visitors some highlights, but it runs only a few miles from the main highway. Hundreds of miles of trails and unpaved roads lead into the equally scenic backcountry.

 

Fremont-culture Native Americans lived near the perennial Fremont River in the northern part of the Capitol Reef Waterpocket Fold around the year 1000. They irrigated crops of maize and squash and stored their grain in stone granaries (in part made from the numerous black basalt boulders that litter the area). In the 13th century, all of the Native American cultures in this area underwent sudden change, likely due to a long drought. The Fremont settlements and fields were abandoned.

 

Many years after the Fremont left, Paiutes moved into the area. These Numic-speaking people named the Fremont granaries moki huts and thought they were the homes of a race of tiny people or moki.

 

In 1872 Almon H. Thompson, a geographer attached to United States Army Major John Wesley Powell's expedition, crossed the Waterpocket Fold while exploring the area. Geologist Clarence Dutton later spent several summers studying the area's geology. None of these expeditions explored the Waterpocket Fold to any great extent.

 

Following the American Civil War, officials of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City sought to establish missions in the remotest niches of the Intermountain West. In 1866, a quasi-military expedition of Mormons in pursuit of natives penetrated the high valleys to the west. In the 1870s, settlers moved into these valleys, eventually establishing Loa, Fremont, Lyman, Bicknell, and Torrey.

 

Mormons settled the Fremont River valley in the 1880s and established Junction (later renamed Fruita), Caineville, and Aldridge. Fruita prospered, Caineville barely survived, and Aldridge died. In addition to farming, lime was extracted from local limestone, and uranium was extracted early in the 20th century. In 1904 the first claim to a uranium mine in the area was staked. The resulting Oyler Mine in Grand Wash produced uranium ore.

 

By 1920 no more than ten families at one time were sustained by the fertile flood plain of the Fremont River and the land changed ownership over the years. The area remained isolated. The community was later abandoned and later still some buildings were restored by the National Park Service. Kilns once used to produce lime are still in Sulphur Creek and near the campgrounds on Scenic Drive.

 

Local Ephraim Portman Pectol organized a "booster club" in Torrey in 1921. Pectol pressed a promotional campaign, furnishing stories to be sent to periodicals and newspapers. In his efforts, he was increasingly aided by his brother-in-law, Joseph S. Hickman, who was the Wayne County High School principal. In 1924, Hickman extended community involvement in the promotional effort by organizing a Wayne County-wide Wayne Wonderland Club. That same year, Hickman was elected to the Utah State Legislature.

 

In 1933, Pectol was elected to the presidency of the Associated Civics Club of Southern Utah, successor to the Wayne Wonderland Club. The club raised U.S. $150 (equivalent to $3,391 in 2022) to interest a Salt Lake City photographer in taking a series of promotional photographs. For several years, the photographer, J. E. Broaddus, traveled and lectured on "Wayne Wonderland".

 

In 1933, Pectol was elected to the legislature and almost immediately contacted President Franklin D. Roosevelt and asked for the creation of "Wayne Wonderland National Monument" out of the federal lands comprising the bulk of the Capitol Reef area. Federal agencies began a feasibility study and boundary assessment. Meanwhile, Pectol guided the government investigators on numerous trips and escorted an increasing number of visitors. The lectures of Broaddus were having an effect.

 

Roosevelt signed a proclamation creating Capitol Reef National Monument on August 2, 1937. In Proclamation 2246, President Roosevelt set aside 37,711 acres (15,261 ha) of the Capitol Reef area. This comprised an area extending about two miles (3 km) north of present State Route 24 and about 10 mi (16 km) south, just past Capitol Gorge. The Great Depression years were lean ones for the National Park Service (NPS), the new administering agency. Funds for the administration of Capitol Reef were nonexistent; it would be a long time before the first rangers would arrive.

 

Administration of the new monument was placed under the control of Zion National Park. A stone ranger cabin and the Sulphur Creek bridge were built and some road work was performed by the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Works Progress Administration. Historian and printer Charles Kelly came to know NPS officials at Zion well and volunteered to watchdog the park for the NPS. Kelly was officially appointed custodian-without-pay in 1943. He worked as a volunteer until 1950, when the NPS offered him a civil-service appointment as the first superintendent.

 

During the 1950s Kelly was deeply troubled by NPS management acceding to demands of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission that Capitol Reef National Monument be opened to uranium prospecting. He felt that the decision had been a mistake and destructive of the long-term national interest. It turned out that there was not enough ore in the monument to be worth mining.

 

In 1958 Kelly got additional permanent help in protecting the monument and enforcing regulations; Park Ranger Grant Clark transferred from Zion. The year Clark arrived, fifty-six thousand visitors came to the park, and Charlie Kelly retired for the last time.

 

During the 1960s (under the program name Mission 66), NPS areas nationwide received new facilities to meet the demand of mushrooming park visitation. At Capitol Reef, a 53-site campground at Fruita, staff rental housing, and a new visitor center were built, the latter opening in 1966.

 

Visitation climbed dramatically after the paved, all-weather State Route 24 was built in 1962 through the Fremont River canyon near Fruita. State Route 24 replaced the narrow Capitol Gorge wagon road about 10 mi (16 km) to the south that frequently washed out. The old road has since been open only to foot traffic. In 1967, 146,598 persons visited the park. The staff was also growing.

 

During the 1960s, the NPS purchased private land parcels at Fruita and Pleasant Creek. Almost all private property passed into public ownership on a "willing buyer-willing seller" basis.

 

Preservationists convinced President Lyndon B. Johnson to set aside an enormous area of public lands in 1968, just before he left office. In Presidential Proclamation 3888 an additional 215,056 acres (87,030 ha) were placed under NPS control. By 1970, Capitol Reef National Monument comprised 254,251 acres (102,892 ha) and sprawled southeast from Thousand Lake Mountain almost to the Colorado River. The action was controversial locally, and NPS staffing at the monument was inadequate to properly manage the additional land.

 

The vast enlargement of the monument and diversification of the scenic resources soon raised another issue: whether Capitol Reef should be a national park, rather than a monument. Two bills were introduced into the United States Congress.

 

A House bill (H.R. 17152) introduced by Utah Congressman Laurence J. Burton called for a 180,000-acre (72,800 ha) national park and an adjunct 48,000-acre (19,400 ha) national recreation area where multiple use (including grazing) could continue indefinitely. In the United States Senate, meanwhile, Senate bill S. 531 had already passed on July 1, 1970, and provided for a 230,000-acre (93,100 ha) national park alone. The bill called for a 25-year phase-out of grazing.

 

In September 1970, United States Department of Interior officials told a house subcommittee session that they preferred about 254,000 acres (103,000 ha) be set aside as a national park. They also recommended that the grazing phase-out period be 10 years, rather than 25. They did not favor the adjunct recreation area.

 

It was not until late 1971 that Congressional action was completed. By then, the 92nd United States Congress was in session and S. 531 had languished. A new bill, S. 29, was introduced in the Senate by Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah and was essentially the same as the defunct S. 531 except that it called for an additional 10,834 acres (4,384 ha) of public lands for a Capitol Reef National Park. In the House, Utah Representative K. Gunn McKay (with Representative Lloyd) had introduced H.R. 9053 to replace the dead H.R. 17152. This time, the House bill dropped the concept of an adjunct Capitol Reef National Recreation Area and adopted the Senate concept of a 25-year limit on continued grazing. The Department of Interior was still recommending a national park of 254,368 acres (102,939 ha) and a 10-year limit for grazing phase-out.

 

S. 29 passed the Senate in June and was sent to the House, which dropped its own bill and passed the Senate version with an amendment. Because the Senate was not in agreement with the House amendment, differences were worked out in Conference Committee. The Conference Committee issued its report on November 30, 1971, and the bill passed both houses of Congress. The legislation—'An Act to Establish The Capitol Reef National Park in the State of Utah'—became Public Law 92-207 when it was signed by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971.

 

The area including the park was once the edge of a shallow sea that invaded the land in the Permian, creating the Cutler Formation. Only the sandstone of the youngest member of the Cutler Formation, the White Rim, is exposed in the park. The deepening sea left carbonate deposits, forming the limestone of the Kaibab Limestone, the same formation that rims the Grand Canyon to the southwest.

 

During the Triassic, streams deposited reddish-brown silt that later became the siltstone of the Moenkopi Formation. Uplift and erosion followed. Conglomerate, followed by logs, sand, mud, and wind-transported volcanic ash, then formed the uranium-containing Chinle Formation.

 

The members of the Glen Canyon Group were all laid down in the middle- to late-Triassic during a time of increasing aridity. They include:

 

Wingate Sandstone: sand dunes on the shore of an ancient sea

Kayenta Formation: thin-bedded layers of sand deposited by slow-moving streams in channels and across low plains

Navajo Sandstone: huge fossilized sand dunes from a massive Sahara-like desert.

 

The Golden Throne. Though Capitol Reef is famous for white domes of Navajo Sandstone, this dome's color is a result of a lingering section of yellow Carmel Formation carbonate, which has stained the underlying rock.

The San Rafael Group consists of four Jurassic-period formations, from oldest to youngest:

 

Carmel Formation: gypsum, sand, and limey silt laid down in what may have been a graben that was periodically flooded by sea water

Entrada Sandstone: sandstone from barrier islands/sand bars in a near-shore environment

Curtis Formation: made from conglomerate, sandstone, and shale

Summerville Formation: reddish-brown mud and white sand deposited in tidal flats.

Streams once again laid down mud and sand in their channels, on lakebeds, and in swampy plains, creating the Morrison Formation. Early in the Cretaceous, similar nonmarine sediments were laid down and became the Dakota Sandstone. Eventually, the Cretaceous Seaway covered the Dakota, depositing the Mancos Shale.

 

Only small remnants of the Mesaverde Group are found, capping a few mesas in the park's eastern section.

 

Near the end of the Cretaceous period, a mountain-building event called the Laramide orogeny started to compact and uplift the region, forming the Rocky Mountains and creating monoclines such as the Waterpocket Fold in the park. Ten to fifteen million years ago, the entire region was uplifted much further by the creation of the Colorado Plateau. This uplift was very even. Igneous activity in the form of volcanism and dike and sill intrusion also occurred during this time.

 

The drainage system in the area was rearranged and steepened, causing streams to downcut faster and sometimes change course. Wetter times during the ice ages of the Pleistocene increased the rate of erosion.

 

There are more than 840 species of plants that are found in the park and over 40 of those species are classified as rare and endemic.

 

The closest town to Capitol Reef is Torrey, about 11 mi (18 km) west of the visitor center on Highway 24, slightly west of its intersection with Highway 12. Its 2020 population is less than 300. Torrey has a few motels and restaurants and functions as a gateway town to Capitol Reef National Park. Highway 12, as well as a partially unpaved scenic backway named the Burr Trail, provide access from the west through the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument and the town of Boulder.

 

A variety of activities are available to tourists, both ranger-led and self-guided, including auto touring, hiking, backpacking, camping, bicycling (on paved and unpaved roads only; no trails), horseback riding, canyoneering, and rock climbing. The orchards planted by Mormon pioneers are maintained by the National Park Service. From early March to mid-October, various fruit—cherries, apricots, peaches, pears, or apples—can be harvested by visitors for a fee.

 

A hiking trail guide is available at the visitor center for both day hikes and backcountry hiking. Backcountry access requires a free permit.

 

Numerous trails are available for hiking and backpacking in the park, with fifteen in the Fruita District alone. The following trails are some of the most popular in the park:

 

Cassidy Arch Trail: a very steep, strenuous 3.5 mi (5.6 km) round trip that leads into the Grand Wash to an overlook of the Cassidy Arch.

Hickman Bridge Trail: a 2 mi (3.2 km) round trip leading to the natural bridge.

Frying Pan Trail: an 8.8 mi (14.2 km) round trip that passes the Cassidy Arch, Grand Wash, and Cohab Canyon.

Brimhall Natural Bridge: a popular, though strenuous, 4.5 mi (7.2 km) round trip with views of Brimhall Canyon, the Waterpocket Fold, and Brimhall Natural Bridge.

Halls Creek Narrows: 22 mi (35 km) long and considered strenuous, with many side canyons and creeks; typically hiked as a 2-3 day camping trip.

 

Visitors may explore several of the main areas of the park by private vehicle:

 

Scenic Drive: winds through the middle of the park, passing the major points of interest; the road is accessible from the visitor center to approximately 2 mi (3.2 km) into the Capitol Gorge.

Notom-Bullfrog Road: traverses the eastern side of the Waterpocket Fold, along 10 mi (16 km) of paved road, with the remainder unpaved.

Cathedral Road: an unpaved road through the northern areas of the park, that traverses Cathedral Valley, passing the Temples of the Sun and Moon.

 

The primary camping location is the Fruita campground, with 71 campsites (no water, electrical, or sewer hookups), and restrooms without bathing facilities. The campground also has group sites with picnic areas and restrooms. Two primitive free camping areas are also available.

 

Canyoneering is growing in popularity in the park. It is a recreational sport that takes one through slot canyons. It involves rappelling and may require swimming and other technical rope work. Day-pass permits are required for canyoneering in the park, and can be obtained for free from the visitor's center or through email. It's key to know that each route requires its own permit. If one is planning on canyoneering for multiple days, passes are required for each day. Overnight camping as part of the canyoneering trip is permitted, but one must request a free backcountry pass from the visitor center.

 

It is imperative to plan canyoneering trips around the weather. The Colorado Plateau is susceptible to flash flooding during prime rainy months. Because canyoneering takes place through slot canyons, getting caught in a flash flood could be lethal. Take care to consult reliable weather sources. The Weather Atlas shows charts with the monthly average rainfall in inches.

 

Another risk to be aware of during the summer months is extreme heat. Visitors can find weather warnings on the National Weather Service website. The heat levels are detailed by a color and numerical scale (0-4).

 

One of the most popular canyoneering routes in Capitol Reef National Park is Cassidy Arch Canyon. A paper by George Huddart, details the park's commitment to working with citizens to maintain the route as well as the vegetation and rocks. The canyon route is approximately 2.3 miles long (0.4 miles of technical work), consisting of 8 different rappels, and takes between 2.5 and 4.5 hours to complete. The first rappel is 140 ft and descends below the famous Cassidy Arch.

 

Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Colorado to its east, Wyoming to its northeast, Idaho to its north, Arizona to its south, and Nevada to its west. Utah also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast. Of the fifty U.S. states, Utah is the 13th-largest by area; with a population over three million, it is the 30th-most-populous and 11th-least-densely populated. Urban development is mostly concentrated in two areas: the Wasatch Front in the north-central part of the state, which is home to roughly two-thirds of the population and includes the capital city, Salt Lake City; and Washington County in the southwest, with more than 180,000 residents. Most of the western half of Utah lies in the Great Basin.

 

Utah has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups such as the ancient Puebloans, Navajo, and Ute. The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the mid-16th century, though the region's difficult geography and harsh climate made it a peripheral part of New Spain and later Mexico. Even while it was Mexican territory, many of Utah's earliest settlers were American, particularly Mormons fleeing marginalization and persecution from the United States via the Mormon Trail. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the region was annexed by the U.S., becoming part of the Utah Territory, which included what is now Colorado and Nevada. Disputes between the dominant Mormon community and the federal government delayed Utah's admission as a state; only after the outlawing of polygamy was it admitted in 1896 as the 45th.

 

People from Utah are known as Utahns. Slightly over half of all Utahns are Mormons, the vast majority of whom are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which has its world headquarters in Salt Lake City; Utah is the only state where a majority of the population belongs to a single church. A 2023 paper challenged this perception (claiming only 42% of Utahns are Mormons) however most statistics still show a majority of Utah residents belong to the LDS church; estimates from the LDS church suggests 60.68% of Utah's population belongs to the church whilst some sources put the number as high as 68%. The paper replied that membership count done by the LDS Church is too high for several reasons. The LDS Church greatly influences Utahn culture, politics, and daily life, though since the 1990s the state has become more religiously diverse as well as secular.

 

Utah has a highly diversified economy, with major sectors including transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, multi-level marketing, and tourism. Utah has been one of the fastest growing states since 2000, with the 2020 U.S. census confirming the fastest population growth in the nation since 2010. St. George was the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah ranks among the overall best states in metrics such as healthcare, governance, education, and infrastructure. It has the 12th-highest median average income and the least income inequality of any U.S. state. Over time and influenced by climate change, droughts in Utah have been increasing in frequency and severity, putting a further strain on Utah's water security and impacting the state's economy.

 

The History of Utah is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Utah located in the western United States.

 

Archaeological evidence dates the earliest habitation of humans in Utah to about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Paleolithic people lived near the Great Basin's swamps and marshes, which had an abundance of fish, birds, and small game animals. Big game, including bison, mammoths and ground sloths, also were attracted to these water sources. Over the centuries, the mega-fauna died, this population was replaced by the Desert Archaic people, who sheltered in caves near the Great Salt Lake. Relying more on gathering than the previous Utah residents, their diet was mainly composed of cattails and other salt tolerant plants such as pickleweed, burro weed and sedge. Red meat appears to have been more of a luxury, although these people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Artifacts include nets woven with plant fibers and rabbit skin, woven sandals, gaming sticks, and animal figures made from split-twigs. About 3,500 years ago, lake levels rose and the population of Desert Archaic people appears to have dramatically decreased. The Great Basin may have been almost unoccupied for 1,000 years.

 

The Fremont culture, named from sites near the Fremont River in Utah, lived in what is now north and western Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from approximately 600 to 1300 AD. These people lived in areas close to water sources that had been previously occupied by the Desert Archaic people, and may have had some relationship with them. However, their use of new technologies define them as a distinct people. Fremont technologies include:

 

use of the bow and arrow while hunting,

building pithouse shelters,

growing maize and probably beans and squash,

building above ground granaries of adobe or stone,

creating and decorating low-fired pottery ware,

producing art, including jewelry and rock art such as petroglyphs and pictographs.

 

The ancient Puebloan culture, also known as the Anasazi, occupied territory adjacent to the Fremont. The ancestral Puebloan culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, including the San Juan River region of Utah. Archaeologists debate when this distinct culture emerged, but cultural development seems to date from about the common era, about 500 years before the Fremont appeared. It is generally accepted that the cultural peak of these people was around the 1200 CE. Ancient Puebloan culture is known for well constructed pithouses and more elaborate adobe and masonry dwellings. They were excellent craftsmen, producing turquoise jewelry and fine pottery. The Puebloan culture was based on agriculture, and the people created and cultivated fields of maize, beans, and squash and domesticated turkeys. They designed and produced elaborate field terracing and irrigation systems. They also built structures, some known as kivas, apparently designed solely for cultural and religious rituals.

 

These two later cultures were roughly contemporaneous, and appear to have established trading relationships. They also shared enough cultural traits that archaeologists believe the cultures may have common roots in the early American Southwest. However, each remained culturally distinct throughout most of their existence. These two well established cultures appear to have been severely impacted by climatic change and perhaps by the incursion of new people in about 1200 CE. Over the next two centuries, the Fremont and ancient Pueblo people may have moved into the American southwest, finding new homes and farmlands in the river drainages of Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico.

 

In about 1200, Shoshonean speaking peoples entered Utah territory from the west. They may have originated in southern California and moved into the desert environment due to population pressure along the coast. They were an upland people with a hunting and gathering lifestyle utilizing roots and seeds, including the pinyon nut. They were also skillful fishermen, created pottery and raised some crops. When they first arrived in Utah, they lived as small family groups with little tribal organization. Four main Shoshonean peoples inhabited Utah country. The Shoshone in the north and northeast, the Gosiutes in the northwest, the Utes in the central and eastern parts of the region and the Southern Paiutes in the southwest. Initially, there seems to have been very little conflict between these groups.

 

In the early 16th century, the San Juan River basin in Utah's southeast also saw a new people, the Díne or Navajo, part of a greater group of plains Athabaskan speakers moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In addition to the Navajo, this language group contained people that were later known as Apaches, including the Lipan, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apaches.

 

Athabaskans were a hunting people who initially followed the bison, and were identified in 16th-century Spanish accounts as "dog nomads". The Athabaskans expanded their range throughout the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblo peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first specifically mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navaho) in the 1620s, referring to the people in the Chama valley region east of the San Juan River, and north west of Santa Fe. By the 1640s, the term Navaho was applied to these same people. Although the Navajo newcomers established a generally peaceful trading and cultural exchange with the some modern Pueblo peoples to the south, they experienced intermittent warfare with the Shoshonean peoples, particularly the Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado.

 

At the time of European expansion, beginning with Spanish explorers traveling from Mexico, five distinct native peoples occupied territory within the Utah area: the Northern Shoshone, the Goshute, the Ute, the Paiute and the Navajo.

 

The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado may have crossed into what is now southern Utah in 1540, when he was seeking the legendary Cíbola.

 

A group led by two Spanish Catholic priests—sometimes called the Domínguez–Escalante expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the California coast. The expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. All of what is now Utah was claimed by the Spanish Empire from the 1500s to 1821 as part of New Spain (later as the province Alta California); and subsequently claimed by Mexico from 1821 to 1848. However, Spain and Mexico had little permanent presence in, or control of, the region.

 

Fur trappers (also known as mountain men) including Jim Bridger, explored some regions of Utah in the early 19th century. The city of Provo was named for one such man, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah is named for a brigade leader of the Hudson's Bay Company, Peter Skene Ogden who trapped in the Weber Valley. In 1846, a year before the arrival of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints, the ill-fated Donner Party crossed through the Salt Lake valley late in the season, deciding not to stay the winter there but to continue forward to California, and beyond.

 

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormon pioneers, first came to the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847. At the time, the U.S. had already captured the Mexican territories of Alta California and New Mexico in the Mexican–American War and planned to keep them, but those territories, including the future state of Utah, officially became United States territory upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. The treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, 1848.

 

Upon arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormon pioneers found no permanent settlement of Indians. Other areas along the Wasatch Range were occupied at the time of settlement by the Northwestern Shoshone and adjacent areas by other bands of Shoshone such as the Gosiute. The Northwestern Shoshone lived in the valleys on the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake and in adjacent mountain valleys. Some years after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley Mormons, who went on to colonize many other areas of what is now Utah, were petitioned by Indians for recompense for land taken. The response of Heber C. Kimball, first counselor to Brigham Young, was that the land belonged to "our Father in Heaven and we expect to plow and plant it." A 1945 Supreme Court decision found that the land had been treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone had been recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States.

 

Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to make a place to live. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches, and schools. Access to water was crucially important. Almost immediately, Brigham Young set out to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed.

 

Shortly after the first company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, the community of Bountiful was settled to the north. In 1848, settlers moved into lands purchased from trapper Miles Goodyear in present-day Ogden. In 1849, Tooele and Provo were founded. Also that year, at the invitation of Ute chief Wakara, settlers moved into the Sanpete Valley in central Utah to establish the community of Manti. Fillmore, Utah, intended to be the capital of the new territory, was established in 1851. In 1855, missionary efforts aimed at western native cultures led to outposts in Fort Lemhi, Idaho, Las Vegas, Nevada and Elk Mountain in east-central Utah.

 

The experiences of returning members of the Mormon Battalion were also important in establishing new communities. On their journey west, the Mormon soldiers had identified dependable rivers and fertile river valleys in Colorado, Arizona and southern California. In addition, as the men traveled to rejoin their families in the Salt Lake Valley, they moved through southern Nevada and the eastern segments of southern Utah. Jefferson Hunt, a senior Mormon officer of the Battalion, actively searched for settlement sites, minerals, and other resources. His report encouraged 1851 settlement efforts in Iron County, near present-day Cedar City. These southern explorations eventually led to Mormon settlements in St. George, Utah, Las Vegas and San Bernardino, California, as well as communities in southern Arizona.

 

Prior to establishment of the Oregon and California trails and Mormon settlement, Indians native to the Salt Lake Valley and adjacent areas lived by hunting buffalo and other game, but also gathered grass seed from the bountiful grass of the area as well as roots such as those of the Indian Camas. By the time of settlement, indeed before 1840, the buffalo were gone from the valley, but hunting by settlers and grazing of cattle severely impacted the Indians in the area, and as settlement expanded into nearby river valleys and oases, indigenous tribes experienced increasing difficulty in gathering sufficient food. Brigham Young's counsel was to feed the hungry tribes, and that was done, but it was often not enough. These tensions formed the background to the Bear River massacre committed by California Militia stationed in Salt Lake City during the Civil War. The site of the massacre is just inside Preston, Idaho, but was generally thought to be within Utah at the time.

 

Statehood was petitioned for in 1849-50 using the name Deseret. The proposed State of Deseret would have been quite large, encompassing all of what is now Utah, and portions of Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, Oregon, New Mexico and California. The name of Deseret was favored by the LDS leader Brigham Young as a symbol of industry and was derived from a reference in the Book of Mormon. The petition was rejected by Congress and Utah did not become a state until 1896, following the Utah Constitutional Convention of 1895.

 

In 1850, the Utah Territory was created with the Compromise of 1850, and Fillmore (named after President Fillmore) was designated the capital. In 1856, Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the territorial capital.

 

The first group of pioneers brought African slaves with them, making Utah the only place in the western United States to have African slavery. Three slaves, Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby, came west with this first group in 1847. The settlers also began to purchase Indian slaves in the well-established Indian slave trade, as well as enslaving Indian prisoners of war. In 1850, 26 slaves were counted in Salt Lake County. Slavery didn't become officially recognized until 1852, when the Act in Relation to Service and the Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners were passed. Slavery was repealed on June 19, 1862, when Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories.

 

Disputes between the Mormon inhabitants and the federal government intensified after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy became known. The polygamous practices of the Mormons, which were made public in 1854, would be one of the major reasons Utah was denied statehood until almost 50 years after the Mormons had entered the area.

 

After news of their polygamous practices spread, the members of the LDS Church were quickly viewed by some as un-American and rebellious. In 1857, after news of a possible rebellion spread, President James Buchanan sent troops on the Utah expedition to quell the growing unrest and to replace Brigham Young as territorial governor with Alfred Cumming. The expedition was also known as the Utah War.

 

As fear of invasion grew, Mormon settlers had convinced some Paiute Indians to aid in a Mormon-led attack on 120 immigrants from Arkansas under the guise of Indian aggression. The murder of these settlers became known as the Mountain Meadows massacre. The Mormon leadership had adopted a defensive posture that led to a ban on the selling of grain to outsiders in preparation for an impending war. This chafed pioneers traveling through the region, who were unable to purchase badly needed supplies. A disagreement between some of the Arkansas pioneers and the Mormons in Cedar City led to the secret planning of the massacre by a few Mormon leaders in the area. Some scholars debate the involvement of Brigham Young. Only one man, John D. Lee, was ever convicted of the murders, and he was executed at the massacre site.

 

Express riders had brought the news 1,000 miles from the Missouri River settlements to Salt Lake City within about two weeks of the army's beginning to march west. Fearing the worst as 2,500 troops (roughly 1/3rd of the army then) led by General Albert Sidney Johnston started west, Brigham Young ordered all residents of Salt Lake City and neighboring communities to prepare their homes for burning and evacuate southward to Utah Valley and southern Utah. Young also sent out a few units of the Nauvoo Legion (numbering roughly 8,000–10,000), to delay the army's advance. The majority he sent into the mountains to prepare defenses or south to prepare for a scorched earth retreat. Although some army wagon supply trains were captured and burned and herds of army horses and cattle run off no serious fighting occurred. Starting late and short on supplies, the United States Army camped during the bitter winter of 1857–58 near a burned out Fort Bridger in Wyoming. Through the negotiations between emissary Thomas L. Kane, Young, Cumming and Johnston, control of Utah territory was peacefully transferred to Cumming, who entered an eerily vacant Salt Lake City in the spring of 1858. By agreement with Young, Johnston established the army at Fort Floyd 40 miles away from Salt Lake City, to the southwest.

 

Salt Lake City was the last link of the First Transcontinental Telegraph, between Carson City, Nevada and Omaha, Nebraska completed in October 1861. Brigham Young, who had helped expedite construction, was among the first to send a message, along with Abraham Lincoln and other officials. Soon after the telegraph line was completed, the Deseret Telegraph Company built the Deseret line connecting the settlements in the territory with Salt Lake City and, by extension, the rest of the United States.

 

Because of the American Civil War, federal troops were pulled out of Utah Territory (and their fort auctioned off), leaving the territorial government in federal hands without army backing until General Patrick E. Connor arrived with the 3rd Regiment of California Volunteers in 1862. While in Utah, Connor and his troops soon became discontent with this assignment wanting to head to Virginia where the "real" fighting and glory was occurring. Connor established Fort Douglas just three miles (5 km) east of Salt Lake City and encouraged his bored and often idle soldiers to go out and explore for mineral deposits to bring more non-Mormons into the state. Minerals were discovered in Tooele County, and some miners began to come to the territory. Conner also solved the Shoshone Indian problem in Cache Valley Utah by luring the Shoshone into a midwinter confrontation on January 29, 1863. The armed conflict quickly turned into a rout, discipline among the soldiers broke down, and the Battle of Bear River is today usually referred to by historians as the Bear River Massacre. Between 200 and 400 Shoshone men, women and children were killed, as were 27 soldiers, with over 50 more soldiers wounded or suffering from frostbite.

 

Beginning in 1865, Utah's Black Hawk War developed into the deadliest conflict in the territory's history. Chief Antonga Black Hawk died in 1870, but fights continued to break out until additional federal troops were sent in to suppress the Ghost Dance of 1872. The war is unique among Indian Wars because it was a three-way conflict, with mounted Timpanogos Utes led by Antonga Black Hawk fighting federal and Utah local militia.

 

On May 10, 1869, the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, north of the Great Salt Lake. The railroad brought increasing numbers of people into the state, and several influential businessmen made fortunes in the territory.

 

Main article: Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century

During the 1870s and 1880s, federal laws were passed and federal marshals assigned to enforce the laws against polygamy. In the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church leadership dropped its approval of polygamy citing divine revelation. When Utah applied for statehood again in 1895, it was accepted. Statehood was officially granted on January 4, 1896.

 

The Mormon issue made the situation for women the topic of nationwide controversy. In 1870 the Utah Territory, controlled by Mormons, gave women the right to vote. However, in 1887, Congress disenfranchised Utah women with the Edmunds–Tucker Act. In 1867–96, eastern activists promoted women's suffrage in Utah as an experiment, and as a way to eliminate polygamy. They were Presbyterians and other Protestants convinced that Mormonism was a non-Christian cult that grossly mistreated women. The Mormons promoted woman suffrage to counter the negative image of downtrodden Mormon women. With the 1890 Manifesto clearing the way for statehood, in 1895 Utah adopted a constitution restoring the right of women's suffrage. Congress admitted Utah as a state with that constitution in 1896.

 

Though less numerous than other intermountain states at the time, several lynching murders for alleged misdeeds occurred in Utah territory at the hand of vigilantes. Those documented include the following, with their ethnicity or national origin noted in parentheses if it was provided in the source:

 

William Torrington in Carson City (then a part of Utah territory), 1859

Thomas Coleman (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1866

3 unidentified men at Wahsatch, winter of 1868

A Black man in Uintah, 1869

Charles A. Benson in Logan, 1873

Ah Sing (Chinese man) in Corinne, 1874

Thomas Forrest in St. George, 1880

William Harvey (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1883

John Murphy in Park City, 1883

George Segal (Japanese man) in Ogden, 1884

Joseph Fisher in Eureka, 1886

Robert Marshall (Black man) in Castle Gate, 1925

Other lynchings in Utah territory include multiple instances of mass murder of Native American children, women, and men by White settlers including the Battle Creek massacre (1849), Provo River Massacre (1850), Nephi massacre (1853), and Circleville Massacre (1866).

 

Beginning in the early 20th century, with the establishment of such national parks as Bryce Canyon National Park and Zion National Park, Utah began to become known for its natural beauty. Southern Utah became a popular filming spot for arid, rugged scenes, and such natural landmarks as Delicate Arch and "the Mittens" of Monument Valley are instantly recognizable to most national residents. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the construction of the Interstate highway system, accessibility to the southern scenic areas was made easier.

 

Beginning in 1939, with the establishment of Alta Ski Area, Utah has become world-renowned for its skiing. The dry, powdery snow of the Wasatch Range is considered some of the best skiing in the world. Salt Lake City won the bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1995, and this has served as a great boost to the economy. The ski resorts have increased in popularity, and many of the Olympic venues scattered across the Wasatch Front continue to be used for sporting events. This also spurred the development of the light-rail system in the Salt Lake Valley, known as TRAX, and the re-construction of the freeway system around the city.

 

During the late 20th century, the state grew quickly. In the 1970s, growth was phenomenal in the suburbs. Sandy was one of the fastest-growing cities in the country at that time, and West Valley City is the state's 2nd most populous city. Today, many areas of Utah are seeing phenomenal growth. Northern Davis, southern and western Salt Lake, Summit, eastern Tooele, Utah, Wasatch, and Washington counties are all growing very quickly. Transportation and urbanization are major issues in politics as development consumes agricultural land and wilderness areas.

 

In 2012, the State of Utah passed the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act in an attempt to gain control over a substantial portion of federal land in the state from the federal government, based on language in the Utah Enabling Act of 1894. The State does not intend to use force or assert control by limiting access in an attempt to control the disputed lands, but does intend to use a multi-step process of education, negotiation, legislation, and if necessary, litigation as part of its multi-year effort to gain state or private control over the lands after 2014.

 

Utah families, like most Americans everywhere, did their utmost to assist in the war effort. Tires, meat, butter, sugar, fats, oils, coffee, shoes, boots, gasoline, canned fruits, vegetables, and soups were rationed on a national basis. The school day was shortened and bus routes were reduced to limit the number of resources used stateside and increase what could be sent to soldiers.

 

Geneva Steel was built to increase the steel production for America during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had proposed opening a steel mill in Utah in 1936, but the idea was shelved after a couple of months. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war and the steel plant was put into progress. In April 1944, Geneva shipped its first order, which consisted of over 600 tons of steel plate. Geneva Steel also brought thousands of job opportunities to Utah. The positions were hard to fill as many of Utah's men were overseas fighting. Women began working, filling 25 percent of the jobs.

 

As a result of Utah's and Geneva Steels contribution during the war, several Liberty Ships were named in honor of Utah including the USS Joseph Smith, USS Brigham Young, USS Provo, and the USS Peter Skene Ogden.

 

One of the sectors of the beachhead of Normandy Landings was codenamed Utah Beach, and the amphibious landings at the beach were undertaken by United States Army troops.

 

It is estimated that 1,450 soldiers from Utah were killed in the war.

The distance

Was pretty much nonexistent

But little by little

 

It started to grow

we discovered the old marcus dairy bar, just off I-84 near the danbury mall, by accident almost fifteen years ago while shopping at macy's for our first kitchen table. now we make a point to stop there for breakfast or burgers whenever we're in the area.

 

without fail, we always get faith as our waitress.

 

the place is a fracture in the space-time continuum. as you walk in the door and take in the bar-counter seating, the orange chrome stools and the waitress with the bright red lipstick, the years peel away and you find yourself in the early sixties. suddenly you want things like milkshakes and patty melts, and you feel inclined to blow a spitball at your husband's scruffy neck. then faith comes over and apologizes for the nonexistent wait.

 

i order a bacon, egg and cheese and a strawberry milk; florian gets the veggie omelet. faith runs to get us silverware and more coffee, laughs a bit nervously when i ask to take her portrait, and tells us how the developers who want to tear the dairy bar down have put the project on hold. "one good thing to come out of this economy, huh?" she says, pushing seventy and still slinging plates for a living.

 

we sit and eat; we don't want to leave. see we'd heard the place might close, but we thought we'd check it out just in case. and as we turned the corner, there it still was, the same unremarkable low-slung structure sitting square in the middle of a commericial dairy parking lot. as always, the booths and stools were filled with truckers and families and bikers from all over (the dairy is famous for its sunday morning motorcycle rallies).

 

i snap more pics as we head out the door, worried i'd never see it again. and then i realized... maybe it'll survive.

 

cos, you know.

 

(faith.)

 

TP&W GP50 5010 passes a preserved N&W caboose in Forrest, IL. There's a lot of cool photo props around here, its a shame that traffic is almost nonexistent.

Did you notice the fox?

 

This is another fantasy city, again inspired by Ísafjörður, Iceland. Though that town only has 2,500, this a mere 200,000 inhabitants.

 

My technique is quite straight-forward: to create an organically grown city, just draw organically. For this map I only had planned the geographical situation: a peninsula in a fiord with steep slopes and a river. An Icelandic town model in a Norwegian landscape. From there just start on two blank papers. Draw some blocks, smaller neighbourhoods, and extend the city again and again. Without a plan, you avoid anachronisms: The suburb built first did not take later suburbs into account, which had to adept to the settled setting. Also important: determine where the north is: the sun facing slopes should (generally spoken in the northern hemisphere) be more built-up.

 

Any questions? You're welcome to ask me all about it!

 

Sea also the "making of" illustration: www.flickr.com/photos/31322479@N04/9166641366/in/photostr...

 

2013.

The Moscow Metro is a metro system serving the Russian capital of Moscow as well as the neighbouring cities of Krasnogorsk, Reutov, Lyubertsy and Kotelniki in Moscow Oblast. Opened in 1935 with one 11-kilometre (6.8 mi) line and 13 stations, it was the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union.

 

As of 2023, the Moscow Metro, excluding the Moscow Central Circle, the Moscow Central Diameters and the Moscow Monorail, had 294 stations and 514.5 km (319.7 mi) of route length, excluding light rail Monorail, making it the 8th-longest in the world and the longest outside China. It is the third metro system in the world (after Madrid and Beijing), which has two ring lines. The system is mostly underground, with the deepest section 84 metres (276 ft) underground at the Park Pobedy station, one of the world's deepest underground stations. It is the busiest metro system in Europe, the busiest in the world outside Asia, and is considered a tourist attraction in itself.

 

The Moscow Metro is a world leader in the frequency of train traffic—intervals during peak hours do not exceed 90 seconds. In February 2023, Moscow was the first in the world to reduce the intervals of metro trains to 80 seconds.

 

Name

The full legal name of the metro has been "Moscow Order of Lenin and Order of the Red Banner of Labor V.I. Lenin Metro" (Московский ордена Ленина и ордена Трудового Красного Знамени метрополитен имени В.И. Ленина) since 1955. This is usually shortened to V.I. Lenin Metro (Метрополитен им. В.И. Ленина). This shorter official name appears on many stations. Although there were proposals to remove Lenin from the official name, it still stands. During the 1990s and 2000s, Lenin's name was excluded from the signage on newly built and reconstructed stations. In 2016, the authorities promised to return the official name of the metro to all the stations' signage.

 

The first official name of the metro was L. M. Kaganovich Metro (Метрополитен им. Л.М. Кагановича) after Lazar Kaganovich. (see History section). However, when the Metro was awarded the Order of Lenin, it was officially renamed "Moscow Order of Lenin L. M. Kaganovich Metro" (Московский ордена Ленина Метрополитен им. Л. М. Кагановича) in 1947. And when the metro was renamed in 1955, Kaganovich was "given a consolation prize" by renaming the Okhotny Ryad station to "Imeni Kaganovicha". Yet in a matter of only two years, the original Okhotny Ryad name of the station was reinstated.

 

Logo

The first line of the Moscow Metro was launched in 1935, complete with the first logo, the capital M paired with the text "МЕТРО". There is no accurate information about the author of the logo, so it is often attributed to the architects of the first stations – Samuil Kravets, Ivan Taranov and Nadezhda Bykova. At the opening in 1935, the M letter on the logo had no definite shape.

 

Today, with at least ten different variations of the shape in use, Moscow Metro still does not have clear brand or logo guidelines. An attempt was made in October 2013 to launch a nationwide brand image competition, only to be closed several hours after its announcement. A similar contest, held independently later that year by the design crowdsourcing company DesignContest, yielded better results, though none were officially accepted by the Metro officials.

 

Operations

The Moscow Metro, a state-owned enterprise, is 449 km (279 mi) long and consists of 15 lines and 263 stations organized in a spoke-hub distribution paradigm, with the majority of rail lines running radially from the centre of Moscow to the outlying areas. The Koltsevaya Line (line 5) forms a 20-kilometre (12 mi) long circle which enables passenger travel between these diameters, and the new Moscow Central Circle (line 14) and even newer Bolshaya Koltsevaya line (line 11) form a 54-kilometre (34 mi) and 57-kilometre (35 mi) long circles respectively that serve a similar purpose on middle periphery. Most stations and lines are underground, but some lines have at-grade and elevated sections; the Filyovskaya Line, Butovskaya Line and the Central Circle Line are the three lines that are at grade or mostly at grade.

 

The Moscow Metro uses 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) Russian gauge, like other Russian railways, and an underrunning third rail with a supply of 825 Volts DC, except lines 13 and 14, the former being a monorail, and the latter being directly connected to the mainlines with 3000V DC overhead lines, as is typical. The average distance between stations is 1.7 kilometres (1.1 mi); the shortest (502 metres (1,647 ft) long) section is between Vystavochnaya and Mezhdunarodnaya, and the longest (6.62 kilometres (4.11 mi) long) is between Krylatskoye and Strogino. Long distances between stations have the positive effect of a high cruising speed of 41.7 kilometres per hour (25.9 mph).

 

The Moscow Metro opens at 05:25 and closes at 01:00. The exact opening time varies at different stations according to the arrival of the first train, but all stations simultaneously close their entrances at 01:00 for maintenance, and so do transfer corridors. The minimum interval between trains is 90 seconds during the morning and evening rush hours.

 

As of 2017, the system had an average daily ridership of 6.99 million passengers. Peak daily ridership of 9.71 million was recorded on 26 December 2014.

 

Free Wi-Fi has been available on all lines of the Moscow Metro since 2 December 2014.

 

Lines

A Moscow Metro train passes through Sokolnicheskaya and Koltsevaya lines. View from the driver's cabin

Each line is identified by a name, an alphanumeric index (usually consisting of just a number, and sometimes a letter suffix), and a colour. The colour assigned to each line for display on maps and signs is its colloquial identifier, except for the nondescript greens and blues assigned to the Bolshaya Koltsevaya, the Zamoskvoretskaya, the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya, and Butovskaya lines (lines, 11, 2, 10, and 12, respectively).[citation needed] The upcoming station is announced by a male voice on inbound trains to the city center (on the Circle line, the clockwise trains), and by a female voice on outbound trains (anti-clockwise trains on the Circle line).

 

The metro has a connection to the Moscow Monorail, a 4.7-kilometre (2.9 mi), six-station monorail line between Timiryazevskaya and VDNKh which opened in January 2008. Prior to the official opening, the monorail had operated in "excursion mode" since 2004.

 

Also, from 11 August 1969 to 26 October 2019, the Moscow Metro included Kakhovskaya line 3.3 km long with 3 stations, which closed for a long reconstruction. On 7 December 2021, Kakhovskaya is reopened after reconstruction as part of the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line. The renewed Varshavskaya and Kashirskaya stations reopened as part of the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line, which became fully functional on 1 March 2023. Its new stations included Pechatniki, Nagatinsky Zaton and Klenovy Bulvar.

 

Renamed lines

Sokolnicheskaya line was previously named Kirovsko-Fruzenskaya

Zamoskvoretskaya line was previously named Gorkovsko-Zamoskvoretskaya.

Filyovskaya line was previously named Arbatsko-Filyovskaya.

Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya line was previously named Zhdanovsko-Krasnopresnenskaya

 

History

The first plans for a metro system in Moscow date back to the Russian Empire but were postponed by World War I, the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War. In 1923, the Moscow City Council formed the Underground Railway Design Office at the Moscow Board of Urban Railways. It carried out preliminary studies, and by 1928 had developed a project for the first route from Sokolniki to the city centre. At the same time, an offer was made to the German company Siemens Bauunion to submit its own project for the same route. In June 1931, the decision to begin construction of the Moscow Metro was made by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In January 1932 the plan for the first lines was approved, and on 21 March 1933 the Soviet government approved a plan for 10 lines with a total route length of 80 km (50 mi).

 

The first lines were built using the Moscow general plan designed by Lazar Kaganovich, along with his project managers (notably Ivan M. Kuznetsov and, later, Isaac Y. Segal) in the 1930s–1950s, and the Metro was named after him until 1955 (Metropoliten im. L.M. Kaganovicha). The Moscow Metro construction engineers consulted with their counterparts from the London Underground, the world's oldest metro system, in 1936: British architect Charles Holden and administrator Frank Pick had been working on the station developments of the Piccadilly Line extension, and Soviet delegates to London were impressed by Holden's thoroughly modern redeployment of classical elements and use of high-quality materials for the circular ticket hall of Piccadilly Circus, and so engaged Pick and Holden as advisors to Moscow's metro system. Partly because of this connection, the design of Gants Hill tube station, which was completed in 1947, is reminiscent of a Moscow Metro station. Indeed, Holden's homage to Moscow has been described as a gesture of gratitude for the USSR's helpful role in The Second World War.

 

Soviet workers did the labour and the art work, but the main engineering designs, routes, and construction plans were handled by specialists recruited from London Underground. The British called for tunnelling instead of the "cut-and-cover" technique, the use of escalators instead of lifts, the routes and the design of the rolling stock. The paranoia of the NKVD was evident when the secret police arrested numerous British engineers for espionage because they gained an in-depth knowledge of the city's physical layout. Engineers for the Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Company (Metrovick) were given a show trial and deported in 1933, ending the role of British business in the USSR.

 

First four stages of construction

The first line was opened to the public on 15 May 1935 at 07:00 am. It was 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) long and included 13 stations. The day was celebrated as a technological and ideological victory for socialism (and, by extension, Stalinism). An estimated 285,000 people rode the Metro at its debut, and its design was greeted with pride; street celebrations included parades, plays and concerts. The Bolshoi Theatre presented a choral performance by 2,200 Metro workers; 55,000 colored posters (lauding the Metro as the busiest and fastest in the world) and 25,000 copies of "Songs of the Joyous Metro Conquerors" were distributed. The Moscow Metro averaged 47 km/h (29 mph) and had a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). In comparison, New York City Subway trains averaged a slower 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) and had a top speed of 45 miles per hour (72 km/h). While the celebration was an expression of popular joy it was also an effective propaganda display, legitimizing the Metro and declaring it a success.

 

The initial line connected Sokolniki to Okhotny Ryad then branching to Park Kultury and Smolenskaya. The latter branch was extended westwards to a new station (Kiyevskaya) in March 1937, the first Metro line crossing the Moskva River over the Smolensky Metro Bridge.

 

The second stage was completed before the war. In March 1938, the Arbatskaya branch was split and extended to the Kurskaya station (now the dark-blue Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line). In September 1938, the Gorkovskaya Line opened between Sokol and Teatralnaya. Here the architecture was based on that of the most popular stations in existence (Krasniye Vorota, Okhotnyi Ryad and Kropotkinskaya); while following the popular art-deco style, it was merged with socialist themes. The first deep-level column station Mayakovskaya was built at the same time.

 

Building work on the third stage was delayed (but not interrupted) during World War II, and two Metro sections were put into service; Teatralnaya–Avtozavodskaya (three stations, crossing the Moskva River through a deep tunnel) and Kurskaya–Partizanskaya (four stations) were inaugurated in 1943 and 1944 respectively. War motifs replaced socialist visions in the architectural design of these stations. During the Siege of Moscow in the fall and winter of 1941, Metro stations were used as air-raid shelters; the Council of Ministers moved its offices to the Mayakovskaya platforms, where Stalin made public speeches on several occasions. The Chistiye Prudy station was also walled off, and the headquarters of the Air Defence established there.

 

After the war ended in 1945, construction began on the fourth stage of the Metro, which included the Koltsevaya Line, a deep part of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya line from Ploshchad Revolyutsii to Kievskaya and a surface extension to Pervomaiskaya during the early 1950s. The decoration and design characteristic of the Moscow Metro is considered to have reached its zenith in these stations. The Koltsevaya Line was first planned as a line running under the Garden Ring, a wide avenue encircling the borders of Moscow's city centre. The first part of the line – from Park Kultury to Kurskaya (1950) – follows this avenue. Plans were later changed and the northern part of the ring line runs 1–1.5 kilometres (0.62–0.93 mi) outside the Sadovoye Koltso, thus providing service for seven (out of nine) rail terminals. The next part of the Koltsevaya Line opened in 1952 (Kurskaya–Belorusskaya), and in 1954 the ring line was completed.

 

Stalinist ideals in Metro's history

When the Metro opened in 1935, it immediately became the centrepiece of the transportation system (as opposed to horse-carried barrows still widely used in 1930s Moscow). It also became the prototype, the vision for future Soviet large-scale technologies. The artwork of the 13 original stations became nationally and internationally famous. For example, the Sverdlov Square subway station featured porcelain bas-reliefs depicting the daily life of the Soviet peoples, and the bas-reliefs at the Dynamo Stadium sports complex glorified sports and physical prowess on the powerful new "Homo Sovieticus" (Soviet man). The metro was touted as the symbol of the new social order – a sort of Communist cathedral of engineering modernity.

 

The Metro was also iconic for showcasing Socialist Realism in public art. The method was influenced by Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Lenin's favorite 19th-century nihilist, who stated that "art is no useful unless it serves politics". This maxim sums up the reasons why the stations combined aesthetics, technology and ideology: any plan which did not incorporate all three areas cohesively was rejected.

 

Kaganovich was in charge; he designed the subway so that citizens would absorb the values and ethos of Stalinist civilization as they rode. Without this cohesion, the Metro would not reflect Socialist Realism. If the Metro did not utilize Socialist Realism, it would fail to illustrate Stalinist values and transform Soviet citizens into socialists. Anything less than Socialist Realism's grand artistic complexity would fail to inspire a long-lasting, nationalistic attachment to Stalin's new society.

Socialist Realism was in fact a method, not exactly a style.[31]

Bright future and literal brightness in the Metro of Moscow

The Moscow Metro was one of the USSR's most ambitious architectural projects. The metro's artists and architects worked to design a structure that embodied svet (literally "light", figuratively "radiance" or "brilliance") and svetloe budushchee (a well-lit/radiant/bright future). With their reflective marble walls, high ceilings and grand chandeliers, many Moscow Metro stations have been likened to an "artificial underground sun".

 

This palatial underground environment reminded Metro users their taxes were spent on materializing bright future; also, the design was useful for demonstrating the extra structural strength of the underground works (as in Metro doubling as bunkers, bomb shelters).

 

The chief lighting engineer was Abram Damsky, a graduate of the Higher State Art-Technical Institute in Moscow. By 1930 he was a chief designer in Moscow's Elektrosvet Factory, and during World War II was sent to the Metrostroi (Metro Construction) Factory as head of the lighting shop.[33] Damsky recognized the importance of efficiency, as well as the potential for light as an expressive form. His team experimented with different materials (most often cast bronze, aluminum, sheet brass, steel, and milk glass) and methods to optimize the technology. Damsky's discourse on "Lamps and Architecture 1930–1950" describes in detail the epic chandeliers installed in the Taganskaya Station and the Kaluzhskaia station (Oktyabrskaya nowadays, not to be confused with contemporary "Kaluzhskaya" station on line 6). The work of Abram Damsky further publicized these ideas hoping people would associate the party with the idea of bright future.

 

The Kaluzhskaya Station was designed by the architect [Leonid] Poliakov. Poliakov's decision to base his design on a reinterpretation of Russian classical architecture clearly influenced the concept of the lamps, some of which I planned in collaboration with the architect himself. The shape of the lamps was a torch – the torch of victory, as Polyakov put it... The artistic quality and stylistic unity of all the lamps throughout the station's interior made them perhaps the most successful element of the architectural composition. All were made of cast aluminum decorated in a black and gold anodized coating, a technique which the Metrostroi factory had only just mastered.

 

The Taganskaia Metro Station on the Ring Line was designed in...quite another style by the architects K.S. Ryzhkov and A. Medvedev... Their subject matter dealt with images of war and victory...The overall effect was one of ceremony ... In the platform halls the blue ceramic bodies of the chandeliers played a more modest role, but still emphasised the overall expressiveness of the lamp.

 

— Abram Damsky, Lamps and Architecture 1930–1950

Industrialization

 

Stalin's first five-year plan (1928–1932) facilitated rapid industrialization to build a socialist motherland. The plan was ambitious, seeking to reorient an agrarian society towards industrialism. It was Stalin's fanatical energy, large-scale planning, and resource distribution that kept up the pace of industrialization. The first five-year plan was instrumental in the completion of the Moscow Metro; without industrialization, the Soviet Union would not have had the raw materials necessary for the project. For example, steel was a main component of many subway stations. Before industrialization, it would have been impossible for the Soviet Union to produce enough steel to incorporate it into the metro's design; in addition, a steel shortage would have limited the size of the subway system and its technological advancement.

 

The Moscow Metro furthered the construction of a socialist Soviet Union because the project accorded with Stalin's second five-year plan. The Second Plan focused on urbanization and the development of social services. The Moscow Metro was necessary to cope with the influx of peasants who migrated to the city during the 1930s; Moscow's population had grown from 2.16 million in 1928 to 3.6 million in 1933. The Metro also bolstered Moscow's shaky infrastructure and its communal services, which hitherto were nearly nonexistent.

 

Mobilization

The Communist Party had the power to mobilize; because the party was a single source of control, it could focus its resources. The most notable example of mobilization in the Soviet Union occurred during World War II. The country also mobilized in order to complete the Moscow Metro with unprecedented speed. One of the main motivation factors of the mobilization was to overtake the West and prove that a socialist metro could surpass capitalist designs. It was especially important to the Soviet Union that socialism succeed industrially, technologically, and artistically in the 1930s, since capitalism was at a low ebb during the Great Depression.

 

The person in charge of Metro mobilization was Lazar Kaganovich. A prominent Party member, he assumed control of the project as chief overseer. Kaganovich was nicknamed the "Iron Commissar"; he shared Stalin's fanatical energy, dramatic oratory flare, and ability to keep workers building quickly with threats and punishment. He was determined to realise the Moscow Metro, regardless of cost. Without Kaganovich's managerial ability, the Moscow Metro might have met the same fate as the Palace of the Soviets: failure.

 

This was a comprehensive mobilization; the project drew resources and workers from the entire Soviet Union. In his article, archeologist Mike O'Mahoney describes the scope of the Metro mobilization:

 

A specialist workforce had been drawn from many different regions, including miners from the Ukrainian and Siberian coalfields and construction workers from the iron and steel mills of Magnitogorsk, the Dniepr hydroelectric power station, and the Turkestan-Siberian railway... materials used in the construction of the metro included iron from Siberian Kuznetsk, timber from northern Russia, cement from the Volga region and the northern Caucasus, bitumen from Baku, and marble and granite from quarries in Karelia, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Urals, and the Soviet Far East

 

— Mike O'Mahoney, Archeological Fantasies: Constructing History on the Moscow Metro

Skilled engineers were scarce, and unskilled workers were instrumental to the realization of the metro. The Metrostroi (the organization responsible for the Metro's construction) conducted massive recruitment campaigns. It printed 15,000 copies of Udarnik metrostroia (Metrostroi Shock Worker, its daily newspaper) and 700 other newsletters (some in different languages) to attract unskilled laborers. Kaganovich was closely involved in the recruitment campaign, targeting the Komsomol generation because of its strength and youth.

 

Later Soviet stations

"Fifth stage" set of stations

The beginning of the Cold War led to the construction of a deep section of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line. The stations on this line were planned as shelters in the event of nuclear war. After finishing the line in 1953 the upper tracks between Ploshchad Revolyutsii and Kiyevskaya were closed, and later reopened in 1958 as a part of the Filyovskaya Line. The stations, too, were supplied with tight gates and life-sustenance systems to function as proper nuclear shelters.

 

In the further development of the Metro the term "stages" was not used any more, although sometimes the stations opened in 1957–1959 are referred to as the "fifth stage".

 

During the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s, the architectural extravagance of new Metro stations was decisively rejected on the orders of Nikita Khrushchev. He had a preference for a utilitarian "minimalism"-like approach to design, similar to Brutalism style. The idea behind the rejection was similar to one used to create Khrushchyovkas: cheap yet easily mass-produced buildings. Stations of his era, as well as most 1970s stations, were simple in design and style, with walls covered with identical square ceramic tiles. Even decorations at the Metro stations almost finished at the time of the ban (such as VDNKh and Alexeyevskaya) got their final decors simplified: VDNKh's arcs/portals, for example, got plain green paint to contrast with well-detailed decorations and pannos around them.

 

A typical layout of the cheap shallow-dug metro station (which quickly became known as Sorokonozhka – "centipede", from early designs with 40 concrete columns in two rows) was developed for all new stations, and the stations were built to look almost identical, differing from each other only in colours of the marble and ceramic tiles. Most stations were built with simpler, cheap technology; this resulted in utilitarian design being flawed in some ways. Some stations such as adjacent Rechnoi Vokzal and Vodny Stadion or sequiential Leninsky Prospect, Akadmicheskaya, Profsoyuznaya and Novye Cheryomushki would have a similar look due to the extensive use of same-sized white or off-white ceramic tiles with hard-to-feel differences.

 

Walls with cheap ceramic tiles were susceptible to train-related vibration: some tiles would eventually fall off and break. It was not always possible to replace the missing tiles with the ones of the exact color and tone, which eventually led to variegated parts of the walls.

 

Metro stations of late USSR

The contrasting style gap between the powerfully decorated stations of Moscow's center and the spartan-looking stations of the 1960s was eventually filled. In the mid-1970s the architectural extravagance was partially restored. However, the newer design of shallow "centipede" stations (now with 26 columns, more widely spaced) continued to dominate. For example, Kaluzhskaya "centipede" station from 1974 (adjacent to Novye Cheryomushki station) features non-flat tiles (with 3D effect utilized), and Medvedkovo from 1978 features complex decorations.

 

1971 station Kitay-Gorod ("Ploshchad Nogina" at the time) features cross-platform interchange (Line 6 and line 7). Although built without "centipede" design or cheap ceramic tiles, the station utilizes near-grayscale selection of colors. It is to note the "southbound" and "northbound" halls of the station have identical look.

 

Babushkinskaya station from 1978 is a no-column station (similar to Biblioteka Imeni Lenina from 1935). 1983 Chertanovskaya station has resemblance to Kropotkinskaya (from 1935). Some stations, such as the deep-dug Shabolovskaya (1980), have the near-tunnel walls decorated with metal sheets, not tiles. Tyoply Stan features a theme related to the name and the location of the station ("Tyoply Stan" used to literally mean warm area): its walls are covered in brick-colored ribbed panes, which look like radiators).

 

Downtown area got such stations as Borovitskaya (1986), with uncovered red bricks and gray, concrete-like colors accompanying a single gold-plated decorative pane known as "Tree of peoples' of USSR" or additional station hall for Tretyakovskaya to house cross-platform interchange system between line 6 and line 8. To this day, Tretyakovskaya metro station consists of two contrasting halls: brutalism-like 1971 hall and custom design hall reminiscent of Tretyakovskaya Galereya from 1986.

 

Post-USSR stations of the modern Russian Federation

Metro stations of the 1990s and 2000s vary in style, but some of the stations seem to have their own themes:

 

Ulitsa Akademika Yangelya station used to feature thick orange neon lamp-like sodium lights instead of regular white lights.

Park Pobedy, the deepest station of the Moscow Metro, was built in 2003; it features extensive use of dark orange polished granite.

Slavyansky Bulvar station utilizes a plant-inspired theme (similar to "bionic style").

The sleek variant of aforementioned bionic style is somewhat represented in various Line 10 stations.

Sretensky Bulvar station of line 10 is decorated with paintings of nearby memorials and locations.

Strogino station has a theme of huge eye-shaped boundaries for lights; with "eyes" occupying the station's ceiling.

Troparyovo (2014) features trees made of polished metal. The trees hold the station's diamond-shaped lights. The station, however, is noticeably dim-lit.

Delovoy Tsentr (2016, MCC, overground station) has green tint.

Lomonosovsky Prospekt (Line 8A) is decorated with various equations.

Olkhovaya (2019) uses other plant-inspired themes (ольха noun means alder) with autumn/winter inspired colours.

Kosino (2019) uses high-tech style with the addition of thin LED lights.

Some bleak, bland-looking "centipedes" like Akademicheskaya and Yugo-Zapadnaya have undergone renovations in the 21st century (new blue-striped white walls on Akademicheskaya, aqualine glassy, shiny walls on Yugo-Zapadnaya).

 

Moscow Central Circle urban railway (Line 14)

A new circle metro line in Moscow was relatively quickly made in the 2010s. The Moscow Central Circle line (Line 14) was opened for use in September 2016 by re-purposing and upgrading the Maloe ZheleznoDorozhnoe Kol'tso. A proposal to convert that freight line into a metropolitan railway with frequent passenger service was announced in 2012. The original tracks had been built in pre-revolutionary Moscow decades before the creation of Moscow Metro; the tracks remained in place in one piece as a non-electrified line until the 21st century. Yet the circle route was never abandoned or cut. New track (along the existing one) was laid and all-new stations were built between 2014 and 2016. MCC's stations got such amenities as vending machines and free water closets.

 

Line 14 is operated by Russian Railways and uses full-sized trains (an idea, somewhat similar to S-Train). The extra resemblance to an S-Train line is, the 1908 line now connects modern northern residential districts to western and southern downtown area, with a station adjacent to Moscow International Business Center.

 

There is a noticeable relief of congestion, decrease in usage of formerly overcrowded Koltsevaya line since the introduction of MCC. To make line 14 attractive to frequent Koltsevaya line interchanges users, upgrades over regular comfort of Moscow Metro were made. Use of small laptops/portable video playing devices and food consumption from tupperwares and tubs was also improved for Line 14: the trains have small folding tables in the back of nearly every seat, while the seats are facing one direction like in planes or intercity buses - unlike side-against-side sofas typical for Metro.

 

Unlike MCD lines (D1, D2 etc.) MCC line accepts "unified" tickets and "Troika" cards just like Moscow Metro and buses of Moscow do. Free transfers are permitted between the MCC and the Moscow Metro if the trip before the transfer is less than 90 minutes. It's made possible by using same "Ediny", literally "unified" tickets instead of printing "paper tickets" used at railroads.

 

To interchange to line 14 for free, passenger must keep their freshly used ticket after entering Moscow Metro to apply it upon entering any line 14 station (and vice versa, keep their "fresh" ticket to enter underground Metro line after leaving Line 14 for an interchange).

 

MCD (D lines)

In 2019, new lines of Russian Railways got included in the map of Metro as "line D1" and "line D2". Unlike Line 14, the MCD lines actually form S-Train lines, bypassing the "vokzals", terminus stations of respective intercity railways. Line D3 is planned to be launched in August 2023, while D4 will be launched in September of that year. The schedule for the development of the infrastructure of the Central Transport Hub in 2023 was signed by the Moscow Mayor Sergei Sobyanin and the head of Russian Railways Oleg Belozerov in December 2022.

 

As for the fees, MCD accepts Moscow's "Troika" cards. Also, every MCD station has printers which print "station X – station Y" tickets on paper. Users of the D lines must keep their tickets until exiting their destination stations: their exit terminals require a valid "... to station Y" ticket's barcode.

 

Big Circle Line (line 11)

After upgrading the railway from 1908 to a proper Metro line, the development of another circle route was re-launched, now adjusted for the pear-shaped circle route of line #14.

 

Throughout the late 2010s, Line 11 was extended from short, tiny Kakhovskaya line to a half-circle (from Kakhovskaya to Savyolovskaya). In early 2023, the circle was finished.

 

Similarly made Shelepikha, Khoroshovskaya, CSKA and Petrovsky Park stations have lots of polished granite and shiny surfaces, in contrast to Soviet "centipedes". Throughout 2018–2021, these stations were connected to line 8A.

Narodnoye Opolcheniye (2021) features lots of straight edges and linear decorations (such as uninterrupted "three stripes" style of the ceiling lights and rectangular columns).

As for the spring of 2023, the whole circle route line is up and running, forming a circle stretching to the southern near-MKAD residential parts of the city (Prospekt Vernadskogo, Tekstilshchiki) as opposed to the MCC's stretching towards the northern districts of Moscow. In other words, it "mirrors" Line 14 rather than forming a perfect circle around the city centre. While being 70 km long, the line is now the longest subway line in the world, 13 kilometres ahead of the previous record holder - the line 10 of Beijing Subway.

 

Expansions

GIF-animated scheme of Moscow Metro growth (1935-2019)

Since the turn of the 2nd millennium several projects have been completed, and more are underway. The first was the Annino-Butovo extension, which extended the Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya Line from Prazhskaya to Ulitsa Akademika Yangelya in 2000, Annino in 2001 and Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo in 2002. Its continuation, an elevated Butovskaya Line, was inaugurated in 2003. Vorobyovy Gory station, which initially opened in 1959 and was forced to close in 1983 after the concrete used to build the bridge was found to be defective, was rebuilt and reopened after many years in 2002. Another recent project included building a branch off the Filyovskaya Line to the Moscow International Business Center. This included Vystavochnaya (opened in 2005) and Mezhdunarodnaya (opened in 2006).

 

The Strogino–Mitino extension began with Park Pobedy in 2003. Its first stations (an expanded Kuntsevskaya and Strogino) opened in January 2008, and Slavyansky Bulvar followed in September. Myakinino, Volokolamskaya and Mitino opened in December 2009. Myakinino station was built by a state-private financial partnership, unique in Moscow Metro history. A new terminus, Pyatnitskoye Shosse, was completed in December 2012.

 

After many years of construction, the long-awaited Lyublinskaya Line extension was inaugurated with Trubnaya in August 2007 and Sretensky Bulvar in December of that year. In June 2010, it was extended northwards with the Dostoyevskaya and Maryina Roscha stations. In December 2011, the Lyublinskaya Line was expanded southwards by three stations and connected to the Zamoskvoretskaya Line, with the Alma-Atinskaya station opening on the latter in December 2012. The Kalininskaya Line was extended past the Moscow Ring Road in August 2012 with Novokosino station.

 

In 2011, works began on the Third Interchange Contour that is set to take the pressure off the Koltsevaya Line. Eventually the new line will attain a shape of the second ring with connections to all lines (except Koltsevaya and Butovskaya).

 

In 2013, the Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line was extended after several delays to the south-eastern districts of Moscow outside the Ring Road with the opening of Zhulebino and Lermontovsky Prospekt stations. Originally scheduled for 2013, a new segment of the Kalininskaya Line between Park Pobedy and Delovoy Tsentr (separate from the main part) was opened in January 2014, while the underground extension of Butovskaya Line northwards to offer a transfer to the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya Line was completed in February. Spartak, a station on the Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line that remained unfinished for forty years, was finally opened in August 2014. The first stage of the southern extension of the Sokolnicheskaya Line, the Troparyovo station, opened in December 2014.

 

Current plans

In addition to major metro expansion the Moscow Government and Russian Railways plans to upgrade more commuter railways to a metro-style service, similar to the MCC. New tracks and stations are planned to be built in order to achieve this.

 

Stations

The deep stations comprise 55 triple-vaulted pylon stations, 19 triple-vaulted column stations, and one single-vault station. The shallow stations comprise 79 spanned column stations (a large portion of them following the "centipede" design), 33 single-vaulted stations (Kharkov technology), and four single-spanned stations. In addition, there are 12 ground-level stations, four elevated stations, and one station (Vorobyovy Gory) on a bridge. Two stations have three tracks, and one has double halls. Seven of the stations have side platforms (only one of which is subterranean). In addition, there were two temporary stations within rail yards.

 

The stations being constructed under Stalin's regime, in the style of socialist classicism, were meant as underground "palaces of the people". Stations such as Komsomolskaya, Kiyevskaya or Mayakovskaya and others built after 1935 in the second phase of the evolution of the network are tourist landmarks: their photogenic architecture, large chandeliers and detailed decoration are unusual for an urban transport system of the twentieth century.

 

The stations opened in the 21st century are influenced by an international and more neutral style with improved technical quality.

 

Rolling stock

Since the beginning, platforms have been at least 155 metres (509 ft) long to accommodate eight-car trains. The only exceptions are on the Filyovskaya Line: Vystavochnaya, Mezhdunarodnaya, Studencheskaya, Kutuzovskaya, Fili, Bagrationovskaya, Filyovsky Park and Pionerskaya, which only allows six-car trains (note that this list includes all ground-level stations on the line, except Kuntsevskaya, which allows normal length trains).

 

Trains on the Zamoskvoretskaya, Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya, Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya, Kalininskaya, Solntsevskaya, Bolshaya Koltsevaya, Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya, Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya and Nekrasovskaya lines have eight cars, on the Sokolnicheskaya line seven or eight cars, on the original Koltsevaya line seven cars, and on the Filyovskaya line six cars. The Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya line also once ran seven-car 81-717 size trains, but now use five-car trains of another type. Butovskaya line uses three-car trains of another type.

 

Dimensions have varied subtly, but for the most cars fit into the ranges of 19–20 metres (62 ft 4 in – 65 ft 7 in) long and 2.65–2.7 metres (8 ft 8+3⁄8 in – 8 ft 10+1⁄4 in) wide with 4 doors per side. The 81-740/741 Rusich deviates greatly from this, with a 3-car Rusich being roughly 4 normal cars and a 5-car Rusich being 7 normal cars.

 

Trains in operation

Currently, the Metro only operates 81-style trains.

 

Rolling stock on several lines was replaced with articulated 81-740/741 Rusich trains, which were originally designed for light rail subway lines. The Butovskaya Line was designed by different standards, and has shorter (96-metre (315 ft) long) platforms. It employs articulated 81-740/741 trains, which consist of three cars (although the line can also use traditional four-car trains).

 

On the Moscow Monorail, Intamin P30 trains are used, consisting of six short cars. On the Moscow Central Circle, which is a route on the conventional railway line, ES2G Lastochka trains are used, consisting of five cars.

 

Ticketing

Moscow Metro underground has neither "point A – point B" tariffs nor "zone" tariffs. Instead, it has a fee for a "ride", e.g. for a single-time entry without time or range limit. The exceptions "only confirm the rule": the "diameters" (Dx lines) and the Moscow Central Circle (Line 14) are Russian Railways' lines hence the shared yet not unified tariff system.

 

As for October 2021, one ride costs 60 rubles (approx. 1 US dollar). Discounts (up to 33%) for individual rides are available upon buying rides "in bulk" (buying multiple-trip tickets (such as twenty-trip or sixty-trip ones)), and children under age seven can travel free (with their parents). Troika "wallet" (a card, similar to Japanese Suica card) also offers some discounts for using the card instead of queueing a line for a ticket. "Rides" on the tickets available for a fixed number of trips, regardless of distance traveled or number of transfers.

 

An exception in case of MCC e.g. Line 14: for a free interchange, one should interchange to it/from it within 90 minutes after entering the Metro. However, one can ride it for hours and use its amenities without leaving it.

There are tickets without "rides" as well: – a 24-hour "unified" ticket (265 rub in 2022), a 72-hour ticket, a month-long ticket, and a year-long ticket.

 

Fare enforcement takes place at the points of entry. Once a passenger has entered the Metro system, there are no further ticket checks – one can ride to any number of stations and make transfers within the system freely. Transfers to other public-transport systems (such as bus, tram, trolleybus/"electrobus") are not covered by the very ride used to enter Metro. Transfer to monorail and MCC is a free addition to the ride (available up to 90 minutes after entering a metro station).

 

In modern Metro, turnstiles accept designated plastic cards ("Troika", "social cards") or disposable-in-design RFID chip cardboard cards. Unlimited cards are also available for students at reduced price (as of 2017, 415 rubles—or about $US6—for a calendar month of unlimited usage) for a one-time cost of 70 rubles. Transport Cards impose a delay for each consecutive use; i.e. the card can not be used for 7 minutes after the user has passed a turnstile.

 

History of smart ticketing

Soviet era turnstiles simply accepted N kopeck coins.

 

In the early years of Russian Federation (and with the start of a hyperinflation) plastic tokens were used. Disposable magnetic stripe cards were introduced in 1993 on a trial basis, and used as unlimited monthly tickets between 1996 and 1998. The sale of tokens ended on 1 January 1999, and they stopped being accepted in February 1999; from that time, magnetic cards were used as tickets with a fixed number of rides.

 

On 1 September 1998, the Moscow Metro became the first metro system in Europe to fully implement "contactless" smart cards, known as Transport Cards. Transport Cards were the card to have unlimited amount of trips for 30, 90 or 365 days, its active lifetime was projected as 3½ years. Defective cards were to be exchanged at no extra cost.

 

In August 2004, the city government launched the Muscovite's Social Card program. Social Cards are free smart cards issued for the elderly and other groups of citizens officially registered as residents of Moscow or the Moscow region; they offer discounts in shops and pharmacies, and double as credit cards issued by the Bank of Moscow. Social Cards can be used for unlimited free access to the city's public-transport system, including the Moscow Metro; while they do not feature the time delay, they include a photograph and are non-transferable.

Since 2006, several banks have issued credit cards which double as Ultralight cards and are accepted at turnstiles. The fare is passed to the bank and the payment is withdrawn from the owner's bank account at the end of the calendar month, using a discount rate based on the number of trips that month (for up to 70 trips, the cost of each trip is prorated from current Ultralight rates; each additional trip costs 24.14 rubles). Partner banks include the Bank of Moscow, CitiBank, Rosbank, Alfa-Bank and Avangard Bank.

In January 2007, Moscow Metro began replacing limited magnetic cards with contactless disposable tickets based on NXP's MIFARE Ultralight technology. Ultralight tickets are available for a fixed number of trips in 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 60-trip denominations (valid for 5 or 90 days from the day of purchase) and as a monthly ticket, only valid for a selected calendar month and limited to 70 trips. The sale of magnetic cards ended on 16 January 2008 and magnetic cards ceased to be accepted in late 2008, making the Moscow metro the world's first major public-transport system to run exclusively on a contactless automatic fare-collection system.

 

On 2 April 2013, Moscow Transport Department introduced a smartcard-based transport electronic wallet, named Troika. Three more smart cards have been launched:

 

Ediniy's RFID-chip card, a "disposable"-design cardboard card for all city-owned public transport operated by Mosgortrans and Moscow Metro;

90 minutes card, an unlimited "90-minute" card

and TAT card for surface public transport operated by Mosgortrans.

One can "record" N-ride Ediniy ticket on Troika card as well in order to avoid carrying the easily frayed cardboard card of Ediniy for weeks (e.g. to use Troika's advanced chip). The turnstiles of Moscow Metro have monochrome screens which show such data as "money left" (if Troika is used as a "wallet"), "valid till DD.MM.YYYY" (if a social card is used) or "rides left" (if Ediniy tariff ticket is used).

 

Along with the tickets, new vending machines were built to sell tickets (1 or 2 rides) and put payments on Troika cards. At that time, the machines were not accepting contactless pay. The same machines now have tiny terminals with keypads for contactless payments (allowing quick payment for Troika card).

 

In 2013, as a way to promote both the "Olympic Games in Sochi and active lifestyles, Moscow Metro installed a vending machine that gives commuters a free ticket in exchange for doing 30 squats."

 

Since the first quarter of 2015, all ticket windows (not turnstiles) at stations accept bank cards for fare payment. Passengers are also able to pay for tickets via contactless payment systems, such as PayPass technology. Since 2015, fare gates at stations accept mobile ticketing via a system which the Metro calls Mobilny Bilet (Мобильный билет) which requires NFC-handling smartphone (and a proper SIM-card). The pricing is the same as Troika's. Customers are able to use Mobile Ticket on Moscow's surface transport. The Moscow Metro originally announced plans to launch the mobile ticketing service with Mobile TeleSystems (MTS) in 2010.

 

In October 2021, the Moscow Metro became the first metro system in the world to offer Face-Pay to their customers. In order to use this system, passengers will need to connect their photo, bank card and metro card to the service through the metro’s mobile app. For this purpose, the metro authorities plan to equip over 900 turnstiles in over 240 stations with biometric scanners. This enables passengers to pay for their ride without taking out their phone, metro or bank card and therefore increasing passenger flow at the station entrances. In 2022, Face-Pay was used over 32 million times over the course of the year.

 

Notable incidents

1977 bombing

On 8 January 1977, a bomb was reported to have killed 7 and seriously injured 33. It went off in a crowded train between Izmaylovskaya and Pervomayskaya stations. Three Armenians were later arrested, charged and executed in connection with the incident.

 

1981 station fires

In June 1981, seven bodies were seen being removed from the Oktyabrskaya station during a fire there. A fire was also reported at Prospekt Mira station about that time.

 

1982 escalator accident

Escalator accident in 1982

A fatal accident occurred on 17 February 1982 due to an escalator collapse at the Aviamotornaya station on the Kalininskaya Line. Eight people were killed and 30 injured due to a pileup caused by faulty emergency brakes.

 

1996 murder

In 1996, an American-Russian businessman Paul Tatum was murdered at the Kiyevskaya Metro station. He was shot dead by a man carrying a concealed Kalashnikov gun.

 

2000 bombings

On 8 August 2000, a strong blast in a Metro underpass at Pushkinskaya metro station in the center of Moscow claimed the lives of 12, with 150 injured. A homemade bomb equivalent to 800 grams of TNT had been left in a bag near a kiosk.

 

2004 bombings

August 2004 Moscow Metro bombing

On 6 February 2004, an explosion wrecked a train between the Avtozavodskaya and Paveletskaya stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya Line, killing 41 and wounding over 100. Chechen terrorists were blamed. A later investigation concluded that a Karachay-Cherkessian resident had carried out a suicide bombing. The same group organized another attack on 31 August 2004, killing 10 and injuring more than 50 others.

 

2005 Moscow blackout

On 25 May 2005, a citywide blackout halted operation on some lines. The following lines, however, continued operations: Sokolnicheskaya, Zamoskvoretskaya from Avtozavodskaya to Rechnoy Vokzal, Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya, Filyovskaya, Koltsevaya, Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya from Bitsevskiy Park to Oktyabrskaya-Radialnaya and from Prospekt Mira-Radialnaya to Medvedkovo, Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya, Kalininskaya, Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya from Serpukhovskaya to Altufyevo and Lyublinskaya from Chkalovskaya to Dubrovka. There was no service on the Kakhovskaya and Butovskaya lines. The blackout severely affected the Zamoskvoretskaya and Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya lines, where initially all service was disrupted because of trains halted in tunnels in the southern part of city (most affected by the blackout). Later, limited service resumed and passengers stranded in tunnels were evacuated. Some lines were only slightly impacted by the blackout, which mainly affected southern Moscow; the north, east and western parts of the city experienced little or no disruption.

 

2006 billboard incident

On 19 March 2006, a construction pile from an unauthorized billboard installation was driven through a tunnel roof, hitting a train between the Sokol and Voikovskaya stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya Line. No injuries were reported.

 

2010 bombing

On 29 March 2010, two bombs exploded on the Sokolnicheskaya Line, killing 40 and injuring 102 others. The first bomb went off at the Lubyanka station on the Sokolnicheskaya Line at 7:56, during the morning rush hour. At least 26 were killed in the first explosion, of which 14 were in the rail car where it took place. A second explosion occurred at the Park Kultury station at 8:38, roughly forty minutes after the first one. Fourteen people were killed in that blast. The Caucasus Emirate later claimed responsibility for the bombings.

 

2014 pile incident

On 25 January 2014, at 15:37 a construction pile from a Moscow Central Circle construction site was driven through a tunnel roof between Avtozavodskaya and Kolomenskaya stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya Line. The train operator applied emergency brakes, and the train did not crash into the pile. Passengers were evacuated from the tunnel, with no injures reported. The normal line operation resumed the same day at 19:50.

 

2014 derailment

On 15 July 2014, a train derailed between Park Pobedy and Slavyansky Bulvar on the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line, killing 24 people and injuring dozens more.

 

Metro-2

Main article: Metro-2

Conspiracy theorists have claimed that a second and deeper metro system code-named "D-6", designed for emergency evacuation of key city personnel in case of nuclear attack during the Cold War, exists under military jurisdiction. It is believed that it consists of a single track connecting the Kremlin, chief HQ (General Staff –Genshtab), Lubyanka (FSB Headquarters), the Ministry of Defense and several other secret installations. There are alleged to be entrances to the system from several civilian buildings, such as the Russian State Library, Moscow State University (MSU) and at least two stations of the regular Metro. It is speculated that these would allow for the evacuation of a small number of randomly chosen civilians, in addition to most of the elite military personnel. A suspected junction between the secret system and the regular Metro is supposedly behind the Sportivnaya station on the Sokolnicheskaya Line. The final section of this system was supposedly completed in 1997.

 

In popular culture

The Moscow Metro is the central location and namesake for the Metro series, where during a nuclear war, Moscow's inhabitants are driven down into the Moscow Metro, which has been designed as a fallout shelter, with the various stations being turned into makeshift settlements.

 

In 2012, an art film was released about a catastrophe in the Moscow underground.

Though personalized art appeared during World War I, and occasionally grew to incorporate the entire aircraft, most pilots carried a saying or a slogan, or a family crest, or squadron symbol. Some were named, but nose art was not common. During World War II, nose art not only saw its true beginnings, but its heyday.

 

No one knows exactly who started nose art first--it appeared with both the British and the Germans around the first time, with RAF pilots painting Hitler being kicked or skulls and crossbones on their aircraft, while German nose art was usually a personal symbol, named for a girlfriend or adopting a mascot (such as Adolf Galland using Mickey Mouse, something Walt Disney likely didn't approve of). It would be with the Americans, and a lesser extent the Canadians, that nose art truly became common--and started including its most famous forms, which was usually half-naked or completely naked women. This was not always true, but it often was.

 

The quality of nose art depended on the squadron or wing artist. Some of it was rather crude, while others were equal to the finest pinup artists in the United States, such as Alberto Vargas. For men thousands of miles away from home and lonely, a curvaceous blonde on a B-17 or a P-51 made that loneliness a bit easier. Others thought naked women were a little crude, and just limited themselves to names, or depicted animals, cartoon characters, or patriotic emblems, or caricatures of the Axis dictators they were fighting.

 

Generally speaking, there was little censorship, with squadron and group commanders rarely intervening on names or pictures; the pilots themselves practiced self-censorship, with profanity almost unknown, and full-frontal nudity nearly nonexistent. After the loss of a B-17 named "Murder Inc.," which the Germans captured and used to make propaganda, the 8th Air Force, at least, set up a nose art committee that reviewed the nose art of aircraft--but even it rarely wielded its veto. For the most part, nose art was limited only by the crew's imagination and the artist's ability. The British tended to stay away from the lurid nudes of the Americans, though the Canadians adopted them as well. (The Axis also did not use nose art in this fashion, and neither did the Soviets, who usually confined themselves to patriotic slogans on their aircraft, such as "For Stalin!" or "In the Spirit of the Motherland!")

 

When World War II ended, so did nose art, for the most part. In the peacetime, postwar armed forces, the idea of having naked women were wives and children could see it was not something the postwar USAF or Navy wanted, and when it wasn't scrapped, it was painted over. A few units (especially those away from home and family) still allowed it, but it would take Korea to begin a renaissance of nose art.

 

The real "Nine O Nine" was 42-31909, a B-17G assigned to the 91st Bomb Group at RAF Bassingbourne, UK during World War II; it became famous for completing 132 missions over Europe--quite an achievement when a B-17 was lucky to complete 25 missions. It was scrapped after the war, but when the Collings Foundation restored another B-17G, 44-83575, back to wartime configuration, it was repainted as "Nine O Nine." 44-83575 had its own interesting history, having survived being exposed to several nuclear detonations on the Nevada Test Range and then sitting in the desert for 13 years before it was restored.

 

"Nine O Nine's" artwork depicts a leperchaun thumbing its nose at the Germans, while riding a bomb; 132 bomb mission marks decorate the nose, along with three swastikas--the real "Nine O Nine" was credited with three kills. A Norden bombsight can be seen in the nose.

 

Sadly, this would prove to be one of the last pictures taken of this historic aircraft. Almost three months later, on 2 October 2019, 44-83575 crashed in Connecticut, with the deaths of seven out of the 13 people aboard.

Today, 3 March 2023 is World Wildlife Day.

 

"Every 3rd of March, wildlife is celebrated all over the world for the UN World Wildlife Day. This date was chosen as it is the birthday of CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, signed in 1973."

 

Continuing to grab a few more odds and ends of photos from my archives. Then, already saved to a hard drive, I can delete them from my computer to make some much-needed free space.

 

""Agoutis have five front and three hind toes; the first toe is very small. The tail is very short or nonexistent and hairless. Agoutis may grow to be up to 60 cm (24 in) in length and 4 kg (8.8 lb) in weight. Most species are brown on their backs and whitish or buff on their bellies; the fur may have a glossy appearance and then glimmers in an orange colour. Reports differ as to whether they are diurnal or nocturnal animals.... They can live for as long as 20 years, a remarkably long time for a rodent

 

In the wild, they are shy animals and flee from humans, while in captivity they may become trusting. In Trinidad, they are renowned for being very fast runners, able to keep hunting dogs occupied with chasing them for hours." From Wikipedia.

 

"This adventure was only the second holiday of any kind, anywhere, that I have had in something like 30 or 35 years! The other holiday was a wonderful, one-week trip with my dear friends from England, Linda and Tony, when we went down south to Yellowstone National Park and the Grand Tetons in September 2012. I have had maybe half a dozen weekends away, including to Waterton National Park, which have helped keep me going.

 

Six birding/photographer friends and I decided that we would take this exciting trip together (from 12-21 March 2017), spending the first two or three days on the island of Tobago and then the rest of the time at the Asa Wright Nature Centre on the nearby, much larger island of Trinidad. We decided to take a complete package, so everything was included - accommodation at both places, all our food, and the various walks and day trips that we could choose from. Two of my friends, Anne B. and Brenda, saw to all the planning of flights and accommodations, which was so very much appreciated by the rest of us. I could never have done all this myself! We were so lucky with our flights, as we were just in time to get Black Friday prices, which were 50% off!

 

What a time we had, seeing so many beautiful and interesting things - and, of course, everything was a lifer for me. Some of these friends had visited Costa Rica before, so were familiar with some of the birds. There was a lot more to see on Trinidad, so we were glad that we chose Tobago to visit first and then spend a longer time at Asa Wright. It was wonderful to be right by the sea, though, at the Blue Waters Inn on the island of Tobago. Just gorgeous.

 

The Asa Wright Nature Centre, on Trinidad, is such an amazing place! We stayed in cabins up or down hill from the main building. Really, one doesn't need to travel away from the Centre for birding, as so many different species visit the Hummingbird feeders that are right by the huge, open veranda, and the trees of the rain forest high up the mountainous road. The drive up and down this narrow, twisting, pot-holed road was an adventure in itself! Never would I ever do this drive myself - we had a guide who drove us everywhere in a minibus. I had read many accounts of this road, lol! There was enough room for two vehicles to pass each other, and the honking of horns was almost continuous - either to warn any vehicle that might be coming fast around the next bend or as a sign that drivers knew each other. The drive along this road, from the coast to Asa Wright, took just over an hour each way.

 

I still sometimes think about the great food that was provided every single day at Asa Wright and even the Rum Punch that appeared each evening. I never drink at all, so I wasn't sure if I would even try the Punch - glad I did, though, as it was delicious and refreshing. Breakfast, lunch and dinner were all served buffet-style, with a great variety of dishes from which to choose. To me, pure luxury. So very, very grateful to have been invited to be part of this amazing adventure.

 

This is a video that I came across on YouTube, taken by Rigdon Currie and Trish Johnson, at many of the same places we visited on Trinidad and Tobago. Not my video, but it made me feel like I was right there still. Posting the link here again, so that I won't lose it."

 

youtu.be/BBifhf99f_M

 

I also came across the following 27-minute YouTube video of the flora and fauna of Trinidad, filmed by John Patrick Smith in February 2015.

 

youtu.be/6HHBm9MIxnk

On July 7, 1919, a group of U.S. military members dedicated Zero Milestone – the point from which all road distances in the country would be measured – just south of the White House lawn in Washington, D.C. The next morning, they helped to define the future of the nation.

 

Instead of an exploratory rocket or deep-sea submarine, these explorers set out in 42 trucks, five passenger cars and an assortment of motorcycles, ambulances, tank trucks, mobile field kitchens, mobile repair shops and Signal Corps searchlight trucks. During the first three days of driving, they managed just over five miles per hour. This was most troubling because their goal was to explore the condition of American roads by driving across the U.S.

 

Participating in this exploratory party was U.S. Army Captain Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although he played a critical role in many portions of 20th-century U.S. history, his passion for roads may have carried the most significant impact on the domestic front. This trek, literally and figuratively, caught the nation and the young soldier at a crossroads.

 

Returning from World War I, Ike was entertaining the idea of leaving the military and accepting a civilian job. His decision to remain proved pivotal for the nation. By the end of the first half of the century, the roadscape – transformed with an interstate highway system while he was president – helped remake the nation and the lives of its occupants.

 

For Ike, though, roadways represented not only domestic development but also national security. By the early 1900s it become clear to many administrators that petroleum was a strategic resource to the nation’s present and future.

 

At the start of World War I, the world had an oil glut since there were few practical uses for it beyond kerosene for lighting. When the war was over, the developed world had little doubt that a nation’s future standing in the world was predicated on access to oil. “The Great War” introduced a 19th-century world to modern ideas and technologies, many of which required inexpensive crude.

  

Oil drilling in Beaumont, Texas in 1901. The U.S. supplied crude to its allies in World War I and relied on domestic production after its entry. AP Photo

Prime movers and national security

 

During and after World War I, there was a dramatic change in energy production, shifting heavily away from wood and hydropower and toward fossil fuels – coal and, ultimately, petroleum. And in comparison to coal, when utilized in vehicles and ships, petroleum brought flexibility as it could be transported with ease and used in different types of vehicles. That in itself represented a new type of weapon and a basic strategic advantage. Within a few decades of this energy transition, petroleum’s acquisition took on the spirit of an international arms race.

  

Even more significant, the international corporations that harvested oil throughout the world acquired a level of significance unknown to other industries, earning the encompassing name “Big Oil.” By the 1920s, Big Oil’s product – useless just decades prior – had become the lifeblood of national security to the U.S. and Great Britain. And from the start of this transition, the massive reserves held in the U.S. marked a strategic advantage with the potential to last generations.

 

As impressive as the U.S.’ domestic oil production was from 1900-1920, however, the real revolution occurred on the international scene, as British, Dutch and French European powers used corporations such as Shell, British Petroleum and others to begin developing oil wherever it occurred.

 

During this era of colonialism, each nation applied its age-old method of economic development by securing petroleum in less developed portions of the world, including Mexico, the Black Sea area and, ultimately, the Middle East. Redrawing global geography based on resource supply (such as gold, rubber and even human labor or slavery) of course, was not new; doing so specifically for sources of energy was a striking change.

 

Crude proves itself on the battlefield

 

“World War I was a war,” writes historian Daniel Yergin, “that was fought between men and machines. And these machines were powered by oil.”

 

When the war broke out, military strategy was organized around horses and other animals. With one horse on the field for every three men, such primitive modes dominated the fighting in this “transitional conflict.”

 

Throughout the war, the energy transition took place from horsepower to gas-powered trucks and tanks and, of course, to oil-burning ships and airplanes. Innovations put these new technologies into immediate action on the horrific battlefield of World War I.

 

It was the British, for instance, who set out to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare by devising an armored vehicle that was powered by the internal combustion engine. Under its code name “tank,” the vehicle was first used in 1916 at the Battle of the Somme. In addition, the British Expeditionary Force that went to France in 1914 was supported by a fleet of 827 motor cars and 15 motorcycles; by war’s end, the British army included 56,000 trucks, 23,000 motorcars and 34,000 motorcycles. These gas-powered vehicles offered superior flexibility on the battlefield.

  

Government airplane manufactured by Dayton-Wright Airplane Company in 1918. U.S. National Archives

In the air and sea, the strategic change was more obvious. By 1915, Britain had built 250 planes. In this era of the Red Baron and others, primitive airplanes often required that the pilot pack his own sidearm and use it for firing at his opponent. More often, though, the flying devices could be used for delivering explosives in episodes of tactical bombing. German pilots applied this new strategy to severe bombing of England with zeppelins and later with aircraft. Over the course of the war, the use of aircraft expanded remarkably: Britain, 55,000 planes; France, 68,0000 planes; Italy, 20,000; U.S., 15,000; and Germany, 48,000.

 

With these new uses, wartime petroleum supplies became a critical strategic military issue. Royal Dutch/Shell provided the war effort with much of its supply of crude. In addition, Britain expanded even more deeply in the Middle East. In particular, Britain had quickly come to depend on the Abadan refinery site in Persia, and when Turkey came into the war in 1915 as a partner with Germany, British soldiers defended it from Turkish invasion.

 

When the Allies expanded to include the U.S. in 1917, petroleum was a weapon on everyone’s mind. The Inter-Allied Petroleum Conference was created to pool, coordinate and control all oil supplies and tanker travel. The U.S. entry into the war made this organization necessary because it had been supplying such a large portion of the Allied effort thus far. Indeed, as the producer of nearly 70 percent of the world’s oil supply, the U.S.’ greatest weapon in the fighting of World War I may have been crude. President Woodrow Wilson appointed the nation’s first energy czar, whose responsibility was to work in close quarters with leaders of the American companies.

 

Infrastructure as a path to national power

 

When the young Eisenhower set out on his trek after the war, he deemed the party’s progress over the first two days “not too good” and as slow “as even the slowest troop train.” The roads they traveled across the U.S., Ike described as “average to nonexistent.” He continued:

 

“In some places, the heavy trucks broke through the surface of the road and we had to tow them out one by one, with the caterpillar tractor. Some days when we had counted on sixty or seventy or a hundred miles, we could do three or four.”

Eisenhower’s party completed its frontier trek and arrived in San Francisco, California on Sept. 6, 1919. Of course, the clearest implication that grew from Eisenhower’s trek was the need for roads. Unstated, however, was the symbolic suggestion that matters of transportation and of petroleum now demanded the involvement of the U.S. military, as it did in many industrialized nations.

 

The emphasis on roads and, later, particularly on Ike’s interstate system was transformative for the U.S.; however, Eisenhower was overlooking the fundamental shift in which he participated. The imperative was clear: Whether through road-building initiatives or through international diplomacy, the use of petroleum by his nation and others was now a reliance that carried with it implications for national stability and security.

  

Eisenhower served in the Tank Corps until 1922. Eisenhower Presidential Library, ARC 876971

Seen through this lens of history, petroleum’s road to essentialness in human life begins neither in its ability to propel the Model T nor to give form to the burping plastic Tupperware bowl. The imperative to maintain petroleum supplies begins with its necessity for each nation’s defense. Although petroleum use eventually made consumers’ lives simpler in numerous ways, its use by the military fell into a different category entirely. If the supply was insufficient, the nation’s most basic protections would be compromised.

 

After World War I in 1919, Eisenhower and his team thought they were determining only the need for roadways – “The old convoy,” he explained, “had started me thinking about good, two lane highways.”

 

At the same time, though, they were declaring a political commitment by the U.S. And thanks to its immense domestic reserves, the U.S. was late coming to this realization. Yet after the “war to end all wars,” it was a commitment already being acted upon by other nations, notably Germany and Britain, each of whom lacked essential supplies of crude.

 

theconversation.com/how-world-war-i-ushered-in-the-centur...

The wind was almost nonexistent this morning and so when I saw this Pacific Black Duck sitting low in the water I had to get the shot. Love the reflection!

"Auto Museum Volkswagen - Germany - Wolfsburg"

_______________________________________

 

The Ford Model T (colloquially known as the Tin Lizzie, T‑Model Ford, Model T, T, Leaping Lena, or flivver) is an automobile that was produced by Ford Motor Company from October 1, 1908, to May 26, 1927. It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, the car that opened travel to the common middle-class American; some of this was because of Ford's efficient fabrication, including assembly line production instead of individual hand crafting.

 

The Ford Model T was named the most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, ahead of the BMC Mini, Citroën DS, and Volkswagen Type 1. With 16.5 million sold it stands eighth on the top ten list of most sold cars of all time as of 2012.

 

Although automobiles had already existed for decades, they were still mostly scarce and expensive at the Model T's introduction in 1908. Positioned as reliable, easily maintained mass market transportation, it was a runaway success. In a matter of days after the release, 15,000 orders were placed. The first production Model T was produced on August 12, 1908 and left the factory on September 27, 1908, at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant in Detroit, Michigan. On May 26, 1927, Henry Ford watched the 15 millionth Model T Ford roll off the assembly line at his factory in Highland Park, Michigan.

 

There were several cars produced or prototyped by Henry Ford from the founding of the company in 1903 until the Model T was introduced. Although he started with the Model A, there were not 19 production models (A through T); some were only prototypes. The production model immediately before the Model T was the Model S, an upgraded version of the company's largest success to that point, the Model N. The follow-up was the Ford Model A (rather than any Model U). The company publicity said this was because the new car was such a departure from the old that Henry wanted to start all over again with the letter A.

 

The Model T was Ford's first automobile mass-produced on moving assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, marketed to the middle class. Henry Ford said of the vehicle:

 

I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be large enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run and care for. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one – and enjoy with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God's great open spaces.

 

Although credit for the development of the assembly line belongs to Ransom E. Olds with the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash, beginning in 1901, the tremendous advancements in the efficiency of the system over the life of the Model T can be credited almost entirely to the vision of Ford and his engineers.

 

CHARACTERISTICS

The Model T was designed by Childe Harold Wills, and Hungarian immigrants Joseph A. Galamb and Eugene Farkas. Henry Love, C. J. Smith, Gus Degner and Peter E. Martin were also part of the team. Production of the Model T began in the third quarter of 1908. Collectors today sometimes classify Model Ts by build years and refer to these as "model years", thus labeling the first Model Ts as 1909 models. This is a retroactive classification scheme; the concept of model years as we conceive it today did not exist at the time. The nominal model designation was "Model T", although design revisions did occur during the car's two decades of production.

 

ENGINE

The Model T had a front-mounted 2.9 L inline four-cylinder engine, producing 20 hp (15 kW), for a top speed of 64–72 km/h. According to Ford Motor Company, the Model T had fuel economy on the order of 13–21 mpg-US (16–25 mpg-imp; 18–11 L/100 km). The engine was capable of running on gasoline, kerosene, or ethanol, although the decreasing cost of gasoline and the later introduction of Prohibition made ethanol an impractical fuel for most users.

 

The ignition system used an unusual trembler coil system to drive the spark plugs, as used for stationary gas engines, rather than the expensive magnetos that were used on other cars. This ignition also made the Model T more flexible as to the quality or type of fuel it used. The need for a starting battery and also Ford's use of an unusual AC alternator located inside the flywheel housing encouraged the adoption of electric lighting (standard fitment as of 1915), rather than oil or acetylene lamps, but it also delayed the adoption of electric starting, which was not offered until 1919.

 

TRANSMISSION AND DRIVE TRAIN

The Model T was a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Its transmission was a planetary gear type billed as "three speed". In today's terms it would be considered a two-speed, because one of the three speeds was reverse.

 

The Model T's transmission was controlled with three foot pedals and a lever that was mounted to the road side of the driver's seat. The throttle was controlled with a lever on the steering wheel. The left pedal was used to engage the gear. With the floor lever in either the mid position or fully forward and the pedal pressed and held forward the car entered low gear. When held in an intermediate position the car was in neutral. If the left pedal was released, the Model T entered high gear, but only when the lever was fully forward – in any other position the pedal would only move up as far as the central neutral position. This allowed the car to be held in neutral while the driver cranked the engine by hand. The car could thus cruise without the driver having to press any of the pedals. There was no separate clutch pedal.

 

When the car was in neutral, the middle pedal was used to engage reverse gear, and the right pedal operated the transmission brake – there were no separate brakes on the wheels. The floor lever also controlled the parking brake, which was activated by pulling the lever all the way back. This doubled as an emergency brake.

 

Although it was uncommon, the drive bands could fall out of adjustment, allowing the car to creep, particularly when cold, adding another hazard to attempting to start the car: a person cranking the engine could be forced backward while still holding the crank as the car crept forward, although it was nominally in neutral. As the car utilized a wet clutch, this condition could also occur in cold weather, when the thickened oil prevents the clutch discs from slipping freely. Power reached the differential through a single universal joint attached to a torque tube which drove the rear axle; some models (typically trucks, but available for cars as well) could be equipped with an optional two-speed Ruckstell rear axle shifted by a floor-mounted lever which provided an underdrive gear for easier hill climbing. All gears were vanadium steel running in an oil bath.

Transmission bands and linings

 

Two main types of band lining material were used:

 

Cotton – Cotton woven linings were the original type fitted and specified by Ford. Generally, the cotton lining is "kinder" to the drum surface, with damage to the drum caused only by the retaining rivets scoring the drum surface. Although this in itself did not pose a problem, a dragging band resulting from improper adjustment caused overheating transmission and engine, diminished power, and – in the case of cotton linings – rapid destruction of the band lining.

Wood – Wooden linings were originally offered as a "longer life" accessory part during the life of the Model T. They were a single piece of steam bent cottonwood[citation needed] fitted to the normal Model T transmission band. These bands give a very different feel to the pedals, with much more of a "bite" feel. The sensation is of a definite "grip" of the drum and seemed to noticeably increase the feel, in particular of the brake drum.

 

SUSPENSION AND WHEELS

Model T suspension employed a transversely mounted semi-elliptical spring for each of the front and rear beam axles which allowed a great deal of wheel movement to cope with the dirt roads of the time.

 

The front axle was drop forged as a single piece of vanadium steel. Ford twisted many axles through eight full rotations (2880 degrees) and sent them to dealers to be put on display to demonstrate its superiority. The Model T did not have a modern service brake. The right foot pedal applied a band around a drum in the transmission, thus stopping the rear wheels from turning. The previously mentioned parking brake lever operated band brakes acting on the inside of the rear brake drums, which were an integral part of the rear wheel hubs. Optional brakes that acted on the outside of the brake drums were available from aftermarket suppliers.

 

Wheels were wooden artillery wheels, with steel welded-spoke wheels available in 1926 and 1927.

 

Tires were pneumatic clincher type, 76 cm in diameter, 8.9 cm wide in the rear, 7.5 cm wide in the front. Clinchers needed much higher pressure than today's tires, typically 60 psi (410 kPa), to prevent them from leaving the rim at speed. Horseshoe nails on the roads, together with the high pressure, made flat tires a common problem.

 

Balloon tires became available in 1925. They were 53 cm × 11 cm all around. Balloon tires were closer in design to today's tires, with steel wires reinforcing the tire bead, making lower pressure possible – typically 35 psi (240 kPa) – giving a softer ride. The old nomenclature for tire size changed from measuring the outer diameter to measuring the rim diameter so 530 mm (rim diameter) × 110 mm (tire width) wheels has about the same outer diameter as 76 cm clincher tires. All tires in this time period used an inner tube to hold the pressurized air; "tubeless" tires were not generally in use until much later.

 

Wheelbase was 254 cm and standard tread width was 142 cm; 152 cm tread could be obtained on special order, "for Southern roads", identical to the pre-Civil War track gauge for many railroads in the former Confederacy.

 

COLORS

By 1918, half of all the cars in the US were Model Ts. However, it was a monolithic bloc; Ford wrote in his autobiography that in 1909 he told his management team that in the future “Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black”.

 

However, in the first years of production from 1908 to 1913, the Model T was not available in black but rather only gray, green, blue, and red. Green was available for the touring cars, town cars, coupes, and Landaulets. Gray was only available for the town cars, and red only for the touring cars. By 1912, all cars were being painted midnight blue with black fenders. It was only in 1914 that the "any color so long as it is black" policy was finally implemented. It is often stated that Ford suggested the use of black from 1914 to 1926 due to the cheap cost and durability of black paint. During the lifetime production of the Model T, over 30 types of black paint were used on various parts of the car. These were formulated to satisfy the different means of applying the paint to the various parts, and had distinct drying times, depending on the part, paint, and method of drying.

 

BODY

Although Ford classified the Model T with a single letter designation throughout its entire life and made no distinction by model years, there were enough significant changes to the body over the production life that the car can be classified into five distinct generations. Among the most immediately visible and identifiable changes were in the hood and cowl areas, although many other modifications were made to the vehicle.

 

1909–1914 – T1 – Characterized by a nearly straight, five-sided hood, with a flat top containing a center hinge and two side sloping sections containing the folding hinges. The firewall was flat from the windshield down with no distinct cowl.

1915–1916 – T2 – The hood design was nearly the same five sided design with the only obvious change being the addition of louvers to the vertical sides. There was a significant change to the cowl area with the windshield relocated significantly behind the firewall and joined with a compound contoured cowl panel.

1917–1923 – T3 – The hood design was changed to a tapered design with a curved top. the folding hinges were now located at the joint between the flat sides and the curved top. This is sometime referred to as the low hood to distinguish if from the later hoods. The back edge of the hood now met the front edge of the cowl panel so that no part of the flat firewall was visible outside of the hood. This design was used the longest and during the highest production years accounting for about half of the total number of Model T's built.

1923–1925 – T4 – This change was made during the 1923 calendar year so models built earlier in the year have the older design while later vehicles have the newer design. The taper of the hood was increased and the rear section at the firewall is about an inch taller and several inches wider than the previous design. While this is a relatively minor change, the parts between the third and fourth generation are not interchangeable.

1926–1927 – T5 – This design change made the greatest difference in the appearance of the car. The hood was again enlarged with the cowl panel no longer a compound curve and blended much more with the line of the hood. The distance between the firewall and the windshield was also increased significantly. This style is sometimes referred to as the high hood.

 

The styling on the fifth generation was a preview for the following Model A but the two models are visually quite different as the body on the A was much wider and had curved doors as opposed to the flat doors on the T.

 

DIVERSE APPLICATIONS

When the Model T was designed and introduced, the infrastructure of the world was quite different from today's. Pavement was a rarity except for sidewalks and a few big-city streets. (The sense of the term "pavement" as equivalent with "sidewalk" comes from that era, when streets and roads were generally dirt and sidewalks were a paved way to walk along them.) Agriculture was the occupation of many people. Power tools were scarce outside factories, as were power sources for them; electrification, like pavement, was found usually only in larger towns. Rural electrification and motorized mechanization were embryonic in some regions and nonexistent in most. Henry Ford oversaw the requirements and design of the Model T based on contemporary realities. Consequently, the Model T was (intentionally) almost as much a tractor and portable engine as it was an automobile. It has always been well regarded for its all-terrain abilities and ruggedness. It could travel a rocky, muddy farm lane, cross a shallow stream, climb a steep hill, and be parked on the other side to have one of its wheels removed and a pulley fastened to the hub for a flat belt to drive a bucksaw, thresher, silo blower, conveyor for filling corn cribs or haylofts, baler, water pump, electrical generator, and many other applications. One unique application of the Model T was shown in the October 1922 issue of Fordson Farmer magazine. It showed a minister who had transformed his Model T into a mobile church, complete with small organ.

 

During this era, entire automobiles (including thousands of Model Ts) were even hacked apart by their owners and reconfigured into custom machinery permanently dedicated to a purpose, such as homemade tractors and ice saws,. Dozens of aftermarket companies sold prefab kits to facilitate the T's conversion from car to tractor. The Model T had been around for a decade before the Fordson tractor became available (1917–18), and many Ts had been converted for field use. (For example, Harry Ferguson, later famous for his hitches and tractors, worked on Eros Model T tractor conversions before he worked with Fordsons and others.) During the next decade, Model T tractor conversion kits were harder to sell, as the Fordson and then the Farmall (1924), as well as other light and affordable tractors, served the farm market. But during the Depression (1930s), Model T tractor conversion kits had a resurgence, because by then used Model Ts and junkyard parts for them were plentiful and cheap.

 

Like many popular car engines of the era, the Model T engine was also used on home-built aircraft (such as the Pietenpol Sky Scout) and motorboats.

 

An armored car variant (called the FT-B) was developed in Poland in 1920.

 

Many Model Ts were converted into vehicles which could travel across heavy snows with kits on the rear wheels (sometimes with an extra pair of rear-mounted wheels and two sets of continuous track to mount on the now-tandemed rear wheels, essentially making it a half-track) and skis replacing the front wheels. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversions of cars and small trucks was "snowflyers". These vehicles were extremely popular in the northern reaches of Canada where factories were set up to produce them.

 

A number of companies built Model T–based railcars. In The Great Railway Bazaar, Paul Theroux mentions a rail journey in India on such a railcar. The New Zealand Railways Department's RM class included a few.

 

PRODUCTION

MASS PRODUCTION

The knowledge and skills needed by a factory worker were reduced to 84 areas. When introduced, the T used the building methods typical at the time, assembly by hand, and production was small. The Ford Piquette Avenue Plant could not keep up with demand for the Model T, and only 11 cars were built there during the first full month of production. More and more machines were used to reduce the complexity within the 84 defined areas. In 1910, after assembling nearly 12,000 Model Ts, Henry Ford moved the company to the new Highland Park complex.

 

As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, reducing production time by a factor of eight (requiring 12.5 hours before, 93 minutes afterwards), while using less manpower. By 1914, the assembly process for the Model T had been so streamlined it took only 93 minutes to assemble a car. That year Ford produced more cars than all other automakers combined. The Model T was a great commercial success, and by the time Henry made his 10 millionth car, 50 percent of all cars in the world were Fords. It was so successful that Ford did not purchase any advertising between 1917 and 1923, instead it became so famous that people now considered it a norm; more than 15 million Model Ts were manufactured, reaching a rate of 9,000 to 10,000 cars a day in 1925, or 2 million annually, more than any other model of its day, at a price of just $260 (or about $3,240 in 2016 dollars). Model T production was finally surpassed by the Volkswagen Beetle on February 17, 1972.

 

Henry Ford's ideological approach to Model T design was one of getting it right and then keeping it the same; he believed the Model T was all the car a person would, or could, ever need. As other companies offered comfort and styling advantages, at competitive prices, the Model T lost market share. Design changes were not as few as the public perceived, but the idea of an unchanging model was kept intact. Eventually, on May 26, 1927, Ford Motor Company ceased US production and began the changeovers required to produce the Model A. Some of the other Model T factories in the world continued a short while.

 

Model T engines continued to be produced until August 4, 1941. Almost 170,000 were built after car production stopped, as replacement engines were required to service already produced vehicles. Racers and enthusiasts, forerunners of modern hot rodders, used the Model T's block to build popular and cheap racing engines, including Cragar, Navarro, and famously the Frontenacs ("Fronty Fords") of the Chevrolet brothers, among many others.

 

The Model T employed some advanced technology, for example, its use of vanadium steel alloy. Its durability was phenomenal, and many Model Ts and their parts remain in running order nearly a century later. Although Henry Ford resisted some kinds of change, he always championed the advancement of materials engineering, and often mechanical engineering and industrial engineering.

 

In 2002, Ford built a final batch of six Model Ts as part of their 2003 centenary celebrations. These cars were assembled from remaining new components and other parts produced from the original drawings. The last of the six was used for publicity purposes in the UK.

 

Although Ford no longer manufactures parts for the Model T, many parts are still manufactured through private companies as replicas to service the thousands of Model Ts still in operation today. On May 26, 1927 Henry Ford and his son Edsel, drove the 15 millionth Model T out of the factory. This marked the famous automobile's official last day of production at the main factory.

 

PRICE AND PRODUCTION

The assembly line system allowed Ford to sell his cars at a price lower than his competitors due to the efficiency of the system. As he continued to fine-tune the system, he was able to keep reducing his costs. As his volume increased, he was able to also lower the prices due to fixed costs being spread over a larger number of vehicles. Other factors affected the price such as material costs and design changes.

 

The figures below are US production numbers compiled by R.E. Houston, Ford Production Department, August 3, 1927. The figures between 1909 and 1920 are for Ford's fiscal year. From 1909 to 1913, the fiscal year was from October 1 to September 30 the following calendar year with the year number being the year it ended in. For the 1914 fiscal year, the year was October 1, 1913 through July 31, 1914. Starting in August 1914, and through the end of the Model T era, the fiscal year was August 1 through July 31. Beginning with January 1920 the figures are for the calendar year.

 

RECYCLING

Henry Ford used wood scraps from the production of Model Ts to make charcoal. Originally named Ford Charcoal, the name was changed to Kingsford Charcoal after Ford's brother-in-law E. G. Kingsford brokered the selection of the new charcoal plant site. Lumber for production of the Model T came from the same location, built in 1920 called the Ford Iron Mountain Plant, which incorporated a sawmill where lumber from Ford purchased land in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan was sent to the River Rouge Plant; scrap wood was then returned for charcoal production.

 

FIRST GLOBAL CAR

The Ford Model T was the first automobile built by various countries simultaneously since they were being produced in Walkerville, Canada and in Trafford Park, Greater Manchester, England starting in 1911 and were later assembled in Germany, Argentina, France, Spain, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Brazil, Mexico, and Japan, as well as several locations throughout the US. Ford made use of the knock-down kit concept almost from the beginning of the company as freight and production costs from Detroit had Ford assembling vehicles in major metropolitan centers of the US.

 

The Aeroford was an English automobile manufactured in Bayswater, London, from 1920 to 1925. It was a Model T with distinct hood and grille to make it appear to be a totally different design, what later would have been called badge engineering. The Aeroford sold from £288 in 1920, dropping to £168-214 by 1925. It was available as a two-seater, four-seater, or coupé.

 

ADVERTISING AND MARKETING

Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and advertisements about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. As independent dealers, the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed – several years posted around 100 percent gains on the previous year.

 

CAR CLUBS

Cars built before 1919 are classed as veteran cars and later models as vintage cars. Today, four main clubs exist to support the preservation and restoration of these cars: the Model T Ford Club International, the Model T Ford Club of America[51] and the combined clubs of Australia. With many chapters of clubs around the world, the Model T Ford Club of Victoria[52] has a membership with a considerable number of uniquely Australian cars. (Australia produced its own car bodies, and therefore many differences occurred between the Australian bodied tourers and the US/Canadian cars.) In the UK, the Model T Ford Register of Great Britain celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010. Many steel Model T parts are still manufactured today, and even fiberglass replicas of their distinctive bodies are produced, which are popular for T-bucket style hot rods (as immortalized in the Jan and Dean surf music song "Bucket T", which was later recorded by The Who). In 1949, more than twenty years after the end of production, 200,000 Model Ts were registered in the United States. In 2008, it was estimated that about 50,000 to 60,000 Ford Model Ts remain roadworthy.

 

WIKIPEDIA

"Change means movement. Movement means friction. Only in the frictionless vacuum of a nonexistent abstract world can movement or change occur without that abrasive friction of conflict."

by Saul Alinsky

  

Capitol Reef National Park is an American national park in south-central Utah. The park is approximately 60 miles (97 km) long on its north–south axis and just 6 miles (9.7 km) wide on average. The park was established in 1971 to preserve 241,904 acres (377.98 sq mi; 97,895.08 ha; 978.95 km2) of desert landscape and is open all year, with May through September being the highest visitation months.

 

Partially in Wayne County, Utah, the area was originally named "Wayne Wonderland" in the 1920s by local boosters Ephraim P. Pectol and Joseph S. Hickman. Capitol Reef National Park was designated a national monument on August 2, 1937, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to protect the area's colorful canyons, ridges, buttes, and monoliths; however, it was not until 1950 that the area officially opened to the public. Road access was improved in 1962 with the construction of State Route 24 through the Fremont River Canyon.

 

The majority of the nearly 100 mi (160 km) long up-thrust formation called the Waterpocket Fold—a rocky spine extending from Thousand Lake Mountain to Lake Powell—is preserved within the park. Capitol Reef is an especially rugged and spectacular segment of the Waterpocket Fold by the Fremont River. The park was named for its whitish Navajo Sandstone cliffs with dome formations—similar to the white domes often placed on capitol buildings—that run from the Fremont River to Pleasant Creek on the Waterpocket Fold. Locally, reef refers to any rocky barrier to land travel, just as ocean reefs are barriers to sea travel.

 

Capitol Reef encompasses the Waterpocket Fold, a warp in the earth's crust that is 65 million years old. It is the largest exposed monocline in North America. In this fold, newer and older layers of earth folded over each other in an S-shape. This warp, probably caused by the same colliding continental plates that created the Rocky Mountains, has weathered and eroded over millennia to expose layers of rock and fossils. The park is filled with brilliantly colored sandstone cliffs, gleaming white domes, and contrasting layers of stone and earth.

 

The area was named for a line of white domes and cliffs of Navajo Sandstone, each of which looks somewhat like the United States Capitol building, that run from the Fremont River to Pleasant Creek on the Waterpocket Fold.

 

The fold forms a north-to-south barrier that has barely been breached by roads. Early settlers referred to parallel impassable ridges as "reefs", from which the park gets the second half of its name. The first paved road was constructed through the area in 1962. State Route 24 cuts through the park traveling east and west between Canyonlands National Park and Bryce Canyon National Park, but few other paved roads invade the rugged landscape.

 

The park is filled with canyons, cliffs, towers, domes, and arches. The Fremont River has cut canyons through parts of the Waterpocket Fold, but most of the park is arid desert. A scenic drive shows park visitors some highlights, but it runs only a few miles from the main highway. Hundreds of miles of trails and unpaved roads lead into the equally scenic backcountry.

 

Fremont-culture Native Americans lived near the perennial Fremont River in the northern part of the Capitol Reef Waterpocket Fold around the year 1000. They irrigated crops of maize and squash and stored their grain in stone granaries (in part made from the numerous black basalt boulders that litter the area). In the 13th century, all of the Native American cultures in this area underwent sudden change, likely due to a long drought. The Fremont settlements and fields were abandoned.

 

Many years after the Fremont left, Paiutes moved into the area. These Numic-speaking people named the Fremont granaries moki huts and thought they were the homes of a race of tiny people or moki.

 

In 1872 Almon H. Thompson, a geographer attached to United States Army Major John Wesley Powell's expedition, crossed the Waterpocket Fold while exploring the area. Geologist Clarence Dutton later spent several summers studying the area's geology. None of these expeditions explored the Waterpocket Fold to any great extent.

 

Following the American Civil War, officials of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City sought to establish missions in the remotest niches of the Intermountain West. In 1866, a quasi-military expedition of Mormons in pursuit of natives penetrated the high valleys to the west. In the 1870s, settlers moved into these valleys, eventually establishing Loa, Fremont, Lyman, Bicknell, and Torrey.

 

Mormons settled the Fremont River valley in the 1880s and established Junction (later renamed Fruita), Caineville, and Aldridge. Fruita prospered, Caineville barely survived, and Aldridge died. In addition to farming, lime was extracted from local limestone, and uranium was extracted early in the 20th century. In 1904 the first claim to a uranium mine in the area was staked. The resulting Oyler Mine in Grand Wash produced uranium ore.

 

By 1920 no more than ten families at one time were sustained by the fertile flood plain of the Fremont River and the land changed ownership over the years. The area remained isolated. The community was later abandoned and later still some buildings were restored by the National Park Service. Kilns once used to produce lime are still in Sulphur Creek and near the campgrounds on Scenic Drive.

 

Local Ephraim Portman Pectol organized a "booster club" in Torrey in 1921. Pectol pressed a promotional campaign, furnishing stories to be sent to periodicals and newspapers. In his efforts, he was increasingly aided by his brother-in-law, Joseph S. Hickman, who was the Wayne County High School principal. In 1924, Hickman extended community involvement in the promotional effort by organizing a Wayne County-wide Wayne Wonderland Club. That same year, Hickman was elected to the Utah State Legislature.

 

In 1933, Pectol was elected to the presidency of the Associated Civics Club of Southern Utah, successor to the Wayne Wonderland Club. The club raised U.S. $150 (equivalent to $3,391 in 2022) to interest a Salt Lake City photographer in taking a series of promotional photographs. For several years, the photographer, J. E. Broaddus, traveled and lectured on "Wayne Wonderland".

 

In 1933, Pectol was elected to the legislature and almost immediately contacted President Franklin D. Roosevelt and asked for the creation of "Wayne Wonderland National Monument" out of the federal lands comprising the bulk of the Capitol Reef area. Federal agencies began a feasibility study and boundary assessment. Meanwhile, Pectol guided the government investigators on numerous trips and escorted an increasing number of visitors. The lectures of Broaddus were having an effect.

 

Roosevelt signed a proclamation creating Capitol Reef National Monument on August 2, 1937. In Proclamation 2246, President Roosevelt set aside 37,711 acres (15,261 ha) of the Capitol Reef area. This comprised an area extending about two miles (3 km) north of present State Route 24 and about 10 mi (16 km) south, just past Capitol Gorge. The Great Depression years were lean ones for the National Park Service (NPS), the new administering agency. Funds for the administration of Capitol Reef were nonexistent; it would be a long time before the first rangers would arrive.

 

Administration of the new monument was placed under the control of Zion National Park. A stone ranger cabin and the Sulphur Creek bridge were built and some road work was performed by the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Works Progress Administration. Historian and printer Charles Kelly came to know NPS officials at Zion well and volunteered to watchdog the park for the NPS. Kelly was officially appointed custodian-without-pay in 1943. He worked as a volunteer until 1950, when the NPS offered him a civil-service appointment as the first superintendent.

 

During the 1950s Kelly was deeply troubled by NPS management acceding to demands of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission that Capitol Reef National Monument be opened to uranium prospecting. He felt that the decision had been a mistake and destructive of the long-term national interest. It turned out that there was not enough ore in the monument to be worth mining.

 

In 1958 Kelly got additional permanent help in protecting the monument and enforcing regulations; Park Ranger Grant Clark transferred from Zion. The year Clark arrived, fifty-six thousand visitors came to the park, and Charlie Kelly retired for the last time.

 

During the 1960s (under the program name Mission 66), NPS areas nationwide received new facilities to meet the demand of mushrooming park visitation. At Capitol Reef, a 53-site campground at Fruita, staff rental housing, and a new visitor center were built, the latter opening in 1966.

 

Visitation climbed dramatically after the paved, all-weather State Route 24 was built in 1962 through the Fremont River canyon near Fruita. State Route 24 replaced the narrow Capitol Gorge wagon road about 10 mi (16 km) to the south that frequently washed out. The old road has since been open only to foot traffic. In 1967, 146,598 persons visited the park. The staff was also growing.

 

During the 1960s, the NPS purchased private land parcels at Fruita and Pleasant Creek. Almost all private property passed into public ownership on a "willing buyer-willing seller" basis.

 

Preservationists convinced President Lyndon B. Johnson to set aside an enormous area of public lands in 1968, just before he left office. In Presidential Proclamation 3888 an additional 215,056 acres (87,030 ha) were placed under NPS control. By 1970, Capitol Reef National Monument comprised 254,251 acres (102,892 ha) and sprawled southeast from Thousand Lake Mountain almost to the Colorado River. The action was controversial locally, and NPS staffing at the monument was inadequate to properly manage the additional land.

 

The vast enlargement of the monument and diversification of the scenic resources soon raised another issue: whether Capitol Reef should be a national park, rather than a monument. Two bills were introduced into the United States Congress.

 

A House bill (H.R. 17152) introduced by Utah Congressman Laurence J. Burton called for a 180,000-acre (72,800 ha) national park and an adjunct 48,000-acre (19,400 ha) national recreation area where multiple use (including grazing) could continue indefinitely. In the United States Senate, meanwhile, Senate bill S. 531 had already passed on July 1, 1970, and provided for a 230,000-acre (93,100 ha) national park alone. The bill called for a 25-year phase-out of grazing.

 

In September 1970, United States Department of Interior officials told a house subcommittee session that they preferred about 254,000 acres (103,000 ha) be set aside as a national park. They also recommended that the grazing phase-out period be 10 years, rather than 25. They did not favor the adjunct recreation area.

 

It was not until late 1971 that Congressional action was completed. By then, the 92nd United States Congress was in session and S. 531 had languished. A new bill, S. 29, was introduced in the Senate by Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah and was essentially the same as the defunct S. 531 except that it called for an additional 10,834 acres (4,384 ha) of public lands for a Capitol Reef National Park. In the House, Utah Representative K. Gunn McKay (with Representative Lloyd) had introduced H.R. 9053 to replace the dead H.R. 17152. This time, the House bill dropped the concept of an adjunct Capitol Reef National Recreation Area and adopted the Senate concept of a 25-year limit on continued grazing. The Department of Interior was still recommending a national park of 254,368 acres (102,939 ha) and a 10-year limit for grazing phase-out.

 

S. 29 passed the Senate in June and was sent to the House, which dropped its own bill and passed the Senate version with an amendment. Because the Senate was not in agreement with the House amendment, differences were worked out in Conference Committee. The Conference Committee issued its report on November 30, 1971, and the bill passed both houses of Congress. The legislation—'An Act to Establish The Capitol Reef National Park in the State of Utah'—became Public Law 92-207 when it was signed by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971.

 

The area including the park was once the edge of a shallow sea that invaded the land in the Permian, creating the Cutler Formation. Only the sandstone of the youngest member of the Cutler Formation, the White Rim, is exposed in the park. The deepening sea left carbonate deposits, forming the limestone of the Kaibab Limestone, the same formation that rims the Grand Canyon to the southwest.

 

During the Triassic, streams deposited reddish-brown silt that later became the siltstone of the Moenkopi Formation. Uplift and erosion followed. Conglomerate, followed by logs, sand, mud, and wind-transported volcanic ash, then formed the uranium-containing Chinle Formation.

 

The members of the Glen Canyon Group were all laid down in the middle- to late-Triassic during a time of increasing aridity. They include:

 

Wingate Sandstone: sand dunes on the shore of an ancient sea

Kayenta Formation: thin-bedded layers of sand deposited by slow-moving streams in channels and across low plains

Navajo Sandstone: huge fossilized sand dunes from a massive Sahara-like desert.

 

The Golden Throne. Though Capitol Reef is famous for white domes of Navajo Sandstone, this dome's color is a result of a lingering section of yellow Carmel Formation carbonate, which has stained the underlying rock.

The San Rafael Group consists of four Jurassic-period formations, from oldest to youngest:

 

Carmel Formation: gypsum, sand, and limey silt laid down in what may have been a graben that was periodically flooded by sea water

Entrada Sandstone: sandstone from barrier islands/sand bars in a near-shore environment

Curtis Formation: made from conglomerate, sandstone, and shale

Summerville Formation: reddish-brown mud and white sand deposited in tidal flats.

Streams once again laid down mud and sand in their channels, on lakebeds, and in swampy plains, creating the Morrison Formation. Early in the Cretaceous, similar nonmarine sediments were laid down and became the Dakota Sandstone. Eventually, the Cretaceous Seaway covered the Dakota, depositing the Mancos Shale.

 

Only small remnants of the Mesaverde Group are found, capping a few mesas in the park's eastern section.

 

Near the end of the Cretaceous period, a mountain-building event called the Laramide orogeny started to compact and uplift the region, forming the Rocky Mountains and creating monoclines such as the Waterpocket Fold in the park. Ten to fifteen million years ago, the entire region was uplifted much further by the creation of the Colorado Plateau. This uplift was very even. Igneous activity in the form of volcanism and dike and sill intrusion also occurred during this time.

 

The drainage system in the area was rearranged and steepened, causing streams to downcut faster and sometimes change course. Wetter times during the ice ages of the Pleistocene increased the rate of erosion.

 

There are more than 840 species of plants that are found in the park and over 40 of those species are classified as rare and endemic.

 

The closest town to Capitol Reef is Torrey, about 11 mi (18 km) west of the visitor center on Highway 24, slightly west of its intersection with Highway 12. Its 2020 population is less than 300. Torrey has a few motels and restaurants and functions as a gateway town to Capitol Reef National Park. Highway 12, as well as a partially unpaved scenic backway named the Burr Trail, provide access from the west through the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument and the town of Boulder.

 

A variety of activities are available to tourists, both ranger-led and self-guided, including auto touring, hiking, backpacking, camping, bicycling (on paved and unpaved roads only; no trails), horseback riding, canyoneering, and rock climbing. The orchards planted by Mormon pioneers are maintained by the National Park Service. From early March to mid-October, various fruit—cherries, apricots, peaches, pears, or apples—can be harvested by visitors for a fee.

 

A hiking trail guide is available at the visitor center for both day hikes and backcountry hiking. Backcountry access requires a free permit.

 

Numerous trails are available for hiking and backpacking in the park, with fifteen in the Fruita District alone. The following trails are some of the most popular in the park:

 

Cassidy Arch Trail: a very steep, strenuous 3.5 mi (5.6 km) round trip that leads into the Grand Wash to an overlook of the Cassidy Arch.

Hickman Bridge Trail: a 2 mi (3.2 km) round trip leading to the natural bridge.

Frying Pan Trail: an 8.8 mi (14.2 km) round trip that passes the Cassidy Arch, Grand Wash, and Cohab Canyon.

Brimhall Natural Bridge: a popular, though strenuous, 4.5 mi (7.2 km) round trip with views of Brimhall Canyon, the Waterpocket Fold, and Brimhall Natural Bridge.

Halls Creek Narrows: 22 mi (35 km) long and considered strenuous, with many side canyons and creeks; typically hiked as a 2-3 day camping trip.

 

Visitors may explore several of the main areas of the park by private vehicle:

 

Scenic Drive: winds through the middle of the park, passing the major points of interest; the road is accessible from the visitor center to approximately 2 mi (3.2 km) into the Capitol Gorge.

Notom-Bullfrog Road: traverses the eastern side of the Waterpocket Fold, along 10 mi (16 km) of paved road, with the remainder unpaved.

Cathedral Road: an unpaved road through the northern areas of the park, that traverses Cathedral Valley, passing the Temples of the Sun and Moon.

 

The primary camping location is the Fruita campground, with 71 campsites (no water, electrical, or sewer hookups), and restrooms without bathing facilities. The campground also has group sites with picnic areas and restrooms. Two primitive free camping areas are also available.

 

Canyoneering is growing in popularity in the park. It is a recreational sport that takes one through slot canyons. It involves rappelling and may require swimming and other technical rope work. Day-pass permits are required for canyoneering in the park, and can be obtained for free from the visitor's center or through email. It's key to know that each route requires its own permit. If one is planning on canyoneering for multiple days, passes are required for each day. Overnight camping as part of the canyoneering trip is permitted, but one must request a free backcountry pass from the visitor center.

 

It is imperative to plan canyoneering trips around the weather. The Colorado Plateau is susceptible to flash flooding during prime rainy months. Because canyoneering takes place through slot canyons, getting caught in a flash flood could be lethal. Take care to consult reliable weather sources. The Weather Atlas shows charts with the monthly average rainfall in inches.

 

Another risk to be aware of during the summer months is extreme heat. Visitors can find weather warnings on the National Weather Service website. The heat levels are detailed by a color and numerical scale (0-4).

 

One of the most popular canyoneering routes in Capitol Reef National Park is Cassidy Arch Canyon. A paper by George Huddart, details the park's commitment to working with citizens to maintain the route as well as the vegetation and rocks. The canyon route is approximately 2.3 miles long (0.4 miles of technical work), consisting of 8 different rappels, and takes between 2.5 and 4.5 hours to complete. The first rappel is 140 ft and descends below the famous Cassidy Arch.

 

Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Colorado to its east, Wyoming to its northeast, Idaho to its north, Arizona to its south, and Nevada to its west. Utah also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast. Of the fifty U.S. states, Utah is the 13th-largest by area; with a population over three million, it is the 30th-most-populous and 11th-least-densely populated. Urban development is mostly concentrated in two areas: the Wasatch Front in the north-central part of the state, which is home to roughly two-thirds of the population and includes the capital city, Salt Lake City; and Washington County in the southwest, with more than 180,000 residents. Most of the western half of Utah lies in the Great Basin.

 

Utah has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups such as the ancient Puebloans, Navajo, and Ute. The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the mid-16th century, though the region's difficult geography and harsh climate made it a peripheral part of New Spain and later Mexico. Even while it was Mexican territory, many of Utah's earliest settlers were American, particularly Mormons fleeing marginalization and persecution from the United States via the Mormon Trail. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the region was annexed by the U.S., becoming part of the Utah Territory, which included what is now Colorado and Nevada. Disputes between the dominant Mormon community and the federal government delayed Utah's admission as a state; only after the outlawing of polygamy was it admitted in 1896 as the 45th.

 

People from Utah are known as Utahns. Slightly over half of all Utahns are Mormons, the vast majority of whom are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which has its world headquarters in Salt Lake City; Utah is the only state where a majority of the population belongs to a single church. A 2023 paper challenged this perception (claiming only 42% of Utahns are Mormons) however most statistics still show a majority of Utah residents belong to the LDS church; estimates from the LDS church suggests 60.68% of Utah's population belongs to the church whilst some sources put the number as high as 68%. The paper replied that membership count done by the LDS Church is too high for several reasons. The LDS Church greatly influences Utahn culture, politics, and daily life, though since the 1990s the state has become more religiously diverse as well as secular.

 

Utah has a highly diversified economy, with major sectors including transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, multi-level marketing, and tourism. Utah has been one of the fastest growing states since 2000, with the 2020 U.S. census confirming the fastest population growth in the nation since 2010. St. George was the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah ranks among the overall best states in metrics such as healthcare, governance, education, and infrastructure. It has the 12th-highest median average income and the least income inequality of any U.S. state. Over time and influenced by climate change, droughts in Utah have been increasing in frequency and severity, putting a further strain on Utah's water security and impacting the state's economy.

 

The History of Utah is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Utah located in the western United States.

 

Archaeological evidence dates the earliest habitation of humans in Utah to about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Paleolithic people lived near the Great Basin's swamps and marshes, which had an abundance of fish, birds, and small game animals. Big game, including bison, mammoths and ground sloths, also were attracted to these water sources. Over the centuries, the mega-fauna died, this population was replaced by the Desert Archaic people, who sheltered in caves near the Great Salt Lake. Relying more on gathering than the previous Utah residents, their diet was mainly composed of cattails and other salt tolerant plants such as pickleweed, burro weed and sedge. Red meat appears to have been more of a luxury, although these people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Artifacts include nets woven with plant fibers and rabbit skin, woven sandals, gaming sticks, and animal figures made from split-twigs. About 3,500 years ago, lake levels rose and the population of Desert Archaic people appears to have dramatically decreased. The Great Basin may have been almost unoccupied for 1,000 years.

 

The Fremont culture, named from sites near the Fremont River in Utah, lived in what is now north and western Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from approximately 600 to 1300 AD. These people lived in areas close to water sources that had been previously occupied by the Desert Archaic people, and may have had some relationship with them. However, their use of new technologies define them as a distinct people. Fremont technologies include:

 

use of the bow and arrow while hunting,

building pithouse shelters,

growing maize and probably beans and squash,

building above ground granaries of adobe or stone,

creating and decorating low-fired pottery ware,

producing art, including jewelry and rock art such as petroglyphs and pictographs.

 

The ancient Puebloan culture, also known as the Anasazi, occupied territory adjacent to the Fremont. The ancestral Puebloan culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, including the San Juan River region of Utah. Archaeologists debate when this distinct culture emerged, but cultural development seems to date from about the common era, about 500 years before the Fremont appeared. It is generally accepted that the cultural peak of these people was around the 1200 CE. Ancient Puebloan culture is known for well constructed pithouses and more elaborate adobe and masonry dwellings. They were excellent craftsmen, producing turquoise jewelry and fine pottery. The Puebloan culture was based on agriculture, and the people created and cultivated fields of maize, beans, and squash and domesticated turkeys. They designed and produced elaborate field terracing and irrigation systems. They also built structures, some known as kivas, apparently designed solely for cultural and religious rituals.

 

These two later cultures were roughly contemporaneous, and appear to have established trading relationships. They also shared enough cultural traits that archaeologists believe the cultures may have common roots in the early American Southwest. However, each remained culturally distinct throughout most of their existence. These two well established cultures appear to have been severely impacted by climatic change and perhaps by the incursion of new people in about 1200 CE. Over the next two centuries, the Fremont and ancient Pueblo people may have moved into the American southwest, finding new homes and farmlands in the river drainages of Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico.

 

In about 1200, Shoshonean speaking peoples entered Utah territory from the west. They may have originated in southern California and moved into the desert environment due to population pressure along the coast. They were an upland people with a hunting and gathering lifestyle utilizing roots and seeds, including the pinyon nut. They were also skillful fishermen, created pottery and raised some crops. When they first arrived in Utah, they lived as small family groups with little tribal organization. Four main Shoshonean peoples inhabited Utah country. The Shoshone in the north and northeast, the Gosiutes in the northwest, the Utes in the central and eastern parts of the region and the Southern Paiutes in the southwest. Initially, there seems to have been very little conflict between these groups.

 

In the early 16th century, the San Juan River basin in Utah's southeast also saw a new people, the Díne or Navajo, part of a greater group of plains Athabaskan speakers moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In addition to the Navajo, this language group contained people that were later known as Apaches, including the Lipan, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apaches.

 

Athabaskans were a hunting people who initially followed the bison, and were identified in 16th-century Spanish accounts as "dog nomads". The Athabaskans expanded their range throughout the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblo peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first specifically mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navaho) in the 1620s, referring to the people in the Chama valley region east of the San Juan River, and north west of Santa Fe. By the 1640s, the term Navaho was applied to these same people. Although the Navajo newcomers established a generally peaceful trading and cultural exchange with the some modern Pueblo peoples to the south, they experienced intermittent warfare with the Shoshonean peoples, particularly the Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado.

 

At the time of European expansion, beginning with Spanish explorers traveling from Mexico, five distinct native peoples occupied territory within the Utah area: the Northern Shoshone, the Goshute, the Ute, the Paiute and the Navajo.

 

The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado may have crossed into what is now southern Utah in 1540, when he was seeking the legendary Cíbola.

 

A group led by two Spanish Catholic priests—sometimes called the Domínguez–Escalante expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the California coast. The expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. All of what is now Utah was claimed by the Spanish Empire from the 1500s to 1821 as part of New Spain (later as the province Alta California); and subsequently claimed by Mexico from 1821 to 1848. However, Spain and Mexico had little permanent presence in, or control of, the region.

 

Fur trappers (also known as mountain men) including Jim Bridger, explored some regions of Utah in the early 19th century. The city of Provo was named for one such man, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah is named for a brigade leader of the Hudson's Bay Company, Peter Skene Ogden who trapped in the Weber Valley. In 1846, a year before the arrival of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints, the ill-fated Donner Party crossed through the Salt Lake valley late in the season, deciding not to stay the winter there but to continue forward to California, and beyond.

 

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormon pioneers, first came to the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847. At the time, the U.S. had already captured the Mexican territories of Alta California and New Mexico in the Mexican–American War and planned to keep them, but those territories, including the future state of Utah, officially became United States territory upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. The treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, 1848.

 

Upon arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormon pioneers found no permanent settlement of Indians. Other areas along the Wasatch Range were occupied at the time of settlement by the Northwestern Shoshone and adjacent areas by other bands of Shoshone such as the Gosiute. The Northwestern Shoshone lived in the valleys on the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake and in adjacent mountain valleys. Some years after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley Mormons, who went on to colonize many other areas of what is now Utah, were petitioned by Indians for recompense for land taken. The response of Heber C. Kimball, first counselor to Brigham Young, was that the land belonged to "our Father in Heaven and we expect to plow and plant it." A 1945 Supreme Court decision found that the land had been treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone had been recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States.

 

Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to make a place to live. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches, and schools. Access to water was crucially important. Almost immediately, Brigham Young set out to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed.

 

Shortly after the first company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, the community of Bountiful was settled to the north. In 1848, settlers moved into lands purchased from trapper Miles Goodyear in present-day Ogden. In 1849, Tooele and Provo were founded. Also that year, at the invitation of Ute chief Wakara, settlers moved into the Sanpete Valley in central Utah to establish the community of Manti. Fillmore, Utah, intended to be the capital of the new territory, was established in 1851. In 1855, missionary efforts aimed at western native cultures led to outposts in Fort Lemhi, Idaho, Las Vegas, Nevada and Elk Mountain in east-central Utah.

 

The experiences of returning members of the Mormon Battalion were also important in establishing new communities. On their journey west, the Mormon soldiers had identified dependable rivers and fertile river valleys in Colorado, Arizona and southern California. In addition, as the men traveled to rejoin their families in the Salt Lake Valley, they moved through southern Nevada and the eastern segments of southern Utah. Jefferson Hunt, a senior Mormon officer of the Battalion, actively searched for settlement sites, minerals, and other resources. His report encouraged 1851 settlement efforts in Iron County, near present-day Cedar City. These southern explorations eventually led to Mormon settlements in St. George, Utah, Las Vegas and San Bernardino, California, as well as communities in southern Arizona.

 

Prior to establishment of the Oregon and California trails and Mormon settlement, Indians native to the Salt Lake Valley and adjacent areas lived by hunting buffalo and other game, but also gathered grass seed from the bountiful grass of the area as well as roots such as those of the Indian Camas. By the time of settlement, indeed before 1840, the buffalo were gone from the valley, but hunting by settlers and grazing of cattle severely impacted the Indians in the area, and as settlement expanded into nearby river valleys and oases, indigenous tribes experienced increasing difficulty in gathering sufficient food. Brigham Young's counsel was to feed the hungry tribes, and that was done, but it was often not enough. These tensions formed the background to the Bear River massacre committed by California Militia stationed in Salt Lake City during the Civil War. The site of the massacre is just inside Preston, Idaho, but was generally thought to be within Utah at the time.

 

Statehood was petitioned for in 1849-50 using the name Deseret. The proposed State of Deseret would have been quite large, encompassing all of what is now Utah, and portions of Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, Oregon, New Mexico and California. The name of Deseret was favored by the LDS leader Brigham Young as a symbol of industry and was derived from a reference in the Book of Mormon. The petition was rejected by Congress and Utah did not become a state until 1896, following the Utah Constitutional Convention of 1895.

 

In 1850, the Utah Territory was created with the Compromise of 1850, and Fillmore (named after President Fillmore) was designated the capital. In 1856, Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the territorial capital.

 

The first group of pioneers brought African slaves with them, making Utah the only place in the western United States to have African slavery. Three slaves, Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby, came west with this first group in 1847. The settlers also began to purchase Indian slaves in the well-established Indian slave trade, as well as enslaving Indian prisoners of war. In 1850, 26 slaves were counted in Salt Lake County. Slavery didn't become officially recognized until 1852, when the Act in Relation to Service and the Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners were passed. Slavery was repealed on June 19, 1862, when Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories.

 

Disputes between the Mormon inhabitants and the federal government intensified after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy became known. The polygamous practices of the Mormons, which were made public in 1854, would be one of the major reasons Utah was denied statehood until almost 50 years after the Mormons had entered the area.

 

After news of their polygamous practices spread, the members of the LDS Church were quickly viewed by some as un-American and rebellious. In 1857, after news of a possible rebellion spread, President James Buchanan sent troops on the Utah expedition to quell the growing unrest and to replace Brigham Young as territorial governor with Alfred Cumming. The expedition was also known as the Utah War.

 

As fear of invasion grew, Mormon settlers had convinced some Paiute Indians to aid in a Mormon-led attack on 120 immigrants from Arkansas under the guise of Indian aggression. The murder of these settlers became known as the Mountain Meadows massacre. The Mormon leadership had adopted a defensive posture that led to a ban on the selling of grain to outsiders in preparation for an impending war. This chafed pioneers traveling through the region, who were unable to purchase badly needed supplies. A disagreement between some of the Arkansas pioneers and the Mormons in Cedar City led to the secret planning of the massacre by a few Mormon leaders in the area. Some scholars debate the involvement of Brigham Young. Only one man, John D. Lee, was ever convicted of the murders, and he was executed at the massacre site.

 

Express riders had brought the news 1,000 miles from the Missouri River settlements to Salt Lake City within about two weeks of the army's beginning to march west. Fearing the worst as 2,500 troops (roughly 1/3rd of the army then) led by General Albert Sidney Johnston started west, Brigham Young ordered all residents of Salt Lake City and neighboring communities to prepare their homes for burning and evacuate southward to Utah Valley and southern Utah. Young also sent out a few units of the Nauvoo Legion (numbering roughly 8,000–10,000), to delay the army's advance. The majority he sent into the mountains to prepare defenses or south to prepare for a scorched earth retreat. Although some army wagon supply trains were captured and burned and herds of army horses and cattle run off no serious fighting occurred. Starting late and short on supplies, the United States Army camped during the bitter winter of 1857–58 near a burned out Fort Bridger in Wyoming. Through the negotiations between emissary Thomas L. Kane, Young, Cumming and Johnston, control of Utah territory was peacefully transferred to Cumming, who entered an eerily vacant Salt Lake City in the spring of 1858. By agreement with Young, Johnston established the army at Fort Floyd 40 miles away from Salt Lake City, to the southwest.

 

Salt Lake City was the last link of the First Transcontinental Telegraph, between Carson City, Nevada and Omaha, Nebraska completed in October 1861. Brigham Young, who had helped expedite construction, was among the first to send a message, along with Abraham Lincoln and other officials. Soon after the telegraph line was completed, the Deseret Telegraph Company built the Deseret line connecting the settlements in the territory with Salt Lake City and, by extension, the rest of the United States.

 

Because of the American Civil War, federal troops were pulled out of Utah Territory (and their fort auctioned off), leaving the territorial government in federal hands without army backing until General Patrick E. Connor arrived with the 3rd Regiment of California Volunteers in 1862. While in Utah, Connor and his troops soon became discontent with this assignment wanting to head to Virginia where the "real" fighting and glory was occurring. Connor established Fort Douglas just three miles (5 km) east of Salt Lake City and encouraged his bored and often idle soldiers to go out and explore for mineral deposits to bring more non-Mormons into the state. Minerals were discovered in Tooele County, and some miners began to come to the territory. Conner also solved the Shoshone Indian problem in Cache Valley Utah by luring the Shoshone into a midwinter confrontation on January 29, 1863. The armed conflict quickly turned into a rout, discipline among the soldiers broke down, and the Battle of Bear River is today usually referred to by historians as the Bear River Massacre. Between 200 and 400 Shoshone men, women and children were killed, as were 27 soldiers, with over 50 more soldiers wounded or suffering from frostbite.

 

Beginning in 1865, Utah's Black Hawk War developed into the deadliest conflict in the territory's history. Chief Antonga Black Hawk died in 1870, but fights continued to break out until additional federal troops were sent in to suppress the Ghost Dance of 1872. The war is unique among Indian Wars because it was a three-way conflict, with mounted Timpanogos Utes led by Antonga Black Hawk fighting federal and Utah local militia.

 

On May 10, 1869, the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, north of the Great Salt Lake. The railroad brought increasing numbers of people into the state, and several influential businessmen made fortunes in the territory.

 

Main article: Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century

During the 1870s and 1880s, federal laws were passed and federal marshals assigned to enforce the laws against polygamy. In the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church leadership dropped its approval of polygamy citing divine revelation. When Utah applied for statehood again in 1895, it was accepted. Statehood was officially granted on January 4, 1896.

 

The Mormon issue made the situation for women the topic of nationwide controversy. In 1870 the Utah Territory, controlled by Mormons, gave women the right to vote. However, in 1887, Congress disenfranchised Utah women with the Edmunds–Tucker Act. In 1867–96, eastern activists promoted women's suffrage in Utah as an experiment, and as a way to eliminate polygamy. They were Presbyterians and other Protestants convinced that Mormonism was a non-Christian cult that grossly mistreated women. The Mormons promoted woman suffrage to counter the negative image of downtrodden Mormon women. With the 1890 Manifesto clearing the way for statehood, in 1895 Utah adopted a constitution restoring the right of women's suffrage. Congress admitted Utah as a state with that constitution in 1896.

 

Though less numerous than other intermountain states at the time, several lynching murders for alleged misdeeds occurred in Utah territory at the hand of vigilantes. Those documented include the following, with their ethnicity or national origin noted in parentheses if it was provided in the source:

 

William Torrington in Carson City (then a part of Utah territory), 1859

Thomas Coleman (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1866

3 unidentified men at Wahsatch, winter of 1868

A Black man in Uintah, 1869

Charles A. Benson in Logan, 1873

Ah Sing (Chinese man) in Corinne, 1874

Thomas Forrest in St. George, 1880

William Harvey (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1883

John Murphy in Park City, 1883

George Segal (Japanese man) in Ogden, 1884

Joseph Fisher in Eureka, 1886

Robert Marshall (Black man) in Castle Gate, 1925

Other lynchings in Utah territory include multiple instances of mass murder of Native American children, women, and men by White settlers including the Battle Creek massacre (1849), Provo River Massacre (1850), Nephi massacre (1853), and Circleville Massacre (1866).

 

Beginning in the early 20th century, with the establishment of such national parks as Bryce Canyon National Park and Zion National Park, Utah began to become known for its natural beauty. Southern Utah became a popular filming spot for arid, rugged scenes, and such natural landmarks as Delicate Arch and "the Mittens" of Monument Valley are instantly recognizable to most national residents. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the construction of the Interstate highway system, accessibility to the southern scenic areas was made easier.

 

Beginning in 1939, with the establishment of Alta Ski Area, Utah has become world-renowned for its skiing. The dry, powdery snow of the Wasatch Range is considered some of the best skiing in the world. Salt Lake City won the bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1995, and this has served as a great boost to the economy. The ski resorts have increased in popularity, and many of the Olympic venues scattered across the Wasatch Front continue to be used for sporting events. This also spurred the development of the light-rail system in the Salt Lake Valley, known as TRAX, and the re-construction of the freeway system around the city.

 

During the late 20th century, the state grew quickly. In the 1970s, growth was phenomenal in the suburbs. Sandy was one of the fastest-growing cities in the country at that time, and West Valley City is the state's 2nd most populous city. Today, many areas of Utah are seeing phenomenal growth. Northern Davis, southern and western Salt Lake, Summit, eastern Tooele, Utah, Wasatch, and Washington counties are all growing very quickly. Transportation and urbanization are major issues in politics as development consumes agricultural land and wilderness areas.

 

In 2012, the State of Utah passed the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act in an attempt to gain control over a substantial portion of federal land in the state from the federal government, based on language in the Utah Enabling Act of 1894. The State does not intend to use force or assert control by limiting access in an attempt to control the disputed lands, but does intend to use a multi-step process of education, negotiation, legislation, and if necessary, litigation as part of its multi-year effort to gain state or private control over the lands after 2014.

 

Utah families, like most Americans everywhere, did their utmost to assist in the war effort. Tires, meat, butter, sugar, fats, oils, coffee, shoes, boots, gasoline, canned fruits, vegetables, and soups were rationed on a national basis. The school day was shortened and bus routes were reduced to limit the number of resources used stateside and increase what could be sent to soldiers.

 

Geneva Steel was built to increase the steel production for America during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had proposed opening a steel mill in Utah in 1936, but the idea was shelved after a couple of months. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war and the steel plant was put into progress. In April 1944, Geneva shipped its first order, which consisted of over 600 tons of steel plate. Geneva Steel also brought thousands of job opportunities to Utah. The positions were hard to fill as many of Utah's men were overseas fighting. Women began working, filling 25 percent of the jobs.

 

As a result of Utah's and Geneva Steels contribution during the war, several Liberty Ships were named in honor of Utah including the USS Joseph Smith, USS Brigham Young, USS Provo, and the USS Peter Skene Ogden.

 

One of the sectors of the beachhead of Normandy Landings was codenamed Utah Beach, and the amphibious landings at the beach were undertaken by United States Army troops.

 

It is estimated that 1,450 soldiers from Utah were killed in the war.

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Today, I embark upon a personal challenge - to post a photo on social media everyday. In the past year, my posting schedule has been all over the place and occasionally nonexistent. The aim of this challenge is to not only encourage consistency with my posts, but to also keep my creative juices flowing. I'm super excited about this and hope you are, too!

 

This photo seemed appropriate since today is the start of a new year. With every new year that passes, we are given a blank canvas. What we choose to paint on that canvas defines that year. I snapped this photo of my friend Ricky a few weeks ago during Disneyland's Paint the Night Parade, and felt that it was only fitting to share it today.

 

Thanks for your views, comments, and favorites!

There were these large, comfortable armchairs, dark pink velvet ... just big enough, to allow a little girl of maybe 3, 4, 5 years to sit and stand and dangle as she wanted to ... and she was hanging down there for hours, knees bent over one armrest, head dangling close to the ground - and let her mind wander through spheres and spaces and times.

 

# 7 Think, Think, Think ... lol

 

As a very small child I could go crazy about questions like "if there is eternity, when did it start, and what was before, when will it end and what will be later ... and what on earth does "eternal" mean" - "if the All is infinite, where does or will it end, and if it doesnt end anywhere and expands constantly, what was there before" ... and I could feel my mind twist and try and become desperate and then again starting to think and to feel.

 

And I drove my mother crazy, because so many nights, when she brought me to bed, I asked these questions again and again. Never content with the answers "Girl, its just like that" ... "A human mind just cant understand it"

 

The big armchairs helped a lot, lol ... you would find that little girl there, hanging down, for long times, trying to change perspective and to get a grip on answers.

 

Imagining how the world would feel, if the floor was in fact the ceiling, and it was just misapprehension, that all and everybody felt, they were walking upright, when in fact everybody was hanging down from the ceiling - just called "floor" by common consensus, based on error :-)

 

Imagining, that the dreamstate was the true reality - and caused by that, shouldn't anybody, being in dreamland, perceive the so-called reality as the real dream?

Did everybody see the world in the same way? Or was it just learned and consensus, that all described something as "red", but in fact somebody else would see it in a colour, the little girl would have called blue?

What if all was happening simultaneously and time was inexistant, was only a concept? (Oh no, these thoughts came later, lol)

 

No answers, no answers, no answers ... but the girl dangled happily, her mind tried to expand and to understand and to embrace the inexplicable.

And the little girl always had a deep desire to understand ... and found it extremely difficult to just believe.

  

For many years, these ideas became less important, they never disappeared completely, but played a minor role. As it is - life moved on, changes, joy, grief, growing up, school, "what do you want to learn, to become and where do you want to live, ?" ... oh, the answer was still "all, everything, everywhere", just spoken inside, lol .... friendships ...loves ...wild times ... studies ... work

 

And then the questions came back full force, dressed a bit differently now, like: what is the meaning of life, how can I handle the fact of death, what is freedom ... first in the form of just being interested in philosophical and spiritual ideas - afterwards by becoming and being a professional teacher for yoga and meditation - and then again in form of thinking, thinking, thinking, and trying to understand - and still for me it was extremely difficult to believe. I wanted to understand, to get answers, to find peace ...

Often mind churning ... heart churning ... for long times ...

 

And no longer armchairs large enough for a grown-up as help, lol.

But changing perspective still helps, it is just more an internal change, than hanging upside down, lol.

 

Feelings detach the thoughts, mind slowly navigates through spaces, times, spheres, is feeling its way now more than thinking its way ... all happens now ... time is nonexistent ... eternity is timeless ... perception is individual ... all is connected ... every path is right ... mind is always moving ... nothing will ever end... everything is always expanding...

 

Moments of certainty ... stillness ... connection ... and - bliss.

   

Love stories - so many over the years of my life ... lol ... but its mostly a love story with the little girl, who was thinking so fearlessly and by that laying the ground for all to come ...

 

Music choice ... which represents for me more than any other music the free-flowing mind (and written only some years after the "dangling and think-time", lol)

 

Albatross - Fleetwood Mac

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=dAefTj7GXwQ

  

And for all of you, my dearest friends on flickr, a very happy New Year ... full of insights, of joy, of happiness, of dreams, of wishes to be fulfilled, of perspectives changing into gourgeous ones - of courage and power and freedom.

 

Its such a joy to share with you some parts of me - and - what I never expected to happen - that some of you share parts of your pasts and processes here, this bringseven so much more joy!!!

Thank you for that.

And the warmest regards to all of you from the little girl, still happily dangling from the velvet covered armchair :-))))). Remember, time is non-existant ... lol.

  

Scots Illustrator Angus McBride:

 

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www.theguardian.com/news/2007/may/26/guardianobituaries.a...

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Brennus or Brennos (Gaulish: Brano "raven") is the name of two Gaulish chieftains, famous in ancient history:

 

Brennus, chieftain of the Senones, a Gallic tribe originating from the modern areas of France known as Seine-et-Marne, Loiret, and Yonne; in 387 BC, in the Battle of the Allia, he led an army of Cisalpine Gauls in their attack on Rome.

www.ancient.eu/brennus/

 

This one . Another Brennus was one of the leaders of the army of Gauls who attempted to invade and settle in the Greek mainland in 278 BC. After a looting spree and after managing to pass Thermopylae by encircling the Greek army and forcing it to retreat he made his way to the rich treasury at Delphi but he was defeated by the re-assembled Greek army. Brennus was heavily injured at the battle of Delphi and may have committed suicide there. This Brennus invaded Greece in 281 BC with a huge war band and was turned back before he could plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi. At the same time, another Gaulish group of men, women, and children were migrating through Thrace. They had split off from Brennus' people in 279 BC, and had migrated into Thrace under their leaders Leonnorius and Lutarius. These invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278–277 BC.

 

John T. Koch, "Brân, Brennos: an instance of Early Gallo-Brittonic history and mythology'", Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 20 (Winter 1990:1-20).

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The Athenian Treasury at Delphi would have been one of the more wealthy there for the ancient pilgrims.

www.flickr.com/photos/celtico/23240585430/

Delphi was founded in the 'navel' of the known world by the Greek father god Zeus , he released two eagles that circumnavigated the world, where the two eagles met became the place to talk to their gods via the oracles or pythos. Apollo had a temple here. Before this, the major ancient site, a place of pilgrimage for Greeks

had been the Gates of Hades or the Underworld.

 

These Gauls (later some became Galatians) reached Delphi, to attack the Temple of Apollo in mid winter.An inscription near the oracle perhaps from older times was 'Know Thyself'.Delphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the famous prehistoric oracle. Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger and seen by Pausanias.

www.livius.org/sources/content/pausanias-guide-to-greece/...

 

Carved into the temple were three phrases: γνῶθι σεαυτόν (gnōthi seautón = "know thyself") and μηδέν άγαν (mēdén ágan = "nothing in excess"), and Ἑγγύα πάρα δ'ἄτη (eggýa pára d'atē = "make a pledge and mischief is nigh"), In ancient times, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the Seven Sages of Greece.

 

Additionally, according to Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the "E at Delphi"—the only literary source for the inscription—there was also inscribed at the temple a large letter E.Among other things epsilon signifies the number 5.

 

According to one pair of modern scholars, "The actual authorship of the three maxims set up on the Delphian temple may be left uncertain. Most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages."

  

A great actual and mythic battle began, recorded well after Greece was under Rome's dominion.

The Greeks had asked the gods for help to protect their sacred temple and treasury which was a focal point of their lives. Accordingly ,the pleas were 'answered' and there were earthquakes and thunderbolts and even rock slides from nearby Mount Parnassus upon the enemy. Still the Celts or Gauls fought on , a famous earlier story to Alexander the Great when he went north of the Danube briefly and met chieftains of the Gauls or Celts , who implied they were only fearful of the sky falling in....so he might have considered them too reckless rather than brave ...he may have thought they might fear him?

 

24.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_mcbsidHvJH1qaxacfo1_500.jpg

 

The Greeks again asked for divine help. During the night, the Celts were said to 'panic' and fight each other. Pausanias, writing over 300 years later in Roman times ,described the mayhem as "causeless terrors are said to come from the god Pan". Eventually the Celts retreated after suffering grievous losses, 26,000 dead, according to the Greek historian Pausanias in later times. Here is Pausanias describing the battle which was fought with symbolic divine aid (or knowledge of a primal fear of the Celts) as mentioned earlier to Alexander the Great of Macedonia :

 

Pausanias (geographer), Greek traveller, geographer, and writer (Description of Greece) of the 2nd century AD. As a Greek writing under the auspices of the Roman empire, he found himself in an awkward cultural space, between the glories of the Greek past he was so keen to describe and the realities of a Greece beholden to Rome as a dominating imperial force. His work bears the marks of his attempt to navigate that space and establish an identity for Roman Greece.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)

  

Pausanias has the instincts of an antiquary.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_%28geographer%29

 

Ptolemy Keraunos (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Κεραυνός, died 279 BC) was the arrogant ,murderous King of Macedon from 281 BC to 279 BC. His epithet Keraunos is Greek for "Thunder" or "Thunderbolt". See more on him here:

balkancelts.wordpress.com/

However, although Keraunos was at the zenith of his power, he did not live long afterwards. In 279 BC he was captured and killed (beheaded) during the wars against the Gauls led by Bolgios ("Lightening" ) who conducted a series of mass raids against Macedon and the rest of Greece.His death brought anarchy to the Greek states, since none of his successors were able to bring stability. This situation lasted about two years, until Antigonos Gonatas defeated the Gauls in the battle near Lysimachia, Thrace, in 277 BC, After this victory he was recognized king of Macedon and his power extended eventually also to south Greece.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antigonus_Gonatas_British_Muse...

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AntigonusGonatas.jpg

The Antigonid dynasty was a dynasty of Hellenistic kings descended from Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed"). It was one of four dynasties established by Alexander's successors, the others being the Seleucid dynasty, Ptolemaic dynasty and Attalid dynasty. The last scion of the dynasty, Perseus of Macedon, who reigned between 179-168 BCE, proved unable to stop the advancing Roman legions and Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna signaled the end of the dynasty.

 

skyelander.orgfree.com/celts4.html

  

Spanish language source internet illustration on ancient tribal attire.

www.housebarra.com/EP/ep04/15celtclothes.html

Several versions out there, if copyrighted please let me know.

Source is likely to be.... from an interesting book called 'Rome's Enemies 2 Gallic and British Celts', #158 in the Ospreys , Men-At-Arms Series, by Peter Wilcox and Angus MacBride (ISBN: 0850456061), 1985. The paintings, done by McBride, (see his picture here)

www.flickr.com/photos/roondorozhand/3234794396/

are based on literary descriptions and archeological finds and are said to be as accurate as possible at this time. www.flickr.com/photos/ancientgreekmapsandmore/2133688042/

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZPd2DS5sq4

 

(NO , Not a~vik~ing, they who came from the north, hundreds of years later).See theTaking of the Temple at Delphi by the Gauls, 1885 by Alphonse Cornet a French Academic Classical artist born 1814 - died 1874.

 

The earliest directly attested examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic .Lepontic is an extinct Alpine language that was spoken in parts of Rhaetia and Cisalpine Gaul between 550 and 100 BC. It is generally regarded as a Celtic language, although its exact classification within Celtic, or even within the western Indo-European languages, has been the object of debate...

inscriptions, beginning from the 6th century BC.The Continental Celtic languages were spoken by the people known to Roman and Greek writers as Keltoi,...

are attested only in inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic is attested from about the 4th century AD in ogham inscriptions, although it is clearly much earlier. Literary tradition begins with Old Irish from about the 8th century. Coherent texts of Early Irish literature. Early Irish literature-The earliest Irish authors:It is unclear when literacy first came to Ireland. The earliest Irish writings are inscriptions, mostly simple memorials, on stone in the ogham alphabet, the earliest of which date to the fourth century..., such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge (a legendary tale from early Irish literature, often considered an epic, although it is written primarily in prose rather than verse)...(The Cattle Raid of Cooley), survive in 12th-century recensions. According to the theory of Professor John T. Koch is an American academic, historian and linguist who specializes in Celtic studies, especially prehistory and the early Middle Ages....

and others.The Tartessian language, also known as Southwestern or South Lusitanian, is a Paleohispanic language once spoken in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula: mainly in the south of Portugal , but also in Spain...may have been the earliest directly attested Celtic language with the Tartessian written script used in the inscriptions based on a version of a Phoenician script in use around 825 BC.

  

GREEK RELIEF writing on tablet 3RD BCE

Decree of the town of Cos, Greece. Inscription on stone about the conquest of Delphi by the Gauls under Brennus in March 278 BCE, followed by news of the expulsion of the Gauls from Delphi in the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul, modern Turkey.

 

www.lessing-photo.com/dispimg.asp?i=10010366+&cr=1679...

 

Synonyms: Bryth, Gaul: The Raven King

 

A Brennos , Brennos of the Senones, first appears as the Celtic or Gaulish hero who led the Celtic sack of Rome. During the third century BCE the Celtic expansion led them to the Po valley in Italy. Fearful of this expansion the Etruscans called , on their adversaries, Rome for assistance. The Romans sent three envoys to meet the Celtic leaders. However, one of the Roman envoys killed a Celtic chief and Rome sent an army of 40 000 to meet these 'barbarians'. When the Celts learned of the Roman army moving towards them, Brennos (most likely a chiefly title rather than a real name, like a Duke, see below) marched the Celts off to meet the Romans. The Celts met the Romans at the River Allia, the Romans panicked at the sight of all those crazed Celts, and many Roman soldiers even drowned in the River in attempt to escape. A few made it back to Rome and informed the Senate about the battle at Allia (the date of the battle, July 18, became known as Alliaensis, and was considered thereafter to be a very bad day to do any public activity). The Roman citizens, rightfully fearing that the Celts were headed toward Rome, fled in a panic (much like the soldiers at Allia). By the time the Celts/ Gauls arrived, Rome had been deserted, with the exception of several elderly patricians. These old patricians were sitting in a courtyard, believing that if they were to sacrifice their lives for Rome in its most dire hour of need, Rome's enemies would then be thrown into panic and confusion, and Rome thereby saved. This nearly worked, but the spell of quietude was broken and Rome was looted and the old men killed. They advanced on the Capitol, but were thwarted by plague and a night-time attack was spoiled by cackling of geese. However, about seven months, later the Romans decided to negotiate and the Celts agreed to leave if the Romans would pay them 1,000 pounds of gold. The Celts were accused of using false weights, upon which Brennos (the Celtic chieftain) is said to have thrown his sword on the scales and loudly declare, "Vea victus", or "woe to the defeated".

 

www.flickr.com/photos/96490373@N02/14550761807/

 

cgi.ebay.com/Ancient-Roman-Dictator-Brennus-c1915-Card-/3...

 

www.flickr.com/photos/summoning_ifrit/4211154813/

 

The early 4th century BCE a vast group of Gauls sacked the city of Rome. Romans gave it up rather easily, actually. Most fled to neighbouring cities like Veii while the Senate, priests, and what was left of the Roman army migrated to the Capitol - defending and taking refuge in the temples there. The Gauls made easy pickings of what they found in the city. According to Livy:

 

For several days they had been directing their fury only against bricks and mortar. Rome was a heap of smouldering ruins, but something remained - the armed men in the Citadel, and when the Gauls saw that, in spite of everything, they remained unshaken and would never yield to anything but force, they resolved to attempt an assault. At dawn, therefore, on a given signal the whole vast horde assembled in the Forum; then, roaring out their challenge, they locked shields and moved up the slope of the Capitol." (5.43)

 

The Romans, however, used the advantage of being at the top of the hill and managed to beat the Gauls back. Yet the Gauls were determined and even though they had destroyed most of the food and supplies in their initial sack of the city, they began a siege on the hill.

 

During all of this, officials in Veii were determined to get a message through to the Roman Senate - despite the fact that the Senate was under siege. As the old saying goes, 'if there's a will, there's a way', and a young Roman soldier named Pontius Cominus managed to do it. "Floating on a life-buoy down the river to Rome, he took the shortest way to the Capitol up and over a bluff so steep that the Gauls had never thought of watching it." (5.46) But the Gauls did find out about it and figured if he could do it, then they should all be able to do it too.

 

One starlit night, they made the attempt. Having first sent an unarmed man to reconnoitre the route, they began the climb. It was something of a scramble: at the awkward spots a man would get a purchase for his feet on a comrade below him, then haul him up in his turn - weapons were passed up from hand to hand as the lie of the rocks allowed - until by pushing and pulling on another they reached the top. What is more, they accomplished the climb so quietly that the Romans on guard never heard a sound, and even the dogs - who are normally aroused by the least noise in the night - noticed nothing. It was the geese that saved them - Juno's sacred geese, which in spite of the dearth of provisions had not been killed. The cackling of the birds and the clapping of their wings awoke Marcus Manlius - a distinguished officer who had been consul three years before - and he, seizing his sword and giving the alarm, hurried, without waiting for the support of his bewildered comrades, straight to the point of danger. (5.46)

  

And that is either Roman spin or real history of how the sacred geese of Juno saved Rome - since after that last attempt, the lack of food forced the Gaul to accept payment from the Romans to leave the city alone.

www.mmdtkw.org/AU0308bJunoMonetaGeese.jpg

 

www.mmdtkw.org/AU0308gBrennerPass.jpg

 

www.mmdtkw.org/AU0308gBrennusFrenchMaritimeSculpture.jpg

 

While Brennus I was evil personified to the Romans, he was a hero to transalpine people.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia

 

"Other Greek and Roman synchronisms have a more obvious historical symbolism, as may be the casewith the Polybian synchronism we saw above, between Dionysius’s siege of

Rhegium and the Gallic sack of Rome."

 

wxy.seu.edu.cn/humanities/sociology/htmledit/uploadfile/s...

 

www.unrv.com/empire/gallic-sack-of-rome.php

 

REFOUNDING THE CITY:

ENNIUS, LIVY, AND VIRGIL

The city of Rome has now been successfully founded in historical time—whether

that time is focalized as Greek or Roman—but we have not yet reached the end of

the story. As everyone knows, the city of Rome kept having to be re-founded, and

the patterns of refoundation drastically reconfigure the trajectory of movement

from myth to history that we have been following so far.188

Ennius’s most explicit surviving allusion to the date of the foundation of the city

in fact comes at the moment when the city had just been virtually destroyed, and

was on the verge of vanishing from history, after the sack by the Gauls in 387/6

b.c.e.189 The context is a speech in which Camillus persuades the Senate not to

move to Veii, but to refound the city instead (154–55 Skutsch):

Septingenti sunt paulo plus aut minus anni

augusto augurio postquam incluta condita Roma est.

It is seven hundred years, a little more or a little less,

since famous Rome was founded by august augury.

How this seven-hundred-year period between Romulus’s foundation and the sack

of Rome by the Gauls actually worked remains a mystery, at least to me.190 Still, we

should not overlook the symbolic significance of this number in its own right. The

importance of the seven-hundred-year period has been very well illustrated in the

fascinating book Die rhetorische Zahl, written by a scholar with the gloriously apt

name of Dreizehnter.191 Dreizehnter does not mention this passage of Ennius, but

he collects a great deal of interesting material about seven hundred years as the life

span of a city or an empire from foundation to extinction, or from foundation to

virtual extinction or only just-escaped extinction. In various traditions that he

examines there were seven hundred years from the foundation to the destruction

of Melos, Carthage, and Macedonia, or from the foundation to the virtual extinc-

(Myth into History I: Foundations of the city)

tion of Sparta.192 What we see in the Ennius passage, in other words, is that the city

was virtually destroyed and came within an ace of fulfilling the seven-hundred year

doom. The point will have been accentuated by Ennius’s book divisions.

Camillus’s speech comes at the end of book 4, and the regal period ended with

book 3, so that up to this point in the Annales we have had only one self-contained

volume of Republican history, and if things had gone differently that might have

been all we had.193

Livy activates the power of this Ennian symbolic numeral, even as he corrects

Ennius’s dating, with his allusion to the seven hundred years of Rome (Pref. 4):

Res est praeterea et immensi operis, ut quae supra septingentesimum annum

repetatur et quae ab exiguis profecta initiis eo creuerit ut iam magnitudine

laboret sua.

In addition, the matter is of immeasurable scope, in that it must be taken back

past the seven hundredth year, and having started from small beginnings has

grown to the stage that it is now laboring under its own size.194

Chaplin has argued that Livy’s preface is constructing recent Roman history as a

death, with a possible rebirth to come:195 the Republic has been destroyed, and the

Romans of Livy’s time are like the Romans of Camillus’s time, faced with the task

of refounding the city after it has only just escaped its seven-hundred-year doom.

In Livy’s treatment of the Roman response to the sack of the city by the Gauls,

we can see him returning to the Ennian theme of rebirth from destruction,

although this time using different significant numbers. Having exploited the numinous

associations of Ennius’s seven hundred years in his preface, Livy now produces

another numinous numeral for the span from foundation to sack, one that

conforms with the modern orthodox chronology. Livy has Camillus deliver a

mighty speech to convince his fellow citizens not to abandon Rome for the site of

Veii (5.51–54).196When Livy’s Camillus echoes Ennius’s by counting off the years

since the foundation, it appears that some kind of great year has gone by. From

Romulus’s foundation down to the sack by the Gauls there have been as many

years as there are days in a year: Trecentensimus sexagensimus quintus annus urbis,

Quirites, agitur (“This is the 365th year of the city, Quirites,” 5.54.5). This is of

course a calculation that fully resonates only after Caesar’s reform of the calendar,

when a Roman year for the first time had 365 days.This counting places

Camillus’s refounding of the city at a pivotal point in time, precisely halfway

(Refounding the City: Ennius, Livy, Virgil . 101)

between the first founding of the city, in 753, and the refounding that faces Livy

and his contemporaries 365 years after Camillus, in the 20s b.c.e.198 Exactly the

same structuring appears to underpin the panorama of Roman history on Virgil’s

Shield of Aeneas, where the barely averted destruction of Rome by the Gauls (Aen.

8.652–62) comes midway in time between the foundation of the city (8.635) and

the barely averted destruction of Rome by Antonius and Cleopatra (8.671–713).199

In all of these authors, city destruction, whether achieved or barely averted,

leads to refoundation and consequent reconfiguring of identity, in a process that

begins with Troy and continues through the fates of Alba Longa, Veii, and Rome

itself.200 As Kraus has shown, when Livy begins his next book after the Gallic sack,

he refounds his narrative along with the city, capitalizing on the annalistic tradition’s

identification of the city and history.201 In an extraordinary moment, the

opening sentences of book 6 tell us that only now is real history beginning. All of

the material in the first five books, Livy now declares, has been “obscure because

of its excessive antiquity” (uetustate nimia obscuras), and because there were few

written records in those early days, while the ones that did exist “for the most part

were destroyed when the city was burnt” (incensa urbe pleraeque interiere, 6.1.2).

Everything up until this point, from Troy to the Gallic sack, is suddenly reconfigured

as prior, prefoundational. In his preface Livy had drawn a line between myth

and history around the time of the Romulean foundation of the city (ante conditam

condendamue urbem, 6), but “the fresh start in 390 redraws the limits of the historically

verifiable.”202We now have a new entry into history, with a newly rebuilt city

and a newly solid evidential base for its written commemoration (6.1.3):

Clariora deinceps certioraque ab secunda origine uelut ab stirpibus laetius

feraciusque renatae urbis gesta domi militiaeque exponentur.

From here there will be a more clear and definite exposition of the domestic

and military history of the city, reborn from a second origin, as if from the

old roots, with a more fertile and fruitful growth.203

Livy here is picking up on the annalistic history of Claudius Quadrigarius, who

had written about fifty years earlier. We know that Claudius began his history with

the sack of Rome by the Gauls, no doubt on the grounds we see alluded to in Livy,

that no history was possible before then, thanks to the destruction of monuments

and archives.204

We have already seen how the Roman tradition picks up demarcations that are

102 . Myth into History I: Foundations of the City

crucial from the Greek tradition—Troy and the first Olympiad—and recasts

them as transitions into a new, Roman, phase of history. The Gallic sack is a vital

addition to this series of watersheds. The first key fixed synchronistic point in

Timaeus and Polybius that makes it possible for Roman history to be properly connected

with Greek history, the Gallic sack is itself made to serve as the “beginning

of history” in Claudius Quadrigarius and Livy book 6.205 The very event that almost

expunged Rome altogether is the one that put the city on the world stage—

just as the destruction of Troy led to the city’s existence in the first place.206

Ovid intuited the power of these associated watersheds of foundation and Gallic

sack, and his subtle deployment of them in the Metamorphoses is proof of their

understood significance. Before he arrives at the foundation of Rome in book 14,

he has a very small number of proleptic references to the as yet nonexistent city.

Book 1 contains two forward references to his own day, with the poem’s first simile

referring to the reign of Augustus (1.199–205), and the story of Apollo and

Daphne likewise anticipating the reign of Augustus, as Apollo prophesies the use

of his sacred laurel to grace Roman triumphs and adorn Augustus’s house (1.560–

63). His only other proleptic references to the city before the foundation in book

14 occur in book 2, and they are both references to the city only just escaping total

catastrophe, catastrophes that would have ensured the city was never part of world

history. One is in a cosmic setting, when the natural site of the city is almost

expunged, as the Tiber is dried up along with other rivers by Phaethon’s chariot

(2.254–59); the other is an allusion to the geese that “were to save the Capitol with

their wakeful cry” (seruaturis uigili Capitolia uoce/ . . . anseribus, 2.538–39).207

Again, in the Fasti, when the gods meet in council to deliberate how to save Rome

from the Gauls, Ovid takes as his template the Ennian council that deliberated over

the foundation of the city: in both cases, Mars expostulates with his father, Jupiter,

and is assured that all will be well.208

It is highly significant that these two events, the city’s foundation and near

destruction by the Gauls, are the only “historical” events commemorated on the

Republican calendar, the Fasti Antiates.209 Calendrical fasti from the Principate

mention all kinds of events, but the Fasti Antiates, the only calendar we have surviving

from the Republic, mark only two historical events: 21 April, the Parilia and

the foundation of the city, and 18 July, the dies Alliensis, the day of the battle of the

Allia, when the Roman army was scattered by the advancing Gauls on their way

to the city, which they entered on the next day.210

The foundation of the city and its near extinction by the Gauls are symbolically

joined events, linked by significant numbers, either 700 or 365, linked by themes of

Refounding the City: Ennius, Livy, Virgil . 103

refoundation and rebirth. The history of the city keeps getting restarted at such

crucial transition moments, when repetitive patterns of quasi-cyclical destruction

and refoundation replay themselves, in a fascinating interplay between a drive for

onward narrative continuity and the threat of eddying, repetitious, circularity.211 It

is poignant to observe the power of this theme still persisting in the fifth century

c.e., when Rutilius Namatianus, six years after the sack of Rome by the Visigoths

in 410 c.e., can hail Rome’s potential to bounce back from disaster, citing its eventual

defeat of Brennus, who led the Gauls to the sack of Rome, and of the Samnites,

Pyrrhus, and Hannibal:212 “You, Rome, are built up,” he claims, “by the very thing

that undoes other powers: the pattern of your rebirth is the ability to grow from

your calamities” (illud te reparat quod cetera regna resoluit:/ordo renascendi est

crescere posse malis, 139–40). Each of these key marker moments in time may become

a new opportunity for the community to reimagine itself, as the epochal moment

produces a new beginning point from which the community may imagine its

progress forward into time, measured against its backward extension into time.213

 

_______________________________ __________________________

 

The Gauls in the Italia peninsula .Clusium was reached by the Gauls, who had invaded most of Etruria already, and its people turned to Rome for help. However, the Roman embassy provoked a skirmish and, then, the Gauls marched straight for Rome (July, 387 BC). After the entire Roman army was defeated at the Allia brook (Battle of the Allia), the defenseless Rome was seized by the invaders. The entire Roman army retreated into the deserted Veii whereas most civilians ended at the Etruscan Caere. Nonetheless, a surrounded Roman garrison continued to resist on the Capitoline Hill. The Gauls dwelt within the city, getting their supplies by destroying all nearby towns for plunder.When the Gauls went for Ardea, the exiled Camillus, who was now a private man, organized the local forces for a defense. Particularly, he harangued that, always, the Gauls exterminated their defeated enemies. Camillus found that the Gauls were too distracted, celebrating their latest spoils with much 'crapulence' at their camp. Then, he attacked during a night, defeating the enemy easily with great bloodshed.He is thus considered the second founder of Rome.Camillus was hailed then by all other Roman exiles throughout the region. After he refused a makeshift generalship, a Roman messenger sneaked into the Capitol and, therein, Camillus was officially appointed dictator by the Roman Senators, to confront the Gauls.At the Roman base of Veii, Camillus gathered a 12,000-man army whereas more men joined out of the region. The occupying Gauls were in serious need, under quite poor health conditions. As the Roman Dictator, Camillus negotiated with the Gallic leader Brennus, and the Gauls left Rome, camping nearby at the Gabinian road. A day after this, Camillus confronted them with his refreshed army and the Gauls were forced to withdraw, after seven months of occupation (386 BC).

Camillus sacrificed for the successful return and he ordered the construction of the temple of Aius Locutius. Then, he subdued another claim of the plebeian orators, who importuned further about moving to Veii. After ordering a Senate debate, Camillus argued for staying and the Roman house approved this unanimously. The reconstruction extended for an entire year.

 

By this one-year office, Camillus was the longest of all Roman dictators. Basically, the Senators had been persuaded by the disturbing social clashes, which could be better managed by Camillus. Instead, Camillus disliked this and, vainly, he requested the dismissal.

 

Roman dictator (367 BC)

As the Gauls were, again, marching toward Latium, all Romans reunited despite their severe differences. Camillus was named Roman dictator for the fifth time then (367 BC). He organized the defense of Rome actively. By the commands of Camillus, the Roman soldiers were protected particularly against the Gallic main attack, the heavy blow of their swords. Both smooth iron helmets and brass rimed shields were built. Also, long pikes were used, to keep the enemy's swords far.

The Gauls camped at the Anio river, carrying loads of recently gotten plunder. Near them, at the Alban Hills, Camillus discovered their disorganization, which was due to unruly celebrations. Before the dawn, then, the light infantry disarrayed the Gallic defenses and, subsequently, the heavy infantry and the pikemen of the Romans finished their enemy. After the battle, Velitrae surrendered voluntarily to Rome. Back in Rome, Camillus celebrated with another Triumph.

 

ancientimes.blogspot.co.nz/2007/06/brennus-and-first-sack...

 

A deadly pestilence struck Rome and it affected most Roman public figures. Camillus was amongst them, passing away in 365 BC.

 

Source: Plutarch, The Parallel Lives - The Life of Camillus:

 

In popular culture

Marcus Furius Camillus was played by Massimo Serato in the 1963 film 'Brennus, Enemy of Rome'.

 

www.flickr.com/photos/ggnyc/1405297848/

 

BC 400's Celts from the Alps flowed into Italy ....

Herodotus of Halicarnassus reported a merchant from Samos named Colacus was driven off course by tides and winds when trading off the African shore. He landed at the Tartessus (modern River Guadalquivir in southern Spain) where he found tribes of Keltoi working the silver mines

396 BC Celts defeated the Etruscans at Melpum (Melzo, west of Milan)

390 Senones Celts ('the veterans') led by Brennos (Latinate: Brennus) defeated the Romans in Rome (July 19) so badly it took the Romans 200 years to recover from the 'terror Gallicus'. After seven months and a ransom of 100 pounds of gold, the Celts moved along to Picenum on Italy's eastern seaboard.

Ephoros of Cyme reported the Celts occupied an area the size of the Indian sub-continent.

334-335 Alexander of Macedonia met the Celts on the Danube banks to make an agreement: The Celts would not attack his empire while he was off conquering in the east. Only after his death they expanded to Moravia and Thrace .

 

----------- ----------

 

Along with Bolgios, Brennos II was the legendary leader of other Celts on their invasion of Macedonia in the second century BCE. Though Bolgios led the invasion of Macedonia , Brennus succeeded in crossing his whole army over the river Sperchios into Greece proper, where he laid seige to the town of Heraclea and, having driven out the garrison there, marched on to Thermopylae where he defeated an army raised by a confederation of Greek cities. Brennus then avanced across Greece, where he decided to go on to Delphi, which was reported as the treasure house of Greece. Brennus and his army of 30,000 set off to attack the temple of Apollo, the ultimate goal of his expedition. Here it is said that Brennos was defeated by earthquakes and thunderbolts that reduced the soldiers to ashes; snow storms, showers of great stones, and "ancient heroes appearing from the heavens". In the midst of this snowstorm, Brennos and his men were attacked near the Parnassus mountains. The Celts were soundly defeated and Brennos was mortally wounded. As he lay dying, he gave the order for all of the wounded to be killed, and all the booty to be burned, as the army would never make it home if they had to carry the wounded warriors and their plunder. After giving the order, Brennos drank some wine and then took his own life. (? Source)

 

www.maryjones.us/ctexts/classical_pausianas.html

 

The Description of Greece

Pausanias (fl. 2nd c. CE) XIX.

[5] "I have made some mention of the Gallic invasion of Greece in my description of the Athenian Council Chamber. But I have resolved to give a more detailed account of the Gauls in my description of Delphi, because the greatest of the Greek exploits against the barbarians took place there. The Celts conducted their first foreign expedition under the leadership of Cambaules. Advancing as far as Thrace they lost heart and broke off their march, realizing that they were too few in number to be a match for the Greeks. "...........

 

10]" When the Gallic horsemen were engaged, the servants remained behind the ranks and proved useful in the following way. Should a horseman or his horse fall, the slave brought him a horse to mount; if the rider was killed, the slave mounted the horse in his master's place; if both rider and horse were killed, there was a mounted man ready. When a rider was wounded, one slave brought back to camp the wounded man, while the other took his vacant place in the ranks.

 

[11] I believe that the Gauls in adopting these methods copied the Persian regiment of the Ten Thousand, who were called the Immortals. There was, however, this difference. The Persians used to wait until the battle was over before replacing casualties, while the Gauls kept reinforcing the horsemen to their full number during the height of the action. This organization is called in their native speech trimarcisia, for I would have you know that marca3 is the Celtic name for a horse. "

 

(Addit :we know from Celtic myth this was indigenous to the confederacy of Celtic tribes as on Gundestrup Cauldron ,warrior plate)

 

[12] "This was the size of the army, and such was the intention of Brennos, when he attacked Greece. The spirit of the Greeks was utterly broken, but the extremity of their terror forced them to defend Greece. They realized that the struggle that faced them would not be one for liberty, as it was when they fought the Persian, and that giving water and earth would not bring them safety. They still remembered the fate of Macedonia, Thrace and Paeonia during the former incursion of the Gauls, and reports were coming in of enormities committed at that very time on the Thessalians. So every man, as well as every state, was convinced that they must either conquer or perish. "

  

Attalus I (Greek: Ἄτταλος), surnamed Soter (Greek: Σωτὴρ, "Savior"; 269 BC – 197 BC) ruled Pergamon, an Ionian Greek polis (what is now Bergama, Turkey), first as dynast, later as king, from 241 BC to 197 BC. He was the second cousin and the adoptive son of Eumenes I, whom he succeeded, and was the first of the Attalid dynasty to assume the title of king in 238 BC.He was the son of Attalus and his wife Antiochis.

 

Attalus won an important victory over the Galatians, newly arrived Celtic tribes from Thrace, who had been, for more than a generation, plundering and exacting tribute throughout most of Asia Minor without any serious check. This victory, celebrated by the triumphal monument at Pergamon, famous for its 'Dying Galatian' or 'Gaul' statue , and the liberation from the Gallic "terror" which it represented, earned for Attalus the name of "Soter", and the title of "king". A courageous and capable general and loyal ally of Rome, he played a significant role in the first and second Macedonian Wars, waged against Philip V of Macedon.

  

Etymologically Brennos is related to Brân and is related to the reconstructed proto-Celtic lexical elements *brano- (raven) -n- (the deicific particle) and os (the masculine ending). Thus Brennos is literally the 'Raven God'. However, the bren part of the name is also the root for one Cymric word for king brenhin and Brennos can be rendered as 'Raven King'. Which also leads to the supposition that 'Brennos', rather than being a proper name is actually an honorific denoting 'battle lord'. Raven gods being tribal leaders in the time of war so a Celtic war leader would take-on the name of such a deity. Indeed, the modern Cymric for king is brenin a word derived from 'Brennos'.

An actual late Iron Age helmet like this has been located in ancient Dacia , Translyvania , now modern Roumania/ Romania the Helmet of Ciumeşti.

www.flickr.com/photos/42003310@N05/4886860352/

As one of the styles depicted on the Celtic Gundestrup Cauldron.

Wilcox and McBride mentioned that their illustration of the iron Gallic warrior's helmet of the middle La Tene period had been reconstructed the on the basis of the Ciumesti helmet.[45]

ive been in miami. (bitch!)

ha. sorry for the language.

 

anyhoooo, im sorry for not uploading / keeping up with your fabulous pictures! but the internet was nonexistent :[

 

i took just about a bajillion pictures and will be posting them asap!

 

btw, loves, i am thinking about quitting 365. i mean, its not like ive actually been keeping up with it. and school is about to start.. we'll see.

<3

 

explore #393 on august 21, 2009! thank you guys :]

Hand-made map (yes, on paper and with red pens) of a non-existent fantasy city on a fictive island. The city/map is called Vaddum, after Wad/Watt/Vad, a unique mudland sea area that stretches along the North Sea's Dutch/German/Danish coast.

 

Can you find...

- a boulevard that used to be a four-lane highway?

-the world ("upside down")?

-where the former fortresses of the old city are today?

 

Topography

Vaddum's island is, say, twice the size of Sylt and has a very elongated east-west form. The northern coast consists of sand beaches and dunes; the southern has dikes to protect the farmland from monthly floodings that are so typical to the mudland sea. Vaddum is on the southern coast, where two fresh water streams merge and become salty. The sea here is very prone to the tides, with all the hatched areas being land for 3 hours, than sea for 3 hours, then land again and so on. A storm surge barrier closes when water levels are hazardously high.In the north of the city, a rare southern stretch of dunes seperates the two streams.

 

Transport

A highway system runs east-west, but is interrrupted by the built-up environment and dunes. A new tunnel and pieces of highway in the north are visible, but is yet to be delivered. Three railways connect Vaddum: to the east, west and north, all terminating at the new ferry dock. Also an urban train connects the university campus and eastern bank's neighbourhoods with the city centre. The ferry dock was initially near the city centre, where passenger ferries keep docking "today"; later, a modern quay at near the southernmost bridge was opened; "nowadays", most ferries dock at the large ferry dam that points into the all tide's shipping lane.

 

Urban expansions

In the 1870s, after the Dutch "Fortress Act" came into force, the old protective walls were demolished, although some remained as a park (left of the centre). People in the city could expand outwart and did so. In the 1930s, Garden Cities came in the west, while the eastern bank got settled as well. In the 1950 and 1960s, the apartment flat neighbourhood was the quickest and cheapest (and very modernistic) architectural syle, which is visible in the eastern bank. In the 1970 and 1980s, 'colliflower' suburbs of winding streets and hollow (park) centres, were popular (middle left). Then, in the 1990-2000s, large neighbourhoods with fancy patterns came (lower left; middle right; upper left). Now, water rich suburbs for the richer are popular (upper right).

 

2014.

 

THEME: www.youtube.com/watch?v=tUAcDMHuC2E

 

Introducing my Self-MOC! This is actually the 12th version (12.4 to be exact) and a character reboot, though, and I have revamped the whole thing again since this version, too. I will post a picture showing some of the previous versions (I don't have pictures of pre-7th versions, except for the very first), just so you can get an idea of the evolution of the character.

 

---DESCRIPTION---

Nicknamed "Rahksha" due to her Makuta heritage, Nyctoria is somewhat of a Toa: the most accurate way to put it is, she's a protector...of sorts. She has a strong link with the Netherverse, enabling her to draw on its dark power to perform necromancy, as well as harvest souls and summon them as Netherwalkers (inhabitants of the Netherverse) with her scythe. She can also reanimate corpses to serve her by using seals on their Kanohi.

 

However, the power of the Netherverse always takes it toll, and the user's soul - and therefore body - will decay the more they use it. The only way to maintain oneself is to harvest the souls of others. Hence, Nyctoria hunts down villains to defeat and consume.

 

While Nyctoria does defend others from Makuta and other threats, she is not altrustic in her motives -- she will just as easily consume innocents if there is no other source available, and rarely helps others unless she perceives them or the target as useful in her quest for revenge against her "father", Teridax -- and by extension, her de facto creator, Mutran.

 

As an individual, Nyctoria is largely anti-social, apathetic and an on-off misanthrope - hardly surprising considering her origins. That being said, she is not without a sense of justice and empathy, although her concept of morality is nonexistent at worst and dubious at best.

 

---BIO---

NAME: Nyctoria

 

ALIASES: Rahksha, Daughter of Teridax, Destral's Shadowborne

 

SPECIES: Rahkshi/Toa (mutant; Kraata infused with energy from a Nui Stone)

 

GENDER: Female

 

KANOHI: N/A

 

ELEMENT: Shadow

 

WEAPON: Harvest Scythe - "Slayer's Slave"

 

It's been a couple of (long) years... With "stay home" orders, park closure and overcrowding, my visits to BPNP had been nonexistent. It was time to see if it still has a place in my heart ...

So the movement range comparison goes thusly.. knees and chest joints on Skipper are nonexistent so that leaves wrists and elbows. Nikki has a little more range in the elbows, but Skipper has a lot more range in the wrists. She also has very pretty graceful pianist hands, which are also bigger than Nikki's. With longer fingers. Ha ha.

The striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) is an omnivorous mammal of the skunk family Mephitidae. Found north of Mexico, it is one of the best-known mammals in south Canada and the United States.

The striped skunk can be found in elevations up to 1800 m but rarely above 4000 m. Skunks can be found in a number of habitats, including woodlands, grasslands and agricultural lands.

The striped skunk has a black body with a white stripe along each side of its body; the two stripes join into a broader white area at the nape. Its forehead has a narrow white stripe. Similar in size to a domestic cat. Adults can weigh 1.1 to 6.8 kg, although the average weight is 2.7 to 3.6 kg. The animal's length (excluding the tail) is 33 to 46 cm. Males tend to be around 10% larger than females. The bushy tail is 18 to 25 cm, and sometimes has a white tip.

The striped skunk is omnivorous and has a varied diet. Its diet consists mostly of insects such as beetles, grasshoppers and crickets. It also eats earthworms, snails, crayfish, wasps and ants.

The presence of a striped skunk is often first made apparent by its odor. It has well-developed anal scent glands (characteristic of all skunks) that can emit a highly unpleasant odor when the skunk feels threatened. Most predatory animals of the Americas, such as wolves, foxes and badgers, seldom attack skunks – presumably out of fear of being sprayed. The exception is the great horned owl—the animal's only serious predator—which, like most birds, has a poor-to-nonexistent sense of smell.

This picture was taken in Wildpark Frankenhof in Reken, Münsterland, Germany.

 

Het gestreept stinkdier of de gestreepte skunk (Mephitis mephitis) is het bekendste stinkdier. Het gestreept stinkdier heeft een zwarte vacht met twee brede strepen over de rug en de staart. Ook de schouders en de kap boven op de kop zijn wit. De hoeveelheid wit varieert per dier: er zijn bijna geheel zwarte stinkdieren en bijna geheel witte. Over de gezicht loopt een dunne, witte streep. De staart is ruig. Het gestreept stinkdier wordt zo groot als een huiskat. Hij wordt 33 à 45 cm lang en 2,7 à 6,3 kg zwaar, met een staartlengte van 18 à 45 cm. Mannetjes zijn iets groter dan vrouwtjes.

Gestreepte stinkdieren zijn omnivoren. Zij hebben een gevarieerd menu, dat bestaat uit insecten, kleine prooidieren, kadavers, vis, schaaldieren, fruit, gras, bladeren, granen en noten. Ongeveer 70 % van hun dieet bestaat uit insecten.

Berucht, maar doeltreffend, is hun verdediging. Met opgeheven staart en stampende voorpoten wordt een aanvaller gewaarschuwd. Trekt deze zich niet terug, dan spuit het stinkdier de inhoud van zijn extreem onaangenaam ruikende anaalklieren tot op drie meter ver recht in het gezicht. De meeste roofdieren mijden daarom stinkdieren.

Deze soort komt voor komt voor in bijna geheel Noord-Amerika, in de zuidelijke helft van Canada, de Verenigde Staten en in noordelijk Mexico, in een groot areaal van verscheidene biotopen: in onder andere woestijnen, bossen, prairies, grasvlakten en buitenwijken kan hij worden aangetroffen.

Deze foto is genomen in Wildpark Frankenhof, in Reken, Münsterland, Duitsland.

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All rights reserved. Copyright © Martien Uiterweerd. All my images are protected under international authors copyright laws and may not be downloaded, reproduced, copied, transmitted or manipulated without my written explicit permission.

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Radical Christianity

Radical Christianity is a life-style, not just a mindset; radical Christianity is concerned with conquering, not cowering; with sacrifice, not superficiality; with victory, not verbiage; with scoring, not slumming; with penetration, not pandering. Radical Christianity is in first gear, neutral is nonexistent; radical Christianity is courageous but never constrictive constraining or cautious! Radical Christianity moves mountains; crosses Red Seas; pulls down walls; builds walls; walks on water; raises the dead; calms storms; feeds 5000 and walks through closed doors.

 

It suffers regularly; soars often; sweats daily; saturates everything and spreads everywhere. Radical Christianity calls sin black, hell hot, hypocrisy evil, Satan a liar and judgment sure. It doesn’t back down, sit down or stay down. Radical Christianity doesn't depend on the strokes of others to keep it going. It doesn’t acquiesce in the face of loud opposition, fold under pressure, wince under criticism, tarnish under time, die under duress, fade under technology nor rot under moisture. It doesn’t rust, retreat, renounce, reconsider, return or renege.

 

Radical Christianity always lifts up Christ; knocks down barriers; marches over objections; overwhelms pessimism; gobbles up cynicism; and tramples down skepticism.

 

Radical Christianity gives lavishly; prays relentlessly; claims abundantly; works feverishly; preaches powerfully; serves lovingly; perseveres patiently and believes expectantly! Radical Christianity dares to challenge the prevailing standard to make it God’s. It never plays to the grandstands; nor waters down its position; nor adjusts its principles, but rather is a thermostat that controls its surroundings, never a thermometer that merely adjusts to them. It is never big, popular, stylish, convenient, in vogue or in-step with the world. Its adherents are few; its sound clear; its philosophy unpopular and its rewards great. Its disciples aren’t rewarded by this world but are those to whom Christ will say, “Well done!”

--From Open Doors, STANDING STRONG THROUGH THE STORM

 

November 26

well, it's been a month since my pukipuki cupid2 went missing. for those who didn't see my picture about it before, 2 days after i got her, she disappeared. i fell asleep with her on the end table, woke up the next day and she was gone. tore the house about for days. we assume my brother's cat, who steals EVERYTHING(especially my stuff), stole it and hid it. we checked everywhere, even the trash and places he couldn't get to. couldn't and still can't find her.

 

i am so unbelievably upset about it, but i think it's time to move on and accept she's gone forever. :'( i probably won't get another one for a while, i wish i didn't have to, part of me doesn't want to "replace" her, and honestly i don't want to drop that money on her again so soon. :/ i have to start saving for months to get her again. :(

 

*le really really big sigh*

 

i'm holding funeral services in my heart starting tomorrow, for the rest of my life. donations can be sent to the charity "making stupid cats who steal stuff not thievingly stupid anymore", which is a nonexistent charity i just made up.

 

i miss you polka, i love you. sorry you went missing.

love, me. <3

I love the opportunity to be backstage at my granddaughter's dance competitions, in spite of the almost nonexistent lighting and cramped (often just plain ugly) dressing rooms. This is from one of favorite routines done by her group choreographed to "All the Best People are Crazy (Mad Hatter)".