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O razuitoare de gheata cu forma de trapez cu 4 suprafete de lucru.
Prima suprafata din stanga este plata pentru a razui chiciura de pe geam.
A doua si a treia suprafata sunt zimtate, pentru a razui gheata de pe geam.
A patra suprafata inferioara a razuitoarii gheata – TR – 85 ...
La corsa di Ignazio Marino alla segreteria del Partito Democratico passa per Formia. Una fermata obbligatoria per il ruolo rivestito nella mozione da Sandro Bartolomeo. Ed è proprio l'ex sindaco a lanciare il senatore chirurgo, il king maker di questa competizione: l'agitatore dei diritti civili. Il Pd a cui pensa Ignazio Marino deve applicare «quel metodo laico» di cui è vivace sostenitore. «Ognuno porti con passione, con entusiasmo le proprie idee, le proprie convinzioni, la propria cultura, ma alla fine si faccia una sintesi e tutti ci si senta realmente obbligati a sostenere la decisione che si è presa a maggioranza» afferma il senatore incassando l'applauso convinto dei presenti. La Sala Ribaud è piena. Ma non ci sono solo quelli della mozione. Ci sono i bersaniani e i pro Franceschini. C'è il popolo delle primarie, ma ci sono anche i disillusi: «E' il solito discorso dei politici». Ma Marino piace. Strappa applausi e consensi. C'è chi annuisce quando afferma: «Io credo che abbiamo una risorsa straordinaria. Abbiamo le persone. Sciogliamo queste correnti che producono solo poteri, sottopoteri, controllo e non danno entusiasmo, passione e nuove idee. Utilizziamo una sola corrente, la corrente delle persone, della gente e dei circoli» esalta i presenti. In fondo è proprio questo che chiede la base del Pd. «Io voglio un partito che ritorni alle persone. Che interroghi la gente. Ve lo dico con grande chiarezza. Se per esempio sul tema del testamento biologico, interrogando tutti voi, in tutt'Italia il 98% di voi arrivasse a dire che la pensa come Paola Binetti, io in un Partito Democratico me ne farei una ragione. Ma se il 98% di voi dice che deve avere la libertà di scegliere a quali terapie accedere» lasciando fuori dalla propria stanza il legislatore, «anche Paola Binetti se ne deve fare una ragione» scandisce il senatore. I diritti civili sono il suo cavallo di battaglia. Uno spazio democratico in cui far confluire le istanze tanto degli omosessuali quanto degli immigrati. Su questo tema rilancia: «Sull'immigrazione le regole devono essere chiare, ma devono rispettare le persone». Quindi facendo leva sulla sua esperienza, racconta: «Negli Usa, pagavo regolarmente le tasse, ma non mi è mai capitato di stare in una tenda al freddo per rinnovare il permesso di soggiorno». Diritti, diritti e ancora diritti quando si parla di respingimenti, per i quali nutre una personale riserva, sposando quell'orientamento giuridico che solleva qualche dubbio di legittimità su tale pratica, lesivo del diritto d'asilo. «L'immigrazione attraverso il mare - conclude Marino - è assai limitata rispetto alle altre modalità illegali di ingresso. Si diano, invece, più mezzi alle polizie di frontiera» rileva il candidato. Un discorso ricco di spunti e di grande respiro ideale, che non trascura certo la green economy, che «fa sia bene all’ambiente e crea lavoro», la giustizia sociale, e la legalità. Convince i presenti, se ce ne fosse stato già bisogno. La vera sfida, però, è quella di riavvicinare i delusi. Se questa missione sarà stata superata lo vedremo il 25 ottobre.
Martedì 20 Ottobre 2009
Produced by students at Notre Dame Catholic Sixth Form College, Leeds, under the supervision of Mr I. Granger.
Contenitore barattolo a forma di renna di Natale in ceramica lucida rifinito e dipinto a mano.
Un arredo natalizio di tutto rispetto che cambierà totalmente la vostra tavola o la vostra cucina nel giorno di natale, e non solo.
Può essere utilizzato come porta biscotti, zuccheriera, porta dolci, porta caramelle e cioccolatini, salvadanaio o svuota tasche.
Oggetto venduto in una semplice scatola di cartone bianco anonima.
ATTENZIONE: Questi oggetti unici nel loro genere sono rifiniti e dipinti a mano, potrebbero quindi avere delle piccolissime imperfezioni sul corpo,
non è un difetto ma sono delle particolarità che rendono ogni pezzo unico, sono opere di artigianato.
Oggetto a norma CE made in Italy.
Dimensione: cm 12 x 12 x 18 H
www.lefantasiedicasa.com/prodotto/contenitore-barattolo-a...
Formé à Saint-Cyr, promotion Austerlitz de 1904, Henry Lachouque a participé à la bataille de Marne en 1914 au sein du 66e régiment d'infanterie. Blessé, il fut obligé de quitter les rangs de l'armée.
Officier de la Légion d’honneur et décoré de la Croix de Guerre 14-18, Fondateur de l’Association des Amis de Sainte-Hélène, le commandant Lachouque a été de 1936 à 1946, Conservateur adjoint du Musée de Malmaison
Il se consacra plus particulièrement à l'histoire du premier Empire. Il fit restaurer la maison de Napoléon à Longwood (1934) et publia de nombreux ouvrages. (Wikipedia)
Output A
Stage: 25%
Status: Finding
Shader effects video on Vimeo
1) Depth of Field, Blur + Bloom GLSL
Technical demonstration video w/o shader effects
Photo form MiniJax video featuring bus and employee at the Greyhound station in downtown Jacksonville.
Espacios Bioseguros
“Necesitamos tomar medidas preventivas de forma urgente bajo el paradigma del uso de las mejores tecnologías”
Luis de la Fuente Ramírez, presidente de ABQ, presentó Espacios Bioseguros junto al decano del Colegio de Biólogos de la Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid (COBCM), Ángel Fernández Ipar, como “un concepto en el que destacamos una serie de medidas de prevención para la población general por medio de un conjunto de soluciones tecnológicas para prevenir y minimizar los riesgos de contagio en, por ejemplo, espacios interiores, medios de transporte y otros, con el objetivo de controlar los agentes contaminantes de una forma eficaz y sostenible desde el punto de vista medioambiental y económico”. Por otro lado, “los profesionales debemos de controlar de forma eficaz los riesgos de contagio, tanto en las superficies como en el empleo de los materiales de trabajo que utilizamos todos los días”, matizó Ramírez a lo largo de su exposición.
Con motivo del acto de presentación de las Olimpiadas de Biología de la Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid, los responsables de ABQ dieron a conocer los objetivos de la entidad, así como el proyecto Espacios Bioseguros.
De esta manera, ABQ, entidad europea especializada en bioseguridad, “desea llevar a cabo un protocolo de implantación de un certificado de calidad para garantizar el Espacio Bioseguro en las empresas e instituciones con un 80% de éxito en todos los análisis que hagamos a partir de ahora”, indicaron los responsables de la asociación.
Recordemos que “ABQ ha logrado seleccionar, junto a los colegios de biólogos de las distintas Comunidades Autónomas, soluciones eficientes que han sido contrastadas por la NASA”, concluyó Ramírez.
De esta manera, la asociación ABQ participó en las Olimpiadas de Biología de la Comunidad de Madrid, organizadas por el Colegio de Biólogos de la Comunidad de Madrid (COBCM) con el patrocinio de la Consejería de Educación y la colaboración de la Universidad Complutense, Universidad Autónoma y Editorial Santillana.
Foto (derecha a izquierda): Ángel Fernández Ipar, decano del Colegio de Biólogos de la Comunidad de Madrid (COBCM), y Luis de la Fuente Ramírez, presidente de ABQ.
Para más información:
www.youtube.com/user/asociacionabq
Sobre ABQ:
www.asociacionabq.org/index.php/es/inicio/61-convenio-con...
ABQ, entidad sin ánimo de lucro que se encargará de buscar soluciones para todos los sectores de la actividad profesional, es una asociación que propone y busca, por medio del debate, la transmisión del conocimiento e información precisa sobre determinadas amenazas para el sector humano, sobre todo con las nuevas bacterias y el tratamiento y análisis de casos concretos. Luis de la Fuente Ramírez, presidente, reconoce que “el esfuerzo no ha hecho más que empezar”. En la actualidad, representará los intereses de los colectivos allegados por la firma de Convenios de Colaboración en materia de divulgación, formación y colaboración en la redacción de estudios e informes especializados.
Objetivos ABQ:
1º.- Concienciar a la sociedad sobre los riesgos que les afectan en materia de bioseguridad en su contexto universal. Riesgos que afectan a todos los espacios públicos donde la gente interacciona físicamente entre sí y la necesidad, por ello, de generar “Espacios Bioseguros” donde estos riesgos sean minimizados.
2º.- Encontrar, evaluar y difundir a la sociedad las mejores técnicas y/o tecnologías disponibles para minimizar dichos riesgos. Dichas técnicas y/o tecnologías una vez encontradas deberán ser evaluadas por los comités científico-técnicos formados expertos de la comunidad científica.
Departamento de Comunicación y Prensa de ABQ
Jorge Hierro Álvarez
C/ Ramón Gómez de la Serna, 1 – Local A4
28035 Madrid (España)
Teléfono: 696 67 37 21
Email: jorge.hierro@asociacionabq.org
Website: www.asociacionabq.org
K1 TRAINING CENTER, Iraq – Iraqi Army soldiers from 12th Field Engineer Regiment stand in formation during a graduation ceremony for the engineers at the K1 Training Center, Kirkuk province, Iraq, July 2, 2011. The Iraqi Army soldiers of the field engineer platoons conducted combined operations and training missions with U.S. forces during the past seven months.
(U.S. Army photo by Sgt. David Strayer, 109th MPAD, USD – N)
This is my favorite form of mouse. He has this pretty yellow orange, red eyes, and the texel feature. This mouse will be bred back to hairless and will make awsome silky texel babies. The crinkly hair is a dominate feature that comes out in all the babies. If not pure texel it smooths with age but if bred back again and again they will maintain the look until adult hood.
Fantastic book by Casey Reas, Chandler McWilliams, and the design/interactive shop LUST. Backdrop, Casey's Process Compendium 2004-2010.
Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas
20 de Abril de 2014
Bol.
Formará UNICACH profesionistas en Turismo Sustentable
Abierta convocatoria para tres programas en sede Palenque
Laura Matus
La sede Palenque de la Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas (UNICACH)
oferta la nueva licenciatura en Turismo Sustentable, un programa educativo
que contribuirá a la formación de profesionistas competentes para el diseño
y administración de proyectos de turismo ecológico, alternativo y
sustentable.
Esta licenciatura, la de Comercialización y la ingeniería en Desarrollo
Sustentable integran la oferta educativa de la UNICACH en la sede Palenque,
cuya convocatoria de ingreso está abierta y disponible para su consulta en
el portal www.unicach.mx
La licenciatura en Turismo Sustentable fue diseñada con una duración de
ocho semestres, durante los cuales los estudiantes desarrollarán
habilidades directivas, para el diseño e instrumentación de planes,
programas y proyectos turísticos, la asesoría en la planificación,
elaboración de normas y políticas para la explotación y conservación de los
recursos turísticos actuales y potenciales.
Para lograr lo anterior se instruirá al alumnado en el aprendizaje de
idiomas extranjeros, adecuada comunicación oral y escrita, uso de
tecnología de la información y comunicación, bases administrativas y
conocimientos generales sobre el ramo turístico.
Este programa educativo es altamente pertinente para la región Selva y para
Chiapas, entidad que cuenta con una variedad enorme de posibilidades en el
sector turístico, por su riqueza cultural y natural.
De ahí que el plan de estudios de la licenciatura en Turismo Sustentable,
considera al turismo como una estrategia para la integración de la ecología
y la cultura con la economía, reorientación de la actividad de los centros
turísticos con el sentido de conservación mediante programas de manejo
apropiado de los recursos naturales para el desarrollo del ecoturismo y
turismo responsable.
El proceso de registro en línea se abre el próximo 28 de Abril, los
aspirantes deberán realizar este trámite mediante la página oficial de la
UNICACH, desde donde podrán obtener su pase al examen de conocimientos a
aplicarse el 1 de Julio.
La fecha de cierre de registro de aspirantes para las sedes regionales es
el 18 de Junio. Los jóvenes aceptados se incorporan a la sede Palenque de
la UNICACH el 6 de Agosto próximo.
--
Oficina de Prensa de la Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas
Telefono 61 70 400 Ext. 4102
Agencia de noticias: agencia.unicach.mx/
Blog: blogspot.unicach.mx/
Creator/Photographer: Seabee Team 1011
Date: January1968
Description: BUC Gerdau, BU1 Faber, and UTA2 McMillan attempting to place the form for the footing of a pier on the third bridge, Province Route 15.
Medium/Format: B/W photograph
Unit: Seabee Team 1011
Location: RVN
Collection: Seabee Team 1011
Rights Info: No known restrictions on publication.
Repository: U.S. Navy Seabee Museum, Collections Department, Port Hueneme, CA 93043, www.history.navy.mil/museums/seabee_museum.htm
Call Number: 1011_1
This is compleatly natural. It just amazes me every time I see it. I challenge all the Gettysburg Battlefield geeks out there to tell me where this is at. It is on the Battlefield.
The Bayon temple forms the heart of the old capital of Angkor Thom and is one of the highlights of a visit to Cambodia, second only to nearby Angkor Wat as a marvel of ancient Khmer architecture. At first glance one can be forgiven for thinking it isn't architecture at all but some kind of natural rock formation, its many towers resembling rocky outcrops pointing at the sky. The true nature of these towers is only revealed as one approaches and sees the multitude of huge carved faces smiling down from them, a feature for which this temple is justly renowned.
Built in the late 12th or early 13th century by King Jayavarman VII, the temple was originally intended as a Hindu place of worship but was soon after adapted to Buddhist use when the state religion of Angkor shifted from one faith to the other. As a result the identity of the great faces is uncertain, some see them as the benign face of Buddha or the bodhisatva Lokesvara while others maintain that the Hindu god Brahma is the more likely candidate. It has also been considered that they may respresent King Jayavarman VII himself owing to the resemblance of surviving statues of him, which have the same serene smile. Whatever the truth of their identity, the cast their serene gazes over visitors from all directions and make a visit to the temple's upper terraces (from where they can be seen at close quarters) all the more memorable.
The temple is formed by an enormous (and craggy looking) central stupa surrounded by many smaller towers with faces carved on all four sides arising from raised terraces. Around the entire temple is a (formerly) covered corridor adorned with an extensive sequence of reliefs depicting historical and mythological scenes. This would normally be a major attraction in itself, but most visitors will only see certain sections of the reliefs as the more impressive architectural flourishes of the temple's heart inevitably command the most attention.
The Bayon temple is a place that has fascinated me ever since childhood when I first saw images from my mother's visit here in the 1960s. There is simply no other ancient monument quite like it!
2,118.00 USD
3.25 carat Green opaque polished diamond, briliiant round shaped from Congo, beautifully formed Green diamond
Diamond weight: 3.25 carat per diamond.
Number of Stones: 1
Total Carat Weight: 3.25 carat
Size: approx. 8 mm.
Color: Green
Clarity: opaque
Shape: briliiant round
Country of Origin: Congo (Conflict free)
You will receive the exact diamonds shown in the photos.
This is a true photo of the raw diamond; the photo has not been retouched or modified in any way.
Since most people are so used to only seeing the polished diamonds in the market, some of you may be surprised that these stones are actually diamonds. But yes, raw diamonds actually come in a variety of different colors, shapes and sizes, and are a delight to the eye!
All the diamonds we sell are real genuine diamonds. The exact same diamonds that are usually cut into polished diamonds.
But don't take our word for it, any 'diamond tester' which can be purchased on Ebay/Amazon for as low as $13 will confirm that. You can also show the diamonds to your local jeweler, and if he has any experience dealing with rough diamonds, he'll be able to attest to that too.
You can mount these uncut diamonds in jewelry as they are, or have them sent to be cut into polished diamonds.
All of our diamonds are 100% naturally mined and haven't been cut, faceted, polished, or undergone any kind of process whatsoever. This makes them ideal for an investment, since while polished diamond prices fluctuate, rough diamonds only appreciate over the years.
Our diamonds are personally guaranteed to be conflict free. We strictly follow the Kimberly Process Procedures to stop conflict diamonds or blood diamonds from entering the market.
You would be getting a Kimberly Process Guarantee in every order.
The Diamonds we sell are in full compliance with the rules and regulations set under the resolutions passed by the United Nations.
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FREE shipping anywhere in the US.
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(We can only ship to countries who are participants of the Kimberly Process)
You'll be getting an original Kimberly Certificate assuring you that the shipment was shipped according to the Kimberly process.
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30 day refund policy, no questions asked.
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Diamonds are the hardest substance in the world, created billions and billions of years ago. They represent love and romance, and were historically used for healing purposes.
Rough diamonds are known to be the April Birthstone.
Looking for a different rough diamond that is not in the shop? Feel free to send me a message, and I'll do my best to find you a diamond that suits your needs.
Interested in buying wholesale? Ask about our Wholesale pricing.
For other rough diamonds in the shop please take a look here:
NewSKU: 20150183
Positive Runway Global Catwalk African Fashion Show African Ambassadors & Diaspora Interactive Form AAIF United Nations buildings International Maritime Organization HQ IMO London.
Observar la relación entre la pantalla de pilotes ( aquí sólo se representa uno, pero esta previsto que se construyan en una longitud de 230 metros). Observar la cercanía física entre la pantalla de pilotes de 41 m de largo y 1,5m de diámetro (en rojo), y los cimientos de la Sagrada Familia (con el extremo de sus cimientos engrosado en rojo en forma de bulbo) En realidad estos cimientos de 16 m de longitud, tienen unos límites reales muy difíciles de precisar pues la técnica de construcción de pilotes no está tan avanzada como la de las tuneladoras. Y bien pudiera suceder que llegaran a tocarse con alguno de los pilotes de la pantalla "protectora" en el momento de la construcción. No hay más espacio para proceder de otra manera. Son problemas que se presentan al ir definiendo los detalles de los proyectos y que hay que re-estudiar atentamente.
Visita a las obras del Templo de la Sagrada Familia 2008.09.30
The Carquinez Bridge refers to parallel bridges spanning the Carquinez Strait, forming part of Interstate 80 between Crockett and Vallejo, in the U.S. state of California. The name originally referred to a single cantilever bridge built in 1927, helping to form a direct route between San Francisco and Sacramento.
A second parallel cantilever bridge was completed in 1958 to deal with the increased traffic. Later, seismic problems of the 1927 span led to the construction and 2003 opening of a replacement: a suspension bridge officially called the Al Zampa Memorial Bridge (named in the memory of iron worker Al Zampa, who played an integral role in the construction of numerous San Francisco Bay Area bridges). Currently, the Alfred Zampa Memorial Bridge carries westbound traffic from Vallejo to Crockett, and the 1958 cantilever span carries eastbound traffic.
The Carquinez Strait is a narrow tidal strait in northern California. It is part of the estuary of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin rivers as they drain into the San Francisco Bay. The strait connects Suisun Bay, which receives the waters of the rivers, with San Pablo Bay. The strait forms part of the border between Solano and Contra Costa counties, and is approximately 15 mi north of Oakland, the cities of Benicia and Vallejo lie on the north side of the strait, while Martinez, Port Costa, and Crockett sit on the southern coast. The Napa River joins the strait, via the short Mare Island Strait, the strait is named after the Karkin, a linguistic division of the Ohlone Native Americans who resided on both sides of the strait.
The California Maritime Academy is at the end of the strait on the northern waterfront. The C&H Sugar refinery is located on the shore in the small town of Crockett. The strait is crossed by two bridges, the Carquinez Bridge on Interstate 80 and the Benicia-Martinez Bridge on Interstate 680. Each highway bridge consists of two spans, Interstate 780 connects the two highways on the northern slope of the strait. State Route 4 connects these highways south of and inland from the strait, a rail bridge just east of the Benicia-Martinez bridge is used by the Capitol Corridor, California Zephyr, and Coast Starlight trains.
A rail ferry, with the ferries Contra Costa and Solano, which were the largest train ferries ever built, provided service across the strait near the location of the current rail bridge until the bridge was built in 1930, this bridge is still the second longest rail bridge in the US and the longest west of the Mississippi River. Tall pylons carrying power lines cross the strait as well, the Carquinez Strait Powerline Crossing was the world's first powerline crossing of a large river.
The channel is navigable and is used for commercial and military shipping, deep water ship traffic bound for both the Port of Sacramento and the Port of Stockton traverse the strait. The narrow gap in the Coast Range that forms the strait has led to the formation of the San Joaquin-Sacramento River Delta, a river delta, upstream of it.
The strait is too small to allow the passage of huge amounts of floodwaters created during years with heavy rainfall/snowmelt events. Because the Delta area is the first to fill and last to drain in an event, silt and soil have more time to drop out of suspension.
Fun event raises money for our Advent Appeal
Another very successful Sixth Form fancy dress day was recently held at St. Mary’s Menston. Over 250 students and staff arrived for lessons in multi-coloured costumes, each one donating £10 to the school’s annual Advent Appeal, proceeds from which will be sent to St. Gemma’s Hospice, CAFOD, Catholic Care and Martin House. A total of £1700 was raised on the day. This year again there were many different imaginative and creative costumes, some made by the students themselves including Aladdin on his magic carpet, nuns, sheiks, pirates, elves, flower pot men, gorillas, bears and cup-cakes to name but a few. The staff, not to be outdone, also joined in with some departments following a particular theme.
“Standing at the front of the hall delivering an assembly can sometimes be an off-putting experience; looking up from your notes and seeing Bill and Ben, the flowerpot men, bananas in pyjamas, giant-sized tetras boxes or a row of cupcakes, might be enough to put anyone off their lines. Congratulations to Paddy Spiller, our guest speaker from CAFOD who didn’t miss a beat when addressing a Year 11 and Year 13 assembly on Friday, our Fancy Dress day! Each student is to be commended for their generosity and for creating a very happy day for all in our school.”
Mr Sinnett, Director of Sixth Form
This event is not the only one planned by the Sixth Form students to raise as much money as possible this year. A Rich Man Poor Man lunch is planned for the end of the week where pupils and staff purchasing a ‘rich’ ticket win a hearty meal whilst a ‘poor’ ticket merits a cup of soup. A Sixth Form 5-a-side Football match also raised £150.
Over the course of the Advent period, the whole school community will be involved in fund raising activities with the aim of raising £10,000 for our four charities.
www.stmarysmenston.org/News/Pages/Sixth-Form-Fancy-Dress-...
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
This geothermal area has formed on the great divide between Europe and America--the fissure zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At Seltún, there are mud pools and steaming ground where some sulphur and also white and yellowish brown sulphates are deposited. The water of the pools is surface water heated by steam from a boiling geothermal reservoir underneath. Accompanying gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide acidify the water and alter the rock to clay. Only the uppermost part of the reservoir at Seltún is boiling. Below this depth, a temperature inversion occurs, indicating that the boiling section is fed laterally from an upflow some distance away.