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The RAF Typhoon displaying at Airbourne - the Eastbourne Airshow. I love looking for the atmospheric effects - either from the low pressure areas above the wings or from the hot afterburner exhausts.
The Royal Scot crossing the River Adur on the partially re-painted bridge at a high spring tide.
I was among a small group of men and boys waiting for the delayed appearance of the loco. Luckily, it arrived during a sunny gap as clouds driven by storm Brian whizzed across the sky
GREAT NORTH SNOWDOGS 2016
Proving there’s no business like ‘snow’ business, the Great North Snowdogs event bounds into Newcastle and Tyne & Wear this September, 2016. More than 50 large-scale Snowdog sculptures, inspired by the much-loved, animated short film, The Snowman and The Snowdog will be joined by a pack of little Snowdog sculptures, designed by local school children. The event is being delivered by Wild in Art in partnership with St Oswald’s Hospice Children’s Service. Proceeds from the Snowdogs charity Auction will go towards supporting children with incurable conditions.
Dates: 19 September 2016 – 20 November 2016
Farewell Weekend: 2 – 4 December 2016
Auction: 6 December 2016
Location: Newcastle and Tyne & Wear
Charity Partner: St Oswald’s Hospice
Event website: Great North Snowdogs
Grainger Town is the historic commercial centre of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. It covers approximately 36 ha (89 acres). Almost all of Grainger Town is in Newcastle's Central Conservation Area, one of the first designated in England. The area includes a mediaeval 13th-century Dominican friary, pieces of the historic Town Walls, and many fine Georgian and Victorian buildings.
The area is named after Richard Grainger, a developer who built several classical streets between 1824 and 1841, including Grey Street, Grainger Street, and Clayton Street. Richard Grainger was said to “have found Newcastle of bricks and timber and left it in stone”.
Some of Newcastle's finest buildings are in Grainger Town, including Grainger Market and Theatre Royal. These buildings are predominantly four stories, with vertical dormers, domes, turrets, and spikes. The architecture is dubbed “Tyneside Classical”. Grainger Town has 450 buildings, and 244 are listed (29 at grade I and 49 at grade II*). The majority of buildings remain in private ownership.
Sir Nikolaus Pevsner described Grey Street as “one of the finest streets in England”. The area around it and Grey's Monument is expanding quickly, with high-quality shopping, including designer fashions and jewelry. The Central Exchange, containing the Edwardian Central Arcade, is located in Grainger Town.
Grainger built Grey Street in the 1830s. Several architects, including John Dobson, were involved. The street’s entire western side was designed by two architects from Grainger's office, John Wardle and George Walker. Grey Street contains the Theatre Royal designed by John and Benjamin Green, the southern entrance to Monument Metro station, and the Central Arcade. BBC Radio 4 listeners voted it “Best street in the UK” in 2010.
Initially named Upper Dean Street, Grey Street runs south from Grey's Monument, following the route of the Lorke or Lort Burn, which formerly flowed openly into the Tyne and is now enclosed, curving slowly to the east and descending to the river. It ends after the Mosley Street junction, where Dean Street, constructed in 1749, begins.
Sir John Betjeman said:
As for the curve of Grey Street, I shall never forget seeing it to perfection, traffic-less on a misty Sunday morning. Not even Regent Street, even old Regent Street London, can compare with that descending subtle curve.
Newcastle upon Tyne, or simply Newcastle is a cathedral city and metropolitan borough in Tyne and Wear, England. It is located on the River Tyne's northern bank, opposite Gateshead to the south. It is the most populous settlement in the Tyneside conurbation and North East England.
Newcastle developed around a Roman settlement called Pons Aelius, the settlement became known as Monkchester before taking on the name of a castle built in 1080 by William the Conqueror's eldest son, Robert Curthose. It was one of the world's largest ship building and repair centres during the industrial revolution. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it separated and formed a county of itself. In 1974, Newcastle became part of Tyne and Wear. Since 2018, the city council has been part of the North of Tyne Combined Authority.
The history of Newcastle upon Tyne dates back almost 2,000 years, during which it has been controlled by the Romans, the Angles and the Norsemen amongst others. Newcastle upon Tyne was originally known by its Roman name Pons Aelius. The name "Newcastle" has been used since the Norman conquest of England. Due to its prime location on the River Tyne, the town developed greatly during the Middle Ages and it was to play a major role in the Industrial Revolution, being granted city status in 1882. Today, the city is a major retail, commercial and cultural centre.
Roman settlement
The history of Newcastle dates from AD 122, when the Romans built the first bridge to cross the River Tyne at that point. The bridge was called Pons Aelius or 'Bridge of Aelius', Aelius being the family name of Roman Emperor Hadrian, who was responsible for the Roman wall built across northern England along the Tyne–Solway gap. Hadrian's Wall ran through present-day Newcastle, with stretches of wall and turrets visible along the West Road, and at a temple in Benwell. Traces of a milecastle were found on Westgate Road, midway between Clayton Street and Grainger Street, and it is likely that the course of the wall corresponded to present-day Westgate Road. The course of the wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort at Wallsend, with the fort of Arbeia down-river at the mouth of the Tyne, on the south bank in what is now South Shields. The Tyne was then a wider, shallower river at this point and it is thought that the bridge was probably about 700 feet (210 m) long, made of wood and supported on stone piers. It is probable that it was sited near the current Swing Bridge, due to the fact that Roman artefacts were found there during the building of the latter bridge. Hadrian himself probably visited the site in 122. A shrine was set up on the completed bridge in 123 by the 6th Legion, with two altars to Neptune and Oceanus respectively. The two altars were subsequently found in the river and are on display in the Great North Museum in Newcastle.
The Romans built a stone-walled fort in 150 to protect the river crossing which was at the foot of the Tyne Gorge, and this took the name of the bridge so that the whole settlement was known as Pons Aelius. The fort was situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the new bridge, on the site of the present Castle Keep. Pons Aelius is last mentioned in 400, in a Roman document listing all of the Roman military outposts. It is likely that nestling in the shadow of the fort would have been a small vicus, or village. Unfortunately, no buildings have been detected; only a few pieces of flagging. It is clear that there was a Roman cemetery near Clavering Place, behind the Central station, as a number of Roman coffins and sarcophagi have been unearthed there.
Despite the presence of the bridge, the settlement of Pons Aelius was not particularly important among the northern Roman settlements. The most important stations were those on the highway of Dere Street running from Eboracum (York) through Corstopitum (Corbridge) and to the lands north of the Wall. Corstopitum, being a major arsenal and supply centre, was much larger and more populous than Pons Aelius.
Anglo-Saxon development
The Angles arrived in the North-East of England in about 500 and may have landed on the Tyne. There is no evidence of an Anglo-Saxon settlement on or near the site of Pons Aelius during the Anglo-Saxon age. The bridge probably survived and there may well have been a small village at the northern end, but no evidence survives. At that time the region was dominated by two kingdoms, Bernicia, north of the Tees and ruled from Bamburgh, and Deira, south of the Tees and ruled from York. Bernicia and Deira combined to form the kingdom of Northanhymbra (Northumbria) early in the 7th century. There were three local kings who held the title of Bretwalda – 'Lord of Britain', Edwin of Deira (627–632), Oswald of Bernicia (633–641) and Oswy of Northumbria (641–658). The 7th century became known as the 'Golden Age of Northumbria', when the area was a beacon of culture and learning in Europe. The greatness of this period was based on its generally Christian culture and resulted in the Lindisfarne Gospels amongst other treasures. The Tyne valley was dotted with monasteries, with those at Monkwearmouth, Hexham and Jarrow being the most famous. Bede, who was based at Jarrow, wrote of a royal estate, known as Ad Murum, 'at the Wall', 12 miles (19 km) from the sea. It is thought that this estate may have been in what is now Newcastle. At some unknown time, the site of Newcastle came to be known as Monkchester. The reason for this title is unknown, as we are unaware of any specific monasteries at the site, and Bede made no reference to it. In 875 Halfdan Ragnarsson, the Danish Viking conqueror of York, led an army that attacked and pillaged various monasteries in the area, and it is thought that Monkchester was also pillaged at this time. Little more was heard of it until the coming of the Normans.
Norman period
After the arrival of William the Conqueror in England in 1066, the whole of England was quickly subjected to Norman rule. However, in Northumbria there was great resistance to the Normans, and in 1069 the newly appointed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines and 700 of his men were killed by the local population at Durham. The Northumbrians then marched on York, but William was able to suppress the uprising. That same year, a second uprising occurred when a Danish fleet landed in the Humber. The Northumbrians again attacked York and destroyed the garrison there. William was again able to suppress the uprising, but this time he took revenge. He laid waste to the whole of the Midlands and the land from York to the Tees. In 1080, William Walcher, the Norman bishop of Durham and his followers were brutally murdered at Gateshead. This time Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William's half brother, devastated the land between the Tees and the Tweed. This was known as the 'Harrying of the North'. This devastation is reflected in the Domesday Book. The destruction had such an effect that the North remained poor and backward at least until Tudor times and perhaps until the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle suffered in this respect with the rest of the North.
In 1080 William sent his eldest son, Robert Curthose, north to defend the kingdom against the Scots. After his campaign, he moved to Monkchester and began the building of a 'New Castle'. This was of the "motte-and-bailey" type of construction, a wooden tower on top of an earthen mound (motte), surrounded by a moat and wooden stockade (bailey). It was this castle that gave Newcastle its name. In 1095 the Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Mowbray, rose up against the king, William Rufus, and Rufus sent an army north to recapture the castle. From then on the castle became crown property and was an important base from which the king could control the northern barons. The Northumbrian earldom was abolished and a Sheriff of Northumberland was appointed to administer the region. In 1091 the parish church of St Nicholas was consecrated on the site of the present Anglican cathedral, close by the bailey of the new castle. The church is believed to have been a wooden building on stone footings.
Not a trace of the tower or mound of the motte and bailey castle remains now. Henry II replaced it with a rectangular stone keep, which was built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £1,444. A stone bailey, in the form of a triangle, replaced the previous wooden one. The great outer gateway to the castle, called 'the Black Gate', was built later, between 1247 and 1250, in the reign of Henry III. There were at that time no town walls and when attacked by the Scots, the townspeople had to crowd into the bailey for safety. It is probable that the new castle acted as a magnet for local merchants because of the safety it provided. This in turn would help to expand trade in the town. At this time wool, skins and lead were being exported, whilst alum, pepper and ginger were being imported from France and Flanders.
Middle Ages
Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was England's northern fortress, the centre for assembled armies. The Border war against Scotland lasted intermittently for several centuries – possibly the longest border war ever waged. During the civil war between Stephen and Matilda, David 1st of Scotland and his son were granted Cumbria and Northumberland respectively, so that for a period from 1139 to 1157, Newcastle was effectively in Scottish hands. It is believed that during this period, King David may have built the church of St Andrew and the Benedictine nunnery in Newcastle. However, King Stephen's successor, Henry II was strong enough to take back the Earldom of Northumbria from Malcolm IV.
The Scots king William the Lion was imprisoned in Newcastle, in 1174, after being captured at the Battle of Alnwick. Edward I brought the Stone of Scone and William Wallace south through the town and Newcastle was successfully defended against the Scots three times during the 14th century.
Around 1200, stone-faced, clay-filled jetties were starting to project into the river, an indication that trade was increasing in Newcastle. As the Roman roads continued to deteriorate, sea travel was gaining in importance. By 1275 Newcastle was the sixth largest wool exporting port in England. The principal exports at this time were wool, timber, coal, millstones, dairy produce, fish, salt and hides. Much of the developing trade was with the Baltic countries and Germany. Most of the Newcastle merchants were situated near the river, below the Castle. The earliest known charter was dated 1175 in the reign of Henry II, giving the townspeople some control over their town. In 1216 King John granted Newcastle a mayor[8] and also allowed the formation of guilds (known as Mysteries). These were cartels formed within different trades, which restricted trade to guild members. There were initially twelve guilds. Coal was being exported from Newcastle by 1250, and by 1350 the burgesses received a royal licence to export coal. This licence to export coal was jealously guarded by the Newcastle burgesses, and they tried to prevent any one else on the Tyne from exporting coal except through Newcastle. The burgesses similarly tried to prevent fish from being sold anywhere else on the Tyne except Newcastle. This led to conflicts with Gateshead and South Shields.
In 1265, the town was granted permission to impose a 'Wall Tax' or Murage, to pay for the construction of a fortified wall to enclose the town and protect it from Scottish invaders. The town walls were not completed until early in the 14th century. They were two miles (3 km) long, 9 feet (2.7 m) thick and 25 feet (7.6 m) high. They had six main gates, as well as some smaller gates, and had 17 towers. The land within the walls was divided almost equally by the Lort Burn, which flowed southwards and joined the Tyne to the east of the Castle. The town began to expand north of the Castle and west of the Lort Burn with various markets being set up within the walls.
In 1400 Henry IV granted a new charter, creating a County corporate which separated the town, but not the Castle, from the county of Northumberland and recognised it as a "county of itself" with a right to have a sheriff of its own. The burgesses were now allowed to choose six aldermen who, with the mayor would be justices of the peace. The mayor and sheriff were allowed to hold borough courts in the Guildhall.
Religious houses
During the Middle Ages a number of religious houses were established within the walls: the first of these was the Benedictine nunnery of St Bartholomew founded in 1086 near the present-day Nun Street. Both David I of Scotland and Henry I of England were benefactors of the religious house. Nothing of the nunnery remains now.
The friary of Blackfriars, Newcastle (Dominican) was established in 1239. These were also known as the Preaching Friars or Shod Friars, because they wore sandals, as opposed to other orders. The friary was situated in the present-day Friars Street. In 1280 the order was granted royal permission to make a postern in the town walls to communicate with their gardens outside the walls. On 19 June 1334, Edward Balliol, claimant to be King of Scotland, did homage to King Edward III, on behalf of the kingdom of Scotland, in the church of the friary. Much of the original buildings of the friary still exist, mainly because, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries the friary of Blackfriars was rented out by the corporation to nine of the local trade guilds.
The friary of Whitefriars (Carmelite) was established in 1262. The order was originally housed on the Wall Knoll in Pandon, but in 1307 it took over the buildings of another order, which went out of existence, the Friars of the Sac. The land, which had originally been given by Robert the Bruce, was situated in the present-day Hanover Square, behind the Central station. Nothing of the friary remains now.
The friary of Austinfriars (Augustinian) was established in 1290. The friary was on the site where the Holy Jesus Hospital was built in 1682. The friary was traditionally the lodging place of English kings whenever they visited or passed through Newcastle. In 1503 Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII of England, stayed two days at the friary on her way to join her new husband James IV of Scotland.
The friary of Greyfriars (Franciscans) was established in 1274. The friary was in the present-day area between Pilgrim Street, Grey Street, Market Street and High Chare. Nothing of the original buildings remains.
The friary of the Order of the Holy Trinity, also known as the Trinitarians, was established in 1360. The order devoted a third of its income to buying back captives of the Saracens, during the Crusades. Their house was on the Wall Knoll, in Pandon, to the east of the city, but within the walls. Wall Knoll had previously been occupied by the White Friars until they moved to new premises in 1307.
All of the above religious houses were closed in about 1540, when Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries.
An important street running through Newcastle at the time was Pilgrim Street, running northwards inside the walls and leading to the Pilgrim Gate on the north wall. The street still exists today as arguably Newcastle's main shopping street.
Tudor period
The Scottish border wars continued for much of the 16th century, so that during that time, Newcastle was often threatened with invasion by the Scots, but also remained important as a border stronghold against them.
During the Reformation begun by Henry VIII in 1536, the five Newcastle friaries and the single nunnery were dissolved and the land was sold to the Corporation and to rich merchants. At this time there were fewer than 60 inmates of the religious houses in Newcastle. The convent of Blackfriars was leased to nine craft guilds to be used as their headquarters. This probably explains why it is the only one of the religious houses whose building survives to the present day. The priories at Tynemouth and Durham were also dissolved, thus ending the long-running rivalry between Newcastle and the church for control of trade on the Tyne. A little later, the property of the nunnery of St Bartholomew and of Grey Friars were bought by Robert Anderson, who had the buildings demolished to build his grand Newe House (also known as Anderson Place).
With the gradual decline of the Scottish border wars the town walls were allowed to decline as well as the castle. By 1547, about 10,000 people were living in Newcastle. At the beginning of the 16th century exports of wool from Newcastle were more than twice the value of exports of coal, but during the century coal exports continued to increase.
Under Edward VI, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, sponsored an act allowing Newcastle to annexe Gateshead as its suburb. The main reason for this was to allow the Newcastle Hostmen, who controlled the export of Tyne coal, to get their hands on the Gateshead coal mines, previously controlled by the Bishop of Durham. However, when Mary I came to power, Dudley met his downfall and the decision was reversed. The Reformation allowed private access to coal mines previously owned by Tynemouth and Durham priories and as a result coal exports increase dramatically, from 15,000 tons in 1500 to 35,000 tons in 1565, and to 400,000 tons in 1625.
The plague visited Newcastle four times during the 16th century, in 1579 when 2,000 people died, in 1589 when 1700 died, in 1595 and finally in 1597.
In 1600 Elizabeth I granted Newcastle a charter for an exclusive body of electors, the right to elect the mayor and burgesses. The charter also gave the Hostmen exclusive rights to load coal at any point on the Tyne. The Hostmen developed as an exclusive group within the Merchant Adventurers who had been incorporated by a charter in 1547.
Stuart period
In 1636 there was a serious outbreak of bubonic plague in Newcastle. There had been several previous outbreaks of the disease over the years, but this was the most serious. It is thought to have arrived from the Netherlands via ships that were trading between the Tyne and that country. It first appeared in the lower part of the town near the docks but gradually spread to all parts of the town. As the disease gained hold the authorities took measures to control it by boarding up any properties that contained infected persons, meaning that whole families were locked up together with the infected family members. Other infected persons were put in huts outside the town walls and left to die. Plague pits were dug next to the town's four churches and outside the town walls to receive the bodies in mass burials. Over the course of the outbreak 5,631 deaths were recorded out of an estimated population of 12,000, a death rate of 47%.
In 1637 Charles I tried to raise money by doubling the 'voluntary' tax on coal in return for allowing the Newcastle Hostmen to regulate production and fix prices. This caused outrage amongst the London importers and the East Anglian shippers. Both groups decided to boycott Tyne coal and as a result forced Charles to reverse his decision in 1638.
In 1640 during the Second Bishops' War, the Scots successfully invaded Newcastle. The occupying army demanded £850 per day from the Corporation to billet the Scottish troops. Trade from the Tyne ground to a halt during the occupation. The Scots left in 1641 after receiving a Parliamentary pardon and a £4,000,000 loan from the town.
In 1642 the English Civil War began. King Charles realised the value of the Tyne coal trade and therefore garrisoned Newcastle. A Royalist was appointed as governor. At that time, Newcastle and King's Lynn were the only important seaports to support the crown. In 1644 Parliament blockaded the Tyne to prevent the king from receiving revenue from the Tyne coal trade. Coal exports fell from 450,000 to 3,000 tons and London suffered a hard winter without fuel. Parliament encouraged the coal trade from the Wear to try to replace that lost from Newcastle but that was not enough to make up for the lost Tyneside tonnage.
In 1644 the Scots crossed the border. Newcastle strengthened its defences in preparation. The Scottish army, with 40,000 troops, besieged Newcastle for three months until the garrison of 1,500 surrendered. During the siege, the Scots bombarded the walls with their artillery, situated in Gateshead and Castle Leazes. The Scottish commander threatened to destroy the steeple of St Nicholas's Church by gunfire if the mayor, Sir John Marley, did not surrender the town. The mayor responded by placing Scottish prisoners that they had captured in the steeple, so saving it from destruction. The town walls were finally breached by a combination of artillery and sapping. In gratitude for this defence, Charles gave Newcastle the motto 'Fortiter Defendit Triumphans' to be added to its coat of arms. The Scottish army occupied Northumberland and Durham for two years. The coal taxes had to pay for the Scottish occupation. In 1645 Charles surrendered to the Scots and was imprisoned in Newcastle for nine months. After the Civil War the coal trade on the Tyne soon picked up and exceeded its pre-war levels.
A new Guildhall was completed on the Sandhill next to the river in 1655, replacing an earlier facility damaged by fire in 1639, and became the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council. In 1681 the Hospital of the Holy Jesus was built partly on the site of the Austin Friars. The Guildhall and Holy Jesus Hospital still exist.
Charles II tried to impose a charter on Newcastle to give the king the right to appoint the mayor, sheriff, recorder and town clerk. Charles died before the charter came into effect. In 1685, James II tried to replace Corporation members with named Catholics. However, James' mandate was suspended in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution welcoming William of Orange. In 1689, after the fall of James II, the people of Newcastle tore down his bronze equestrian statue in Sandhill and tossed it into the Tyne. The bronze was later used to make bells for All Saints Church.
In 1689 the Lort Burn was covered over. At this time it was an open sewer. The channel followed by the Lort Burn became the present day Dean Street. At that time, the centre of Newcastle was still the Sandhill area, with many merchants living along the Close or on the Side. The path of the main road through Newcastle ran from the single Tyne bridge, through Sandhill to the Side, a narrow street which climbed steeply on the north-east side of the castle hill until it reached the higher ground alongside St Nicholas' Church. As Newcastle developed, the Side became lined with buildings with projecting upper stories, so that the main street through Newcastle was a narrow, congested, steep thoroughfare.
In 1701 the Keelmen's Hospital was built in the Sandgate area of the city, using funds provided by the keelmen. The building still stands today.
Eighteenth century
In the 18th century, Newcastle was the country's largest print centre after London, Oxford and Cambridge, and the Literary and Philosophical Society of 1793, with its erudite debates and large stock of books in several languages predated the London Library by half a century.
In 1715, during the Jacobite rising in favour of the Old Pretender, an army of Jacobite supporters marched on Newcastle. Many of the Northumbrian gentry joined the rebels. The citizens prepared for its arrival by arresting Jacobite supporters and accepting 700 extra recruits into the local militia. The gates of the city were closed against the rebels. This proved enough to delay an attack until reinforcements arrived forcing the rebel army to move across to the west coast. The rebels finally surrendered at Preston.
In 1745, during a second Jacobite rising in favour of the Young Pretender, a Scottish army crossed the border led by Bonnie Prince Charlie. Once again Newcastle prepared by arresting Jacobite supporters and inducting 800 volunteers into the local militia. The town walls were strengthened, most of the gates were blocked up and some 200 cannon were deployed. 20,000 regulars were billeted on the Town Moor. These preparations were enough to force the rebel army to travel south via the west coast. They were eventually defeated at Culloden in 1746.
Newcastle's actions during the 1715 rising in resisting the rebels and declaring for George I, in contrast to the rest of the region, is the most likely source of the nickname 'Geordie', applied to people from Tyneside, or more accurately Newcastle. Another theory, however, is that the name 'Geordie' came from the inventor of the Geordie lamp, George Stephenson. It was a type of safety lamp used in mining, but was not invented until 1815. Apparently the term 'German Geordie' was in common use during the 18th century.
The city's first hospital, Newcastle Infirmary opened in 1753; it was funded by public subscription. A lying-in hospital was established in Newcastle in 1760. The city's first public hospital for mentally ill patients, Wardens Close Lunatic Hospital was opened in October 1767.
In 1771 a flood swept away much of the bridge at Newcastle. The bridge had been built in 1250 and repaired after a flood in 1339. The bridge supported various houses and three towers and an old chapel. A blue stone was placed in the middle of the bridge to mark the boundary between Newcastle and the Palatinate of Durham. A temporary wooden bridge had to be built, and this remained in use until 1781, when a new stone bridge was completed. The new bridge consisted of nine arches. In 1801, because of the pressure of traffic, the bridge had to be widened.
A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Fenham Barracks in 1806. The facilities at the Castle for holding assizes, which had been condemned for their inconvenience and unhealthiness, were replaced when the Moot Hall opened in August 1812.
Victorian period
Present-day Newcastle owes much of its architecture to the work of the builder Richard Grainger, aided by architects John Dobson, Thomas Oliver, John and Benjamin Green and others. In 1834 Grainger won a competition to produce a new plan for central Newcastle. He put this plan into effect using the above architects as well as architects employed in his own office. Grainger and Oliver had already built Leazes Terrace, Leazes Crescent and Leazes Place between 1829 and 1834. Grainger and Dobson had also built the Royal Arcade at the foot of Pilgrim Street between 1830 and 1832. The most ambitious project covered 12 acres 12 acres (49,000 m2) in central Newcastle, on the site of Newe House (also called Anderson Place). Grainger built three new thoroughfares, Grey Street, Grainger Street and Clayton Street with many connecting streets, as well as the Central Exchange and the Grainger Market. John Wardle and George Walker, working in Grainger's office, designed Clayton Street, Grainger Street and most of Grey Street. Dobson designed the Grainger Market and much of the east side of Grey Street. John and Benjamin Green designed the Theatre Royal at the top of Grey Street, where Grainger placed the column of Grey's Monument as a focus for the whole scheme. Grey Street is considered to be one of the finest streets in the country, with its elegant curve. Unfortunately most of old Eldon Square was demolished in the 1960s in the name of progress. The Royal Arcade met a similar fate.
In 1849 a new bridge was built across the river at Newcastle. This was the High Level Bridge, designed by Robert Stephenson, and slightly up river from the existing bridge. The bridge was designed to carry road and rail traffic across the Tyne Gorge on two decks with rail traffic on the upper deck and road traffic on the lower. The new bridge meant that traffic could pass through Newcastle without having to negotiate the steep, narrow Side, as had been necessary for centuries. The bridge was opened by Queen Victoria, who one year later opened the new Central Station, designed by John Dobson. Trains were now able to cross the river, directly into the centre of Newcastle and carry on up to Scotland. The Army Riding School was also completed in 1849.
In 1854 a large fire started on the Gateshead quayside and an explosion caused it to spread across the river to the Newcastle quayside. A huge conflagration amongst the narrow alleys, or 'chares', destroyed the homes of 800 families as well as many business premises. The narrow alleys that had been destroyed were replaced by streets containing blocks of modern offices.
In 1863 the Town Hall in St Nicholas Square replaced the Guildhall as the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council.
In 1876 the low level bridge was replaced by a new bridge known as the Swing Bridge, so called because the bridge was able to swing horizontally on a central axis and allow ships to pass on either side. This meant that for the first time sizeable ships could pass up-river beyond Newcastle. The bridge was built and paid for by William Armstrong, a local arms manufacturer, who needed to have warships access his Elswick arms factory to fit armaments to them. The Swing Bridge's rotating mechanism is adapted from the cannon mounts developed in Armstrong's arms works. In 1882 the Elswick works began to build ships as well as to arm them. The Barrack Road drill hall was completed in 1890.
Industrialisation
In the 19th century, shipbuilding and heavy engineering were central to the city's prosperity; and the city was a powerhouse of the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle's development as a major city owed most to its central role in the production and export of coal. The phrase "taking coals to Newcastle" was first recorded in 1538; it proverbially denotes bringing a particular commodity to a place that has more than enough of it already.
Innovation in Newcastle and surrounding areas included the following:
George Stephenson developed a miner's safety lamp at the same time that Humphry Davy developed a rival design. The lamp made possible the opening up of ever deeper mines to provide the coal that powered the industrial revolution.
George and his son Robert Stephenson were hugely influential figures in the development of the early railways. George developed Blücher, a locomotive working at Killingworth colliery in 1814, whilst Robert was instrumental in the design of Rocket, a revolutionary design that was the forerunner of modern locomotives. Both men were involved in planning and building railway lines, all over this country and abroad.
Joseph Swan demonstrated a working electric light bulb about a year before Thomas Edison did the same in the USA. This led to a dispute as to who had actually invented the light bulb. Eventually the two rivals agreed to form a mutual company between them, the Edison and Swan Electric Light Company, known as Ediswan.
Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine, for marine use and for power generation. He used Turbinia, a small, turbine-powered ship, to demonstrate the speed that a steam turbine could generate. Turbinia literally ran rings around the British Fleet at a review at Spithead in 1897.
William Armstrong invented a hydraulic crane that was installed in dockyards up and down the country. He then began to design light, accurate field guns for the British army. These were a vast improvement on the existing guns that were then in use.
The following major industries developed in Newcastle or its surrounding area:
Glassmaking
A small glass industry existed in Newcastle from the mid-15th century. In 1615 restrictions were put on the use of wood for manufacturing glass. It was found that glass could be manufactured using the local coal, and so a glassmaking industry grew up on Tyneside. Huguenot glassmakers came over from France as refugees from persecution and set up glasshouses in the Skinnerburn area of Newcastle. Eventually, glass production moved to the Ouseburn area of Newcastle. In 1684 the Dagnia family, Sephardic Jewish emigrants from Altare, arrived in Newcastle from Stourbridge and established glasshouses along the Close, to manufacture high quality flint glass. The glass manufacturers used sand ballast from the boats arriving in the river as the main raw material. The glassware was then exported in collier brigs. The period from 1730 to 1785 was the highpoint of Newcastle glass manufacture, when the local glassmakers produced the 'Newcastle Light Baluster'. The glassmaking industry still exists in the west end of the city with local Artist and Glassmaker Jane Charles carrying on over four hundred years of hot glass blowing in Newcastle upon Tyne.
Locomotive manufacture
In 1823 George Stephenson and his son Robert established the world's first locomotive factory near Forth Street in Newcastle. Here they built locomotives for the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, as well as many others. It was here that the famous locomotive Rocket was designed and manufactured in preparation for the Rainhill Trials. Apart from building locomotives for the British market, the Newcastle works also produced locomotives for Europe and America. The Forth Street works continued to build locomotives until 1960.
Shipbuilding
In 1296 a wooden, 135 ft (41 m) long galley was constructed at the mouth of the Lort Burn in Newcastle, as part of a twenty-ship order from the king. The ship cost £205, and is the earliest record of shipbuilding in Newcastle. However the rise of the Tyne as a shipbuilding area was due to the need for collier brigs for the coal export trade. These wooden sailing ships were usually built locally, establishing local expertise in building ships. As ships changed from wood to steel, and from sail to steam, the local shipbuilding industry changed to build the new ships. Although shipbuilding was carried out up and down both sides of the river, the two main areas for building ships in Newcastle were Elswick, to the west, and Walker, to the east. By 1800 Tyneside was the third largest producer of ships in Britain. Unfortunately, after the Second World War, lack of modernisation and competition from abroad gradually caused the local industry to decline and die.
Armaments
In 1847 William Armstrong established a huge factory in Elswick, west of Newcastle. This was initially used to produce hydraulic cranes but subsequently began also to produce guns for both the army and the navy. After the Swing Bridge was built in 1876 allowing ships to pass up river, warships could have their armaments fitted alongside the Elswick works. Armstrong's company took over its industrial rival, Joseph Whitworth of Manchester in 1897.
Steam turbines
Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine and, in 1889, founded his own company C. A. Parsons and Company in Heaton, Newcastle to make steam turbines. Shortly after this, he realised that steam turbines could be used to propel ships and, in 1897, he founded a second company, Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in Wallsend. It is there that he designed and manufactured Turbinia. Parsons turbines were initially used in warships but soon came to be used in merchant and passenger vessels, including the liner Mauretania which held the blue riband for the Atlantic crossing until 1929. Parsons' company in Heaton began to make turbo-generators for power stations and supplied power stations all over the world. The Heaton works, reduced in size, remains as part of the Siemens AG industrial giant.
Pottery
In 1762 the Maling pottery was founded in Sunderland by French Huguenots, but transferred to Newcastle in 1817. A factory was built in the Ouseburn area of the city. The factory was rebuilt twice, finally occupying a 14-acre (57,000 m2) site that was claimed to be the biggest pottery in the world and which had its own railway station. The pottery pioneered use of machines in making potteries as opposed to hand production. In the 1890s the company went up-market and employed in-house designers. The period up to the Second World War was the most profitable with a constant stream of new designs being introduced. However, after the war, production gradually declined and the company closed in 1963.
Expansion of the city
Newcastle was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835: the reformed municipal borough included the parishes of Byker, Elswick, Heaton, Jesmond, Newcastle All Saints, Newcastle St Andrew, Newcastle St John, Newcastle St Nicholas, and Westgate. The urban districts of Benwell and Fenham and Walker were added in 1904. In 1935, Newcastle gained Kenton and parts of the parishes of West Brunton, East Denton, Fawdon, Longbenton. The most recent expansion in Newcastle's boundaries took place under the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974, when Newcastle became a metropolitan borough, also including the urban districts of Gosforth and Newburn, and the parishes of Brunswick, Dinnington, Hazlerigg, North Gosforth and Woolsington from the Castle Ward Rural District, and the village of Westerhope.
Meanwhile Northumberland County Council was formed under the Local Government Act 1888 and benefited from a dedicated meeting place when County Hall was completed in the Castle Garth area of Newcastle in 1910. Following the Local Government Act 1972 County Hall relocated to Morpeth in April 1981.
Twentieth century
In 1925 work began on a new high-level road bridge to span the Tyne Gorge between Newcastle and Gateshead. The capacity of the existing High-Level Bridge and Swing Bridge were being strained to the limit, and an additional bridge had been discussed for a long time. The contract was awarded to the Dorman Long Company and the bridge was finally opened by King George V in 1928. The road deck was 84 feet (26 m) above the river and was supported by a 531 feet (162 m) steel arch. The new Tyne Bridge quickly became a symbol for Newcastle and Tyneside, and remains so today.
During the Second World War, Newcastle was largely spared the horrors inflicted upon other British cities bombed during the Blitz. Although the armaments factories and shipyards along the River Tyne were targeted by the Luftwaffe, they largely escaped unscathed. Manors goods yard and railway terminal, to the east of the city centre, and the suburbs of Jesmond and Heaton suffered bombing during 1941. There were 141 deaths and 587 injuries, a relatively small figure compared to the casualties in other industrial centres of Britain.
In 1963 the city gained its own university, the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, by act of parliament. A School of Medicine and Surgery had been established in Newcastle in 1834. This eventually developed into a college of medicine attached to Durham University. A college of physical science was also founded and became Armstrong College in 1904. In 1934 the two colleges merged to become King's College, Durham. This remained as part of Durham University until the new university was created in 1963. In 1992 the city gained its second university when Newcastle Polytechnic was granted university status as Northumbria University.
Newcastle City Council moved to the new Newcastle Civic Centre in 1968.
As heavy industries declined in the second half of the 20th century, large sections of the city centre were demolished along with many areas of slum housing. The leading political figure in the city during the 1960s was T. Dan Smith who oversaw a massive building programme of highrise housing estates and authorised the demolition of a quarter of the Georgian Grainger Town to make way for Eldon Square Shopping Centre. Smith's control in Newcastle collapsed when it was exposed that he had used public contracts to advantage himself and his business associates and for a time Newcastle became a byword for civic corruption as depicted in the films Get Carter and Stormy Monday and in the television series Our Friends in the North. However, much of the historic Grainger Town area survived and was, for the most part, fully restored in the late 1990s. Northumberland Street, initially the A1, was gradually closed to traffic from the 1970s and completely pedestrianised by 1998.
In 1978 a new rapid transport system, the Metro, was built, linking the Tyneside area. The system opened in August 1980. A new bridge was built to carry the Metro across the river between Gateshead and Newcastle. This was the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge, commonly known as the Metro Bridge. Eventually the Metro system was extended to reach Newcastle Airport in 1991, and in 2002 the Metro system was extended to the nearby city of Sunderland.
As the 20th century progressed, trade on the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides gradually declined, until by the 1980s both sides of the river were looking rather derelict. Shipping company offices had closed along with offices of firms related to shipping. There were also derelict warehouses lining the riverbank. Local government produced a master plan to re-develop the Newcastle quayside and this was begun in the 1990s. New offices, restaurants, bars and residential accommodation were built and the area has changed in the space of a few years into a vibrant area, partially returning the focus of Newcastle to the riverside, where it was in medieval times.
The Gateshead Millennium Bridge, a foot and cycle bridge, 26 feet (7.9 m) wide and 413 feet (126 m) long, was completed in 2001. The road deck is in the form of a curve and is supported by a steel arch. To allow ships to pass, the whole structure, both arch and road-deck, rotates on huge bearings at either end so that the road deck is lifted. The bridge can be said to open and shut like a human eye. It is an important addition to the re-developed quayside area, providing a vital link between the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides.
Recent developments
Today the city is a vibrant centre for office and retail employment, but just a short distance away there are impoverished inner-city housing estates, in areas originally built to provide affordable housing for employees of the shipyards and other heavy industries that lined the River Tyne. In the 2010s Newcastle City Council began implementing plans to regenerate these depressed areas, such as those along the Ouseburn Valley.
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Citadel Park Passeig de Picasso Barcelone Catalonia Spain
Citadel Park is a park on the northeastern edge of Ciutat Vella, Barcelona, Catalonia. For decades following its creation in the mid-19th century, this park was the city's only green space. The 70 acres (280,000 m2) grounds include the city zoo (once home to the albino gorilla Snowflake, who died in 2004), the Parliament of Catalonia, a small lake, museums, and a large fountain designed by Josep Fontserè (with possible contributions by the young Antoni Gaudí).
Locations
Citadel
In 1714, during the War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona was laid siege for 13 months by the army of Philip V of Spain. The city fell, and in order to maintain control over it, and to prevent the Catalans from rebelling as they had in the previous century, Philip V built the citadel of Barcelona, at that time the largest fortress in Europe.
A substantial part of the district it was constructed in (La Ribera) was destroyed to obtain the necessary space, leaving its inhabitants homeless. The fortress was characterized by having five corners, which gave the citadel defensive power, and by a rather wide surrounding margin, serving as location for the army's cannons. It included enough buildings to house 8,000 people.
Hundreds of Catalonians were forced to work on the construction for three years, while the rest of the city provided financial backing for this and for warfare-related expenses as well, with a new tax named el cadestre. Three decades later a quarter was rebuilt around the fortress named Barceloneta, which is located inside the neighborhood Ciutat Vella.
In 1841 the city's authorities decided to destroy the fortress, which was hated by Barcelona's citizens. Yet two years later, in 1843, under the regime of Maria Cristina, the citadel was restored. In 1848, after Maria Cristina's abdication and as the citadel lost its use, General Espartero razed most of the buildings within the fortress as well as its walls by bombarding it from the nearby mountain fortress Montjuic, which helped him gain political popularity. By 1869, as the political climate liberalised enough to permit it, General Prim decided to turn over what was left of the fortress to the city and some buildings were demolished under Catalan orders, for it was viewed as by the citizens as a much-hated symbol of central Spanish government.
The chapel (now the Military Parish Church of Barcelona), the Governor's palace (now Verdaguer Secondary School), and the arsenal (now home to the Catalan Parliament) remain, with the rest of the site being turned into the contemporary park by the architect Josep Fontsére in 1872. Nineteen years later, in 1888, Barcelona held the Exposición Universal de Barcelona extravaganza, inspired by Mayor Rius i Taulet, and the park was redesigned with the addition of sculptures and other complementary works of art. This marked the conclusion of the old provincial and unprogressive Barcelona and the establishment of a modern cosmopolitan city. From that point until 1892, half of the park's layout was enhanced again in order to obtain sufficient space for the zoo. The park's bandstand, Glorieta de la Transsexual Sònia, is dedicated to a transsexual, Sonia Rescalvo Zafra, who was murdered there on 6 October 1991 by right-wing extremists.
Cascada
The lake in the Parc de la Ciutadella
The Cascada (waterfall or cascade in Spanish) is located at the northern corner of the park opposite to the lake. It was first inaugurated in 1881 without sculptures or any meticulous details, and was thereby criticized by the press, after which this triumphal arch was thoroughly amended by the addition of a fountain and some minor attributes, which required six years of construction from 1882 to 1888, and was thenceforth put on display at the Universal Exhibition, and hitherto not been redesigned. It was erected by Josep Fontsére and to a small extent by Antoni Gaudí, who at that time was still an unknown student of architecture. Fontsére aimed to loosely make it bear resemblance to the Trevi Fountain of Rome. Two enormous pincers of gigantic crabs serve as stairs to access a small podium located in the centre of the monument. In front of it a sculpture (designed by Venanci Vallmitjana) of Venus standing on an open clam was placed. The whole cascade is divided in two levels. From the podium on a path leads to the Feminine Sculpture and to the northeastern corner of the park, and upon following the route down the stairs the fountain's pond is rounded and the southern tip of the artifact is reached.
Zoo
The zoo's main entrance
The zoo of Barcelona is located in the park of the ciutadella due to the availability of a few buildings which were left empty after the Universal Exposition of 1888. It was inaugurated in 1892, during the day of the Mercé, the patron saint of the city. The first animals were donated by Lluís Martí i Codolar to the municipality of Barcelona, which gratefully approved of their accommodation in the zoo.
Nowadays, with one of the most substantial collections of animals in Europe, the zoo affirms that their aim is to conserve, investigate, and educate.
From 1966 to 2003 the zoo was home to the famous albino gorilla Snowflake, who attracted many international tourists and locals.
Apart from the usual visits, different types of guided tours or other activities are offered, like for example 20 types of diversionary workshops, excursions and fieldtrips for schoolchildren, or personnel training and educational courses in zoology for adults. More than 50,000 children visit the zoo on an annual basis, which is the reason for the zoo's emphasis on education.
Museum of Natural Science
The facade of the zoology museum of Barcelona
Ceramics on the facade of the zoology museum of Barcelona
The Museum of Natural Science, sited in the park, comprises a museum of zoology and a museum of geology.
The museum of zoology was constructed for the Exposición Universal de Barcelona (1888) by the architect Lluís Doménech i Montaner to serve as an exhibition. Most of the building is constructed of red brick. The most popular displays are the skeleton of a whale and exhibits dedicated for smaller children. The institute's stated aims are to enhance knowledge and conservation of the natural diversity of Catalonia and its surroundings, to promote public education on the natural world, to transmit ethical values of respect for nature, and to stimulate informed debate on the issues and environmental problems that concern society. The museum has permanent exhibitions on the subject of mineralogy, petrology and paleontology; the volcanic region of Olot; minerals' secret colors; the animal kingdom; urban birds; and an apiary.
The museum of geology is a legacy of the scientist Francisco Martorell i Peña (1822–1878), who donated his whole collection of artifacts of cultural and archeological importance, his scientific library, and an amount of 125,000 pesetas to the city for the purpose of creating a new museum. The building, built during the same year and named the Corporación Municipal, was designed by Antoni Rivas i Trias.
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Full title: Melbourne and suburbs : Gregory's Road Map no. 33 / prepared by Clive Barrass, 1906-1970
Publisher: Sydney : Gregory Publishing Co., [1952]
Date: 1952
This map includes several features of relevance to Monash City's history.
The "main through road" route along Ferntree Gully Road at Wheelers Hill (map reference R -14) takes drivers along The Deviation, across Jells Road and through the reserve that's between the shopping centre and petrol station, along what is now Wendy Court and onwards to rejoin Ferntree Gully Road via Marykirk Drive. This avoided the steepest part of the journey and was built in 1920s (Mulgrave Shire requesting the Country Roads Board (CRB) to "to go on with the Wheeler's Hill deviation" in 1924) and was open until the 1970s. The cost of its upkeep was an ongoing issue between the municipal authorities and the CRB, such as when there were moves to close either The Deviation or the steepest section of Ferntree Gully Road in 1940, with the issue being raised again in 1946. Of interest, is that route to the east of Jells Road was also the proposed course for the Ferntree Gully tramway.
Of interest also is that the southern portion of Huntingdale Road is named "Box Hill Rd. Sth.". This stretch of road was previously known as Victoria Street.
Of particular note is the mapping of two golf links that were developed for residential subdivisions in the 1960s.
At P-14 is the Amstel Golf Links, on Ferntree Gully Road. The eastern boundary of the course runs along the section of Stephensons Road north of Ferntree Gully Road that was build in the 1960s. From Fernteree Gully Road, the course stretched back to Scotchmans Creek, where the Monash Freeway runs. According to the Waverley Historical Society, the golf course was named after Daniel Ploos van Amstel, of the Dutch Consulate. The links was adjacent to the Amstel Park subdivision, sold in 1908.
According to the Waverley Historical Society's street name database, the links is remembered in the naming of Amstel Court, plus several less obvious titles:
- Bellerive Avenue (after the prestigious Bellerive Country Club in America)
- Ben Hogan Court (Ben Hogan being a famous American golfer)
- Como Court (likely after the Lake Como Golf Club in Italy)
- Cremin Court (named for Eric James Cremin, a famous Australian golfer)
- Dai Court and Rees Court (Dai Rees was a famous Welsh golfer)
- Eagle Court (named after a golfing term)
- Ganton Court (named after Ganton Golf Club in England)
- Long Beach Crescent (named after Long Beach golf course in California)
- Nagle Court (after the golfer South African Kel Nagle)
- Palmer Court (named after American golfer Arnold Palmer)
- Ryder Court (named for the Ryder Cup)
- St Andrews Court (named after the golf course at St Andrews in Scotland)
- St Cloud Court (likely named after Saint-Cloud golf course near Paris)
- Snead Court (after the American golfer Sam Snead)
- Sunnyside Road (likely named for the Sunnyside Country Club in America)
- Woodlands Avenue (likely named after the Woodlands Golf Club in Mordialloc)
At map reference Q-13 is the Waverley Golf Links on the north-east corner of Blackburn Road and Waverley Road. Lasting reminders of this course are Bunker Crescent, Stableford Avenue and Wedge Court, all named after golfing terms and on land formerly occupied by the links.
Subjects:
Roads--Victoria--Melbourne--Maps
Melbourne (Vic.)--Maps
Road maps
Tourist maps
Notes: "Sept. 1952"
Includes index to suburbs.
Inset: Melbourne.
On verso: Melbourne's outer environs and hills district -- City of Melbourne.
Shows main routes, local roads, distances, places of interest, railways, tramways.
Information transferred from the Mitchell Library shelflist catalogue as part of the eRecords Project 2009-2010.
Source: State Library of New South Wales
Call numbers: M2 821.09gmb/1952/1
Record identifier: 4VvazAawOJd
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U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry listens to a guide as he visits the madrasahs of Registan in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, after participating in the C5+1 Ministerial Meeting with the foreign ministers of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, November 1, 2015. UNESCO includes Samarkand on its World Heritage List as the "Crossroads of Cultures," and the Secretary's visit to Registan spotlights the importance of cultural preservation. [State Department photo/ Public Domain]
This is most of my new Strobist set up.
I say most, I've probably forgot to include something...
I'll list where and why I got them, and for how much.
So frooom the top...
2x Lastolite Umbrella Tiltheads with Hotshoes - Warehouse Express - £16.99 each.
Its compact and light weight, but nice and sturdy. Its got a ratcheted tilt action, so its more secure, and has a thumbscrew for securing a brollie shaft.
The shoes strange. It has a metal edge, out of contact of the pins, but the middle is a sort of soft metallic covering.
Its triggered the flash a couple of times when putting it on, so some electrical tape is on the cards...
2x Lastolite Lumen8 Pneumatic Stands - Warehouse Express - £24.46 each.
As I'm just dabbling in the world of Strobism, I couldnt justify buying the Manfrotto Nano stands, as much as I'd like them.
I toyed with the idea of cheap Ebay ones, but in the end settled for these. Safer bet buying from a reputable brand.
Nice and sturdy, and not too heavy. Fold down to about 85cms. About 95-100cm with the flash stand ontop.
Air cushioned, so it doesn't go colapsing down and trappin' your fingers. Really well built.
2x Westcott 43" Convertible umbrellas. - Bought from a private seller, here on Flickr, although available from the States. - £32.50 each.
As endorsed by the Strobist, David Hobby himself.
These big arsed umbrellas lull you into a false sense of security.
They double fold, as in the umbrellas its self is hinged, and the shaft is in 2-3 pieces. Collapsed, they're only 15in long, and fit nicely in the side pocket of my carry case.
When opened, they're huuuuge!
I got the 'Convertible' ones. They're satin white, with a removable black back, so they can be used as reflective, with the cover on, or shoot throughs, with the cover off.
The shafts are a bit thin, but I've reinforced mine with cut down pencils. See here.
Over all, really pleased with them. Good light transmission when used reflectively, and lovely soft, even light when used as shoot through. Plus they fold up nice n small.
2x Nikon SB-28 Speedlights/Flashguns. - Bought second hand. One back when I started photography 3 years ago, the other a couple of weeks back - Expect to pay between £70-120.
I got one back when I started in photography, a few years back with an old Nikon F90x film camera.
I could have got another flash cheaper. But it would have meant learning to use another, and I still struggle with the SB-28 =D
Nice and powerful, GN of about 118 (ft), 36 (m). Reliable. And really user friendly, like most Nikon strobes.
The Cactus V4's.
2x Revievers. 1x Transmitter. - Direct from Gadget Infinity.Set = £25.91 aprox. Spare Reviever = £15.53 aprox.
After reading so many horror stories about the V2's, and then the first batch of V4's, I was apprehensive.
But after the second batch was released, good reviews started coming out, and people started raving about them.
For the price, I figured it was a safe gamble. They don't cost much. And if they do what people say, then they're definitely worth it.
I haven't had any problems with mine, at all, so far. And thats with alot of testing.
Theres not much to say really...
If you're wondering how mine are attached, see here.
1x 1 meter coiled Screwlock PC to Screwlock PC sync cord. - Flash Zebra - £11.06.
I got this for quick, off the cuff, off camera shooting.
Has the Nikon Screwlock fitting, so it attaches securly to the camera and flash.
Relaxed its about 1ft long. Stretched out it reaches about 1m.
2x custom LEE gel sets. - www.skategoat.com/ - £3.29 each.
Put these custom sets together myself. Wide range to choose from, and premade sets available too.
Mine have full, 1/2 & 1/4 CTO. full, 1/2 & 1/4 CTB. full, 1/2 & 1/4 window Green. Lee 103 Straw & Lee 790 Moroccan Pink.
2x Nikon AS-19 Flash Stands - Warehouse Express - £5.25 each.
For table top shooting.
They have a cold shoe that'll take any flash [except the SB-900], not just Nikons.
Thats it really...
Uniross 2500MAh rechargeable batteries and cases. - Batteries from World Of Batteries - Ebay Cases from RPT Batteries and chargers
I got the batteries at the same time as two Uniross X-Press 700 chargers, which each came with 4 of the same batteries.
I'm now rocking 16 in total. 4 in each of the flashes. 8 spare, 4 for each.
The cases I bought to keep track of what needed charging and what didn't.
Blue = ready to use. Red = needs charging.
See, I can be organised...
2 x Hama 1 meter coiled PC - PC sync cords. - Speed Graphic - £7.50 each.
A pair of male PC to male PC cords. Got these for when working close up with both flashes, incase the radio triggers don't like the close range.
1x Multipurpose Hotshoe Adapter - Flash Zebra - £6.95 aprox.
Got this for when I'm working close up and want to use both strobes.
This also works well when using my light tent.
This behind it, on a Cactus V4 reciver, this leading to both strobes via PC cables.
The Battery Case
4x Uniross AAA Hybrio batteries for the Cactus V4 recievers.
4 [was 5]x Duracell L1028/23A 12v Alkaline batteries - Cactus Transmitter.
2x button cell type batteries - Nikon ML-L3 IR remote, for my D70.
The Uniross AAA Hybrios are the only real interesting thing in there.
They come fully charged. Are rechargeable. And if not used, will hold their full charge for upto a year!
Perfect for the recievers.
Calumet Extra Large Tripod Bag - Calumet - £29.99.
To carry everything in, basically...
I probably could have got away with the shorter one. But I figured I'd go with this.
Plenty of space in there for the stands.
The side pocket it just over 15in long, so takes the Westcott umbrellas perfectly, and it has a little pocket inside that which I keep cables, the AS-19 stands, and other bits and pieces in.
And I think thats it really...
Anything else you wanna know.
Feel free to ask.
On display in room 442 of the State Library is a beautiful needlework tapestry of points of interest on the Freedom Trail. In honor of the American Bicentennial in 1976, the members of the Massachusetts Chapter of the American Needlepoint Guild placed this 11 x 5 ft. tapestry on permanent loan in the library. The tapestry depicts eleven historical sites on the trail, including the Old North Church, the Old State House, and King’s Chapel. The caption next to the piece reads, “Created for the Massachusetts Senate by members of the Massachusetts Chapter, American Needlepoint Guild.” The caption also includes the names of all participating sewers and the names of the locations detailed on the tapestry.
Pisa Cathedral (Cattedrale Metropolitana Primaziale di Santa Maria Assunta; Duomo di Pisa) is a medieval Roman Catholic Cathedral dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, in the Piazza dei Miracoli in Pisa, Italy. It is a notable example of Romanesque architecture, in particular the style known as Pisan Romanesque. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Pisa. Construction on the cathedral began in 1063 by the architect Buscheto, and expenses were paid using the spoils received fighting against the Muslims in Sicily in 1063. It includes various stylistic elements: classical, Lombard-Emilian, Byzantine, and Islamic, drawing upon the international presence of Pisan merchants at that time. In the same year, St. Mark's Basilica began its reconstruction in Venice, evidence of a strong rivalry between the two maritime republics to see which could create the most beautiful and luxurious place of worship. The church was erected outside Pisa's early medieval walls, to show that Pisa had no fear of being attacked. The chosen area had already been used in the Lombard era as a necropolis and at the beginning of the 11th century a church had been erected here, but never finished, that was to be named Santa Maria. Buscheto's grand new church was initially called Santa Maria Maggiore until it was officially named Santa Maria Assunta. In 1092 the cathedral was declared a primatial church, archbishop Dagobert having been given the title of Primate by Pope Urban II. The cathedral was consecrated in 1118 by Pope Gelasius II, who belonged to the Caetani family which was powerful both in Pisa and in Rome. In the early 12th century the cathedral was enlarged under the direction of architect Rainaldo, who increased the length of the nave by adding three bays consistent with the original style of Buscheto, enlarged the transept, and planned a new facade which was completed by workers under the direction of the sculptors Guglielmo and Biduino. The exact date of the work is unclear: according to some, the work was done right after the death of Buscheto about the year 1100, though others say it was done closer to 1140. In any case, work was finished in 1180, as documented by the date written on the bronze knockers made by Bonanno Pisano found on the main door. The structure's present appearance is the result of numerous restoration campaigns that were carried out in different eras. The first radical interventions occurred after the fire of 1595, following which the roof was replaced and sculptors from the workshop of Giambologna, among whom were Gasparo Mola and Pietro Tacca, created the three bronze doors of the facade. In the early 18th century began the redecoration of the inside walls of the cathedral with large paintings, the "quadroni", depicting stories of the blessed and saints of Pisa. These works were made by the principal artists of the era, and a group of citizens arranged for the special financing of the project. Successive interventions occurred in the 19th century and included both internal and external modifications; among the latter was the removal of the original facade statues (presently in the cathedral museum) and their replacement with copies. Other notable interventions include: the dismantling of Giovanni Pisano's pulpit between 1599 and 1601 that only in 1926 was reassembled and returned to the cathedral (with some original pieces missing, including the staircase); and the dismantling of the monument to Henry VII made by Lupo di Francesco that was found in front of the door of San Ranieri and later substituted by a simpler, symbolic version; in 1987, the whole square was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site / Tower of Pisa (Torre di Pisa) or simply the Leaning Tower of Pisa (Torre pendente di Pisa) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa, known worldwide for its nearly four-degree lean, the result of an unstable foundation. The tower is situated behind the Pisa Cathedral and is the third-oldest structure in the city's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), after the cathedral and the Pisa Baptistry. The height of the tower is 183.27 feet from the ground on the low side and 185.93 feet on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 8 feet. The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase. The tower began to lean during construction in the 12th century, due to soft ground which could not properly support the structure's weight, and it worsened through the completion of construction in the 14th century. By 1990 the tilt had reached 5.5 degrees. The structure was stabilized by remedial work between 1993 and 2001, which reduced the tilt to 3.97 degrees. Between 1589 and 1592, Galileo Galilei, who lived in Pisa at the time, is said to have dropped two cannonballs of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their speed of descent was independent of their mass. The primary source for this is the biography Racconto istorico della vita di Galileo Galilei (Historical Account of the Life of Galileo Galilei), written by Galileo's pupil and secretary Vincenzo Viviani in 1654, but only published in 1717, long after his death. During World War II, the Allies suspected that the Germans were using the tower as an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant sent to confirm the presence of German troops in the tower was impressed by the beauty of the cathedral and its campanile, and thus refrained from ordering an artillery strike, sparing it from destruction / Pisa is a city and comune in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno River just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower (the bell tower of the city's cathedral), the city of over 100,000 residents contains more than 20 other historic churches, several medieval palaces, and various bridges across the Arno. Much of the city's architecture was financed from its history as one of the Italian maritime republics. The city is also home of the University of Pisa, which has a history going back to the 12th century and also has the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, founded by Napoleon in 1810, and its offshoot, the Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, as the best-sanctioned Superior Graduate Schools in Italy
Prof. John Pollini working with STUDENTS AT OSTIA
John Pollini in my opinion is the number 1 authority on Julio Claudian Portrait study. I have had much correspondence with Prof. Pollini and he is passionate about Roman Art. Here is his curriculum Vitae:
Education
B.A. Classics, University of Washington, 1/1968
M.A. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, UC Berkeley, 1/1973
Ph.D. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, UC Berkeley, 1/1978
Academic Appointment, Affiliation, and Employment History
Professor, Department of Art History (Adjunct Professor for Department of Classics and Department of History), University of Southern California, 1991-
Dean of the School of Fine Arts, University of Southern California, 1993-1996
Chairman of the Department of Art History, University of Southern California, 1990-1993
Associate Professor, Department of Art History and Department of Classics (adjunct appointment), University of Southern California, 1987-1991
Assistant Professor, Department of Classics, Johns Hopkins University, 1980-1987
Curator, Johns Hopkins University Archaeological Museum, 1980-1987
Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Classics, Johns Hopkins University, 1979-1980
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Classics, Case Western Reserve University, 1978-1979
Description of Research
Summary Statement of Research Interests
Professor Pollini's research is concerned with methodologies of classical art and archaeology, ancient history, classical philology, epigraphy and numismatics. His other scholarly research interests include ancient religion, mythology, narratology, rhetoric and propaganda. Over the years Professor Pollini has excavated at the Greco-Roman site of Aphrodisias, Turkey, and the Etruscan site of Ghiaccio Forte, Italy, and participated in the underwater survey of the port of Tarquinia (Gravisca), Italy. Trained in the methodologies of classical art & archaeology, ancient history, classical philology, epigraphy, and numismatics, Professor Pollini is committed to interdisciplinary teaching and research. Professor Pollini has lectured widely both in the United States and abroad. He has published numerous articles and authored several books.
Research Specialties
Classical Art and Archaeology
Honors and Awards
Elected Life Member, German Archaeological Association, 2000-
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship, awarded for second time, 2006-2007
Guggenheim Fellowship, deferred until 2007-2008, 2006-2007
Whitehead Professor at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (Honorific Appointment), 9/1/2006-6/1/2007
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching 2002, 2002-2005
Mellon Foundation Award for Excellence in Mentoring, 2004-2005
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching 1998, 1998-2001
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship, awarded for second time, 1995-1996
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship, 1987-1988
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship, 1983-1984
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellowship, 1978-1979
Fulbright Award, Fellowship to Italy, 1975-1976
CURRICULUM VITAE
JOHN POLLINI
Department of Art History
Von Kleinsmid Center 351 University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0047
Professor of Classical Art and Archaeology, Department of Art History
Joint Professor, Department of History
Adjunct Professor, Department of Classics
President, Classical Archaeological Association of Southern California (CAASC)
DEGREES
Ph. D. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, University of California at
Berkeley (1978) (interdisciplinary program involving the Departments of Art History,
Classics, and History; major field: Etruscan and Roman Art and Archaeology; minor
fields: Greek Art and Archaeology and Roman History; Ph.D. equivalency exams in
ancient Greek and Latin) [Diss.: Studies in Augustan “Historical” Reliefs]
M.A. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, University of California at
Berkeley (l973) [MA Thesis: Two Marble Portrait Statues of Pugilists from Carian
Aphrodisias: Iconography and Third Century A.D. Sculptural Traditions in the Roman
East]
B.A. magna cum laude, Classics, University of Washington (1968)
POSTDOCTORAL ACADEMIC APPOINTMENTS
Dean of the School of Fine Arts, University of Southern California, with administrative,
budgetary, and fund-raising responsibilities (1993-1996)
Chairman of the Department of Art History, University of Southern California
(1990-1993)
Full Professor, University of Southern California, Department of Art History
(1991-present), with joint appointment in the Department of History and adjunct
appointment in the Department of Classics
Associate Professor, University of Southern California, Department of Art History, with
adjunct appointment in the Department of Classics (1987-1991)
Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins University, Department of Classics (1980-1987) and
Curator of the Johns Hopkins University Archaeological Museum (1980-1987)
Visiting Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins University, Department of Classics
(1979-1980)
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow, Case Western Reserve University, Department of Classics
(1978-1979)
INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FELLOWSHIPS, GRANTS,
AWARDS, HONORS
William E. Metcalf Lectureship (2008)
John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship (2006-2007, deferred to
2007-2008)
Whitehead Professor of Archaeology, American School of Classical Studies at
Athens (2006-2007)
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship (2006-2007)
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (Summer 2006)
Mellon Foundation Award for Excellence in Mentoring (2005)
Taggart Foundation Grant: Campus Martius Virtual Reality Project (2005)
Distinguished Lecturer, Biblical Archaeological Society and Center for Classical
Archaeology, University of Oklahoma, Norman (2005): Series of three lectures on
Roman and Christian Religion, Art, and Ideology
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (2003)
Senior Humboldt Research Prize (nominated) to Berlin, Germany, for 2000-2001
Elected Member (for life) of the German Archaeological Institute (Berlin) (2000)
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship for Independent Study and
Research (1995-1996)
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (Summer 1988)
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship (1987-1988)
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (1987)
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship for Independent Study and
Research (1983-1984)
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellowship, Case Western Reserve University (1978-1979)
Mabelle McLeod Lewis Memorial Fund Fellowship to Italy (1975-1976)
Fulbright Fellowship, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy (1975-1976)
UNIVERSITY FELLOWSHIPS, GRANTS, AWARDS, HONORS
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching
(2002-2005)
College Faculty Research Development Award (consecutive years: 2000-2007)
University of Southern California Grant for Innovative Undergraduate Teaching
(with Lynn Swartz Dodd and Nicholas Cipolla) for a virtual reality project “Imaging
Antiquity: Creating Context through Virtual Reconstructions, Digital Resources, and
Traditional Media” (2003-2004)
Grant for the “College Initiative for the Study of Political Violence” (2002)
University of Southern California Grant for Innovative Undergraduate Teaching
(with Bruce Zuckermann and Lynn Swartz Dodd) to develop a new interdisciplinary and
interdepartmental course entitled “Accessing Antiquity: Actual Objects in Virtual Space”
(2000-2001)
University of Southern California Senior Nominee for National Endowment for the
Humanities Summer Stipend for Faculty Research (1998-1999)
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching
(1998-2001)
College Awards and Grants for Research Excellence (consecutive years: 1997-2000)
Hewlett Foundation Award and Grant for General Education Course Development
(1997-1998)
Faculty Research and Innovation Fund Grant, University of Southern California (1988)
University of California Traveling Fellowship (1976-1977)
Dean’s Fellowship, U.C. Berkeley (1973-1975)
Phi Beta Kappa (1968), University of Washington
ADDITIONAL EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION
Field trips sponsored by the American Academy in Rome, German Archaeological
Institute, and Comune di Roma (1975-1978)
Research in Rome, Italy for dissertation (1975-1978), as well as further study of Greek
and Roman art and architecture in Italy and elsewhere in Europe during this period
Supervised study of Greek and Roman sculpture at the J. Paul Getty Museum, with
J. Frel (1973-1975)
Course in Greek art and archaeology at the Universität München, Munich, Germany
with E. Homann-Wedeking (1971)
Study of the German language at the Goethe Institute, Grafing (Munich), Germany (1971)
Course work in Roman, Etruscan, and Italic art and architecture, Università di Roma,
with G. Becatti, M. Pallottino, F. Castagnoli, and M. Squarciapino (1970-1971)
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELD WORK
Underwater survey of port of Tarquinia (Gravisca), Italy (1977): Consultant
Excavation of Etruscan site of Ghiaccio Forte, Italy (1973)
Excavation of Greco-Roman site of Aphrodisias, Turkey (1970-1972)
Excavation of Spanish/Indian Mission, Guavave, Arizona (1965-1966)
LANGUAGES
Ancient: Latin and Greek
Modern: German, Italian, French, modern Greek, some Turkish
BOOKS
PUBLISHED:
I) The Portraiture of Gaius and Lucius Caesar (Fordham University Press, New York
1987) (with a book subvention from the National Endowment for the Humanities).
II) Roman Portraiture: Images of Character and Virtue, with graduate student
participation (Fisher Gallery, Los Angeles 1990).
III) Gallo-Roman Bronzes and the Process of Romanization:The Cobannus Hoard
(Monumenta Graeca et Romana IX) (Brill, Leiden 2002).
IV) The de Nion Head: A Masterpiece of Archaic Greek Sculpture (Philipp von
Zabern, Mainz 2003).
V) Terra Marique: Studies in Art History and Marine Archaeology in Honor of Anna
Marguerite McCann on the Receipt of the Gold Medal of the Archaeological Institute
of America (editor, designer, and contributor of introduction, publication list, and
one of 19 essays) (Oxbow Publications, Oxford 2005).
SUBMITTED:
VI) From Republic to Empire: Rhetoric, Religion, and Power in the Visual Culture of
Ancient Rome (University of Oklahoma Press), comprising eight chapters:
CHAPTER I: The Leader and the Divine: Diverse Modes of Representation in Roman Numismatics
CHAPTER II: The Cult Image of Julius Caesar: Conflicts in Religious Theology and Ideology in
Augustus’ Representational Program
CHAPTER III: From Warrior to Statesman in Augustan Art and Ideology: Augustus and the Image of
Alexander
CHAPTER IV: The Ideology of “Peace through Victory” and the Ara Pacis: Visual Rhetoric and the
Creation of a Dynastic Narrative [revised and updated essay originally published in
German]
CHAPTER V: The Acanthus of the Ara Pacis as an Apolline and Dionysiac Symbol of
Anamorphosis, Anakyklosis and Numen Mixtum [revised and updated publication].
CHAPTER VI: Divine Providence in Early Imperial Ideology: The Smaller Cancelleria Relief and
the Ara Providentiae Augustae
CHAPTER VII: The “Insanity” of Caligula or the “Insanity” of the Jews? Differences in Perception
and Religious Beliefs
CHAPTER VIII: “Star Power” in Imperial Rome: Astral Theology, Castorian Imagery, and the Dual
Heirs in the Transmission of the Leadership of the State
IN PROGRESS:
VII) Christian Destruction and Desecration of Images of Classical Antiquity: A Study
in Religious Intolerance in the Ancient World
VIII) Dynastic Narratives in Augustan Art and Thought: The Rhetoric and Poetry of
Visual Imagery [with DVD Virtual Reality Program of the Monuments]
IX) The Image of Augustus: Art, Ideology, and the Rhetoric of Leadership
X) Social, Sexual, and Religious Intercourse: Sacrificial Ministrants and Sex-Slaves
in Roman Art -- 3rd Century B.C. - 4th Century A.D.
ARTICLES
PUBLISHED:
1) “A Flavian Relief Portrait in the J. Paul Getty Museum,” in Getty Museum Journal
5 (1977) 63-66.
2) “Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and the Ravenna Relief,” in Römische Mitteilungen
88 (1981) 117-40.
3) “A Pre-Principate Portrait of Gaius (Caligula)?” in Journal of the Walters Art
Gallery 40 (1982) 1-12.
4) “Damnatio Memoriae in Stone: Two Portraits of Nero Recut to Vespasian in
American Museums,” in American Journal of Archaeology 88 (1984) 547-55.
5) “The Meaning and Date of the Reverse Type of Gaius Caesar on Horseback,” in
American Numismatic Society Museum Notes 30 (1985) 113-17.
6) “Response to E. Judge’s ‘On Judging the Merits of Augustus,’” in Center for
Hermeneutical Studies: Colloquy 49 (1985) 44-46.
7) “Ahenobarbi, Appuleii and Some Others on the Ara Pacis,” in American Journal of
Archaeology 90 (1986) 453-60.
8) “The Findspot of the Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta,” in Bullettino della
Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 92 (1987/88) 103-108.
9) “Two Acrolithic or Pseudo-Acrolithic Sculptures of the Mature Classical Period in
the Archaeological Museum of the Johns Hopkins University,” in Classical Marble:
Geochemistry,Technology, Trade (NATO ASI Series E vol. 153), edd. N. Herz and
M. Waelkens (Dordrecht 1988) 207-17.
10) “Man or God: Divine Assimilation and Imitation in the Late Republic and Early
Principate,” in Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His
Principate, edd. K.A. Raaflaub and M. Toher (Berkeley 1990) 333-63.
11) “The Marble Type of the Augustus from Prima Porta: An Isotopic Analysis,” in
Journal of Roman Archaeology 5 (1992) 203-208.
12) “The Tazza Farnese: Principe Augusto ‘Redeunt Saturnia Regna’!” in American
Journal of Archaeology 96 (1992) 249-55, 283-300.
13) “The Cartoceto Bronzes: Portraits of a Roman Aristocratic Family of the Late First
Century B.C.,” in American Journal of Archaeology 97 (1993) 423-46.
14) “The Gemma Augustea: Ideology, Rhetorical Imagery, and the Construction of a
Dynastic Narrative,” in Narrative and Event in Ancient Art, ed. P. Holliday
(Cambridge 1993) 258-98.
15) “The Acanthus of the Ara Pacis as an Apolline and Dionysiac Symbol of
Anamorphosis, Anakyklosis and Numen Mixtum,” in Von der Bauforschung zur
Denkmalpflege, Festschrift für Alois Machatschek (Vienna 1993) 181-217.
16) “The ‘Trojan Column’ at USC: Reality or Myth?” in Trojan Family (May, 1994)
30-31.
17) “The Augustus from Prima Porta and the Transformation of the Polykleitan Heroic
Ideal,” in Polykleitos, the Doryphoros, and Tradition, ed. W. Moon (Madison 1995)
262-82.
18) “The ‘Dart Aphrodite’: A New Replica of the ‘Arles Aphrodite Type,’ the Cult Image
of Venus Victrix in Pompey’s Theater at Rome, and Venusian Ideology and Politics
in the Late Republic - Early Principate,” in Latomus 55 (1997) 757-85.
19) “Parian Lychnites and the Prima Porta Statue: New Scientific Tests and the Symbolic
Value of the Marble” (with N. Herz, K. Polikreti, and Y. Maniatis), in Journal of
Roman Archaeology 11 (1998) 275-84.
20) “The Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver,” in The Art
Bulletin 81 (1999) 21-52.
21) “Ein mit Inschriften versehener Legionärshelm von der pannonisch-dakischen Grenze
des römischen Reiches: Besitzverhältnisse an Waffen in der römischen Armee,” in
M. Junkelmann, Römische Helme VIII Sammlung Axel Guttmann, ed. H. Born
(Mainz 2000) 169-88.
22) “The Marble Type of the Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta: Facts and Fallacies,
Lithic Power and Ideology, and Color Symbolism in Roman Art,” in Paria Lithos:
Parian Quarries, Marble and Workshops of Sculpture (Proceedings of the First
International Conference on the Archaeology of Paros and the Cyclades, Paros, 2-5
October 1997), edd. D.U. Schilardi and D. Katsonopoulou (Athens 2000) 237-52.
23) “The Riace Bronzes: New Observations,” in Acten des 14. Internationalen
Kongresses für Antike Bronzen, Kölner Jahrbuch 33 (2000) 37-56.
24) “Two Bronze Portrait Busts of Slave-Boys from a Shrine of Cobannus in Roman
Gaul,” in Studia Varia II: Occasional Papers on Antiquities of The J. Paul Getty
Museum 10 (2001) 115-52.
25) “A New Portrait of Octavian/Augustus Caesar,” in Roman Sculpture in the
Art Museum, Princeton University (Princeton 2001) 6-11.
26) “Two Gallo-Roman Bronze Portraits of Sacrificial Ministrants in the J. Paul Getty
Museum,” in From the Parts to the Whole 2: Acta of the 13th International Bronze
Congress, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 28 - June 1, 1996, edd. C.C.
Mattusch, A. Brauer, and S.E. Knudsen (Portsmouth, Rhode Island 2002) 89-91.
27) “‘Frieden-durch-Sieg’ Ideologie und die Ara Pacis Augustae: Bildrhetorik und
die Schöpfung einer dynastischen Erzählweise,” in Krieg und Sieg: Narrative
Wanddarstellungen von Altägypten bis ins Mittelalter (Internationales
Kolloquium 23. - 30. Juli 1997 im Schloss Heindorf, Langenlois; Österreichischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften XXIV), edd. M. Bietak und M. Schwarz (Vienna
2002) 137-59.
28) “A New Portrait of Octavia and the Iconography of Octavia Minor and Julia Maior,”
Römische Mitteilungen 109 (2002) 11-42.
29) “Slave-Boys for Sexual and Religious Service: Images of Pleasure and Devotion,” in
Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text, edd. A.J. Boyle and W.J. Dominik (Leiden
2003) 149-66.
30) “The Caelian Hill Sacrificial Minister: A Marble Head of an Imperial Slave-Boy from
the Antiquarium Comunale on the Caelian Hill in Rome,” in Römische Mitteilungen
111 (2004) 1-28.
31) “A New Head of Augustus from Herculaneum: A Marble Survivor of a Pyroclastic
Surge,” in Römische Mitteilungen 111 (2004) 283-98.
32) “The Armstrong and Nuffler Heads and the Portraiture of Julius Caesar, Livia, and
Antonia Minor in Terra Marique: Studies in Honor of Anna Marguerite McCann
on the Receipt of the Gold Medal of the Archaeological Institute of America, ed.
J. Pollini (Oxbow Publications, Oxford 2005) 89-122.
33) “A New Marble Portrait of Tiberius: Portrait Typology and Ideology,” in Antike Kunst
48 (2005) 57-72.
34) “A North African Portrait of Caracalla from the Mellerio Collection and the
Iconography of Caracalla and Geta,” in Revue Archéologique (2005) 55-77.
35) “A Bronze Gorgon Handle Ornament of the Ripe Archaic Greek Period,” in Annuario
della Scuola Archeologica Italiana di Atene e delle Missioni Italiani in Oriente 83
(2005) 235-47.
36) “Ritualizing Death in Republican Rome: Memory, Religion, Class Struggle, and the
Wax Ancestral Mask Tradition’s Origin and Influence on Veristic Portraiture” in
Performing Death: Social Analyses of Funerary Ritual in the Ancient Near East
and Mediterranean (Oriental Institute Seminars 3, University of
Chicago), ed. N. Laneri (Chicago 2007) 237-85.
37) “A New Bronze Portrait Bust of Augustus,” in Latomus 66 (2007) 270-73.
FORTHCOMING:
38) “Gods and Emperors in the East: Images of Power and the Power of Intolerance,”
in the proceedings of an international conference on “‘Sculptural Environment’ of the
Roman Near East: Reflections on Culture, Ideology, and Power” (University of
Michigan), in Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion,
edd. E.A. Friedland, S.C. Herbert, and Y.Z. Eliav (Peeters Publ.: Leuven).
39) “A New Portrait Bust of Tiberius in the Collection of Michael Bianco,” in Bulletin
Antieke Beschaving 83 (2008) 133-38.
40) “The Desecration and Mutilation of the Parthenon Frieze by Christians and Others,” in
Athenische Mitteilungen 122 (2007).
41) “Problematics of Making Ambiguity Explicit in Virtual Reconstructions:
A Case Study of the Mausoleum of Augustus,” for the proceedings of an international
conference, “Computer Technology and the Arts: Theory and Practice,” sponsored by
the British Academy and the University of London.
42) “A Winged Goat Table Leg Support from the House of Numerius Popidius Priscus at
Pompeii,” in Pompei, Regio VII, Insula 2, pars occidentalis. Indagini, Studi,
Materiali (la Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei), ed. L. Pedroni.
43) “Augustus: Portraits of Augustus,” in Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and
Rome (2008).
44) “A New Bronze Lar and the Role of the Lares in the Domestic and Civic Religion of the Romans,” in Latomus (2008).
IN PROGRESS:
45) “The ‘Colville Athena’ Head and Its Typology.”
46) “Idealplastik and Idealtheorie: Paradeigmatic Systems, Homosexual Desire, and the
Rhetoric of Identity in Polykleitos’ Doryphoros and Diadoumenos.”
REVIEW ARTICLES
PUBLISHED:
D. Boschung, Die Bildnisse des Augustus (Das römische Herrscherbild I.2) (Berlin 1993),
in Art Bulletin 81 (1999) 723-35.
E. Varner, Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial
Portraiture (Monumenta Graeca et Romana 10) (Leiden 2004), in Art Bulletin 88
(2006) 591-98.
BOOK REVIEWS
PUBLISHED:
M. Torelli, Typology and Structure of Roman Historical Reliefs, in American Journal of
Archaeology 87 (1983) 572-73.
J. Ganzert, Das Kenotaph für Gaius Caesar in Limyra, in American Journal of
Archaeology 90 (1986) 134-36.
R. Brilliant, Visual Narratives. Storytelling in Etruscan and Roman Art in American
Journal of Philology 107 (1986) 523-27.
PUBLISHED IN CHOICE:
E. Bartman, Portraits of Livia: Imaging the Imperial Woman in Augustan Rome, in
vol. 37 (1999) 126.
B.S. Ridgway, Prayers in Stone: Greek Architectural Sculpture (Ca. 600 - 100 B.C.),
in vol. 37 (2000) 1095.
W.E. Mierse, Temples and Towns in Roman Iberia: The Social and Architectural
Dynamics of Sanctuary Designs from the Third Century B.C. to the Third Century A.D.
in vol. 37 (2000) 1458.
V. Karageorgis, Ancient Art from Cyprus: The Cesnola Collection in The Metropolitan
Museum of Art (New York 2000)in vol. 38 (2000) 1953.
Z. Hawass, Valley of the Golden Mummies (New York 2000) in vol. 38 (2001)
4036.
M.W. Jones, Principles of Roman Architecture (New Haven 2000) in vol. 38 (2001)
5409.
F. Salmon, Building on Ruins: The Rediscovery of Rome and English Architecture
(Ashgate 2000) in vol. 39 (2001) 106.
J. Boardman, The History of Greek Vases: Potters, Painters and Pictures (New York
2001) in vol. 39 (2002) 3755.
Roman Sculpture in the Art Museum, Princeton University, ed. J. M. Padgett (Princeton
2001) in vol. 39 (2002) 6218.
G. Hedreen, Capturing Troy: The Narrative Function of Landscape in Archaic and Early
Classical Greek Art (Ann Arbor, 2001) in vol. 40 (2002) 73.
A. J. Clark, M. Elston, and M.L. Hart, Understanding Greek Vases: A Guide to Terms,
Styles, and Techniques (Los Angeles 2002) in vol. 40 (2003) 3185.
S. Woodford, Images of Myths in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge 2003) in vol. 41
(2003) 89.
J. Aruz with R. Wallenfels (edd.), Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from
the Mediterranean to the Indus (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) (New
Haven 2003) in vol. 41 (2004) 2584.
G. Curtis, Disarmed: The Story of the Venus de Milo (New York 2003) in vol. 41 (2004)
5083.
Games for the Gods: The Greek Athlete and the Olympic Spirit, edd. J.J. Herrmann and C.
Kondoleon (Boston Museum of Fine Arts) in vol. 42 (2004) 646.
E.W. Leach, The Social Life of Painting in Ancient Rome and on the Bay of Naples
(Cambridge 2004) in vol. 42 (2004) 1215-16.
D. Mazzoleni, Domus: Wall Painting in the Roman House (Los Angeles 2004) in vol. 42
(2005) 1809.
S. Fine, Art and Judaism in the Greco-Roman World: Toward a New Jewish Archaeology
(Cambridge 2005) in vol. 43 (2006) 1586-87.
C.H. Hallett, The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary 200 B.C. -- A.D. 300 (Oxford
2005) in vol. 44 (2006).
Constantine the Great: York’s Roman Emperor, edd. E. Hartley, J. Hawkes, M. Henig, and
F. Mee (York 2006) in vol. 44 (2006).
M.D. Stansbury-O’Donnell, Vase Painting, Gender, and Social Identity in Archaic Athens
(Cambridge 2006) in vol. 44 (2006).
PRINCIPAL INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (Hard Copy and Online):
Greek Art and Archaeology: Course Manual (113 pages, 23 plates) and online version of
this Course Manual with digitized images
Roman Art and Archaeology: Course Manual (158 pages, 58 plates) and online version
of this Course Manual with digitized images
Digging into the Past: Material Culture and the Civilizations of the Ancient
Mediterranean: Course Manual (43 pages)
Proseminar Guide to General and Specific Works on Greek and Roman Art and
Archaeology and Related Disciplines (50 pages) and online version
Website for AHIS 425, “Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research and Methodology
in Classical Art and Archaeology and Related Disciplines” with links to other important
websites in the fields of Art, Archaeology, Classics, and Ancient History
Website for AHIS 201g: “Digging into the Past: Material Culture and the
Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean” (with digitized images)
PAPERS GIVEN AT INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL
CONFERENCES AND SYMPOSIA
On Judging the Merits of Augustus: Center for Hermeneutical Studies: Colloquy,
Berkeley (April, 1985)
Investigating Hellenistic Sculpture: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts,
National Gallery of Art (October, 1986)
Augustus: Monuments, Arts, and Religion: Brown University (March, 1987)
Aspects of Ancient Religion: University of California at Berkeley (April, 1987)
Marble and Ancient Greece and Rome: International conference sponsored by
NATO at Il Ciocco (Tuscany), Italy (May, 1988)
Polykleitos, the Doryphoros and Its Influence: University of Wisconsin, Madison
(October, 1989)
UCLA-USC Seminar in Roman Studies: UCLA, Los Angeles (December, 1992)
XIIIth International Bronze Congress: Harvard University (May 28 - June 1, 1996)
UCLA-USC Seminar in Roman Studies: Roman Representations: Subjectivity, Power
and Space: USC, Los Angeles (March, 1997)
International Symposium at Cuma (Naples): Flavian Poets, Artists, Architects and
Engineers in the Campi Flegrei (July, 1997)
International Symposium at the University of Vienna: Interdisziplinäres Kolloquium
Historische Architekturreliefs vom Alten Ägypten bis zum Mittelalter (July, 1997)
First International Conference on the Archaeology of Paros and the Cyclades: Paros,
Greece (October, 1997)
Getty Research Institute Colloquium: Work in Progress (November, 1997)
Annual Meetings of the Art Historians of Southern California at California State
University, Northridge, California (November, 1998)
XIV. Internationaler Kongress für Antike Bronzen: Werkstattkreise, Figuren und Geräte
(Sponsored by Das Römisch-Germanisches Museum der Stadt Köln und das
Archäologisches Institut der Universität zu Köln [September 1999]): Besides giving paper,
chaired the session “Bronzestatuen und -statuetten: Fundkomplexen, Fundgruppen,
Einzelstücke, und Typen”
First International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- keynote speaker and chaired
session on “Ideology, Historiography, and the Imperial Family” (May, 2000)
International Symposium at Emory University, Atlanta: Tyranny and Transformation
(October, 2000)
Annual Meeting of the Art Historians of Southern California at the Getty Center,
Los Angeles, California (November, 2000)
Getty Research Institute Colloquium: Work in Progress (December, 2000)
Second International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- chaired session on “The Image of
the Princeps and the Ruler Cult” (May, 2001)
UCLA-USC Seminar in Roman Studies: UCLA, Los Angeles (April, 2002)
Third International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- chaired session on “Roman History
and Ideology” (May, 2002)
Symposium on the Age of Augustus at UCLA -- (Feb., 2003)
Fourth International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- keynote speaker and
chaired session (May, 2003)
International Archaeological Congress, Harvard University (Aug. 2003): Besides giving a
paper, chaired session on “Ancient Society”
VIIth International ASMOSIA Conference, Thasos, Greece (Sept. 2003)
International Conference in the Arts and the Humanities, Honolulu, Hawaii (Jan. 2004)
Symposium on Roman Sculpture, Minneapolis Museum of Art (organized by Richard
Brilliant) (April, 2004)
International Symposium on Interaction of Indigenous and Foreign Cults in Italy at Cuma
(Naples) (May, 2004): Besides giving a paper, chaired session
International Conference at University of Michigan: “‘Sculptural Environment’ of the
Roman Near East: Reflections on Culture, Ideology, and Power (November 2004)
International Conference at Stanford University: “Seeing the Past” (February 2005)
International Conference at the University of London: “Computer Technology and the Arts:
Theory and Practice” (November 2005)
International Conference at the University of Chicago: “Performing Death: Social Analyses
of Funerary Ritual in the Mediterranean” (February 2006)
VIIIth International ASMOSIA Conference, Aix-en-Provence, France (June 2006)
Symposium “Art of Warfare”: Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University (January
2007)
PAPERS PRESENTED AT ANNUAL CONVENTIONS OF THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE
COLLEGE ART ASSOCIATION
Boston (AIA, December, 1979)
New Orleans (AIA, December, 1980)
San Francisco (AIA, December, 1981)
Philadelphia (AIA, December, 1982)
Cincinnati (AIA, December, 1983)
Toronto (AIA, December, 1984)
Washington, D.C. (AIA, December, 1985) -- invited paper, “The Promulgation of the
Image of the Leader in Roman Art,” in a special AIA plenary session on Politics and
Art
San Antonio (AIA, December, 1986) -- invited paper, “Time, Narrativity, and Dynastic
Constructs in Augustan Art and Thought,” at a joint AIA-APA session on topics
illustrating connections between Roman art and philology
Houston (CAA, February, 1988) -- invited paper, “The Gemma Augustea and the
Construction of a Dynastic Narrative,” for a CAA session on Narrative and Event in
Greek and Roman Art
Atlanta (AIA, December, 1994) -- discussant for a joint AIA-APA session on “Rethinking
Nero’s Legacy: New Perspectives on Neronian Art, Literature, and History”
New York (AIA, December, 1996) -- special poster session: “The Marble Type of the
Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta: New Scientific Tests” (prepared in collaboration
with Norman Herz, Director of Programs, Center for Archaeological Sciences, University
of Georgia)
Chicago (AIA, December, 1997)
Washington, D.C. (AIA, December, 1998) -- invited paper, “A Portrait of a Sex-Slave
‘Stud’ (?) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York,” for a special colloquium in
honor of Anna Marguerite McCann on the receipt of the “Gold Medal” of the
Archaeological Institute of America
San Francisco (AIA, January, 2004) -- joint paper with N.Cipolla and L. Swartz Dodd
OTHER ACADEMIC AND PUBLIC LECTURES/TALKS
American Academy, Rome, Italy (March, 1976)
Cleveland Society AIA, Cleveland, Ohio (April, 1979)
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. (September, 1980)
Institute of Fine Arts, New York, N.Y. (October, 1980)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N.Y. (January, 1983)
New York Society AIA, New York, N.Y. (January, 1983)
Baltimore Society AIA, Baltimore, Md. (February, 1983)
University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (March, 1987)
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Ca. (March, 1987)
Columbia University, New York, N.Y. (April, 1987)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, UCLA, Ca. (November 1989)
Tulane University, New Orleans, La. (February, 1990)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, USC, Ca. (February 1990)
Los Angeles Society AIA, Los Angeles, Ca. (March, 1990)
Fisher Gallery and School of Fine Arts, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
Ca. (March, 1990)
Institute of Fine Arts, New York, N.Y. (April, 1990)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (May, 1990)
University of Vienna and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria (June, 1990)
San Diego Society AIA, San Diego, Ca. (September, 1990)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, Getty Museum, Malibu, Ca.
(November, 1990).
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. (December, 1990)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, Gamble House, Pasadena, Ca.
(March 1991)
Henry T. Rowell Lecturer: Baltimore Society AIA, Baltimore, Md. (November, 1991)
Villanova University, Villanova, Pa. (November, 1991)
Royal-Athena Galleries, Los Angeles, Ca. (October, 1992)
Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts (CASVA), National Gallery of Art,
Washington D.C. (November, 1992)
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. (November, 1992)
Duke University, Durham, N.C. (November, 1992)
University of California, Los Angeles: UCLA/USC Seminar in Roman Studies, Los
Angeles, Ca. (December, 1992)
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Ca. (January, 1993)
J. Paul Getty Museum and Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, Malibu,
Ca. (February, 1993)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, UCLA, Ca. (March 1993)
California State University, Long Beach, Ca. (March, 1993)
Stanford University, Palo Alto, Ca. (April, 1993)
University of California, Berkeley, Ca. (April, 1993)
California State University, Northridge, Ca. (April, 1993)
University of Arizona, Tucson, Az. (April, 1993)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (June, 1994)
Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities (Director’s Series) (Dec., 1994)
University of California, Irvine (May, 1997)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (July, 1997)
American School of Classical Studies, Athens (October, 1997)
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles (March, 1998)
British School at Rome (June, 1998)
University of California, Berkeley (November, 1998)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, University of California,
Santa Barbara (March, 1999)
Work in Progress: Getty Research Institute, Brentwood, California (December, 2000)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, Getty Research Institute,
Brentwood, Ca. (April, 2001)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (May, 2001)
Loyola Marymount, Los Angeles (March, 2002)
Southern California Institute of Architecture (February, 2003)
Columbia University, New York (April, 2003)
University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (May, 2003)
University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands (May, 2003)
American School of Classical Studies, Athens (September, 2003)
University of Oklahoma, Norman (March, 2005)
Cambridge University, Cambridge, England (November, 2005)
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Greece (March, 2007)
University of Athens, Greece (May, 2007)
Los Angeles Society of the AIA, Los Angeles (December, 2007)
College of William and Mary (January, 2008)
Duke University, Durham (February, 2008)
Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA (March, 2008)
University of Nebraska, Lincoln (April, 2008)
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS as Whitehead Professor of Archaeology (2006-2007)
Participated in all Fall trips of the School to various parts of Greece, giving
presentations on each of the trips.
Participated in the School’s Spring trip to Central Anatolia, giving several presentations.
Offered a seminar in the Winter Quarter: “Christian Destruction and Desecration of
Images and Shrines of Classical Antiquity.”
MISCELLANEOUS TALKS AND PRESENTATIONS
Lectures and talks on site regarding the architecture and topography of Rome, Ostia,
and Hadrian’s Villa for members of the Technische Universität für Architektur und
Denkmalpflege, Vienna, Austria; the Summer School of the American Academy in
Rome; St. Olaf College’s Junior Year Abroad Program; and M.A. students of
architecture in a joint summer program of the University of Southern California and the
University of Illinois; and the Intercollegiate Center for Classical Studies in Rome.
Talks on various aspects of Classical art and archaeology at meetings of the
Archaeological Society of the Mid-Atlantic States (1980-1987)
Gallery talks on the ancient collections of the Archaeological Museum of the Johns
Hopkins University (in capacity as curator) and of the Walters Art Gallery (1979-1987)
Gallery talks on the ancient collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Los Angeles
County Museum of Art (1987-present)
Talk for USC graduate students in the Dept. of Classics at the Ara Pacis and Mausoleum of
Augustus in Rome (May 26, 2006), organized by Prof. Claudia Moatti, Dept. of Classics
SPECIAL TALKS AND LECTURES AT USC
Seminar for Professor Claudia Moatti, Department of Classics: “Problems in Ancient Art”
(March, 2005)
Seminar for Dr. Daniela Bleichmar, Department of Art History: Rediscovering the
Classical Past: The Relationship of Art History, Archaeology, and Visual Culture (March,
2005)
University of Southern California’s 125th Celebration: For Symposium on “Trojan
Legends” presented paper: “USC's Trojan Column: An Ancient and Modern Myth”
(October, 2005)
MEDIA INTERVIEWS AND CONSULTATION
New York Times, International Herald Tribune, Los Angeles Times, The New Yorker, The
History Channel, Arts and Entertainment Channel, KPCC Radio Los Angeles, NBC, Fox
Featured piece on my innovative work on the marble type of the statue of Augustus from
Prima Porta: A. Elders, “Tracing the Stones of Classical Brilliance,” in Hermes -- Greece
Today 35 (1999) 20-24.
ORGANIZER AND LEADER OF TOURS OF MUSEUMS AND SITES
Turkey (for Board of Councilors and donors of the School of Fine Arts, USC, 1995; for
university students and the general public, 1998)
Greece (Attica and the Peloponnese) (for university students and the general public, 1999)
Central Italy (for university students and the general public, 2000, 2002, 2003)
PARTICIPATION IN OTHER COLLOQUIA AND SYMPOSIA
Roman Sculpture and Architecture: German Archaeological Institute, Rome
(January, 1978)
Roman Architecture: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery
of Art (January, 1981)
The Age of Augustus. The Rise of Imperial Ideology: Brown University (April, 1982)
Pictorial Narratives in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: The Johns Hopkins University and
the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art (March, 1984)
Villa Gardens of the Roman Empire: Dumbarton Oaks (May, 1984)
Retaining the Original -- Multiple Originals, Copies, and Reproductions: Center for
Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art (March, 1985)
Investigating Hellenistic Sculpture: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts,
National Gallery of Art (October, 1986)
Marble -- Art Historical and Sculptural Perspectives on Ancient Sculpture: J. Paul Getty
Museum (April, 1988)
International Conference on Roman Archaeology and Latin Epigraphy: University of
Rome and the French School of Rome (May, 1988)
Roman Portraits in Context: Emory University (January, 1989)
Small Bronze Sculpture from the Ancient World: J. Paul Getty Museum (March, 1989)
Alexandria and Alexandrianism: J. Paul Getty Museum (April, 1993)
International Symposium: “Rome Reborn” Visual Reality Program at UCLA (December,
1996)
History of Restoration of Ancient Stone Sculptures, J. Paul Getty Museum (October, 2001)
Re-Restoring Ancient Stone Sculpture, J. Paul Getty Museum (March, 2003)
Marble Conference on Thasos, Liman, Thasos (Sept. 2003)
OTHER PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
Editorial Assistant (1968-1969) and Associate Editor (1969-1970), AGON: Journal of
Classical Studies
Editorial Board, American Journal of Philology (January, 1982-January, 1987)
Delegate from Baltimore Society AIA to National Convention (1984-1986)
Vice-President, Baltimore Society of the AIA (1985-1987)
Co-Director, Exhibition on Roman Portraiture, Fisher Gallery (1989)
Co-Founder (with Dr. Diana Buitron) of the Classical Archaeological Society of the Mid-
Atlantic States (1978-87)
Founder and President of the Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California
(1987-present)
Member of the Ancient Art Council of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (1987-
present)
Oversaw the publication and helped edit the newsletter “ARTFACTS” of the
School of Fine Arts (1993-1996) during my tenure as Dean of the School of Fine Arts
USC Representative to Advisory Council of the American Academy in Rome
(1993-present)
Comitato di Collaborazione Culturale to the Consul General of Italy at Los Angeles
(1995-1998)
Advisory Committee for the Virtual Reality Project for Ancient Rome (“Rome Reborn”)
(1996-1998)
Delegate from Los Angeles Society AIA to National Convention (Chicago, Dec., 1997)
Reviewer for the Getty Grant Program (1999)
Reviewer for the MacArthur Foundation Grant (2000, 2003)
Planning Committee for a Four-Year International Conference on “Roman Imperial
Ideology” at the Villa Vergiliana at Cuma (Naples), organized by J. Rufus Fears (2000-
2003)
Consultant for the Forum of Augustus Project: Sovrintendenza Archeologica Comunale,
Direzione al Foro di Augusto (2004-present)
Editor of the newsletter “Musings” for the Department of Art History, USC (2005)
Planning Committee for the Internation Bronze Congress in Athens, Greece (2006-2007)
Chaired two sessions -- “Roman Sculpture” and “Augustan Art” -- at the Annual Meeting
of the Archaeological Institute of America (San Diego 2007)
UNIVERSITY COMMITTEES AND OTHER SERVICE
Faculty Senate (1988-1991)
Advisory Committee to the Dean of the School of Fine Arts (1990-1991, 1992-1993)
Chairman, Personnel Committee of the School of Fine Arts (1988-1990)
Library Liaison Officer for Art and Architecture Library (1987-present)
Search Committee for Reference Librarian of the Art and Architecture Library
(1989-1990 and 2000)
University Library Committee (1989-1990, 1998-2001)
Recruitment Committee for the School of Fine Arts (1989-1995)
Space Allocation Committee, School of Fine Arts (1989-1990)
University Research Committee (1990-1991)
Promotion Committee, School of Fine Arts (1990-1995)
University Ad Hoc Committee on Revenue Center Management (1990-1995)
Committee for University Development, School of Fine Arts (1993-1995)
Development Task Force, the School of Fine Arts (1993-1995)
Consultative Committee to the Provost (Spring 1993-1995)
University Galleries Advisory Committee (1993-1995)
University Committee on Transnational and Multicultural Affairs (1993-1995)
Provost’s Council at USC (formerly Council of Deans) (1993-1995)
USC Representative to the Advisory Council of the American Academy in Rome
(1993-present)
Founder and Member of the Board of Councilors for the School of Fine Arts (1994-1995)
Consortium Council of Deans for Development at USC (1995)
Tenure and Promotion Committee, Department of Art History (1995-to present)
Recruitment Committee for Department of Art History in the College of
Letters, Arts, and Sciences (1996-2005)
Program Proposer for the Establishment of an Interdepartmental and Interdisciplinary
Ancient Mediterranean Studies Program (1997-1999)
Chinese Search Committee, Department of Art History (1998-1999)
Japanese Search Committee, Department of Art History (1998-1999)
Professor-In-Charge, USC-Getty Lecture Series, Seminar, and Faculty Dinner (honoring
Salvatore Settis) (1998-1999)
Curriculum Committee (Co-Chair) (1998-1999)
Chair, Committee for Selection of Departmental Chair (1999-2000)
Chair, Merit Review Committee (1999-2000)
Committee for the Establishment of an Undergraduate Major in Archaeology
(2002-present)
Greek Art Search Committee, Department of Art History and Classics (2001-2004)
Faculty Search Committee, Department of Art History: Senior Hiring Initiative (2003-
present)
Junior Faculty Review Committee, Department of Art History (2003)
USC’s Arts and Humanities Committee (2003-2004)
Chair of Oversight Committee for the Interdisciplinary Archaeology Major (Spring 2006)
MEMBERSHIPS IN NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
NATIONAL:
Archaeological Institute of America
College Art Association
American Philological Association
Association of Ancient Historians
Vergilian Society
INTERNATIONAL:
Deutsches Archäologisches Institut
Associazione Internazionale di Archeologia Classica
Association for the Study of Marble and Other Stones in Antiquity (AMOSIA)
Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies
If you are interested in Julio Claudian Iconography and portrait study you may enjoy these two links:
Julio Claudian Iconographic Association- Joe Geranio- Administrator at groups.yahoo.com/group/julioclaudian/
The Portraiture of Caligula- Joe Geranio- Administrator- at
portraitsofcaligula.com/
Both are non-profit sites and for educational use only.
Includes every detail I could squeeze in on exterior. Proportions are almost exact. Took 3 hours to build. Have a good one!
Grand View Overlook
Colorado National Monument is a National Park Service unit near the city of Grand Junction, Colorado. Sheer-walled canyons cut deep into sandstone and granite–gneiss–schist rock formations. This is an area of desert land high on the Colorado Plateau, with pinyon and juniper forests on the plateau. The park hosts a wide range of wildlife, including red-tailed hawks, golden eagles, ravens, jays, desert bighorn sheep, and coyotes. Activities include hiking, horseback riding, road bicycling, and scenic drives; a visitor center on the west side contains a natural history museum and gift shop. There are scenic views from trails, Rim Rock Drive, which winds along the plateau, and the campground. Nearby are the Book Cliffs and the largest flat-topped mountain in the world, the Grand Mesa.
The monument's feature attraction is Monument Canyon, which runs the width of the park and includes rock formations such as Independence Monument, the Kissing Couple, and Coke Ovens. The monument includes 20,500 acres (32.0 sq mi; 83 km2), much of which has been recommended to Congress for designation as wilderness.
The area was first explored by John Otto, who settled in Grand Junction in the early 20th century. Prior to Otto's arrival, many area residents believed the canyons to be inaccessible to humans. Otto began building trails on the plateau and into the canyons. As word spread about his work, the Chamber of Commerce of Grand Junction sent a delegation to investigate. The delegation returned praising both Otto's work and the scenic beauty of the wilderness area, and the local newspaper began lobbying to make it a National Park. A bill was introduced and carried by the local Representatives to the U.S. Congress and Senate but a Congressional slowdown in the final months threatened the process. To ensure protection of the canyons President William Howard Taft (who had visited the area) stepped in and used the highest powers available to him via the Antiquities Act and presidential proclamation to declare the canyons as a national monument.
The area was established as Colorado National Monument on May 24, 1911. Otto was hired as the first park ranger, drawing a salary of $1 per month. For the next 16 years, he continued building and maintaining trails while living in a tent in the park.
A herd of bison was introduced and maintained from 1925 to 1983. After a failed effort to introduce elk, Otto obtained two cows and one bull. The herd grew to as many as 45 animals, but generally the herd was kept at about 20-25 animals.
The park became more well known in the 1980s partly due to its inclusion as a stage of the major international bicycle race, the Coors Classic. The race through the park became known as "The Tour of the Moon", due to the spectacular landscapes the race passed through on Rim Rock Drive.
The issue of national park status has arisen time and again, usually during bust cycles brought on by the uranium industry and later oil and gas. As of June, 2014 Congressman Scott Tipton and Senator Mark Udall have carried the process closer to fruition than any other representatives since the initial effort in 1907. The two Representatives appointed an 18-member committee of locals to study the issue and learn the facts in 2011. After a groundswell of support from local residents and business owners, the Representatives then appointed a committee of five local residents to write draft legislation. The draft legislation was announced and released in early 2014. A public comment period on the draft legislation began soon after with an end date of June 29. Documentary producer Ken Burns (National Parks: America's Best Idea) weighed in of the effort, endorsing national park status for the Colorado National Monument. Burns compared the area to Seward, Alaska, which overcame opposition to create Kenai Fjords National Park. Burns said Seward locals came to refer to Kenai Fjords National Park as a "permanent pipeline".
Climate
Ecologically, Colorado National Monument sits on a large area of high desert in Western Colorado, though under the Köppen climate classification, it, like neighbouring Grand Junction, is temperate semi-arid. Summers are hot and dry while winters cold with some snow. Temperatures reach 100 °F (38 °C) on 6.0 days, 90 °F (32 °C) on 62.3 days, and remain at or below freezing on 12.9 days annually.
Trails
The Monument contains many hiking trails, with lengths and difficulties to suit all tastes. Summer storms can cause flash floods as well as dangerous trail conditions. Rattlesnakes are found on the Monument, and rough terrain exists everywhere, but most trails are well-maintained. Winter cross-country skiing is occasionally possible on trails such as the Liberty Cap Trail.
Serpents Trail, perhaps the most popular, follows the route of the original road to the top of the Monument. This trail is accessible by parking lots at both ends, both located off Rim Rock Drive. Serpents Trail provides views of both the Monument itself and the Grand Valley below. One of the shortest trails, also popular, is Devil's Kitchen. The trailhead is located near the eastern entrance of the park on Rim Rock Drive. This trail is about 1 mile long, and ends in a sandstone grotto.
Liberty Cap trail starts from the valley floor and climbs to the rim of the Monument. Liberty Cap itself is an ancient sand dune, and provides a beautiful view of the Grand Valley. Corkscrew Trail, closed for many years but reopened in mid-2006, branches off the Liberty Cap and skirts a small canyon and cliffs that cannot be seen from the valley floor. This trail, the only loop trail on the Monument, is about 3 miles long and features a less rigorous climb than Liberty Cap.
Monument Canyon trail follows Monument Canyon for about 5 miles. This trail is often hiked up-and-back, and provides close-up views of Independence Monument, the Colorado National Monument's most distinct feature, as well as a formation named Kissing Couple. The lower trailhead is accessible from CO 340 (Broadway).
No Thoroughfare Trail starts at the bottom of No Thoroughfare Canyon, near the east entrance. As the name implies, there is no official trail to the top of this canyon. The dead-end trail goes a few miles into the canyon, and up-and-back hiking is required. Some hikers have found a way to get through the entire canyon, but after a certain point the trail becomes difficult and unmarked. No Thoroughfare Canyon does have small waterfalls during the spring runoff, but is dry for most of the year.
Colorado National Monument was rated in 2017 as the best campsite in Colorado in a 50-state survey conducted by Msn.com.
Historic preservation
Many of the early visitor facilities at Colorado National Monument were designed by the National Park Service and constructed by the Public Works Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps. Several of these areas have been placed on the National Register of Historic Places in recognition of this and in consequence of their adherence to the National Park Service Rustic design standards of the time. The entire Rim Rock Drive is a National Historic District, as well as the Serpents Trail, the Devils Kitchen Picnic Shelter, and three places in the Saddlehorn area: the Saddlehorn Caretaker's House and Garage, Saddlehorn Comfort Station, and the Saddlehorn Utility Area Historic District. The Visitor Center complex is also included as an example of the Mission 66 program.
Geology
The park's geologic record preserves three different groups of rock and sediment. The oldest rocks are Early to Middle Proterozoic gneiss and schist, including the Ute Canyon Stock. Overlying these, and separated by an angular unconformity, are mostly horizontally bedded Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, including the cliff-forming Wingate Sandstone. Overlying these are various types of Quaternary unconsolidated deposits such as alluvium, colluvium, and dunes. The sedimentary rocks are folded into monoclines by several faults, including the Redlands Thrust Fault.
(Wikipedia)
Das Colorado National Monument ist ein Naturschutzgebiet vom Typ eines National Monuments im Westen des US-Bundesstaates Colorado. Es umfasst auf 83 km² eine Halbwüste im Bereich des Uncompahgre Uplift, das seinerseits die Nordost-Ecke des Colorado-Plateaus bildet.
Die Attraktivität des Gebietes wurde 1907 von einem Siedler namens John Otto erkannt, er überzeugte mit Hilfe der lokalen Behörden Präsident William H. Taft, die Region 1911 als National Monument auszuweisen. Das Schutzgebiet wird vom National Park Service verwaltet. Im Westen schließt sich die Black Ridge Canyons Wilderness unter der Verwaltung des Bureau of Land Management an, ein Wilderness Area und damit ein Naturschutzgebiet der strengsten Schutzkategorie der USA. Wegen der Bedeutung für Greifvögel ist das National Monument seit 2000 als Important Bird Area auf nationaler und Staatsebene ausgewiesen.
Beschreibung
Die vielfarbigen Sandstein-Formationen des Colorado National Monuments erheben sich mehr als 2000 Fuß (610 m) über dem Tal des Colorado River. Erosion durch Wind und Wasser, Hitze und Frost hat tiefe Abbrüche, steile Felswände und unverwechselbare Steinformationen geformt. Die Gesteinsschichten sind zwischen 1,5 Milliarden und etwa 80 Millionen Jahren alt; ihr Farbspektrum, das von orange über rot und purpur bis braun reicht, verdankt es den Einlagerungen von Eisen und anderen Mineralien.
Der 23 Meilen lange Rim Rock Drive führt vom Westeingang, der etwa 4 km von Fruita entfernt auf 1430 Metern (4690 Fuß) Höhe liegt, in vielen Windungen und durch Tunnel steil zum Hochplateau hinauf. Dort hat man einen Blick über das breite Tal des Colorado bis zu den Bookcliffs auf der anderen Seite, die sich als rosa und grau gestreifte Wand erstrecken, so weit das Auge reicht. Der Rim Rock Drive folgt dem Canyonrand und von vielen Aussichtspunkten kann man in die Abbruchkanten und auf die Sandsteinformationen sehen, die von frühen Besuchern sprechende Namen erhalten haben wie Balanced Rock, Window Rock, Sentinel Spire, Saddlehorn, Pipe Organ, Independence Monument, Kissing Couple, Cleopatras Couch, Coke Ovens, Squaw Fingers, Fallen Rock und Devils Kitchen. Den höchsten Punkt erreicht die Straße in der Nähe des Ute Canyon View mit 2024 Metern (6640 Fuß). Der Osteingang, von dem es bis Grand Junction noch 6 Kilometer sind, liegt auf 1503 Metern (4930 Fuß).
Geschichte
Der Nordosten des Colorado-Plateaus war in prähistorischer Zeit dünn durch Indianer der Basketmaker-Kultur besiedelt. Das Klima der Halbwüste auf dem Hochplateau machte die Region nicht attraktiv, die meisten Funde der Region liegen außerhalb des Schutzgebiets nahe dem Flussufer. In der Archaischen Periode reichte die Fremont-Kultur bis an den Colorado. In historischer Zeit gehörte das heutige Monument zum Jagdgebiet der Ute-Indianer. Die beiden letztgenannten hinterließen im Schutzgebiet vielfältige Petroglyphen und Felszeichnung.
Die Besiedelung der Region durch Weiße begann erst 1881, nachdem es vereinzelte Expeditionen durch das Gebiet gegeben hatte und 1838 ein Handelsposten für Geschäfte mit den Ute eingerichtet worden war. Das Hochland und die Canyons wurden für unzugänglich gehalten. Für den Siedler John Otto, der diese faszinierende Landschaft im Jahre 1907 zum ersten Mal sah, war sie „das Herz der Welt“. Er zog allein in den abgelegenen Canyon und überschüttete einflussreiche lokale Politiker und die zuständigen Stellen in Washington mit Briefen und Anträgen, um das Gebiet zu einem Nationalpark erklären zu lassen. Gleichzeitig legte er Wanderwege an, die auf das Plateau und in die Canyons führten, damit auch andere Menschen sich an der Landschaft erfreuen konnten. Er drängte die Bewohner Grand Junctions, ihn bei seinem Vorhaben durch weitere Briefe und Petitionen für den Schutz dieses Landes zu unterstützen. 1911 hatte er Erfolg: Am 24. Mai 1911 erklärte Präsident William H. Taft das Land zum Colorado National Monument. Otto wurde der erste Ranger des Schutzgebiets. Für ein symbolisches Gehalt von 1 Dollar im Monat übte er diese Tätigkeit bis 1927 aus.
Während der Great Depression gründete Präsident Franklin D. Roosevelt im Rahmen des New Deals 1933 das Civilian Conservation Corps, in dem junge arbeitslose Freiwillige unter Anleitung von Armee-Offizieren öffentliche Infrastruktur in den Vereinigten Staaten ausbauten. Ein Camp des CCC spielte eine wesentliche Rolle beim Bau des bereits seit 1929 geplanten Rim Rock Drive, der Erschließungsstraße des Gebiets mit Aussichtspunkten und Picknickplätzen.
Ökosysteme
Das Gebiet weist vielfältige Lebensräume für Tiere und Pflanzen auf. Die Halbwüste der Hochebene, die nackten Felswände und geschützte schattige Bereichen in den Canyons bieten völlig unterschiedliche Umweltbedingungen. Es gibt keine ganzjährigen Wasserläufe oder Quellen.
Das Hochplateau gehört geoökologisch zu den östlichsten Ausläufern der Wüste des Großen Beckens. Hier stehen vereinzelte Pinyon-Kiefern, die dominierenden Pflanzenfamilien sind Kakteen und Sukkulenten. Besonders fallen die Opuntien auf und darunter der Opuntia ficus-indica. Auf dem Plateau leben die größten Säugetiere des Gebietes, Maultierhirsche und Dickhornschafe. An Reptilien gibt es je neun Eidechsen und Schlangenarten im Schutzgebiet, darunter fallen der Halsbandleguan und die einzige giftige Schlange der Region, die midget faded rattlesnake, eine Unterart der Pazifik-Klapperschlange, auf.
Die Felswände sind der Lebensraum für neun Arten Greifvögel, darunter Wanderfalke, Steinadler, Rotschwanzbussard und Truthahngeier, und einige Singvögel wie Weißbrustsegler, Trauertauben und Kolkraben. Risse und Höhlen werden von mehreren Fledermausarten bewohnt. Am Fuß und in Spalten stehen Pinyon-Kiefern und Wacholder-Büsche.
Auf den Sohlen der Canyons gibt es geschützte Standorte, in denen Eschen wachsen. Hier leben auch Amphibien, die man in der Halbwüstenumgebung nicht vermuten würde. Darunter sind Laubfrösche und Amerikanische Schaufelfußkröten, die nach den seltenen Regenfällen innerhalb kürzester Zeit temporäre Gewässer zur Fortpflanzung nutzen. Der Großteil der Tieflagen ist mit lockerer Vegetation aus Wüsten-Beifuß und Gräsern bewachsen. Im Frühjahr und Spätsommer werden sie durch vielfältige Blütenpflanzen geprägt. Hier leben Baumwollschwanzkaninchen, Felsenhörnchen, Antilopenziesel und Streifenhörnchen. Andere Nagetiere wie Kängururatten, Buschratten und Pinyon-Mäuse sind seltener oder leben überwiegend versteckt. Die wichtigsten Vogelarten der Canyons sind Helmwachteln, Buschhäher und Nacktschnabelhäher, Schluchtenzaunkönige, Felsenzaunkönige, Lerchenstärlinge und Grauvireos.
Durch das ganze Gebiet streifen Graufüchse, Pumas, Kojoten und Rotluchse, Katzenfrette (ringtails) und Baumstachler (porcupines) bewohnen die dichter bewaldeten Anteile.
Das National Monument
Im Besucher-Zentrum, das sich rund 4 Meilen vom Westeingang entfernt befindet, kann man sich über die Geschichte und Entstehung des Parks, über die Geologie sowie die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt anhand von Büchern, Filmen und Karten informieren. Ranger bieten Vorträge und geführte Wanderungen an. Im Norden des Parks liegt ein einfacher Campingplatz. Für mehrtägige Wanderungen mit Übernachtung im Hinterland wird eine Genehmigung verlangt.
Die hauptsächliche Aktivität von Besuchern ist Wandern. Die kurvige und teils steile Parkstraße gilt auch als anspruchsvolle Radtour, da sich die Steigungen auf rund 37 Kilometern Strecke auf etwas über 700 Höhenmeter summieren. In der Tradition von John Otto besteigen Kletterer jährlich zum Independence Day am 4. Juli die 150 m hohe Steinformation Independence Monument und hissen das Sternenbanner.
Der Park leidet unter unmittelbar an seine Grenzen heranrückender Bebauung durch die zwischen den 1970er und 2000er Jahren verdoppelte Bevölkerung im Grand Valley. Der in den 1930er Jahren für den Freizeitverkehr gebaute, kurvige Rim Rock Drive wird von Bewohnern der Region auf dem täglichen Arbeitsweg genutzt. Die in den letzten Jahren stark gewachsene Siedlung Glade Park ist nur durch das Schutzgebiet zu erreichen.
(Wikipedia)
Sigh. You can't change physics, and that includes how sharp things like invidual tree trunks can be when they're at least 4-5 miles away from where you are. Nevertheless, I am really starting to dig that Nikon 200-500 of Robin's.
There may be issues when we next go to a wildlife refuge ;-)
High above Ridgway, CO, the last bright light of the afternoon before evening sets in. Clouds prove themselves useful yet again.
I was keen to include my new Police vehicle models in a scene/scenario to showcase their working blue emergency lighting, and so had them attend the local One Stop Shop. Store staff called 999 to report concern about a possible Drink Driver (Sec 5 RTA), and Strathclyde Police control room requested two nearby RPU sets to attend. On arrival the driver of a white VW Transporter Van was found slumped over the steering wheel, confused and disorientated. Upon further investigation, it was discovered that alcohol was not a factor and concerns were raised that the driver was suffering a medical emergency. As such Force Control Room requested assistance from the Scottish Ambulance Service who dispatched a nearby Urgent Tier vehicle. The driver was found to be in acute diabetic hypoglycaemia, however fully recovered following treatment by the Urgent Tier’s Technician. The driver refused to attend hospital and was discharged at the locus.
ST08HKF - SAS Urgent Tier Ford Transit.
OE66YFC - StrathPol RPU Jaguar F Pace.
BX10LCT - StrathPol RPU Land Rover Discovery.
Canyonlands National Park is an American national park located in southeastern Utah near the town of Moab. The park preserves a colorful landscape eroded into numerous canyons, mesas, and buttes by the Colorado River, the Green River, and their respective tributaries. Legislation creating the park was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on September 12, 1964.
The park is divided into four districts: the Island in the Sky, the Needles, the Maze, and the combined rivers—the Green and Colorado—which carved two large canyons into the Colorado Plateau. While these areas share a primitive desert atmosphere, each retains its own character. Author Edward Abbey, a frequent visitor, described the Canyonlands as "the most weird, wonderful, magical place on earth—there is nothing else like it anywhere."
In the early 1950s, Bates Wilson, then superintendent of Arches National Monument, began exploring the area to the south and west of Moab, Utah. After seeing what is now known as the Needles District of Canyonlands National Park, Wilson began advocating for the establishment of a new national park that would include the Needles. Additional explorations by Wilson and others expanded the areas proposed for inclusion into the new national park to include the confluence of Green and Colorado rivers, the Maze District, and Horseshoe Canyon.
In 1961, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall was scheduled to address a conference at Grand Canyon National Park. On his flight to the conference, he flew over the Confluence (where the Colorado and Green rivers meet). The view apparently sparked Udall's interest in Wilson's proposal for a new national park in that area and Udall began promoting the establishment of Canyonlands National Park.
Utah Senator Frank Moss first introduced legislation into Congress to create Canyonlands National Park. His legislation attempted to satisfy both nature preservationists' and commercial developers' interests. Over the next four years, his proposal was struck down, debated, revised, and reintroduced to Congress many times before being passed and signed into creation.
In September, 1964, after several years of debate, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Pub.L. 88–590, which established Canyonlands National Park as a new national park. Bates Wilson became the first superintendent of the new park and is often referred to as the "Father of Canyonlands."
The Colorado River and Green River combine within the park, dividing it into three districts called the Island in the Sky, the Needles, and the Maze. The Colorado River flows through Cataract Canyon below its confluence with the Green River.
The Island in the Sky district is a broad and level mesa in the northern section of the park, between the Colorado and Green rivers. The district has many viewpoints overlooking the White Rim, a sandstone bench 1,200 feet (370 m) below the Island, and the rivers, which are another 1,000 feet (300 m) below the White Rim.
The Needles district is located south of the Island in the Sky, on the east side of the Colorado River. The district is named for the red and white banded rock pinnacles which are a major feature of the area. Various other naturally sculpted rock formations are also within this district, including grabens, potholes, and arches. Unlike Arches National Park, where many arches are accessible by short to moderate hikes, most of the arches in the Needles district lie in backcountry canyons, requiring long hikes or four-wheel drive trips to reach them.
The Ancestral Puebloans inhabited this area and some of their stone and mud dwellings are well-preserved, although the items and tools they used were mostly removed by looters. The Ancestral Puebloans also created rock art in the form of petroglyphs, most notably on Newspaper Rock along the Needles access road.
The Maze district is located west of the Colorado and Green rivers. The Maze is the least accessible section of the park, and one of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the United States.
A geographically detached section of the park located north of the Maze district, Horseshoe Canyon contains panels of rock art made by hunter-gatherers from the Late Archaic Period (2000-1000 BC) pre-dating the Ancestral Puebloans. Originally called Barrier Canyon, Horseshoe's artifacts, dwellings, pictographs, and murals are some of the oldest in America. The images depicting horses date from after 1540 AD, when the Spanish reintroduced horses to America.
Since the 1950s, scientists have been studying an area of 200 acres (81 ha) completely surrounded by cliffs. The cliffs have prevented cattle from ever grazing on the area's 62 acres (25 ha) of grassland. According to the scientists, the site may contain the largest undisturbed grassland in the Four Corners region. Studies have continued biannually since the mid-1990s. The area has been closed to the public since 1993 to maintain the nearly pristine environment.
Mammals that roam this park include black bears, coyotes, skunks, bats, elk, foxes, bobcats, badgers, ring-tailed cats, pronghorns, desert bighorn sheep, and cougars. Desert cottontails, kangaroo rats and mule deer are commonly seen by visitors.
At least 273 species of birds inhabit the park. A variety of hawks and eagles are found, including the Cooper's hawk, the northern goshawk, the sharp-shinned hawk, the red-tailed hawk, the golden and bald eagles, the rough-legged hawk, the Swainson's hawk, and the northern harrier. Several species of owls are found, including the great horned owl, the northern saw-whet owl, the western screech owl, and the Mexican spotted owl. Grebes, woodpeckers, ravens, herons, flycatchers, crows, bluebirds, wrens, warblers, blackbirds, orioles, goldfinches, swallows, sparrows, ducks, quail, grouse, pheasants, hummingbirds, falcons, gulls, and ospreys are some of the other birds that can be found.
Several reptiles can be found, including eleven species of lizards and eight species of snake (including the midget faded rattlesnake). The common kingsnake and prairie rattlesnake have been reported in the park, but not confirmed by the National Park Service.
The park is home to six confirmed amphibian species, including the red-spotted toad, Woodhouse's toad, American bullfrog, northern leopard frog, Great Basin spadefoot toad, and tiger salamander. The canyon tree frog was reported to be in the park in 2000, but was not confirmed during a study in 2004.
Canyonlands National Park contains a wide variety of plant life, including 11 cactus species,[34] 20 moss species, liverworts, grasses and wildflowers. Varieties of trees include netleaf hackberry, Russian olive, Utah juniper, pinyon pine, tamarisk, and Fremont's cottonwood. Shrubs include Mormon tea, blackbrush, four-wing saltbush, cliffrose, littleleaf mountain mahogany, and snakeweed
Cryptobiotic soil is the foundation of life in Canyonlands, providing nitrogen fixation and moisture for plant seeds. One footprint can destroy decades of growth.
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Canyonlands National Park has a cold semi-arid climate ("BSk"). The plant hardiness zones at the Island in the Sky and Needles District Visitor Centers are 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 4.0 °F (-15.6 °C) and 2.9 °F (-16.2 °C), respectively.
The National Weather Service has maintained two cooperative weather stations in the park since June 1965. Official data documents the desert climate with less than 10 inches (250 millimetres) of annual rainfall, as well as hot, mostly dry summers and cold, occasionally wet winters. Snowfall is generally light during the winter.
The station in The Neck region reports an average January temperature of 29.6 °F and an average July temperature of 79.3 °F. Average July temperatures range from a high of 90.8 °F (32.7 °C) to a low of 67.9 °F (19.9 °C). There are an average of 45.7 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 117.3 days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. The highest recorded temperature was 105 °F (41 °C) on July 15, 2005, and the lowest recorded temperature was −13 °F (−25 °C) on February 6, 1989. Average annual precipitation is 9.33 inches (237 mm). There are an average of 59 days with measurable precipitation. The wettest year was 1984, with 13.66 in (347 mm), and the driest year was 1989, with 4.63 in (118 mm). The most precipitation in one month was 5.19 in (132 mm) in October 2006. The most precipitation in 24 hours was 1.76 in (45 mm) on April 9, 1978. Average annual snowfall is 22.8 in (58 cm). The most snowfall in one year was 47.4 in (120 cm) in 1975, and the most snowfall in one month was 27.0 in (69 cm) in January 1978.
The station in The Needles region reports an average January temperature of 29.7 °F and an average July temperature of 79.1 °F.[44] Average July temperatures range from a high of 95.4 °F (35.2 °C) to a low of 62.4 °F (16.9 °C). There are an average of 75.4 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 143.6 days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. The highest recorded temperature was 107 °F (42 °C) on July 13, 1971, and the lowest recorded temperature was −16 °F (−27 °C) on January 16, 1971. Average annual precipitation is 8.49 in (216 mm). There are an average of 56 days with measurable precipitation. The wettest year was 1969, with 11.19 in (284 mm), and the driest year was 1989, with 4.25 in (108 mm). The most precipitation in one month was 4.43 in (113 mm) in October 1972. The most precipitation in 24 hours was 1.56 in (40 mm) on September 17, 1999. Average annual snowfall is 14.4 in (37 cm). The most snowfall in one year was 39.3 in (100 cm) in 1975, and the most snowfall in one month was 24.0 in (61 cm) in March 1985.
National parks in the Western US are more affected by climate change than the country as a whole, and the National Park Service has begun research into how exactly this will effect the ecosystem of Canyonlands National Park and the surrounding areas and ways to protect the park for the future. The mean annual temperature of Canyonlands National Park increased by 2.6 °F (1.4 °C) from 1916 to 2018. It is predicted that if current warming trends continue, the average highs in the park during the summer will be over 100 °F (40 °C) by 2100. In addition to warming, the region has begun to see more severe and frequent droughts which causes native grass cover to decrease and a lower flow of the Colorado River. The flows of the Upper Colorado Basin have decreased by 300,000 acre⋅ft (370,000,000 m3) per year, which has led to a decreased amount of sediment carried by the river and rockier rapids which are more frequently impassable to rafters. The area has also begun to see an earlier spring, which will lead to changes in the timing of leaves and flowers blooming and migrational patterns of wildlife that could lead to food shortages for the wildlife, as well as a longer fire season.
The National Park Service is currently closely monitoring the impacts of climate change in Canyonlands National Park in order to create management strategies that will best help conserve the park's landscapes and ecosystems for the long term. Although the National Park Service's original goal was to preserve landscapes as they were before European colonization, they have now switched to a more adaptive management strategy with the ultimate goal of conserving the biodiversity of the park. The NPS is collaborating with other organizations including the US Geological Survey, local indigenous tribes, and nearby universities in order to create a management plan for the national park. Right now, there is a focus on research into which native plants will be most resistant to climate change so that the park can decide on what to prioritize in conservation efforts. The Canyonlands Natural History Association has been giving money to the US Geological Survey to fund this and other climate related research. They gave $30,000 in 2019 and $61,000 in 2020.
A subsiding basin and nearby uplifting mountain range (the Uncompahgre) existed in the area in Pennsylvanian time. Seawater trapped in the subsiding basin created thick evaporite deposits by Mid Pennsylvanian. This, along with eroded material from the nearby mountain range, became the Paradox Formation, itself a part of the Hermosa Group. Paradox salt beds started to flow later in the Pennsylvanian and probably continued to move until the end of the Jurassic. Some scientists believe Upheaval Dome was created from Paradox salt bed movement, creating a salt dome, but more modern studies show that the meteorite theory is more likely to be correct.
A warm shallow sea again flooded the region near the end of the Pennsylvanian. Fossil-rich limestones, sandstones, and shales of the gray-colored Honaker Trail Formation resulted. A period of erosion then ensued, creating a break in the geologic record called an unconformity. Early in the Permian an advancing sea laid down the Halgaito Shale. Coastal lowlands later returned to the area, forming the Elephant Canyon Formation.
Large alluvial fans filled the basin where it met the Uncompahgre Mountains, creating the Cutler red beds of iron-rich arkose sandstone. Underwater sand bars and sand dunes on the coast inter-fingered with the red beds and later became the white-colored cliff-forming Cedar Mesa Sandstone. Brightly colored oxidized muds were then deposited, forming the Organ Rock Shale. Coastal sand dunes and marine sand bars once again became dominant, creating the White Rim Sandstone.
A second unconformity was created after the Permian sea retreated. Flood plains on an expansive lowland covered the eroded surface and mud built up in tidal flats, creating the Moenkopi Formation. Erosion returned, forming a third unconformity. The Chinle Formation was then laid down on top of this eroded surface.
Increasingly dry climates dominated the Triassic. Therefore, sand in the form of sand dunes invaded and became the Wingate Sandstone. For a time climatic conditions became wetter and streams cut channels through the sand dunes, forming the Kayenta Formation. Arid conditions returned to the region with a vengeance; a large desert spread over much of western North America and later became the Navajo Sandstone. A fourth unconformity was created by a period of erosion.
Mud flats returned, forming the Carmel Formation, and the Entrada Sandstone was laid down next. A long period of erosion stripped away most of the San Rafael Group in the area, along with any formations that may have been laid down in the Cretaceous period.
The Laramide orogeny started to uplift the Rocky Mountains 70 million years ago and with it, the Canyonlands region. Erosion intensified and when the Colorado River Canyon reached the salt beds of the Paradox Formation the overlying strata extended toward the river canyon, forming features such as The Grabens. Increased precipitation during the ice ages of the Pleistocene quickened the rate of canyon excavation along with other erosion. Similar types of erosion are ongoing, but occur at a slower rate.
Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Colorado to its east, Wyoming to its northeast, Idaho to its north, Arizona to its south, and Nevada to its west. Utah also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast. Of the fifty U.S. states, Utah is the 13th-largest by area; with a population over three million, it is the 30th-most-populous and 11th-least-densely populated. Urban development is mostly concentrated in two areas: the Wasatch Front in the north-central part of the state, which is home to roughly two-thirds of the population and includes the capital city, Salt Lake City; and Washington County in the southwest, with more than 180,000 residents. Most of the western half of Utah lies in the Great Basin.
Utah has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups such as the ancient Puebloans, Navajo, and Ute. The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the mid-16th century, though the region's difficult geography and harsh climate made it a peripheral part of New Spain and later Mexico. Even while it was Mexican territory, many of Utah's earliest settlers were American, particularly Mormons fleeing marginalization and persecution from the United States via the Mormon Trail. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the region was annexed by the U.S., becoming part of the Utah Territory, which included what is now Colorado and Nevada. Disputes between the dominant Mormon community and the federal government delayed Utah's admission as a state; only after the outlawing of polygamy was it admitted in 1896 as the 45th.
People from Utah are known as Utahns. Slightly over half of all Utahns are Mormons, the vast majority of whom are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which has its world headquarters in Salt Lake City; Utah is the only state where a majority of the population belongs to a single church. A 2023 paper challenged this perception (claiming only 42% of Utahns are Mormons) however most statistics still show a majority of Utah residents belong to the LDS church; estimates from the LDS church suggests 60.68% of Utah's population belongs to the church whilst some sources put the number as high as 68%. The paper replied that membership count done by the LDS Church is too high for several reasons. The LDS Church greatly influences Utahn culture, politics, and daily life, though since the 1990s the state has become more religiously diverse as well as secular.
Utah has a highly diversified economy, with major sectors including transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, multi-level marketing, and tourism. Utah has been one of the fastest growing states since 2000, with the 2020 U.S. census confirming the fastest population growth in the nation since 2010. St. George was the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah ranks among the overall best states in metrics such as healthcare, governance, education, and infrastructure. It has the 12th-highest median average income and the least income inequality of any U.S. state. Over time and influenced by climate change, droughts in Utah have been increasing in frequency and severity, putting a further strain on Utah's water security and impacting the state's economy.
The History of Utah is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Utah located in the western United States.
Archaeological evidence dates the earliest habitation of humans in Utah to about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Paleolithic people lived near the Great Basin's swamps and marshes, which had an abundance of fish, birds, and small game animals. Big game, including bison, mammoths and ground sloths, also were attracted to these water sources. Over the centuries, the mega-fauna died, this population was replaced by the Desert Archaic people, who sheltered in caves near the Great Salt Lake. Relying more on gathering than the previous Utah residents, their diet was mainly composed of cattails and other salt tolerant plants such as pickleweed, burro weed and sedge. Red meat appears to have been more of a luxury, although these people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Artifacts include nets woven with plant fibers and rabbit skin, woven sandals, gaming sticks, and animal figures made from split-twigs. About 3,500 years ago, lake levels rose and the population of Desert Archaic people appears to have dramatically decreased. The Great Basin may have been almost unoccupied for 1,000 years.
The Fremont culture, named from sites near the Fremont River in Utah, lived in what is now north and western Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from approximately 600 to 1300 AD. These people lived in areas close to water sources that had been previously occupied by the Desert Archaic people, and may have had some relationship with them. However, their use of new technologies define them as a distinct people. Fremont technologies include:
use of the bow and arrow while hunting,
building pithouse shelters,
growing maize and probably beans and squash,
building above ground granaries of adobe or stone,
creating and decorating low-fired pottery ware,
producing art, including jewelry and rock art such as petroglyphs and pictographs.
The ancient Puebloan culture, also known as the Anasazi, occupied territory adjacent to the Fremont. The ancestral Puebloan culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, including the San Juan River region of Utah. Archaeologists debate when this distinct culture emerged, but cultural development seems to date from about the common era, about 500 years before the Fremont appeared. It is generally accepted that the cultural peak of these people was around the 1200 CE. Ancient Puebloan culture is known for well constructed pithouses and more elaborate adobe and masonry dwellings. They were excellent craftsmen, producing turquoise jewelry and fine pottery. The Puebloan culture was based on agriculture, and the people created and cultivated fields of maize, beans, and squash and domesticated turkeys. They designed and produced elaborate field terracing and irrigation systems. They also built structures, some known as kivas, apparently designed solely for cultural and religious rituals.
These two later cultures were roughly contemporaneous, and appear to have established trading relationships. They also shared enough cultural traits that archaeologists believe the cultures may have common roots in the early American Southwest. However, each remained culturally distinct throughout most of their existence. These two well established cultures appear to have been severely impacted by climatic change and perhaps by the incursion of new people in about 1200 CE. Over the next two centuries, the Fremont and ancient Pueblo people may have moved into the American southwest, finding new homes and farmlands in the river drainages of Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico.
In about 1200, Shoshonean speaking peoples entered Utah territory from the west. They may have originated in southern California and moved into the desert environment due to population pressure along the coast. They were an upland people with a hunting and gathering lifestyle utilizing roots and seeds, including the pinyon nut. They were also skillful fishermen, created pottery and raised some crops. When they first arrived in Utah, they lived as small family groups with little tribal organization. Four main Shoshonean peoples inhabited Utah country. The Shoshone in the north and northeast, the Gosiutes in the northwest, the Utes in the central and eastern parts of the region and the Southern Paiutes in the southwest. Initially, there seems to have been very little conflict between these groups.
In the early 16th century, the San Juan River basin in Utah's southeast also saw a new people, the Díne or Navajo, part of a greater group of plains Athabaskan speakers moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In addition to the Navajo, this language group contained people that were later known as Apaches, including the Lipan, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apaches.
Athabaskans were a hunting people who initially followed the bison, and were identified in 16th-century Spanish accounts as "dog nomads". The Athabaskans expanded their range throughout the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblo peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first specifically mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navaho) in the 1620s, referring to the people in the Chama valley region east of the San Juan River, and north west of Santa Fe. By the 1640s, the term Navaho was applied to these same people. Although the Navajo newcomers established a generally peaceful trading and cultural exchange with the some modern Pueblo peoples to the south, they experienced intermittent warfare with the Shoshonean peoples, particularly the Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado.
At the time of European expansion, beginning with Spanish explorers traveling from Mexico, five distinct native peoples occupied territory within the Utah area: the Northern Shoshone, the Goshute, the Ute, the Paiute and the Navajo.
The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado may have crossed into what is now southern Utah in 1540, when he was seeking the legendary Cíbola.
A group led by two Spanish Catholic priests—sometimes called the Domínguez–Escalante expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the California coast. The expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. All of what is now Utah was claimed by the Spanish Empire from the 1500s to 1821 as part of New Spain (later as the province Alta California); and subsequently claimed by Mexico from 1821 to 1848. However, Spain and Mexico had little permanent presence in, or control of, the region.
Fur trappers (also known as mountain men) including Jim Bridger, explored some regions of Utah in the early 19th century. The city of Provo was named for one such man, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah is named for a brigade leader of the Hudson's Bay Company, Peter Skene Ogden who trapped in the Weber Valley. In 1846, a year before the arrival of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints, the ill-fated Donner Party crossed through the Salt Lake valley late in the season, deciding not to stay the winter there but to continue forward to California, and beyond.
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormon pioneers, first came to the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847. At the time, the U.S. had already captured the Mexican territories of Alta California and New Mexico in the Mexican–American War and planned to keep them, but those territories, including the future state of Utah, officially became United States territory upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. The treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, 1848.
Upon arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormon pioneers found no permanent settlement of Indians. Other areas along the Wasatch Range were occupied at the time of settlement by the Northwestern Shoshone and adjacent areas by other bands of Shoshone such as the Gosiute. The Northwestern Shoshone lived in the valleys on the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake and in adjacent mountain valleys. Some years after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley Mormons, who went on to colonize many other areas of what is now Utah, were petitioned by Indians for recompense for land taken. The response of Heber C. Kimball, first counselor to Brigham Young, was that the land belonged to "our Father in Heaven and we expect to plow and plant it." A 1945 Supreme Court decision found that the land had been treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone had been recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States.
Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to make a place to live. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches, and schools. Access to water was crucially important. Almost immediately, Brigham Young set out to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed.
Shortly after the first company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, the community of Bountiful was settled to the north. In 1848, settlers moved into lands purchased from trapper Miles Goodyear in present-day Ogden. In 1849, Tooele and Provo were founded. Also that year, at the invitation of Ute chief Wakara, settlers moved into the Sanpete Valley in central Utah to establish the community of Manti. Fillmore, Utah, intended to be the capital of the new territory, was established in 1851. In 1855, missionary efforts aimed at western native cultures led to outposts in Fort Lemhi, Idaho, Las Vegas, Nevada and Elk Mountain in east-central Utah.
The experiences of returning members of the Mormon Battalion were also important in establishing new communities. On their journey west, the Mormon soldiers had identified dependable rivers and fertile river valleys in Colorado, Arizona and southern California. In addition, as the men traveled to rejoin their families in the Salt Lake Valley, they moved through southern Nevada and the eastern segments of southern Utah. Jefferson Hunt, a senior Mormon officer of the Battalion, actively searched for settlement sites, minerals, and other resources. His report encouraged 1851 settlement efforts in Iron County, near present-day Cedar City. These southern explorations eventually led to Mormon settlements in St. George, Utah, Las Vegas and San Bernardino, California, as well as communities in southern Arizona.
Prior to establishment of the Oregon and California trails and Mormon settlement, Indians native to the Salt Lake Valley and adjacent areas lived by hunting buffalo and other game, but also gathered grass seed from the bountiful grass of the area as well as roots such as those of the Indian Camas. By the time of settlement, indeed before 1840, the buffalo were gone from the valley, but hunting by settlers and grazing of cattle severely impacted the Indians in the area, and as settlement expanded into nearby river valleys and oases, indigenous tribes experienced increasing difficulty in gathering sufficient food. Brigham Young's counsel was to feed the hungry tribes, and that was done, but it was often not enough. These tensions formed the background to the Bear River massacre committed by California Militia stationed in Salt Lake City during the Civil War. The site of the massacre is just inside Preston, Idaho, but was generally thought to be within Utah at the time.
Statehood was petitioned for in 1849-50 using the name Deseret. The proposed State of Deseret would have been quite large, encompassing all of what is now Utah, and portions of Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, Oregon, New Mexico and California. The name of Deseret was favored by the LDS leader Brigham Young as a symbol of industry and was derived from a reference in the Book of Mormon. The petition was rejected by Congress and Utah did not become a state until 1896, following the Utah Constitutional Convention of 1895.
In 1850, the Utah Territory was created with the Compromise of 1850, and Fillmore (named after President Fillmore) was designated the capital. In 1856, Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the territorial capital.
The first group of pioneers brought African slaves with them, making Utah the only place in the western United States to have African slavery. Three slaves, Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby, came west with this first group in 1847. The settlers also began to purchase Indian slaves in the well-established Indian slave trade, as well as enslaving Indian prisoners of war. In 1850, 26 slaves were counted in Salt Lake County. Slavery didn't become officially recognized until 1852, when the Act in Relation to Service and the Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners were passed. Slavery was repealed on June 19, 1862, when Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories.
Disputes between the Mormon inhabitants and the federal government intensified after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy became known. The polygamous practices of the Mormons, which were made public in 1854, would be one of the major reasons Utah was denied statehood until almost 50 years after the Mormons had entered the area.
After news of their polygamous practices spread, the members of the LDS Church were quickly viewed by some as un-American and rebellious. In 1857, after news of a possible rebellion spread, President James Buchanan sent troops on the Utah expedition to quell the growing unrest and to replace Brigham Young as territorial governor with Alfred Cumming. The expedition was also known as the Utah War.
As fear of invasion grew, Mormon settlers had convinced some Paiute Indians to aid in a Mormon-led attack on 120 immigrants from Arkansas under the guise of Indian aggression. The murder of these settlers became known as the Mountain Meadows massacre. The Mormon leadership had adopted a defensive posture that led to a ban on the selling of grain to outsiders in preparation for an impending war. This chafed pioneers traveling through the region, who were unable to purchase badly needed supplies. A disagreement between some of the Arkansas pioneers and the Mormons in Cedar City led to the secret planning of the massacre by a few Mormon leaders in the area. Some scholars debate the involvement of Brigham Young. Only one man, John D. Lee, was ever convicted of the murders, and he was executed at the massacre site.
Express riders had brought the news 1,000 miles from the Missouri River settlements to Salt Lake City within about two weeks of the army's beginning to march west. Fearing the worst as 2,500 troops (roughly 1/3rd of the army then) led by General Albert Sidney Johnston started west, Brigham Young ordered all residents of Salt Lake City and neighboring communities to prepare their homes for burning and evacuate southward to Utah Valley and southern Utah. Young also sent out a few units of the Nauvoo Legion (numbering roughly 8,000–10,000), to delay the army's advance. The majority he sent into the mountains to prepare defenses or south to prepare for a scorched earth retreat. Although some army wagon supply trains were captured and burned and herds of army horses and cattle run off no serious fighting occurred. Starting late and short on supplies, the United States Army camped during the bitter winter of 1857–58 near a burned out Fort Bridger in Wyoming. Through the negotiations between emissary Thomas L. Kane, Young, Cumming and Johnston, control of Utah territory was peacefully transferred to Cumming, who entered an eerily vacant Salt Lake City in the spring of 1858. By agreement with Young, Johnston established the army at Fort Floyd 40 miles away from Salt Lake City, to the southwest.
Salt Lake City was the last link of the First Transcontinental Telegraph, between Carson City, Nevada and Omaha, Nebraska completed in October 1861. Brigham Young, who had helped expedite construction, was among the first to send a message, along with Abraham Lincoln and other officials. Soon after the telegraph line was completed, the Deseret Telegraph Company built the Deseret line connecting the settlements in the territory with Salt Lake City and, by extension, the rest of the United States.
Because of the American Civil War, federal troops were pulled out of Utah Territory (and their fort auctioned off), leaving the territorial government in federal hands without army backing until General Patrick E. Connor arrived with the 3rd Regiment of California Volunteers in 1862. While in Utah, Connor and his troops soon became discontent with this assignment wanting to head to Virginia where the "real" fighting and glory was occurring. Connor established Fort Douglas just three miles (5 km) east of Salt Lake City and encouraged his bored and often idle soldiers to go out and explore for mineral deposits to bring more non-Mormons into the state. Minerals were discovered in Tooele County, and some miners began to come to the territory. Conner also solved the Shoshone Indian problem in Cache Valley Utah by luring the Shoshone into a midwinter confrontation on January 29, 1863. The armed conflict quickly turned into a rout, discipline among the soldiers broke down, and the Battle of Bear River is today usually referred to by historians as the Bear River Massacre. Between 200 and 400 Shoshone men, women and children were killed, as were 27 soldiers, with over 50 more soldiers wounded or suffering from frostbite.
Beginning in 1865, Utah's Black Hawk War developed into the deadliest conflict in the territory's history. Chief Antonga Black Hawk died in 1870, but fights continued to break out until additional federal troops were sent in to suppress the Ghost Dance of 1872. The war is unique among Indian Wars because it was a three-way conflict, with mounted Timpanogos Utes led by Antonga Black Hawk fighting federal and Utah local militia.
On May 10, 1869, the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, north of the Great Salt Lake. The railroad brought increasing numbers of people into the state, and several influential businessmen made fortunes in the territory.
Main article: Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century
During the 1870s and 1880s, federal laws were passed and federal marshals assigned to enforce the laws against polygamy. In the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church leadership dropped its approval of polygamy citing divine revelation. When Utah applied for statehood again in 1895, it was accepted. Statehood was officially granted on January 4, 1896.
The Mormon issue made the situation for women the topic of nationwide controversy. In 1870 the Utah Territory, controlled by Mormons, gave women the right to vote. However, in 1887, Congress disenfranchised Utah women with the Edmunds–Tucker Act. In 1867–96, eastern activists promoted women's suffrage in Utah as an experiment, and as a way to eliminate polygamy. They were Presbyterians and other Protestants convinced that Mormonism was a non-Christian cult that grossly mistreated women. The Mormons promoted woman suffrage to counter the negative image of downtrodden Mormon women. With the 1890 Manifesto clearing the way for statehood, in 1895 Utah adopted a constitution restoring the right of women's suffrage. Congress admitted Utah as a state with that constitution in 1896.
Though less numerous than other intermountain states at the time, several lynching murders for alleged misdeeds occurred in Utah territory at the hand of vigilantes. Those documented include the following, with their ethnicity or national origin noted in parentheses if it was provided in the source:
William Torrington in Carson City (then a part of Utah territory), 1859
Thomas Coleman (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1866
3 unidentified men at Wahsatch, winter of 1868
A Black man in Uintah, 1869
Charles A. Benson in Logan, 1873
Ah Sing (Chinese man) in Corinne, 1874
Thomas Forrest in St. George, 1880
William Harvey (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1883
John Murphy in Park City, 1883
George Segal (Japanese man) in Ogden, 1884
Joseph Fisher in Eureka, 1886
Robert Marshall (Black man) in Castle Gate, 1925
Other lynchings in Utah territory include multiple instances of mass murder of Native American children, women, and men by White settlers including the Battle Creek massacre (1849), Provo River Massacre (1850), Nephi massacre (1853), and Circleville Massacre (1866).
Beginning in the early 20th century, with the establishment of such national parks as Bryce Canyon National Park and Zion National Park, Utah began to become known for its natural beauty. Southern Utah became a popular filming spot for arid, rugged scenes, and such natural landmarks as Delicate Arch and "the Mittens" of Monument Valley are instantly recognizable to most national residents. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the construction of the Interstate highway system, accessibility to the southern scenic areas was made easier.
Beginning in 1939, with the establishment of Alta Ski Area, Utah has become world-renowned for its skiing. The dry, powdery snow of the Wasatch Range is considered some of the best skiing in the world. Salt Lake City won the bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1995, and this has served as a great boost to the economy. The ski resorts have increased in popularity, and many of the Olympic venues scattered across the Wasatch Front continue to be used for sporting events. This also spurred the development of the light-rail system in the Salt Lake Valley, known as TRAX, and the re-construction of the freeway system around the city.
During the late 20th century, the state grew quickly. In the 1970s, growth was phenomenal in the suburbs. Sandy was one of the fastest-growing cities in the country at that time, and West Valley City is the state's 2nd most populous city. Today, many areas of Utah are seeing phenomenal growth. Northern Davis, southern and western Salt Lake, Summit, eastern Tooele, Utah, Wasatch, and Washington counties are all growing very quickly. Transportation and urbanization are major issues in politics as development consumes agricultural land and wilderness areas.
In 2012, the State of Utah passed the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act in an attempt to gain control over a substantial portion of federal land in the state from the federal government, based on language in the Utah Enabling Act of 1894. The State does not intend to use force or assert control by limiting access in an attempt to control the disputed lands, but does intend to use a multi-step process of education, negotiation, legislation, and if necessary, litigation as part of its multi-year effort to gain state or private control over the lands after 2014.
Utah families, like most Americans everywhere, did their utmost to assist in the war effort. Tires, meat, butter, sugar, fats, oils, coffee, shoes, boots, gasoline, canned fruits, vegetables, and soups were rationed on a national basis. The school day was shortened and bus routes were reduced to limit the number of resources used stateside and increase what could be sent to soldiers.
Geneva Steel was built to increase the steel production for America during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had proposed opening a steel mill in Utah in 1936, but the idea was shelved after a couple of months. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war and the steel plant was put into progress. In April 1944, Geneva shipped its first order, which consisted of over 600 tons of steel plate. Geneva Steel also brought thousands of job opportunities to Utah. The positions were hard to fill as many of Utah's men were overseas fighting. Women began working, filling 25 percent of the jobs.
As a result of Utah's and Geneva Steels contribution during the war, several Liberty Ships were named in honor of Utah including the USS Joseph Smith, USS Brigham Young, USS Provo, and the USS Peter Skene Ogden.
One of the sectors of the beachhead of Normandy Landings was codenamed Utah Beach, and the amphibious landings at the beach were undertaken by United States Army troops.
It is estimated that 1,450 soldiers from Utah were killed in the war.
Indiana has more butterfly species than these, but this montage does include all our swallowtails (top row) and a majority of the other noteworthy species. In order to limit the shots to the 36-photo frame, I had to leave out skippers, second color forms of several species, the checkered white, and possible spring azures. It would also be nice to show both inside and outside of the wings in several species. But here are three dozen species of Indiana butterflies photographed in natural surroundings.
Links to photos follow.
Top row, the swallowtails: 1. first swallowtail of the season (eastern tiger swallowtail), 2. giant swallowtail, 3. pipevine swallowtail, 4. spicebush swallowtail on swamp milkweed, 5. my first zebra, 6. black swallowtail.
Second row: 7. mating monarchs, 8. viceroy on swamp rose mallow, 9. American lady, 10. one more sip (painted lady), 11. silvery checkerspot, 12. pearl crescent.
Third row, eyespot species: 13. little wood-satyr, 14. northern pearly eye, 15. hackberry emperor hitchhiker, 16. Help! I'm stuck in the milkweed! (unharmed, live insect) (tawny emperor), 17. common buckeye portrait, 18. common wood-nymph.
Fourth row: 19. meadow fritillary, 20. variegated fritillary, 21. great spangled fritillary, 22. banded hairstreak, 23. gray hairstreak on swamp milkweed, 24. basking eastern tailed blue.
Fifth row: 25. red-spotted purple in morning sun, 26. American snout on bud of spotted knapweed, 27. red admiral portrait, 28. flying sulphurs, 29. sulphur, 30. dainty sulphur, closed wings.
Bottom row: 31. eastern comma on gravel, 32. question mark on ground, 33. summer azure close-up, 34. mourning cloak on path, 35. bronze copper butterfly, 36. cabbage white butterfly.
Is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With a population of around 230 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually adopted Indian cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.
History
Please go to:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indonesia
Geography
Indonesia is an archipelagic island country in Southeast Asia, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It is in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean. The country's variations in culture have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of complex interactions with the physical environment. Although Indonesians are now less vulnerable to the of nature as a result of improved technology and social programs, to some extent their social diversity has emerged from traditionally different patterns of adjustment to their physical circumstances.
Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending 5,120 kilometers from east to west and 1,760 kilometers from north to south. It encompasses an estimated 17,508 islands, only 6,000 of which are inhabited. It comprises five main islands: Sumatra, Java, Borneo (known as "Kalimantan" in Indonesia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea; two major archipelagos (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands); and sixty smaller archipelagos. Four of the islands are shared with other nations: Borneo is shared with Malaysia and Brunei, Sebatik, located eastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia, Timor is shared with East Timor, and the newly divided provinces of Papua and West Papua share the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. Indonesia's total land area is 1,919,317 square kilometers. Included in Indonesia's total territory is another 93,000 square kilometers of inland seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water). The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally recognized territory (land and sea) to about 5 million square kilometers. The government, however, also claims an exclusive economic zone, which brings the total to about 7.9 million square kilometers.
Geographers have conventionally grouped Sumatra, Java (and Madura), Kalimantan (in Borneo island), and Sulawesi in the Greater Sunda Islands. These islands, except for Sulawesi, lie on the Sunda Shelf—an extension of the Malay Peninsula and the Southeast Asian mainland. At Indonesia's eastern extremity is Papua, which takes up the western half of the world's second largest island--New Guinea--on the Sahul Shelf. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 200 meters or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group where the surrounding seas in some places reach 4,500 meters in depth. The term Outer Islands is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura.
Tectonically, this region--especially Java--is highly unstable, and although the volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils, it makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. The country has numerous mountains and some 400 volcanoes, of which approximately 150 are active. Between 1972 and 1991 alone, twenty-nine volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. The most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia. In 1815 a volcano at Gunung Tambora on the north coast of Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat Province, claimed 92,000 lives and created "the year without a summer" in various parts of the world. In 1883 Krakatau in the Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra, erupted and some 36,000 West Javans died from the resulting tidal wave. The sound of the explosion was reported as far away as Turkey and Japan. For almost a century following that eruption, Krakatau was quiet, until the late 1970s, when it erupted twice.
Mountains ranging between 3,000 and 3,800 meters above sea level can be found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country's tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Mountains in Papua. The highest peak, Puncak Jaya, also known as Mount Carstenz, which reaches 4,884 meters, is located in the Sudirman Mountains.
Nusa Tenggara consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward Papua. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the volcanic Banda Islands, which along with the Kai Islands and the Tanimbar Islands and other small islands in the Banda Sea are typical examples of the Wallacea mixture of Asian and Australasian plant and animal life. The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.
The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands. They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippines to the north, Papua to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the south. The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram and Buru, all of which rise steeply out of very deep seas and have unique Wallacea vegetation. This abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains. The islands of North Maluku are the original Spice Islands, a distinct rainforest ecoregion.
Geomorphologists believe that the island of New Guinea, of which Papua is a part, may once have been part of the Australian continent. The breakup and tectonic action created towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining the island's central east-west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coasts. The New Guinea Highlands range some 650 kilometers east to west along the island, forming a mountainous spine between the north and south coasts. A number of islands off the coast of New Guinea have their own distinctive habitats, including the limestone islands of Biak, in the entrance to the large Cenderawasih Bay at the northwest end of the island.
Other info
Oficial Name:
Republik Indonesia
Independence:
Declared 17 August 1945
- Recognized 27 December 1949
Area:
1.890.754km2
Inhabitants:
208.170.900
Capital
Jakarta
Language:
Badui Bali Bali Sign Language Betawi Chinese Indonesian Javanese Kangean Madura Malay Osing Petjo Sunda Tengger Ahe Ampanang Aoheng Bahau Bakumpai Banjar Basap Bekati' Benyadu' Biatah Bolongan Bukar Sadong Bukat Bukitan Burusu Dayak Djongkang Dohoi Dusun Embaloh Hovongan Iban Kahayan Katingan Kayan Mahakam Kayan Kelabit Kembayan Kendayan Keninjal Kenyah Kereho-Uheng Kohin Lara' Lawangan Lengilu Lundayeh Ma'anyan Malay Malayic Dayak Modang Mualang Ngaju Nyadu Okolod Paku Punan Putoh Ribun Sa'ban Sajau Sanggau Sara Seberuang Segai Selako Selungai Murut Semandang Sembakung Murut Siang Tagal Murut Taman
Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika
National Anthem
Indonesia Raya
Indonesia tanah airku,
Tanah tumpah darahku,
Di sanalah aku berdiri,
Jadi pandu ibuku.
Indonesia kebangsaanku,
Bangsa dan tanah airku,
Marilah kita berseru,
Indonesia bersatu.
Hiduplah tanahku,
Hiduplah neg'riku,
Bangsaku, Rakyatku, semuanya,
Bangunlah jiwanya,
Bangunlah badannya,
Untuk Indonesia Raya.
Refrain :
Indonesia Raya,
Merdeka, merdeka,
Tanahku, neg'riku yang kucinta!
Indonesia Raya,
Merdeka, merdeka,
Hiduplah Indonesia Raya.
II
Indonesia, tanah yang mulia,
Tanah kita yang kaya,
Di sanalah aku berdiri,
Untuk s'lama-lamanya.
Indonesia, tanah pusaka,
P'saka kita semuanya,
Marilah kita mendoa,
Indonesia bahagia.
Suburlah tanahnya,
Suburlah jiwanya,
Bangsanya, Rakyatnya, semuanya,
Sadarlah hatinya,
Sadarlah budinya,
Untuk Indonesia Raya.
Refrain
III
Indonesia, tanah yang suci,
Tanah kita yang sakti,
Di sanalah aku berdiri,
N'jaga ibu sejati.
Indonesia, tanah berseri,
Tanah yang aku sayangi,
Marilah kita berjanji,
Indonesia abadi.
S'lamatlah rakyatnya,
S'lamatlah putranya,
Pulaunya, lautnya, semuanya,
Majulah Neg'rinya,
Majulah pandunya,
Untuk Indonesia Raya.
Refrain
NEarst translantion to English
Indonesia, my native land
The land where I shed my blood
There, I stand
To be the guard of my motherland
Indonesia, my nationality
My nation and my homeland
Let us exclaim
"Indonesia unites!"
Long live my land, long live my state
My nation, my people, entirely
Build its soul, build its body
For the Great Indonesia
REFRAIN :
Great Indonesia, independent & sovereign!
My land, my country which I love
Great Indonesia, independent & sovereign!
Long live Great Indonesia!
Great Indonesia, independent & sovereign!
My land, my country which I love
Great Indonesia, independent & sovereign!
Long live Great Indonesia!
Indonesia, a noble country
Our wealthy land
There, I stand
Forever and ever
Indonesia, a hereditary land
A heritage of ours
Let us pray
"For Indonesians' happiness!"
Fertile may its soil, flourish may its soul
Its nation, its people, entirely
Aware may its heart, aware may its mind
For the Great Indonesia
REFRAIN
Indonesia, a sacred land
Our victorious country
There, I stand
To guard the pure motherland
Indonesia, a radiant land
A land which I adore
Let us pledge
"Indonesia is eternal!"
Safe may its people, safe may its children
Its islands, its seas, entirely
Progressive may the state, its scouts advance
For the Great Indonesia
REFRAIN
Indonesia in other names
eng | arg | ast | cym | eus | fao | fin | glg | grn | ina | ind | ita | lat | lld | nah | nor | nov | oci | roh | sme | spa | swa: Indonesia
bre | ron | rup | sqi: Indonezia
afr | lim | nld: Indonesië
ces | fra | nrm: Indonésie
crh | gag | kaa: İndoneziya / Индонезия
deu | ltz | nds: Indonesien / Indoneſien
hrv | lit | slv: Indonezija
hun | slk | tet: Indonézia
jav | por | srd: Indonésia
dan | swe: Indonesien
dsb | hsb: Indoneska
kin | run: Indoneziya
aze: İndoneziya / Индонезија
bam: Ɛndonezi
bos: Indonezija / Индонезија
cat: Indonèsia
cor: Indonesi
cos: Indunesia
csb: Jindonezjô
epo: Indonezio
est: Indoneesia
frp: Endonèsie
fry: Yndoneezje
fur: Indonesie
gla: An Innd-Innse; An Ind-innse; Indonìsia
gle: An Indinéis / An Indinéis
glv: Yn Indoneesh
hat: Endonezi
hau: Indonisiya; Indonesia
ibo: Indọnisia
isl: Indónesía
jnf: Îndonésie
kmr: Îndonêzî / Индонези / ئیندۆنێزی
kur: Endenozya / ئەندەنۆزیا ; Endenosya / ئەندەنۆسیا ; Indonêzya / ئندۆنێزیا ; Endonezya / ئەندۆنەزیا
lav: Indonēzija
lin: Indoneziá
mlg: Indônezia
mlt: Indoneżja; Indonesja
mol: Indonezia / Индонезия
mri: Initonīhia
msa: Indonesia / ايندونيسيا
pol: Indonezja
que: Indunisya
rmy: Indoneziya / इन्दोनेज़िया
scn: Indunesia
slo: Indonezia / Индонезиа
smg: Indonezėjė
smo: Initonesia
som: Indoneesiya; Indoniishiya
szl: Indůnezyjo
tgl: Indonesya
ton: ʻInitonisia
tuk: Indoneziýa / Индонезия
tur: Endonezya; İndonezya
uzb: Indoneziya / Индонезия / ئىندانېزىيە
vie: Nam Dương; In-đô-nê-xi-a
vol: Lindäna-Seänuäns
vor: Indoneesiä
wln: Indonezeye
wol: Endoneesi
zza: İndonezya
abq | alt | bul | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | sah | tyv | udm: Индонезия (Indonezija)
che | chv | mon | oss: Индонези (Indonezi)
bak: Индонезия / İndoneziya
bel: Інданезія / Indaniezija; Інданэзія / Indanezija
kaz: Индонезия / Ïndonezïya / يندونەزيا
kbd: Индонезие (Indonezie)
kir: Индонезия (Indonezija) / ئندونەزىيا (İndoneziya)
mhr: Индонезий (Indonezij)
mkd: Индонезија (Indonezija)
srp: Индонезија / Indonezija
tat: Индонезия / İndoneziä
tgk: Индонезия / اندانیزیه / Indonezija
ukr: Індонезія (Indonezija)
ara: إندونيسيا (Indūnīsiyā); إندونسيا (Indūnisiyā)
ckb: ئەندەنوسیا / Endenusya; ئیندۆنستان / Îndonistan
fas: اندونزی / Andonezi
prs: اندونیزیا (Endōnēziyā)
pus: انډونېشيا (Inḋonešiyā); اندونېزيا (Indoneziyā)
snd: انڊونيشيا (Inḍonešiyā)
uig: ھىندونېزىيە / Hindonéziye / Һиндонезия
urd: انڈونیشیا (Inḋonešiyā)
div: އިންޑޮނީށިއާ (Inḋonīŝiā); އިންޑޮނޭޝިޔާ (Inḋonēšiyā)
heb: אינדונזיה (Îndônezyah)
lad: אינדוניסיה / Indonesia
yid: אינדאָנעזיע (Indonezye)
amh: ኢንዶኔዢያ (Indonežiya); ኢንዶኔዝያ (Indonezya)
ell-dhi: Ινδονησία (Indonīsía)
ell-kat: Ἰνδονησία (Indonīsía)
hye: Ինդոնեզիա (Indonezia)
kat | lzz | xmf: ინდონეზია (Indonezia)
hin: इंडोनेशिया (Iṃḍonešiyā); हिंदेशिया (Hiṃdešiya); हिंदैशिया (Hiṃdæšiya)
nep: इण्डोनीश्या (Iṇḍonīšyā); हिंदेशिया (Hiṃdešiya)
ben: ইন্দোনেশিয়া (Indonešiyā)
guj: ઇન્ડોનેશિયા (Inḍonešiyā)
ori: ଇଣ୍ଡୋନେସିଆ (Iṇḍonesiā)
pan: ਇੰਡੋਨੇਸ਼ੀਆ (Ĩḍonešīā)
sin: ඉන්දුනීසියාව (Indunīsiyāva)
kan: ಇಂಡೊನೇಷ್ಯ (Iṃḍonēṣya)
mal: ഇന്തോനേഷ്യ (Intōnēṣya); ഇന്ഡോനേഷ്യ (Inḍōnēṣya)
tam: இந்தோனேசியா (Intōṉēciyā); இந்தோனீசியா (Intōṉīciyā); இந்தோனேஷியா (Intōṉēšiyā)
tel: ఇండొనీషియా (Iṃḍonīṣiyā)
zho: 印度尼西亞/印度尼西亚 (Yīndùníxīyà)
yue: 印度尼西亞/印度尼西亚 (Yàndouhnàihsàinga)
jpn: インドネシア (Indoneshia)
kor: 인도네시아 (Indonesia)
bod: ཧིན་དུ་ཉི་ཞི་ཡ། (Hin.du.ñi.ži.ya); ཨིན་རྡུ་ནི་ཤིས་ཡ། (In.rdu.ni.šis.ya)
mya: အင္ဒုိနီးရ္ဟား (Ĩdonìšà)
tha: อินโดนีเซีย (Indōnīsiya)
lao: ອິນໂດເນເຊຍ (Indōnēsiya)
khm: ឥណ្ឌូនេស៊ី (Iṇdūnesī); ឥណ្ឌុណេស៊ី (Iṇdunesī)
Snowdonia, or Eryri is a mountainous region and national park in North Wales. It contains all 15 mountains in Wales over 3000 feet high, including the country's highest, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), which is 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) tall. These peaks are all part of the Snowdon, Glyderau, and Carneddau ranges in the north of the region. The shorter Moelwynion and Moel Hebog ranges lie immediately to the south.
The national park has an area of 823 square miles (2,130 km2) (the fourth-largest in the UK), and covers most of central and southern Gwynedd and the western part of Conwy County Borough. This is much larger than the area traditionally considered Snowdonia, and in addition to the five ranges above includes the Rhinogydd, Cadair Idris, and Aran ranges and the Dyfi Hills. It also includes most of the coast between Porthmadog and Aberdyfi. The park was the first of the three national parks of Wales to be designated, in October 1951, and the third in the UK after the Peak District and Lake District, which were established in April and May 1951 respectively. The park received 3.89 million visitors in 2015.
The name Snowdon means 'snow hill' and is derived from the Old English elements snāw and dūn, the latter meaning 'hill'. Snowdonia is simply taken from the name of the mountain.
The origins of Eryri are less clear. Two popular interpretations are that the name is related to eryr, 'eagle', and that it means 'highlands' and is related to the Latin oriri ('to rise'). Although eryri is not any direct form of the word eryr in the meaning 'eagle', it is a plural form of eryr in the meaning 'upland'.
Before the boundaries of the national park were designated, "Snowdonia" was generally used to refer to a smaller upland area of northern Gwynedd centred on the Snowdon massif. The national park covers an area more than twice that size, extending south into the Meirionnydd area.
This difference is apparent in books published before 1951. In George Borrow's 1907 Wild Wales he states that "Snowdon or Eryri is no single hill, but a mountainous region, the loftiest part of which is called Y Wyddfa", making a distinction between the summit of the mountain and the surrounding massif. The Mountains of Snowdonia by H. Carr & G. Lister (1925) defines "Eryri" as "composed of the two cantrefs of Arfon and Arllechwedd, and the two commotes of Nant Conwy and Eifionydd", which corresponds to Caernarfonshire with the exception of southwest Llŷn and the Creuddyn Peninsula. In Snowdonia: The National Park of North Wales (1949), F. J. North states that "When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper".
Snowdonia National Park, also known as Eryri National Park in English and Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri in Welsh, was established in October 1951. It was the third national park in the United Kingdom, following the Peak District and Lake District in April and May of the same year. It covers 827 square miles (2,140 km2) in the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy, and has 37 miles (60 km) of coastline.
The park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which has 18 members: 9 appointed by Gwynedd, 3 by Conwy, and 6 by the Welsh Government to represent the national interest. The authority's main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth.
The park authority used Snowdonia and Snowdon when referring to the national park and mountain in English until February 2023, when it resolved to primarily use the Welsh names, Eryri and Yr Wyddfa. There will be a transitional period of approximately two years in which the authority will continue to use the English names in parentheses — for example "Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon)" — where the context requires.
Unlike national parks in other countries, national parks in the UK are made up of both public and private lands under a central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership in the national park is as follows:
More than 26,000 people live within the park, of whom 58.6% could speak Welsh in 2011. While most of the land is either open or mountainous land, there is a significant amount of agricultural activity within the park.
The national park does not include the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which forms a unique non-designated enclave within the park boundaries. The town was deliberately excluded from the park when it was established because of its slate quarrying industry. The boundaries of the Peak District National Park exclude the town of Buxton and its adjacent limestone quarries for a similar reason.
The geology of Snowdonia is key to the area's character. Glaciation during a succession of ice ages, has carved from a heavily faulted and folded succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks, a distinctive rocky landscape. The last ice age ended only just over 11,500 years ago, leaving a legacy of features attractive to visitors but which have also played a part in the development of geological science and continue to provide a focus for educational visits. Visiting Cwm Idwal in 1841 Charles Darwin realised that the landscape was the product of glaciation. The bedrock dates largely from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods with intrusions of Ordovician and Silurian age associated with the Caledonian Orogeny. There are smaller areas of Silurian age sedimentary rocks in the south and northeast and of Cenozoic era strata on the Cardigan Bay coast though the latter are concealed by more recent deposits. Low grade metamorphism of Cambrian and Ordovician mudstones has resulted in the slates, the extraction of which once formed the mainstay of the area's economy.
The principal ranges of the traditional Snowdonia are the Snowdon massif itself, the Glyderau, the Carneddau, the Moelwynion and the Moel Hebog range. All of Wales' 3000ft mountains are to be found within the first three of these massifs and are most popular with visitors. To their south within the wider national park are the Rhinogydd and the Cadair Idris and Aran Fawddwy ranges. Besides these well-defined areas are a host of mountains which are less readily grouped though various guidebook writers have assigned them into groups such as the 'Arenigs', the 'Tarrens' and the 'Dyfi hills'.
Snowdon's summit at 1085 metres (3560 feet) is the highest in Wales and the highest in Britain south of the Scottish Highlands. At 905 metres (2970 feet) Aran Fawddwy is the highest in Wales outside of northern Snowdonia; Cadair Idris, at 893 metres (2930 feet), is next in line.
Rivers draining the area empty directly into Cardigan Bay are typically short and steep. From north to south they include the Glaslyn and Dwyryd which share a common estuary, the Mawddach and its tributaries the Wnion and the Eden, the smaller Dysynni and on the park's southern margin the Dyfi. A series of rivers drain to the north coast. Largest of these is the Conwy on the park's eastern margin which along with the Ogwen drains into Conwy Bay. Further west the Seiont and Gwyrfai empty into the western end of the Menai Strait. A part of the east of the national park is within the upper Dee (Dyfrydwy) catchment and includes Bala Lake, the largest natural waterbody in Wales. A fuller list of the rivers and tributaries within the area is found at List of rivers of Wales.
There are few natural waterbodies of any size in Wales; Snowdonia is home to most. Besides Bala Lake, a few lakes occupy glacial troughs including Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris at Llanberis and Tal-y-llyn Lake south of Cadair Idris. Llyn Dinas, Llyn Gwynant, and Llyn Cwellyn to the south and west of Snowdon feature in this category as do Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Ogwen on the margins of the Carneddau. There are numerous small lakes occupying glacial cirques owing to the former intensity of glacial action in Snowdonia. Known generically as tarns, examples include Llyn Llydaw, Glaslyn and Llyn Du'r Arddu on Snowdon, Llyn Idwal within the Glyderau and Llyn Cau on Cadair Idris.
There are two large wholly man-made bodies of water in the area, Llyn Celyn and Llyn Trawsfynydd whilst numerous of the natural lakes have had their levels artificially raised to different degrees. Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and Ffestiniog Power Station's Llyn Stwlan are two cases where natural tarns have been dammed as part of pumped storage hydro-electric schemes. A fuller list of the lakes within the area is found at List of lakes of Wales. In 2023, the park standardised its Welsh language lake names, to be also used in English.
The national park meets the Irish Sea coast within Cardigan Bay between the Dovey estuary in the south and the Dwyryd estuary. The larger part of that frontage is characterised by dune systems, the largest of which are Morfa Dyffryn and Morfa Harlech. These two locations have two of the largest sand/shingle spits in Wales. The major indentations of the Dovey, the Mawddach and Dwyryd estuaries, have large expanses of intertidal sands and coastal marsh which are especially important for wildlife: see #Natural history. The northern tip of the national park extends to the north coast of Wales at Penmaen-bach Point, west of Conwy, where precipitous cliffs have led to the road and railway negotiating the spot in tunnels.
There are only three towns within the park boundary, though there are several more immediately beyond it. Dolgellau is the most populous followed by Bala on the eastern boundary and then Harlech overlooking Tremadog Bay. More populous than these is the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which is within an exclave, that is to say it is surrounded by the national park but excluded from it, whilst the towns of Tywyn and Barmouth on the Cardigan Bay coast are within coastal exclaves. Llanrwst in the east, Machynlleth in the south and Porthmadog and Penrhyndeudraeth in the west are immediately beyond the boundary but still identified with the park; indeed the last of these hosts the headquarters of the Snowdonia National Park Authority. Similarly the local economies of the towns of Conwy, Bethesda, and Llanberis in the north are inseparably linked to the national park as they provide multiple visitor services. The lower terminus of the Snowdon Mountain Railway is at Llanberis. Though adjacent to it, Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are less obviously linked to the park.
There are numerous smaller settlements within the national park: prominent amongst these are the eastern 'gateway' village of Betws-y-Coed, Aberdyfi on the Dovey (Dyfi) estuary and the small village of Beddgelert each of which attract large numbers of visitors. Other sizeable villages are Llanuwchllyn at the southwest end of Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid), Dyffryn Ardudwy, Corris, Trawsfynydd, Llanbedr, Trefriw and Dolwyddelan.
Six primary routes serve Snowdonia, the busiest of which is the A55, a dual carriageway which runs along the north coast and provides strategic road access to the northern part of the national park. The most important north–south route within the park is the A470 running from the A55 south past Betws-y-Coed to Blaenau Ffestiniog to Dolgellau. It exits the park a few miles to the southeast near Mallwyd. From Dolgellau, the A494 runs to Bala whilst the A487 connects with Machynlleth. The A487 loops around the northwest of the park from Bangor via Caernarfon to Porthmadog before turning in land to meet the A470 east of Maentwrog. The A5 was built as a mail coach road by Thomas Telford between London and Holyhead; it enters the park near Pentrefoelas and leaves it near Bethesda. Other A class roads provide more local links; the A493 down the Dovey valley from Machynlleth and up the coast to Tywyn then back up the Mawddach valley to Dolgellau, the A496 from Dolgellau down the north side of the Mawddach to Barmouth then north up the coast via Harlech to Maentwrog. The A4212 connecting Bala with Trawsfynydd is relatively modern having been laid out in the 1960s in connection with the construction of Llyn Celyn. Three further roads thread their often twisting and narrow way through the northern mountains; A4085 links Penrhyndeudraeth with Caernarfon, the A4086 links Capel Curig with Caernarfon via Llanberis and the A498 links Tremadog with the A4086 at Pen-y-Gwryd. Other roads of note include that from Llanuwchllyn up Cwm Cynllwyd to Dinas Mawddwy via the 545 metre (1788') high pass of Bwlch y Groes, the second highest tarmacked public road in Wales and the minor road running northwest and west from Llanuwchllyn towards Bronaber via the 531 metre (1742') high pass of Bwlch Pen-feidiog.
The double track North Wales Coast Line passes along the northern boundary of the park between Conwy and Bangor briefly entering it at Penmaen-bach Point where it is in tunnel. Stations serve the communities of Conwy, Penmaenmawr, Llanfairfechan and Bangor. The single-track Conwy Valley Line runs south from Llandudno Junction, entering the park north of Betws-y-coed which is served by a station then west up the Lledr valley by way of further stations at Pont-y-pant, Dolwyddelan and Roman Bridge. After passing through a tunnel the passenger line now terminates at Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station. Prior to 1961 the route continued as the Bala and Ffestiniog Railway via Trawsfynydd to Bala joining another former route along the Dee valley which ran southwest via Dolgellau to join the still extant coastal Cambrian Line south of Barmouth. The Pwllheli branch of the Cambrian Line splits from the Aberystwyth branch at Dovey Junction and continues via stations at Aberdovey, Tywyn, Tonfanau, Llwyngwril, Fairbourne and Morfa Mawddach to Barmouth where it crosses the Mawddach estuary by the Grade II* listed wooden Barmouth Bridge, a structure which also provides for walkers and cyclists. Further stations serve Llanaber, Tal-y-bont, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Llanbedr, Pensarn and Llandanwg before reaching Harlech. Tygwyn, Talsarnau and Llandecwyn stations are the last before the line exits the park as it crosses the Dwyryd estuary via Pont Briwet and turns westwards bound for Pwllheli via Penrhyndeudraeth, Porthmadog and Criccieth.
Many sections of dismantled railway are now used by walking and cycling routes and are described elsewhere. The Bala Lake Railway is a heritage railway which has been established along a section of the former mainline route between Bala and Llanuwchllyn. Other heritage railways occupy sections of former mineral lines, often narrow gauge and are described in a separate section.
The national park is served by a growing bus network, branded Sherpa'r Wyddfa (formerly Snowdon Sherpa). Together with the TrawsCymru network of buses this provides a car-free option to tourists and locals wishing to travel across the National Park.
The network was relaunched in July 2022 with a new brand, Sherpa'r Wyddfa, to reflect the National Park's new push for the promotion of Welsh place names. As such the publicity and websites for the newly branded service only use these Welsh names, even for English language users.
Snowdonia is one of the wettest parts of the United Kingdom; Crib Goch in Snowdonia is the wettest spot in the United Kingdom, with an average rainfall of 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) a year over the 30-year period prior to the mid-2000s. (There is a rainfall gauge at 713 metres, 2340' on the slopes below Crib Goch.)
The earliest evidence for human occupation of the area dates from around 4000–3000 BCE with extensive traces of prehistoric field systems evident in the landscape. Within these are traces of irregular enclosures and hut circles. There are burial chambers of Neolithic and Bronze Age such as Bryn Cader Faner and Iron Age hillforts such as Bryn y Castell near Ffestiniog.
The region was finally conquered by the Romans by AD 77–78. Remains of Roman marching camps and practice camps are evident. There was a Roman fort and amphitheatre at Tomen y Mur. Roads are known to have connected with Segontium (Caernarfon) and Deva Victrix (Chester) and include the northern reaches of Sarn Helen.
There are numerous memorial stones of Early Christian affinity dating from the post-Roman period. The post-Roman hillfort of Dinas Emrys also dates to this time. Churches were introduced to the region in the 5th and 6th centuries. Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had various stone castles constructed to protect their borders and trade routes. Edward I built several castles around the margins including those at Harlech and Conwy for military and administrative reasons. Most are now protected within a World Heritage Site. Some of Snowdonia's many stone walls date back to this period too. In the Middle Ages, the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia (Tywysog Cymru ac Arglwydd Eryri) was used by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd; his grandfather Llywelyn Fawr used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia.
The 18th century saw the start of industrial exploitation of the area's resources, assisted by the appearance in the late part of the century of turnpike trusts making it more accessible. The engineer Thomas Telford left a legacy of road and railway construction in and around Snowdonia. A new harbour at Porthmadog linked to slate quarries at Ffestiniog via a narrow gauge railway. At its peak in the 19th century the slate industry employed around 12,000 men. A further 1000 were employed in stone quarrying at Graiglwyd and Penmaenmawr. Mining for copper, iron and gold was undertaken during the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving a legacy of mine and mill ruins today. Ruins of the gold industry are found at Cefn Coch on the Dolmelynllyn estate.
The Snowdonia Society is a registered charity formed in 1967; it is a voluntary group of people with an interest in the area and its protection.
Amory Lovins led the successful 1970s opposition to stop Rio Tinto digging up the area for a massive mine.
The park's entire coastline is a Special Area of Conservation, which runs from the Llŷn Peninsula down the mid-Wales coast, the latter containing valuable sand dune systems.
The park's natural forests are of the mixed deciduous type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally.
Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon lily (Gagea serotina), an arctic–alpine plant, is found and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed Hieracium snowdoniense grows.
One of the major problems facing the park in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum. This fast-growing invasive species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a seven-year period after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated. As a result, there are a number of desolate landscapes.
Mammals in the park include otters, polecats, feral goats, and pine martens. Birds include raven, red-billed chough, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. The rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle (Chrysolina cerealis) is only found in northern Snowdonia.
Snowdonia has a particularly high number of protected sites in respect of its diverse ecology; nearly 20% of its total area is protected by UK and European law. Half of that area was set aside by the government under the European Habitats Directive as a Special Area of Conservation. There are a large number of Sites of special scientific interest (or 'SSSIs'), designated both for fauna and flora but also in some cases for geology. Nineteen of these sites are managed as national nature reserves by Natural Resources Wales. The park also contains twelve Special Areas of Conservation (or 'SACs'), three Special Protection Areas (or 'SPAs') and three Ramsar sites. Some are wholly within the park boundaries, others straddle it to various degrees.
There are numerous SSSIs within the park, the most extensive of which are Snowdonia, Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Berwyn, Cadair Idris, Llyn Tegid, Aber Mawddach / Mawddach Estuary, Dyfi, Morfa Dyffryn, Moel Hebog, Coedydd Dyffryn Ffestiniog and Coedydd Nanmor.
The following NNRs are either wholly or partly within the park: Allt y Benglog, Y Berwyn (in multiple parts), Cader Idris, Ceunant Llennyrch, Coed Camlyn, Coed Cymerau, Coed Dolgarrog, Coed Ganllwyd, Coed Gorswen, Coed Tremadog, Coedydd Aber, Coedydd Maentwrog (in 2 parts), Coed y Rhygen, Cwm Glas Crafnant, Cwm Idwal, Hafod Garregog, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog and Snowdon.
The twelve SACs are as follows: Snowdonia SAC which covers much of the Carneddau, Glyderau, and the Snowdon massif, Afon Gwyrfai a Llyn Cwellyn, Corsydd Eifionydd / Eifionydd Fens (north of Garndolbenmaen), the Coedydd Derw a Safleoedd Ystlumod Meirion / Meirionydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites - a series of sites between Tremadog, Trawsfynydd, and Ffestiniog and Beddgelert and extending up the Gwynant. It also includes many of the oakwoods of the Mawddach and its tributaries. Afon Eden – Cors Goch Trawsfynydd, Rhinog, Cadair Idris (in 2 parts), Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, River Dee and Afon Dyfrdwy a Llyn Tegid (Wales), Mwyngloddiau Fforest Gwydir / Gwydyr Forest Mines (north of Betws-y-Coed) and a part of the Berwyn a Mynyddoedd De Clwyd / Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains SAC. The Pen Llyn a'r Sarnau / Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau SAC covers the entire Cardigan Bay coastline of the park and the sea area and extends above the high water mark at Morfa Harlech, Mochras and around the Dovey and Mawddach estuaries.
The three SPAs are Dovey Estuary / Aber Dyfi (of which a part is within the park), Berwyn (of which a part is within the park) and Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt.
The three designated Ramsar sites are the Dyfi Biosphere (Cors Fochno and Dyfi), Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake).
The area's economy was traditionally centred upon farming and from the early 19th century increasingly on mining and quarrying. Tourism has become an increasingly significant part of Snowdonia's economy during the 20th and 21st centuries.
The extensive farming of sheep remains central to Snowdonia's farming economy.
Significant sections of the park were afforested during the 20th century for timber production. Major conifer plantations include Dyfi Forest, Coed y Brenin Forest between Dolgellau and Trawsfynydd, Penllyn Forest south of Bala, Beddgelert Forest and Gwydyr (or Gwydir) Forest near Betws-y-Coed which is managed as a forest park by Natural Resources Wales.
The region was once the most important producer of slate in the world. Some production continues but at a much reduced level from its peak. The park boundaries are drawn such that much of the landscape affected by slate quarrying and mining lies immediately outside of the designated area.
Construction of a nuclear power station beside Llyn Trawsfynydd began in 1959 with the first power produced in 1965. The site was operational until 1991 though it continues as an employer during its decommissioning phase. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are in operation at Llanberis and Ffestiniog.
Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, with approximately 9.74 million tourist days spent in the park during that year. Total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013.
Many of the hikers in the area concentrate on Snowdon itself. It is regarded as a fine mountain, but at times gets very crowded; in addition the Snowdon Mountain Railway runs to the summit.
The other high mountains with their boulder-strewn summits as well as Tryfan, one of the few mountains in the UK south of Scotland whose ascent needs hands as well as feet are also very popular. However, there are also some spectacular walks in Snowdonia on the lower mountains, and they tend to be relatively unfrequented. Among hikers' favourites are Y Garn (east of Llanberis) along the ridge to Elidir Fawr; Mynydd Tal-y-Mignedd (west of Snowdon) along the Nantlle Ridge to Mynydd Drws-y-Coed; Moelwyn Mawr (west of Blaenau Ffestiniog); and Pen Llithrig y Wrach north of Capel Curig. Further south are Y Llethr in the Rhinogydd, and Cadair Idris near Dolgellau.
The park has 1,479 miles (2,380 km) of public footpaths, 164 miles (264 km) of public bridleways, and 46 miles (74 km) of other public rights of way. A large part of the park is also covered by right to roam laws.
The Wales Coast Path runs within the park between Machynlleth and Penrhyndeudraeth, save for short sections of coast in the vicinity of Tywyn and Barmouth which are excluded from the park. It touches the park boundary again at Penmaen-bach Point on the north coast. An inland alternative exists between Llanfairfechan and Conwy, wholly within the park. The North Wales Path, which predates the WCP, enters the park north of Bethesda and follows a route broadly parallel to the north coast visiting Aber Falls and the Sychnant Pass before exiting the park on the descent from Conwy Mountain. The Cambrian Way is a long-distance trail between Cardiff and Conwy that stays almost entirely within the national park from Mallwyd northwards. It was officially recognised in 2019, and is now depicted on Ordnance Survey maps.
The use of the English names for the area has been divisive, with an increase in protests against their use since 2020; these led to the national park authority deciding to use Welsh names as far as legally possible in November 2022. An early example of pressure to deprecate Snowdon and Snowdonia was a 2003 campaign by Cymuned, inspired by campaigns to refer to Ayers Rock as Uluru and Mount Everest as Qomolangma.
In 2020 an e-petition calling for the removal of the English names was put forward to the Senedd, but rejected as responsibility lies with the national park authority. In 2021 an e-petition on the same topic attracted more than 5,300 signatures and was presented to the national park authority.
On 28 April 2021 Gwynedd councillor John Pughe Roberts put forward a motion to use the Welsh names exclusively, calling this a "question of respect for the Welsh language". The motion was not considered and delayed, as the national park authority already appointed a "Welsh Place Names Task and Finish Group" to investigate the issue. The park authority however cannot compel other bodies and/or individuals to stop using the English names, with the proposals facing some criticism.
In May 2021, following the dismissal of the motion, YouGov conducted a poll on Snowdon's name. 60% of Welsh adults supported the English name Snowdon, compared to 30% wanting the Welsh name Yr Wyddfa. Separating by language, 59% of Welsh speakers preferred the Welsh name, but 37% of these still wanted Snowdon to be used as well. 69% of non-Welsh speakers firmly supported Snowdon as the Mountain's name. The proposals to rename Snowdon are usually accompanied with proposals to rename Snowdonia.
On 16 November 2022, Members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority committee voted to use the Welsh names Yr Wyddfa and Eryri to refer to the mountain and the national park, rather than the English names, in materials produced by the authority. The national park authority described the decision as "decisive action" and the authority's head of culture heritage stated that Welsh place names were part of the area's "special qualities" and that other public bodies, English-language press and filming companies have used the Welsh-language names. Before the decision the park had already prioritised the Welsh names by using them first and giving the English names in parentheses. The name "Snowdonia" cannot be abandoned entirely, as it is set in law and so must be used in statutory documents. The authority announced a review of the authority's branding in 2023 to adapt to the new approach to Welsh place names.
Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.
Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.
The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).
The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.
In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.
Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.
The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.
The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.
The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.
A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.
The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.
There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.
The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.
Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.
The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.
Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.
The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.
The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.
Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.
It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.
The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.
The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.
Notable people
Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth
Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon
Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd
Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle
Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University
Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.
Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd
John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog
Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia
T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog
David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy
Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd
Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas
Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion
Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.
Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI
Includes everything shown!
A fully interactive set!
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Grill - click for grilled meats & plates to hold
Cookout Plates - clickable plates to hold as well
Freezeepops - Icepops animated to eat
Cooler - click for both sandwiches and 6 flavors of soda to enjoy
Watermelon platter
Hotdog Platter
Slider Burger Platter
Chicken Bucket
Grape & Mtn. Spew Soda with decor solo cups
Polar Bear Blasts - Juice drinks to click
Plate of Deviled Eggs
Patio umbrella with 9 textures on click
4 person picnic table
93 total rez, a bargin for all items included for 1 pack!
Beautiful Black Thai lady.
The Thai worship their ancestors, the heavens, the earth, ban, and "muong". They also hold rituals to pray for good crops.The Thai live in houses built on stilts. Among the Black Thai, they prefer roofs that are shaped like a tortoise carapace with decorations called "khau cuts" at each ridge. A Thai man first lives with his wife's family for several years until the couple has a child; they then move to the house of the husband's family. The Thai organize funerals as a farewell party to see off the dead to the other world.
The Thai language belongs to the Tay-Thai Group. They have a valuable legacy of myths, legends, ancient tales, versed stories, and folksongs. They like to sing and recite the "khap" along with the accompaniment of string instruments and a dance performance. Their folk dances such as "Xoe", "Sap", "Han Khuong", and "Con" are reflection of the Thai's unique cultural characteristics.
The men have adopted the Kinh's clothing style, while Thai women have retained their traditional clothes which include short vests, long black skirts, scarves, and ornaments. The Thai are experienced in cultivating rice and orchards. They also breed cattle and poultry, make bamboo articles, weave cloth, and produce ceramic ware.
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Benmore Botanic Garden (formerly known as the Younger Botanic Garden) is a large botanical garden situated in Strath Eachaig at the foot of Beinn Mhòr, on the Cowal peninsula, in Argyll and Bute, Scotland. The gardens are on the west side of the A815 road from Dunoon, between the Holy Loch and Loch Eck, and include footbridges across the River Eachaig. It is one of the sites of Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
Features include a Redwood Avenue of Giant Sequoias planted in 1863, large square walled gardens, a waterfall, a fernery, ponds and walks up the hillside to where you can look out across the Holy Loch. The garden is located within the Argyll Forest Park, which is itself within the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.
Most of Cowal, originally Clan Lamont territory, was taken over by Clan Campbell, including lands in Strath Echaig shortly after 1400. The area once called "Innasraugh", meaning "the sheltered valley", was part of the hunting grounds of the Dukes of Argyll, belonging to the Campbells of Ballochyle. It was reached by a ford across the River Eachaig at Uig, near modern Eckford house.
Around 1820, Ross Wilson introduced tree planting with the first known coniferous plantation of forest trees in Cowal. In 1849 the estate was bought by John Lamont, a wealthy sugar planter and slaveowner in Trinidad who had emigrated from Toward (near Dunoon) 48 years earlier. He arranged replacement of the previous manor house with the larger Benmore House, but died in 1850, a year before the house was completed. His nephew James Lamont inherited the estate, but then sold it and it went to various other owners in succession.
Benmore Estate was bought in 1862 by James Piers Patrick, a wealthy American who carried out extensive work to Benmore House, including construction of the tower, designed in the Scottish baronial style by the architect Charles Wilson. He developed the garden, and in 1863 planted the Redwood Avenue of Giant Sequoias.
In 1870 the Greenock sugar refiner and philanthropist James Duncan bought Benmore Estate, which he extended to include the adjacent Kilmun and Bernice Estates. He arranged extensive plantings in the grounds, including more than six million trees around the estate, and added paths leading up a ravine 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) to the south on the east side of the road, making Puck's Glen a scenic attraction. He extended the east wing of the house with a gallery to house his major collection of paintings: during the summers of the summers of 1881 and 1882, these were seen by more than 8,000 visitors. In 1889 he had to sell his assets, including Benmore.
Henry Younger of the Edinburgh brewer Younger's bought the estate in 1889, and with his son Harry George Younger made many improvements to the woods and gardens, with 40 staff employed to carry out maintenance. They introduced many exotic shrubs and trees, and also demolished the gallery and conservatory at the house. In 1924 Harry George Younger gifted the estate to the nation for science and education purposes: the Forestry Commission took over most of the woodlands.
In commemoration of the improvements James Duncan had made to the estate, Younger provided a hut high on the hillside above the gorge of Puck's Glen, to a special design by Sir Robert Lorimer, and "Puck's Hut" was dedicated to the memory of the botanist Sir Isaac Bayley Balfour.
The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) was looking for a place to take the large collection of plants which the botanist George Forrest had brought from China, and the high rainfall at Benmore was ideal. In 1929 the Younger Botanic Gardens were opened as the first outstation of the RBGE. In the 1930s the Forestry Commission established Kilmun Arboretum, to try out tree species in the humid climate conditions, planting large groups of trees rather than individual specimens. Benmore house was used by the Forestry Commission for apprentice training, then in 1965 Edinburgh Corporation took it over as a schools outdoor education centre.
In the winds brought by Storm Ali in September 2018, four large trees at the Garden were felled.
Benmore is a satellite garden under the management of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, as is its sister garden Logan Botanic Garden and Dawyck Botanic Garden.
The Fernery, constructed in the early 1870s, fell into ruin after James Duncan lost his fortune. In 1992, Historic Scotland designated the fernery a category B listed building, describing it as "a rare structure and important as an integral part of the gardens at Benmore". It has since been restored, and re-opened to the public in September 2009.
Benmore Outdoor Centre, in the former Benmore House, is an outdoor training centre for school groups, and for other organisations and family groups. It is managed by the Children and Families Department of the City of Edinburgh Council.
The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) (Scottish Gaelic: Gàrradh Luibh-eòlais Rìoghail Dhùn Èideann) is a scientific centre for the study of plants, their diversity and conservation, as well as a popular tourist attraction. Founded in 1670 as a physic garden to grow medicinal plants, today it occupies four sites across Scotland—Edinburgh, Dawyck, Logan and Benmore—each with its own specialist collection. The RBGE's living collection consists of more than 13,302 plant species (34,422 accessions), whilst the herbarium contains in excess of 3 million preserved specimens.
The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is an executive non-departmental public body of the Scottish Government. The Edinburgh site is the main garden and the headquarters of the public body, which is led by Regius Keeper Simon Milne.
History
The Edinburgh botanic garden was founded in 1670 at St. Anne's Yard, near Holyrood Palace, by Robert Sibbald and Andrew Balfour. It is the second oldest botanic garden in the UK after Oxford's. The plant collection used as the basis of the garden was the private collection of Sir Patrick Murray, 2nd Lord Elibank, moved from his home at Livingston Peel in 1672 following his death in September 1671. The original site was "obtained of John Brown, gardener of the North Yardes in the Holyrood Abby, an inclosure of some 40 foot of measure every way. By what we procured from Levingstone and other gardens, we made a collection of eight or nine hundred plants yr." This site proved too small, and in 1676 grounds belonging to Trinity Hospital were leased by Balfour from the City Council: this second garden was sited just to the east of the Nor Loch, down from the High Street.
In the spring of 1689, for certain strategic military reasons, the Nor Loch which lay west of the Physic Garden was drained, resulting in the flooding of the garden (which at this stage had wholly relocated to the Trinity Hospital site), with much mud and general rubbish being deposited, to the ruination of many of the plants. Partly for this reason and partly due to necessary expansion the facility relocated to the Holyrood site in 1695.
John Ainslie's 1804 map shows it as the "Old Physick Garden" to the east of the North Bridge. The site was subsequently occupied by tracks of the North British Railway, and a plaque at platform 11 of the Waverley railway station marks its location.
In 1763, the garden's collections were moved away from the city's pollution to a larger (five acre) "Physick Garden" on the west side of Leith Walk, covering the area now called Bellevue, all under the control of Prof John Hope. This site is shown in Ainslie's 1804 map. The site is today known as Hopetoun Crescent Gardens and is one of the collection of New Town Gardens.
Some time prior to Hope's death (1786) he was brought Turkish rhubarb seeds by Bruce of Kinnaird and this was the first rhubarb grown in Great Britain. As this proved successful over 3000 plants were grown as rhubarb was previously an expensive import (used as a medicine).
A cottage from the garden's original site remained on Leith Walk for over one hundred years. In 2008, the building was moved brick by brick to a site within the current gardens. The project was completed in 2016. The garden was a popular destination for botanists and supplied plants to other gardens such as Kew. Hope erected a monument to Carl Linnaeus on the site in 1778.
In the early 1820s under the direction of the Curator, William McNab, the garden moved west to its present location (adjacent to Inverleith Row), and the Leith Walk site was built over between Hopetoun Crescent and Haddington Place. The Temperate Palm House, which remains the tallest in Scotland, was built in 1858.
In 1877, the city acquired Inverleith House from the estate of Cosmo Innes and added it to the existing gardens, opening the remodelled grounds to the public in 1881.
The botanic garden at Benmore became the first Regional Garden of the RBGE in 1929. It was followed by the gardens at Logan and Dawyck in 1969 and 1978.
Notable staff and residents
Garden Edinburgh
John Hope, Keeper of the Leith Walk site
John Mackay (1772-1802), laid out the Leith Walk site
William Roxburgh, Keeper in 1814
Francis Buchanan, Keeper from 1814 to 1829
Cosmo Innes, original owner of Inverleith House
Daniel Rutherford, Keeper
William Wright Smith, Regius Keeper
Robert Graham, Regius Keeper
Roland Edgar Cooper, curator
George Taylor, director
John Hutton Balfour, lived in Inverleith House
Isaac Bayley Balfour, linked to site
William Evans, born here (son of William Wilson Evans, Curator)
Harold Roy Fletcher, Regius Keeper
William Gregor MacKenzie, Curator, Chelsea Physic Garden
Matthew Young Orr, botanist
Douglas Mackay Henderson, 12th Regius Keeper
Stephen Blackmore, Regius Keeper 1999-2013
Prof Simon Milne, Regius Keeper 2014 onwards
The garden at Edinburgh
Edinburgh's skyline as seen from "The Botanics" at Inverleith
The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is also a place to relax and enjoy
The Botanic Garden's main site in Edinburgh is a hugely important player in a worldwide network of institutions seeking to ensure that biodiversity is not further eroded. Located one mile from the city centre it covers 70 acres (28 ha).
The RBGE is actively involved in, and coordinates numerous in situ and ex situ conservation projects both in the UK and internationally. The three main cross-cutting themes of scientific work at the RBGE are: Scottish Biodiversity, Plants & Climate Change, and Conservation.
In addition to the RBGE's scientific activities the garden remains a popular destination for both tourists and locals. Locally known as "The Botanics", the garden is a popular place to go for a walk, particularly with young families. Entrance to the botanic garden is free, although a small entry charge exists for the glasshouses. During the year the garden hosts many events including live performances, guided tours and exhibitions. The RBGE is also an important centre for education, offering taught courses across all levels.
In 2009, the John Hope Gateway was opened. John Hope was the first Regius Keeper of RBGE.
Living collection
Nearly 273,000 individual plants are grown at the Botanics in Edinburgh or its three smaller satellite gardens (known as Regional Gardens) located in other parts of Scotland. These represent around 13,300 species from all over the world, or about 4% of all known plant species.
The RBGE Living Collection catalogue is available here and updated nightly.
Some notable collections at the botanic garden Edinburgh include:
Alpine Plants
Chinese Hillside
Cryptogamic Garden
The Glasshouses
Palmhouse
Temperate Palms
Tropical Palms
Orchids and Cycads
Ferns and Fossils
Plants and people (including Giant Water Lily pond)
Temperate lands
Rainforest Riches
Arid Lands
Montane tropical house (including Carnivorous plants)
Wet Tropical House
Peat Walls
The Queen Mother's memorial garden.
Rock Garden
Scottish Heath Garden
Woodland Garden
Herbarium
The RBGE herbarium (situated in a purpose-built facility at the Edinburgh site) is considered a world-leading botanical collection, housing in excess of 3 million specimens. Prior to the formation of the Herbarium, plant collections tended to be the private property of the Regius Keeper. The Herbarium in its present form came with the fusion of the collections of the University of Edinburgh and the Botanical Society of Edinburgh in 1839–40. RBGE's Herbarium moved into its present, purpose-built home in 1964.
Over the years, a large number of collections have been added, belonging to individuals such as R.K. Greville and John Hutton Balfour, and institutions including the Universities of Glasgow, St Andrews and Hull. The most important historical collection is that of George Walker Arnott, which came with the University of Glasgow's foreign herbarium deposited on permanent loan in 1965. This collection contains specimens from all the major mid-19th century collectors, especially from India, North and South America, and South Africa, including type material of species described by 'Hooker & Arnott'. From the early 20th century, collections have been made by members of staff.
Approx a third of the herbarium is in a searchable database. The Index Herbariorum code assigned to the RBGE herbarium is E and it is used when citing housed specimens.
Library
RBGE's Library is Scotland's national reference collection for specialist botanical and horticultural resources. Housing around 70,000 books and 150,000 periodicals, the research library is one of the country's largest. It has been built up to support the specific subject fields researched and taught at RBGE. Garden staff and students are its main users, along with visiting researchers. However, as a national reference collection, the Library is also open to members of the public, either in person or by telephone or e-mail.
Inverleith House
Inverleith House is an 18th-century building, located centrally in the modern botanic gardens. From 1960 to 1984 it was the original base of the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, with exhibits in the house and in the gardens, before it moved to larger premises in Belford Road. Since then, Inverleith House has functioned as a contemporary art gallery, showing a programme of temporary exhibitions by invited artists. Its spring programmes feature works and specimens from the historical collections of the Botanics, together with exhibitions by modern and contemporary artists. The gallery is curated by the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
Regional specialist gardens
Benmore
Situated on the West Coast of Scotland, Benmore Botanic Garden experiences a wetter and milder oceanic climate than the main site in Edinburgh. Benmore grows trees and shrubs from high rainfall areas, especially conifers and rhododendrons. Highlights of the collection include an avenue of Sequoiadendron and a recently refurbished Fernery, exhibiting rare ferns from both Britain and abroad.
Dawyck
Situated to the south of the Scottish Border town of Peebles, Dawyck Botanic Garden is particularly suitable for hardy plants from the world's cooler, drier areas. Dawyck is also renowned for its high diversity of fungi and cryptogamics.
Logan
Logan, Scotland's most exotic garden, has an almost sub-tropical climate, and provides ideal growing conditions for southern hemisphere plants.
The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Medal, instituted in 2010, is awarded from time to time to recognise an outstanding individual contribution in any field related to the work of the RBGE (either by a member of staff or by any other person). The medal, struck in silver, has a sibbaldia motif on one face and a portrait of Robert Sibbald on the other.
2010: Edward Kemp
2011: Sir Tim Smit
2013: Vernon H. Heywood
2015: Peter H. Raven
2022: Jin Chen
2023: Sandra Díaz
Sandown is a seaside resort town and civil parish on the southeast coast of the Isle of Wight, England, which neighbours the town of Shanklin to the south, with the village of Lake in between the two settlements. Sandown Bay is the name of the bay off the English Channel which both towns share, and it is notable for its long stretch of easily accessible golden sandy beach. It is the site of the lost Sandown Castle. Whilst undergoing construction, this was attacked by a French force which had fought its way over Culver Down from Whitecliff Bay, resulting in the French being repulsed. It was built too far into the sea and constantly suffered erosion, until now reduced to a pile of rocks. Later forts in the town include the Diamond Fort (named after its plan), built inshore to replace the castle and which fought off a minor attack from privateers (probably French) in 1788, and the present "Granite Fort" at Yaverland, which is now the zoo.
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A varied collection of items outside a shop in Shoreham with St Mary de Haura nicely framed. A banker image for the challenge "in the mirror", but I didn't take anything else.
© 2010 by The Atlanta Journal-Constitution
Roswell resident Cheryl Jones gets her roots colored by Fantastic Sams franchisee Helen Nguyen at Fantastic Sams in Roswell on Friday, July 2, 2010. The Roswell location opened at the end of Aug. 2009 and already has a regular customer base.
Fantastic Sams, a hair salon franchise, is expanding rapidly in metro Atlanta. According to district representative Ben Smith, the greater metro area features 35 locations, and the company's five-year plan includes a goal to double that number. Smith said unlike other hair salon franchises, Fantastic Sams offers full-service, including cuts of all kinds, coloring, perms, highlights, relaxers and texturizing.
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Includes teams from Mitchell, Harrisburg, Watertown, Aberdeen Central. Permission granted for journalism outlets and educational purposes. Not for commercial use. Must be credited. Photo courtesy of South Dakota Public Broadcasting.
©2021 SDPB
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Commentary.
Knole House and Estate covers over 1,000 acres.
An enormous house in an enormous estate.
The estate dates back as far as 1290 but the bulk of the house was built in 1566.
As is often the case, over several centuries, there have been
periods of alteration, extension, change of function, removal and renovation.
Essentially it is a classic Jacobean mansion.
The interior is festooned with wood panelling and amazing works of art.
The house was probably once a “Calendar House” with 365 rooms, 52 staircases, 12 entrances and 7 courtyards.
Inevitably, the aforementioned changes have altered some of these numbers.
Nevertheless, to get anywhere near these numbers was quite remarkable in the first place!
The estate contains 26 acres of Walled Garden, a Deer Park,
rough pasture, woodland and even a Golf Course!
It benefits from being on well-drained Wealden
Lower Greensand, just south-east of Sevenoaks in Kent.
Ownership has changed many times and includes:
Queen Elizabeth 1, Robert Dudley, Thomas Rolf, John Lennard,
Thomas Sackville and several of his descendants.
To sustain such a vast estate there was need for many workers, outhouses and storage facilities.
This location has a strong connection with the famous pop group “The Beatles.”
In a video recording of the track “Penny Lane” the group are seen riding horseback through a stone-arch to the south-east of the house.
With the track “Strawberry Fields Forever” the group are seen acting to the music by an old tree in the grounds, that still exists.
It is an amazing place and the house must be one of the largest in South-East England.
Colac. Population 12,300.
In 1837 a group of pastoralists landed near Geelong to explore the hinterlands along the Barwon River for suitable pastoral states. The group include Hugh Murray, Thomas and James Austin from Van Diemen’s Land and others. The Austin brothers arrived in Hobart in 1831.The Austin brothers settled on the Barwon River (Winchelsea) and at Werribee and Hugh Murray settled near Lake Colac on the Barongarook Creek which now enters the lake at the Colac boat ramp by the Botanic Gardens. In 1838 Captain Foster Fyans the Land Commissioner of Geelong took up land here too for a beef property. In Geelong he became the magistrate in 1849 and lived in the town hence the suburb of Fyansford across the Barwon River. Hugh Murray built the Crook and Plaid Inn near his homestead which partially marks the start of Colac as a town in 1844. The town was surveyed that same year and a blacksmith set up for business in 1845 and a general store opened. Usually the beginning of postal service marks the development of a town and Colac had its first Post Office established in 1847. In 1848 a simple Presbyterian chapel opened and it was followed by a police station in 1849, a second hotel and a day school. In 1850 the town progressed further but the gold rushes of 1851 saw labourers leave the town and progress stalled. At this time Colac had a population of 672 people. More residences and a second Presbyterian Church were built in 1853 and a Catholic Church was erected in 1856. The town had a national school, a flour mill and a Methodist Church by 1860. It was an established town.
In the 1865 the Botanical Gardens were started, the first bank opened and the first Shire Hall offices were built. The first town newspaper began, the first Anglican Church was constructed and an Oddfellows Hall built. Although the Botanic Gardens were started at thinks time little happened. Trustees were appointed in 1874 and work finally began. William Guilfoyle of Melbourne Botanic Gardens had a private commission in 1910 to replan the gardens. In 1877 the railway to Colac from Geelong opened. Branch lines opened from Colac to surrounding towns but now all are closed. In 1889 three trains a day left Geelong at 8:45 am, 1:45 pm and 9:15 pm taking about two and a half hours to reach Colac. A few years later an express service was added making four journeys a day. It took less than two hours to do this trip. The town prospered on the back of sheep and their fleeces until the 1890s when dairying became a major industry. The Colac Dairy Company was formed in 1892. The Company closed in 1987 when the factory was taken over by Bonlac Milk Company. After Thomas Austin of Barwon Park estate introduced rabbits in 1857 the district was overrun. To capitalise on this Colac had a rabbit canning factory from 1871 to 1889. As a town Colac is distinctive because it is on the edge of Lake Colac. This freshwater lake has a circumference of 33 kms. It was formed by volcanic activity which created a depression and then lava flows blocked the path of two local rivers southwards forcing them to drain into the depression. It covers almost 2,900 hectares and is relatively shallow with birds nesting in the reeds and commercial eel farming and amateur fishing in the waters. Beyond this lake is Lake Corangamite which is Australia’s largest freshwater lake covering 23,000 hects.
Some heritage listed structures in Colac.
•1 Murray St. Great example of 19th century general store. Balustrade and pediment across roof line. Large windows.
•4 Murray St. The former Post Office. Built in 1876 with additions 1888. Similar to the Shire Office but it has central triple arched entrance with clock, rounded windows on upper floor and no pilasters on ground floor.
•6 Murray St. The impressive symmetrical Italianate Shire Hall built in 1892. It replaced the earlier 1865 Shire hall. It has good classical detailing. It complements the Post Office in style.
•15 Murray St. The former Union Bank has recently been an antiques shop. Built in 1916 by architect Walter Butler who designed matching banks in Shepparton, Yarra etc.
•21 Murray St. The former Regent Theatre opened in 1925. Later became the R.S.L Club rooms. Was the site of the first Wesleyan Methodist Church until a new one was built in 1925 in Skene St.
•28 Murray St. Former National Bank. Mr Alexander Dennis laid the foundation stone in 1884. Built in 1885. Rounded window’s on ground floor, central entrance with small triangular pediment above it.
•At corner of Murray and Hesse St is the former two storey Colonial Bank. It is now a shop. Built in 1881.
•As you turn right into Hesse St on your left is Memorial Square. The World War One memorial- a walk in memorial, was designed by Fredrick Sales in 1924. The Square also has memorials to Andrew Fisher, Cliff Young etc. Opposite the memorial back in Murray St is the two storey offices of the Colac Reformer newspaper established in 1875. This building was refashioned in stripped classical style in 1925 with unusual rounded shell fan decoration. Now Hulm’s Bakery.
•(Detour: at end of the park in Dennis St. you will see the Oddfellows Hall built in 1891 in classical style but the rear part was built in 1870. Further along is the former Fire Station built in 1923. North from the IOOF is Derrinook on the next corner north. This huge Edwardian weatherboard private hospital was erected in 1900 for Dr William Brown. Dr Brown died in 1926 and in 1935 it was converted into flats. End of detour. )
•35 Hesse St. The red brick Freemasons Hall with leadlight window in gable built in 1924. It has a temple like appearance and Arts and Crafts details. Note the masons’ symbols in the cartouche above the window.
•25 Hesse St. St Andrews Presbyterian Church built in 1877. Built in blue basalt stone with freestone quoins and window surrounds etc. Has a typical Presbyterian octagonal tower and spire and a rose window in the end gable. Behind the church is a red brick church hall.
•17 Hesse St. St Johns Anglican Church. It was built in 1870 in red brick with a square corner tower and narrow arched Gothic windows in the street facing gable. Next to it is an Art Deco parish hall and Sunday school room built in 1902 with two side Art Deco wings added in 1933. Designed with cream rendered gables to divide the red brick walls. Two blocks ahead is an entrance to the Botanic Gardens. From here one block to the left along Fyans St. is the Catholic Church 1979. (Original was 1883.) West of the church is the impressive two storey Convent of Mercy and its chapel built in 1889. Return to the town centre along Gellibrand St. at no 14 is the Elms House. This austere single storey villa with bay window and cream brick quoins was built in 1883.
•Corners of Bromfield and Corangamite Streets- two medical surgeries and doctors residences. Glenora built with Art Nouveau features in 1907 and Lislea House built in 1892 Edwardian/Arts and Crafts style.
This model car was number 52 in Asahi’s Model Pet range of die-cast toy cars. It was made in Japan to 1:42nd scale and issued in 1973. Features include opening bonnet with detailed engine, opening boot, opening doors, detailed interior with tipping seats, spring suspension, whizz type wheels and plated parts.
The Kishi Toy Co., Ltd. were founded in 1931 changing their name to the Asahi Toy Company in 1948. Father Christmas with the company's initials "ATC" printed across the sack became their trademark from 1955. Still using ATC as initials a trading division, the Asahi Trading Company, was founded in 1955. With this venture the company became both a manufacturer of toys and an importer. Products they imported into Japan included die-cast toy cars from British companies Lone Star, Corgi Toys and Dinky Toys along with American kits from Monogram and AMT.
Before making die-cast models Asahi became famous for its range of tinplate toy cars that included a 16” 1962 Chrysler Imperial which is generally considered to represent the highest level of realism ever attained in tinplate. No wonder this model was selected for the cover of the book “Collecting The Tin Toy Car 1950 - 1970”.
The Model Pet range were introduced in October 1959. Earlier models had flat spun wheel hubs clearly inspired by Corgi Toys of this period. A steady stream of models were issued annually until 1967 with only one being released in 1968. A slight hiatus ensured and new models came out in 1971. These had the now standard whizz type wheels and were fitted to all subsequent issues. This may explain the gap in new releases as time would have been needed to develop this new wheel type. However, it could that is Asahi decided to pull out of the model car market but then changed their minds. Seven models were issued in 1973 and these turned out to be the last additions to the Model Pet range. Miniature replicas of cars to 1:42nd scale dominated the Model Pet range. However, there were a small number of motorcycles some fitted with sidecars to 1:30th scale available in this range. Commercial vehicles were represented by a Toyota Land Cruiser and a second generation Toyota Toyoace truck.
In 1978 Asahi introduced two new model car ranges. These were the toy like Sigma 500 series with whizz type wheels to around 1:54th scale aimed at children and the upmarket Sigma 143 range designed for the collectors market to 1:43rd scale. Although there were releases to both these ranges in early 1979 unfortunately Asahi went out of business later in that year.
Please do not use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my permission. Thanks.
Chris
Devils Tower (also known as Bear Lodge Butte) is a butte, possibly laccolithic, composed of igneous rock in the Bear Lodge Ranger District of the Black Hills, near Hulett and Sundance in Crook County, northeastern Wyoming, above the Belle Fourche River. It rises 1,267 feet (386 m) above the Belle Fourche River, standing 867 feet (265 m) from summit to base. The summit is 5,112 feet (1,559 m) above sea level.
Devils Tower was the first United States national monument, established on September 24, 1906 by President Theodore Roosevelt. The monument's boundary encloses an area of 1,347 acres (545 ha).
Native American names for the monolith include "Bear's House" or "Bear's Lodge" (or "Bear's Tipi", "Home of the Bear", "Bear's Lair"); Cheyenne, Lakota: Matȟó Thípila, Crow: Daxpitcheeaasáao ("Home of Bears"), "Aloft on a Rock" (Kiowa), "Tree Rock", "Great Gray Horn", and "Brown Buffalo Horn" (Lakota: Ptehé Ǧí).
The name "Devil's Tower" originated in 1875 during an expedition led by Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, when his interpreter reportedly misinterpreted a native name to mean "Bad God's Tower". All information signs in that area use the name "Devils Tower", following a geographic naming standard whereby the apostrophe is omitted.
In 2005, a proposal to recognize several Native American ties through the additional designation of the monolith as Bear Lodge National Historic Landmark were opposed by United States Representative Barbara Cubin, arguing that a "name change will harm the tourist trade and bring economic hardship to area communities". In November 2014, Arvol Looking Horse proposed renaming the geographical feature "Bear Lodge" and submitted the request to the United States Board on Geographic Names. A second proposal was submitted to request that the U.S. acknowledge what it described as the "offensive" mistake in keeping the current name and to rename the monument and sacred site Bear Lodge National Historic Landmark. The formal public comment period ended in fall 2015. Local state senator Ogden Driskill opposed the change. The name was not changed.
The landscape surrounding Devils Tower is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks. The oldest rocks visible in Devils Tower National Monument were laid down in a shallow sea during the Triassic.[citation needed] This dark red sandstone and maroon siltstone, interbedded with shale, can be seen along the Belle Fourche River. Oxidation of iron minerals causes the redness of the rocks. This rock layer is known as the Spearfish Formation. Above the Spearfish Formation is a thin band of white gypsum, called the Gypsum Springs Formation, Jurassic in age.[citation needed] Overlying this formation is the Sundance Formation. During the Paleocene Epoch, 56 to 66 million years ago, the Rocky Mountains and the Black Hills were uplifted.[citation needed] Magma rose through the crust, intruding into the existing sedimentary rock layers.
Devils Tower is composed of a porphyritic phonolite (left), and close-up view of the columns (right)
Geologists Carpenter and Russell studied Devils Tower in the late 19th century and came to the conclusion that it was formed by an igneous intrusion. In 1907, geologists Nelson Horatio Darton and C. C. O'Harra (of the South Dakota School of Mines) theorized that Devils Tower must be an eroded remnant of a laccolith.
The igneous material that forms the Tower is a phonolite porphyry intruded about 40.5 million years ago, a light to dark-gray or greenish-gray igneous rock with conspicuous crystals of white feldspar. As the magma cooled, hexagonal columns formed (though sometimes 4-, 5-, and 7-sided columns were possible), up to 20 feet (6.1 m) wide and 600 feet (180 m) tall.
As rain and snow continue to erode the sedimentary rocks surrounding the Tower's base, more of Devils Tower will be exposed. Nonetheless, the exposed portions of the Tower still experience certain amounts of erosion. Cracks along the columns are subject to water and ice erosion. Portions, or even entire columns, of rock at Devils Tower are continually breaking off and falling. Piles of broken columns, boulders, small rocks, and stones, called scree, lie at the base of the tower, indicating that it was once wider than it is today.
The geologically-related Missouri Buttes are located 3.5 mi (5.6 km) northwest of Devils Tower.
According to the traditional Indigenous beliefs of the Kiowa and Lakota, a group of girls went out to play and were spotted by several giant bears, who began to chase them. In an effort to escape the bears, the girls climbed atop a rock, fell to their knees, and prayed to the Great Spirit to save them. Hearing their prayers, the Great Spirit made the rock rise from the ground towards the heavens so that the bears could not reach the girls. The bears, in an effort to climb the rock, left deep claw marks in the sides, which had become too steep to climb. Those are the marks which appear today on the sides of Devils Tower. When the girls reached the sky, they were turned into the stars of the Pleiades.
Another version tells that two Sioux boys wandered far from their village when Mato the bear, a huge creature that had claws the size of tipi poles, spotted them, and wanted to eat them for breakfast. He was almost upon them when the boys prayed to Wakan Tanka the Creator to help them. They rose up on a huge rock, while Mato tried to get up from every side, leaving huge scratch marks as he did. Finally, he sauntered off, disappointed and discouraged. The bear came to rest east of the Black Hills at what is now Bear Butte. Wanblee, the eagle, helped the boys off the rock and back to their village. A painting depicting this legend by artist Herbert A. Collins hangs over the fireplace in the visitor center at Devils Tower.
In a Cheyenne version of the story, the giant bear pursues the girls and kills most of them. Two sisters escape back to their home with the bear still tracking them. They tell two boys that the bear can only be killed with an arrow shot through the underside of its foot. The boys have the sisters lead the bear to Devils Tower and trick it into thinking they have climbed the rock. The boys attempt to shoot the bear through the foot while it repeatedly attempts to climb up and slides back down leaving more claw marks each time. The bear was finally scared off when an arrow came very close to its left foot. This last arrow continued to go up and never came down.
Wooden Leg, a Northern Cheyenne, related another legend told to him by an old man as they were traveling together past the Devils Tower around 1866–1868. An Indigenous man decided to sleep at the base of Bear Lodge next to a buffalo head. In the morning he found that both he and the buffalo head had been transported to the top of the rock by the Great Medicine with no way down. He spent another day and night on the rock with no food or water. After he had prayed all day and then gone to sleep, he awoke to find that the Great Medicine had brought him back down to the ground, but left the buffalo head at the top near the edge. Wooden Leg maintained that the buffalo head was clearly visible through the old man's spyglass. At the time, the tower had never been climbed and a buffalo head at the top was otherwise inexplicable.
The buffalo head gives this story special significance for the Northern Cheyenne. All the Cheyenne maintained in their camps a sacred teepee to the Great Medicine containing the tribal sacred objects. In the case of the Northern Cheyenne, the sacred object was a buffalo head.
N. Scott Momaday (Kiowa) was given the name Tsoai-talee (Rock Tree Boy) by Pohd-lohk, a Kiowa elder, linking the child to the Devils Tower bear myth. To reinforce this mythic connection, his parents took him there. Momaday incorporated the bear myth as unifying subtext into his 1989 novel The Ancient Child.
The Bighorn Mountains are a mountain range in northern Wyoming and southern Montana in the United States, forming a northwest-trending spur from the Rocky Mountains extending approximately 200 mi (320 km) northward on the Great Plains. They are separated from the Absaroka Range, which lie on the main branch of the Rockies to the west, by the Bighorn Basin. Much of the land is contained within the Bighorn National Forest.
The Bighorns were uplifted during the Laramide orogeny beginning approximately 70 million years ago. They consist of over 9,000 ft (2,700 m) of sedimentary rock strata laid down before mountain-building began: the predominantly marine and near-shore sedimentary layers range from the Cambrian through the Lower Cretaceous, and are often rich in fossils. There is an unconformity where Silurian strata were exposed to erosion and are missing. The granite bedrock below these sedimentary layers is now exposed along the crest of the Bighorns. The precambrian formations contain some of the oldest rocks in the world, at 3.25 billion years old. Following the uplift, large volumes of sediments, rich in early Tertiary fossils, were deposited in the adjoining basins. The ice ages of the Pleistocene led to extensive glaciation. Though many cirques, U-shaped valleys and glacial lakes can be found in the mountain range, the only remaining active glacier is the Cloud Peak Glacier, which is on the east slope of Cloud Peak.
Geologist N.H. Darton with the U.S. Geological Survey produced one of the earliest studies of geology in the area, drawn from field research from 1901-1905.
Despite extensive prospecting in the Bighorns, no major deposits of precious metals have been found to date. Brief gold rushes of placer deposits occurred at Bald Mountain City and Porcupine Creek, and in Big Goose Canyon. The lack of precious metals helped stave off development and settlement in the mountains, in contrast to the Colorado Rockies.
The Madison limestone aquifer provides a significant source of groundwater for the town of Dayton. Limestone karst formations throughout the range contain many fissures and cracks that have developed into extensive cave systems, including Tongue River Cave, and the caves adjacent to Medicine Mountain. The Natural Trap Cave on the west slope of the Bighorns contains numerous remains of prehistoric mammals.
The highest peaks within the Bighorns are located in Wyoming in the 1.12×106-acre (4,500 km2) Bighorn National Forest. Two peaks rise to over 13,000 feet (3,960 m): Cloud Peak (13,175 ft, 4013 m) and Black Tooth Mountain (13,005 ft, 3964 m). There are a dozen more that rise to over 12,000 feet (3,650 m). From the east the mountains present a vertical relief of over 8,000 feet (2,450 m), rising abruptly from the plains. Overall, the Bighorns are more rounded than their sister mountain ranges to the west.
The Cloud Peak Wilderness is the centerpiece of a roadless block of land around 189,000 acres in size. The Wilderness is surrounded by acreage of U.S National Forest as well as Bureau of Land Management, state, and some private land. Most of the Cloud Peak Wilderness is above the tree line; the National Forest lands surrounding it are lower in elevation and covered in coniferous forests. Mule deer, elk, moose, black bear, and mountain lion are found throughout the area.
Two more large roadless areas remained in the Bighorns as of 1992. It is unknown whether these areas have since been reduced in size by road-building and other development. Both areas straddle the Montana-Wyoming state line, in the northern part of the range. One area, north of U.S. Route 14A and containing the headwaters of the Little Bighorn River, is 155,000 acres of National Forest land. This little-known region features subalpine terrain cut by steep canyons. Pronghorn inhabit the area, as it includes a portion of the Great Plains. What little human use it receives is from hunters and fishermen. The second roadless area is located mainly on the Crow Indian Reservation in Montana; its 144,000 acres also includes 34,000 acres of Devil's Canyon on the Bighorn N.F. in Wyoming. In this part of the range, semidesert prairie is cut by steep canyons leading to Yellowtail Reservoir, and high, Douglas-fir cloaked ridges top out at over 9,000'. Colorful rock formations are common. Rocky Mountain juniper and limber pine are scattered on lower elevations, and wildlife includes pronghorn, rattlesnake, golden eagle, ferruginous hawk, and mule deer. The Crow Indians manage a wild bison herd on this portion of the Bighorns. The Crow lands are a sacred area, and thus are off-limits to non-tribal members.
The three highways traversing the Bighorns are designated Scenic Byways by the US Forest Service and the State of Wyoming. These include U.S. Routes 14, 14A, and 16.
The high elevation of the Bighorns results in condensation of air and significant yearly snowfall, creating a highland oasis of moisture towering over the otherwise arid plains that surround the range in all directions. The melting snow feeds many rivers through the summer months. The range is the location of the headwaters of the Little Bighorn, Tongue, and Powder rivers.
Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area consists of approximately 120,000 acres (490 km2) within the Bighorn Mountains. It includes Bighorn Lake, a reservoir damming the Bighorn River.
In 2015, a sudden, huge 'gash' was found in Wyoming's Big Horn Mountains. The Wyoming Geological Survey studied the area and determined that "The Crack" may be the result of an "apparent active landslide" in the southern end of the Big Horn Mountains.
The Bighorns provided important resources for ancestral indigenous people, including plants, migratory big game, rock shelters, tepee poles, and stone for tools. American Indian trails crisscrossed the range, while the canyons provided important winter shelters. Stone game blinds in the high country were used by pedestrian hunters to kill migratory big game animals with atlatl-propelled spears or bows. The northern Bighorns and the Tongue River drainage were formerly a significant summer range for migratory bison that wintered in either the Bighorn Basin and the Powder River/Tongue River/Little Bighorn River drainages. The southern Bighorns, particularly in the Middle Fork of the Powder River, contained an important American Indian trail adjacent to a bison migration corridor. The Wilson Price Hunt expedition of Astorians noted in 1811 that the bison dung was so dense in this area that it resembled a "continuous barnyard" for several miles. Hunt noticed Shoshone and Crow Indians in the area. The Medicine Wheel on the northern end of the Bighorns is an important sacred site built by ancestral tribes that is still used in present-day American Indian ceremonies.
Ancestors of the Shoshone Tribe likely had the longest continuous association with the Bighorns, potentially dating back 1,000 years or more. Stone artifacts found in the Absaroka Range farther west are known to have originated in the Bighorns, suggesting ancestral movement between the two ranges.
The Apsalooke or Crow tribe located in this region about 300–400 years ago after discovering the sacred tobacco plant growing in the Bighorn Mountains below Cloud Peak. This ended a multi-generational sojourn that began near Devils Lake, North Dakota, where a leader named No Vitals received a vision to seek the tobacco. The Crow chief Arapooish gave a speech in the 1830s showing that his people were fully aware of the migratory behaviors of bighorn sheep and deer, which spent summer on high-elevation summer range in the Bighorns and other mountain ranges.
Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Lakota use of the Bighorns region mostly dates to the period after 1800, when they made incursions into traditional Shoshone and Crow territory. Of the Cheyenne, Arapaho and Lakota, the Arapaho had longest history on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains in a region spanning from the Yellowstone River to the Arkansas River, which included the Bighorns. The Cheyenne and Lakota were originally agricultural tribes based on rivers of the Great Plains and the Midwest. By the 1860s and 1870s, the Lakota showed a knowledge of the ancestral trail systems in the Bighorn Mountains, particularly in incidents like the Sibley Fight
Wyoming is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the southwest, and Colorado to the south. With a population of 576,851 in 2020, Wyoming is the least populous state despite being the 10th largest by area, with the second-lowest population density after Alaska. The state capital and most populous city is Cheyenne, which had an estimated population of 63,957 in 2018.
Wyoming's western half consists mostly of the ranges and rangelands of the Rocky Mountains; its eastern half consists of high-elevation prairie, and is referred to as the High Plains. Wyoming's climate is semi-arid in some parts and continental in others, making it drier and windier overall than other states, with greater temperature extremes. The federal government owns just under half of Wyoming's land, generally protecting it for public uses. The state ranks sixth in the amount of land—-and fifth in the proportion of its land—-that is owned by the federal government. Its federal lands include two national parks (Grand Teton and Yellowstone), two national recreation areas, two national monuments, and several national forests, as well as historic sites, fish hatcheries, and wildlife refuges.
Indigenous peoples inhabited the region for thousands of years. Historic and currently federally recognized tribes include the Arapaho, Crow, Lakota, and Shoshone. Part of the land that is now Wyoming came under American sovereignty via the Louisiana Purchase, part via the Oregon Treaty, and, lastly, via the Mexican Cession. With the opening of the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, and the California Trail, vast numbers of pioneers travelled through parts of the state that had once been traversed mainly by fur trappers, and this spurred the establishment of forts, such as Fort Laramie, that today serve as population centers. The Transcontinental Railroad supplanted the wagon trails in 1867 with a route through southern Wyoming, bringing new settlers and the establishment of founding towns, including the state capital of Cheyenne. On March 27, 1890, Wyoming became the union's 44th state.
Farming and ranching, and the attendant range wars, feature prominently in the state's history. Today, Wyoming's economy is largely based on tourism and the extraction of minerals such as coal, natural gas, oil, and trona. Its agricultural commodities include barley, hay, livestock, sugar beets, wheat, and wool.
Wyoming was the first state to allow women the right to vote (not counting New Jersey, which had allowed it until 1807), and the right to assume elected office, as well as the first state to elect a female governor. In honor of this part of its history, its most common nickname is "The Equality State" and its official state motto is "Equal Rights".[1] It is among the least religious states in the country,[15] and is known for having a political culture that leans towards libertarian conservatism.[16] The Republican presidential nominee has carried the state in every election since 1968.
There is evidence of prehistoric human habitation in the region known today as the U.S. state of Wyoming stretching back roughly 13,000 years. Stone projectile points associated with the Clovis, Folsom and Plano cultures have been discovered throughout Wyoming. Evidence from what is now Yellowstone National Park indicates the presence of vast continental trading networks since around 1,000 years ago.
The Union Pacific Railroad played a central role in the European colonization of the area. Wyoming would become a U.S. territory in 1868. It was the first state to grant women the right to vote in 1869 (although it was then still a territory). Wyoming would become a U.S. state on July 10, 1890, as the 44th state.
There is evidence of prehistoric human habitation in the region known today as the U.S. state of Wyoming stretching back roughly 13,000 years. Stone projectile points associated with the Clovis, Folsom and Plano cultures have been discovered throughout Wyoming. In the Big Horn Mountains there is a medicine wheel that has not yet been dated accurately due to disruption of the site prior to the two archaeological excavations of 1958 and 1978. However, the Big Horn Medicine Wheel's design of twenty-eight spokes is similar to the Majorville Medicine Wheel in Canada that has been dated at 3200 BCE (5200 years ago) by careful stratification of known artifact types. Throughout the Bighorn Mountains, south to Medicine Lodge Creek, artifacts of occupation date back 10,000 years. Large ceremonial blades chipped from obsidian rock formations in what is now Yellowstone National Park to the west of the Bighorns, have been found in the Hopewell burial mounds of Southern Ohio, indicative of vast continental trading networks since around 1000 years ago.[1] When White explorers first entered the region, they encountered numerous American Indian tribes including the Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Nez Perce, Sioux, Shoshone and Ute.
Europeans may have ventured into the northern sections of the state in the 18th century. Most of the southern part of modern-day Wyoming was nominally claimed by Spain and Mexico until the 1830s, but they had no presence. John Colter, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was probably the first American to enter the region in 1807.[8] His reports of thermal activity in the Yellowstone area were considered at the time to be fictional. Robert Stuart and a party of five men returning from Astoria, Oregon discovered South Pass in 1812. The route was later followed by the Oregon Trail. In 1850, Jim Bridger located what is now known as Bridger Pass, which was later used by both the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868, and in the 20th century by Interstate 80. Bridger also explored the Yellowstone region and like Colter, most of his reports on that region of the state were considered at the time to be tall tales. During the early 19th century, fur trappers known as mountain men flocked to the mountains of western Wyoming in search of beaver. In 1824, the first mountain man rendezvous was held in Wyoming. The gatherings continued annually until 1840, with the majority of them held within Wyoming territory.
The route later known as the Oregon Trail was already in regular use by traders and explorers in the early 1830s. The trail snakes across Wyoming, entering the state on the eastern border near the present day town of Torrington following the North Platte River to the current town of Casper. It then crosses South Pass, and exits on the western side of the state near Cokeville. In 1847, Mormon emigrants blazed the Mormon Trail, which mirrors the Oregon Trail, but splits off at South Pass and continues south to Fort Bridger and into Utah. Over 350,000 emigrants followed these trails to destinations in Utah, California and Oregon between 1840 and 1859. In 1859, gold was discovered in Montana, drawing miners north along the Bozeman and Bridger trails through the Powder River Country and Big Horn Basin respectively.
The influx of emigrants and settlers into the state led to further encounters with the native people there, and settler military presence along the trails increased; military posts such as Fort Laramie were established. In 1851, representatives from the United States and American Indian nations signed the first Treaty of Fort Laramie in hopes of ensuring peace and the safety of settlers on the trails. While the 1850s were subsequently quiet, tensions rose again after settlers increasingly encroached upon lands promised to the tribes in the region. This was the case after settlers, in 1864, blazed the Bozeman Trail through the hunting grounds of the Powder River Country, which the United States had promised to the tribes in the 1851 treaty. As encounters between settlers and natives grew more serious in 1865, Major General Grenville M. Dodge ordered the first Powder River Expedition to attempt to quell the violence. The expedition ended in the Battle of the Tongue River against the Arapaho. In the following year, the fighting escalated into Red Cloud's War, which was the first major military conflict between the United States and the Wyoming Indian tribes. The second Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868 ended the war by closing the Powder River Country to whites. Violation of this treaty by miners in the Black Hills led to the Black Hills War in 1876, which was fought mainly along the border of Wyoming and Montana.
In 1866, Nelson Story Sr. drove approximately 1000 head of Texas Longhorns to Montana through Wyoming along the Bozeman Trail—the first major cattle drive from Texas into Montana. The Wyoming Stock Growers Association is a historic American cattle organization created in 1873. The Association was started among Wyoming cattle ranchers to standardize and organize the cattle industry, but quickly grew into a political force that has been called "the de facto territorial government" of Wyoming's organization into early statehood, and wielded great influence throughout the Western United States. The association is still active to this day, but it is best known for its rich history and is perhaps most famous for its role in Wyoming's Johnson County War. In 1892 the Johnson County War, also known as the War on Powder River and the Wyoming Range War, took place in Johnson, Natrona and Converse County, Wyoming. It was fought between small settling ranchers against larger established ranchers in the Powder River Country and culminated in a lengthy shootout between local ranchers, a band of hired killers, and a sheriff's posse, eventually requiring the intervention of the United States Cavalry on the orders of President Benjamin Harrison. The events have since become a highly mythologized and symbolic story of the Wild West, and over the years variations of the storyline have come to include some of the west's most famous historical figures and gunslingers. The storyline and its variations have served as the basis for numerous popular novels, films, and television shows.
In 1870, roughly three-eights of Wyoming's population was foreign born, coming primarily from Ireland, Germany and England. The Union Pacific Railroad played a central role in the settlement of Wyoming. The land was good for cattle ranches, but without transportation it was too far for a cattle drive. The UP railroad companies had large land grants that were used to back the borrowings from New York and London that financed construction. UP was anxious to locate settlers upon the land as soon as possible, so there would be a steady outflow of cattle, and a steady inflow of manufactured items purchased by the ranchers. UP also built towns that were needed to service the railroad itself, with dining halls for passengers, construction crews, repair shops and housing for train crews. The towns attracted cattle drives and cowboys.
The UP reached the town of Cheyenne, which later became the state capital, in 1867. The railroad eventually spanned the entire state, boosting the population, and creating some of Wyoming's largest cities, such as Laramie, Rock Springs and Evanston. The railroad needed coal, which was discovered in quantity in the southwestern part of the state, especially around Rock Springs In 1885, a murderous riot known as the Rock Springs Massacre broke out when white miners drove out Chinese miners employed by the Union Pacific Coal Company in Rock Springs.
The name "Wyoming" was used by Representative J. M. Ashley of Ohio, who introduced the Ashley Bill to Congress to provide a "temporary government for the territory of Wyoming". The name was made famous by the 1809 poem Gertrude of Wyoming by Thomas Campbll. "Wyoming" is derived from the Delaware (Munsee) name xwé:wamənk, meaning "at the big river flat", originally applied to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania.
After the arrival of the railroad, the population began to grow steadily in the Wyoming Territory, which was established on July 25, 1868. Unlike Colorado to the south, Wyoming never experienced a rapid population boom in the 19th century from any major mineral discoveries such as gold or silver.
Inclusion of women's suffrage in the Wyoming constitution was debated in the constitutional convention, but ultimately accepted. The constitution was mostly borrowed from those of other states, but also included an article making all the water in Wyoming property of the state. Wyoming overcame the obstacles of low population and of being the only territory in the U.S. giving women the right to vote, and the United States admitted Wyoming into the Union as the 44th state on July 10, 1890.
In 1869, Wyoming territory granted women the right to vote, becoming the first U.S. state to extend suffrage to women. Wyoming was also the home of many other firsts for U.S. women in politics. The first time women served on a jury was in Wyoming (Laramie in 1870). Wyoming had the first female court bailiff (Mary Atkinson, Laramie, in 1870), and the country's first female justice of the peace (Esther Hobart Morris, South Pass City, in 1870). Wyoming became the first state in the Union to elect a female governor, Nellie Tayloe Ross, who was elected in 1924 and took office in January 1925.
Following on the reports of men like Colter and Bridger, a number of organized expeditions were undertaken in northwestern Wyoming. The Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition in 1869 and the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870 confirmed the stories of the mountain men. In 1871, Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden led a formal geological survey of the area, the result of which ultimately convinced Congress to set aside the region. Yellowstone National Park became the world's first National Park in 1872. In August 1886, the U.S. Army was given administration of the park. In 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the new National Park Service. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than 1,000 archaeological sites. Most of Yellowstone National Park is located in Wyoming.
Wyoming is also home to the nation's first national monument (Devils Tower created in 1906), and the first national forest (Shoshone National Forest created in 1891).
The Homestead Act of 1862 attracted many new farmers and ranchers to Wyoming, where they congregated along the fertile banks of the rivers. Most of the land in Wyoming in the 2nd half of the 19th century was in the public domain and so was open for both homesteading and open range for grazing cattle. As individual ranchers moved into the state, they became at odds with the larger ranches for control of the range and water sources. Tensions rose to a boiling point in April 1892 as an armed conflict known as the Johnson County War, fought between the large cattle operators and smaller ranchers and homesteaders. The increased number of settlers also brought with them merchants, as well as outlaws. A number of notable outlaws of the time started their careers in Wyoming, including Butch Cassidy and Harry Longabaugh, both of whom were incarcerated in Wyoming as young men.[25] A remote area in Johnson County, Wyoming known as the Hole-in-the-Wall was a well known hideout for a loose association of outlaw gangs known as the Hole in the Wall Gang. It was used from the 1860s through the early 20th century by outlaws operating throughout Wyoming.
Precious metals were never discovered in great quantities, though a small amount of gold was discovered near South Pass prompting a small rush in the 1860s. Coal was discovered early and has been mined extensively through the state. Union Pacific Railroad ran several coal mines in the southern part of the state to supply the railroad. In 1885 tensions at a Union Pacific mine in Rock Springs resulted in the Rock Springs massacre, one of the largest race riots in U.S. history. Oil is also plentiful throughout the state. In 1924, irregularities over the allocation of naval reserves near Casper resulted in the Teapot Dome Scandal. Natural gas, bentonite and uranium have also been mined through the state's history.
One exception is the copper mines in Carbon County west of Encampment. The Ferris-Haggarty Mine Site supplied copper for the electrification of the world in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
After 1890, Wyoming pageants and parades, as well as school courses, increasingly told a nostalgic story of Wyoming as rooted in the frontier West. During the 1940s, Wyoming millionaire William R. Coe made large contributions to the American studies programs at Yale University and at the University of Wyoming. Coe wished to celebrate the values of the Western United States in order to meet the threat of communism.
SMASH - Giraffe Stiletto Nails
Includes:
6 Bento Mesh Nails
8-Option Texture HUD
-=- Fitted to -=-
MAITREYA / SLINK / LEGACY
BELLEZA / KUPRA / TONIC
Advanced Shine with Materials Enabled.
Found at SMASH Inworld:
maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Isle%20of%20Fire/92/238/25
Marketplace:
marketplace.secondlife.com/p/SMASH-Giraffe-Stiletto-Nails...
History of the Vienna Philharmonic
The orchestra of the Vienna Philharmonic was founded on March 28, 1842. It was founded by the German composer Otto Nicolai, whose creations include the opera "The Merry Wives of Windsor". Nearly a century later, the club was dissolved in December 1938 during the Nazi period by the law on the "transfer and incorporation of clubs, organizations and associations" for the time being and the assets fell to the State Theater and the Stage Academy of the City of Vienna. This was, however, a few days later at the urging of the conductor and musicologist Dr. Heinz Drewes largely reversed. Dr. Drewes was the leader of the "entire German musical life" and so he used his influence on the Reich propaganda minister Goebbels. Ultimately, Goebbels decreed in June 1939 that the Vienna Philharmonic as an association should retain their most extensive independence on the condition that the club is subject to his supervision and that the articles of association regarding the National Socialist principles is changed. Thus, the club's assets were released again.
In 1939, the idea of the New Year's Concert, at which time only the music of Johann Strauss was played, was born. This concert series of the New Year's Concert has become one of the cultural highlights of the year and is always broadcast live on television. The magnificent pictures from Vienna are accompanied, among other things, by fantastic flowers and dance performances by the Wiener Ballett. With the end of the Second World War, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra once again became completely independent and the orchestra played two major concert evenings right after the liberation of Vienna in April 1945. A special focus is still the position of the conductor at the Vienna Philharmonic. Because until 1933, the orchestra was directed by a single conductor every season. From 1933 there were only guest conductors. Great merits in the early years had especially the conductors Arturo Toscanini from 1933 to 1937 and intermittently from 1933 to 1954 Wilhelm Furtwängler. Herbert von Karajan, Karl Böhm, Paul Hindemith and Daniel Barenboim are among the famous guest conductors. Also as a guest conductor conducted from 1966, the later honorary member Leonard Bernstein repeatedly the orchestra. One of Leonard Bernstein's most outstanding works in collaboration with the Vienna Philharmonic is, for example, the adaptation of the works of Gustav Mahler, who himself had directed the orchestra from 1898 to 1901 for three years as a subscription conductor to the Vienna Philharmonic.
Vienna Philharmonic coins
Appropriately to the Vienna Philharmonic, the Austrian Mint, which mints all coins in Austria, has been issuing a bullion every year since 1989, which after the orchestra precisely is called the Vienna Philharmonic. At first, the coins were pure gold. Since 2008 there is also an annual silver version. Their value does not correspond to the nominal value, but the Vienna Philharmonic is a bullion coin whose value depends on the current precious metal value. The motif of the Vienna Philharmonic is always the same. The front of the Vienna Philharmonic Münze designed by Thomas Pesendorfer shows some of the classical orchestral instruments such as bassoon, horn, harp and four violins, as well as a cello in the middle. The reverse shows the organ, which is located in the Golden Hall of the Wiener Musikverein. Only the respective year is changed. The coin is now available in four sizes. As a special coinage, a 1000-ounce coin, the so-called "Big Phil", was released in 2004 on the occasion of the 15th anniversary, and another coin in 2009 for the 20th anniversary. Both are traded as collectors' items because of the limited edition and are therefore more expensive than the actual precious metal value.
Geschichte der Wiener Philharmoniker
Das Orchester der Wiener Philharmoniker wurde am 28. März 1842 gegründet. Ins Leben gerufen hatte es der deutsche Komponist Otto Nicolai, aus dessen Feder unter anderem die Oper "Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor" stammt. Knapp ein Jahrhundert später wurde der Verein im Dezember 1938 in der NS-Zeit durch das Gesetz zur "Überleitung und Eingliederung von Vereinen, Organisationen und Verbänden" vorerst aufgelöst und das Vermögen fiel dem Staatstheater und der Bühnenakademie der Stadt Wien zu. Dies wurde jedoch wenige Tage später auf Drängen des Dirigenten und Musikwissenschaftlers Dr. Heinz Drewes größtenteils wieder rückgängig gemacht. Dr. Drewes war der Leiter des "gesamten deutschen Musiklebens" und so nutzte er seinen Einfluss auf den Reichspropagandaminister Goebbels. Letztlich verfügte Goebbels im Juni 1939, dass die Wiener Philharmoniker als Verein ihre weitestgehende Selbständigkeit behalten sollten unter der Bedingung, dass der Verein seiner Aufsicht unterstellt wird dass die Vereinssatzung hinsichtlich der nationalsozialistischen Grundsätze geändert wird. Damit wurde auch das Vereinsvermögen wieder frei gegeben.
Im Jahr 1939 entstand zugleich die Idee des Neujahrskonzerts, bei dem damals ausschließlich die Musik von Johann Strauss gespielt wurde. Diese Konzertreihe des Neujahrskonzerts ist inzwischen einer der kulturellen Höhepunkte des Jahres und wird immer live im Fernsehen übertragen. Die prächtigen Bilder aus Wien werden unter anderem untermalt durch phantastische Blumen und Tanzeinlagen des Wiener Balletts. Mit dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde der Verein der Wiener Philharmoniker wieder komplett unabhängig und das Orchester spielte gleich nach der Befreiung von Wien im April 1945 zwei große Konzertabende. Ein ganz besonderer Augenmerk gilt noch der Stelle des Dirigenten bei den Wiener Philharmonikern. Denn bis zum Jahr 1933 wurde das Orchester jede Saison von einem einzigen Dirigenten geleitet. Ab 1933 gab es nur noch Gastdirigenten. Große Verdienste hatten in den Anfangsjahren vor allem die Dirigenten Arturo Toscanini von 1933 bis 1937 und mit Unterbrechungen von 1933 bis 1954 Wilhelm Furtwängler. Zu den berühmten Gastdirigenten zählen unter anderem Herbert von Karajan, Karl Böhm, Paul Hindemith oder Daniel Barenboim. Ebenfalls als Gastdirigent leitete ab 1966 das spätere Ehrenmitglied Leonard Bernstein mehrfach das Orchester. Zu den herausragendsten Werken von Leonard Bernstein in Zusammenarbeit mit den Wiener Philharmonikern zählt beispielsweise die Bearbeitung der Werke von Gustav Mahler, der von 1898 bis 1901 selbst drei Jahre lang als Abonnementdirigent der Wiener Philharmoniker das Orchester geleitet hatte.
Wiener Philharmoniker Münzen
Passend zu den Wiener Philharmonikern gibt die Münze Österreich, die alle Münzen in Österreich prägt, seit dem Jahr 1989 jedes Jahr eine Anlagemünze heraus, die nach dem Orchester eben der Wiener Philharmoniker genannt wird. Zunächst waren die Münzen aus reinem Gold. Seit 2008 gibt es auch eine jährliche Silberversion. Ihr Wert entspricht nicht dem reinen Nennwert, sondern der Wiener Philharmoniker ist eine Bullionmünze, deren Wert sich nach dem aktuellen Edelmetallwert richtet. Das Motiv des Wiener Philharmoniker ist immer gleich. Die Vorderseite der von Thomas Pesendorfer gestalteten Wiener Philharmoniker Münze zeigt einige der klassischen Orchesterinstrumente wie Fagott, Horn, Harfe und dazu vier Geigen sowie in der Mitte ein Cello. Die Rückseite zeigt die Orgel, die sich im Goldenen Saal vom Wiener Musikverein befindet. Geändert wird nur das jeweilige Prägejahr. Die Münze gibt es inzwischen in vier Größen zu kaufen. Als Sonderprägungen erschien 2004 zum 15-jährigen Jubiläum eine 1000-Unzen-Münze, der sogenannte "Big Phil", und 2009 zum 20-jährigen Jubiläum eine weitere Münze. Beide werden wegen der limitierten Auflage als Sammlerobjekte gehandelt und sind daher teurer als der eigentliche Edelmetallwert.
www.geschichte-oesterreich.com/musik/wiener_philharmonike...
Cold and clear for the Ricardo Fireworks Party. Traditional foreground rides for the kids, a bar, food, an impressive display and a chance to catch up with current and former colleagues.
Archaeological Museum of Bologna presents Pompeii Painters, one of the most eagerly awaited exhibitions of the autumn exhibition season in Italy. Curated by Mario Grimaldi and produced by MondoMostre, the exhibition is made possible by a cultural and scientific collaboration agreement between the Municipality of Bologna, Archaeological Museum of Bologna and the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, that includes the exceptional loan of over 100 works from the Roman era belonging to the collection of the Neapolitan museum. The exhibition project focuses on the figures of the pictores, i.e. the artists and artisans who created the decorative apparatuses in the houses of Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Vesuvian area, in order to contextualise their role and economic condition in the society of the time, as well as highlighting their techniques, tools, colours and models. The extremely important patrimony of images that these authors have left us - splendid frescoes with still vivid colours, often of large dimensions - reflects the tastes and values of a varied clientele and allows us to better understand the mechanisms underlying the workshops' production system. In Bologna, for the first time, a corpus of extraordinary examples of Roman painting from those domus famous precisely for the beauty of their wall decorations, from which they often also took on the name by which they are known, is exhibited.
Coria was a fort and town 2.5 miles (4.0 km) south of Hadrian's Wall, in the Roman province of Britannia at a point where a big Roman north–south road (Dere Street) bridged the River Tyne and met another Roman road (Stanegate), which ran east–west between Coria and Luguvalium (the modern Carlisle) in the Solway Plain. The full Latin name is uncertain. In English, it is known as Corchester or Corbridge Roman Site as it sits on the edge of the village of Corbridge in the English county of Northumberland. It is in the guardianship of English Heritage and is partially exposed as a visitor attraction, including a site museum.
The place-name appears in contemporary records as Corstopitum and Corie Lopocarium. These forms are generally recognised as corrupt. Suggested reconstructions include Coriosopitum, Corsopitum or Corsobetum. The Vindolanda tablets show that it was locally referred to by the simple form, Coria, the name for a local tribal centre. The suffix ought to represent the name of the local tribe, a member of the Brigantian confederation but its correct form is unknown. It gave its name to Corbridge, albeit by processes which are debated.
There is evidence of Iron Age round houses on the site but the first Romans in the area built the Red House Fort, 0.5 mi (0.80 km) to the west, as a supply camp for Agricola's campaigns.
Soon after Roman victories in modern Scotland, around AD 84, a new fort was built on the site with turf ramparts and timber gates. Barrack blocks surrounded a headquarters building, a commander's residence, administrative staff accommodation, workshops and granaries. It was probably occupied by a 500-strong cavalry unit called the Ala Gallorum Petriana but burnt down in AD 105. A second timber fort was built, guarding an important crossing of the River Tyne, when the Solway Firth–Tyne divide was the Roman frontier. Around AD 120, when Hadrian's Wall was built just over two miles to the north, the fort was rebuilt again, probably to house infantry away from the Wall. About twenty years later, when the frontier was pushed further north and the Antonine Wall built, the first stone fort was erected under the Governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
English Heritage has released monographs on the forts along Hadrian's Wall through the Archaeology Data Service. Bishop and Dore's report on the excavations at Corbridge 1947–80 reveal the complex history of the sequence of mainly earth and timber forts which preceded the masonry buildings. The reports also cover a metal hoard found within the fort, possibly linked to the abandonment between AD 122 and 138
After the Romans fell back to Hadrian's Wall in AD 163, the army seems to have been largely removed from Coria. Its ramparts were levelled and a big rebuilding programme of a very different nature was instigated. A series of probable temples were erected, followed by granaries, a fountain house and a large courtyard complex, which may have been intended to become a civilian forum or a military storehouse and workshop establishment. It was never finished in its original plan.
Burnt timber buildings may relate to Cassius Dio's reference to tribes crossing the frontier but by the early 3rd century there was more construction. Two compounds opposite the supposed forum were built as part of a military supply depot within the town. It was connected with the Second and the Sixth Legion and may have been part of the supply network for Septimius Severus' northern campaigns.
Information on the 3rd- and 4th-century town is lacking but an elaborate house was certainly put up which may have housed an Imperial official. Coria was probably a big market centre for the lead, iron and coal industries in the area, as well as agriculture, evidenced by the granaries. A pottery store has also been identified. When occupation came to an end is unclear. It is not even known if the site was still occupied when the Anglo-Saxons arrived to found adjoining Corbridge.
The Corbridge Hoard was found here.
Between 1906 and 1914, the site was excavated following a desire by the Northumberland County History Committee to assess the Roman remains at Corbridge ahead of a book on the history of the parish, overseen by Francis J. Haverfield. During that time, a number of scholars from Oxford University were sent by Haverfield to supervise local labourers tasked with the actual excavation, including J.P. Bushe-Fox and Leonard Woolley, making it one of the first training excavations in British archaeology. Brian Dobson later ran adult training excavations at Corbridge in the 1960s and 1970s.
Work on Hexham Abbey in 1881 brought to light a Roman funerary monument in the stonework of the south porch of the transept. An elaborately carved stone (now on display in the abbey) shows a standard-bearer in the Roman cavalry riding down a barbarian: its inscription shows it to commemorate Flavinus, an officer in the ala Petriana who died aged 25 after seven years' service. The ala Petriana is known to have been stationed at Corbridge, and the slab is thought to date to the late first century and to have once stood in the military cemetery near the fort there.
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe
Kanaha Beach oval green fruit at Olinda, Maui, Hawaii.
September 05, 2009
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Also known as Lycopersicon esculentum and L. pimpinellifolium. Images include Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme, S. l. var. lycopersicum, and hybrid combinations between them.
Spectator's car
Tsawwassen Mills Classic Car Show.
Tsawwassen, British Columbia, Canada
For my video; youtu.be/lyJ0tSZ3Qso
The Porsche 356 is a sports car that was first produced by Austrian company Porsche Konstruktionen GesmbH (1948–1949), and then by German company Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche GmbH (1950–1965). It was Porsche's first production automobile. Earlier cars designed by the Austrian company include Cisitalia Grand Prix race car, the Volkswagen Beetle, and Auto Union Grand Prix cars.