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Urban extents illustrate the shape and area of urbanized places. Urbanized localities are defined as places with with 5,000 or more inhabitants that are delineated by stable night-time lights. For poorly lit areas, alternate sources are used to estimate the extent of cities.
Catholic and Proud with Harvelyn Binondo and 12 others.
18 hrs ·
“The Most Holy Virgin in these last times in which we live has given a new efficacy to the recitation of the Rosary to such an extent that there is no problem, no matter how difficult it is, whether temporal or above all spiritual, in the personal life of each one of us, of our families…that cannot be solved by the Rosary. There is no problem, I tell you, no matter how difficult it is, that we cannot resolve by the prayer of the Holy Rosary.”
- Sister Lucia dos Santos, Fatima seer
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This extention was to the side of the main Joinery building.
The bath caught my eye bathed in a pool of light.
1.6 seconds @ f~10
ISO 100
11mm
Today i received my Kenko Extention Tubes, this was one of my first shots. handheld, no flash, 68mm of tubes.
First impressions:
im in love with macro :D
i was expecting it to be hard, but its harder then i thought :S
Regardless of the extent of the ongoing tyranny and oppression I have been forced to deal with in Greece for nearly a decade under the harshest environment, my efforts in finding Justice and Freedom for my life have not stopped and it never will until my last breath.
Hence, on December 23rd, 2022, while enduring day 140th of my 4th Hunger Strike outside the UNHCR office in Athens, I left my shelter again to reach the Indian Embassy and plead for their help in providing urgent Humanitarian aid and mediation with this UN Agency.
Although I managed to speak with two Embassy representatives and even though they said they would help, ultimately they had gotten the Police involved to take me away. This time I was held in Police Custody for 2-hours before being let go.
Watch the video and read in-depth details here: 👇
Please sign the Petition and Donate if you can.
Thank you. 🙏💔🆘
#HumanRights #Justice #Freedom #Immigration #Refugees #Politics #Democracy #Petition #Crowdfunding #Philanthropy #Europe #Greece #Athens #UnitedNations #UNHCR #India #IndiaInGreece
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Extent guest performance for DJ Retrograde and Retrovirus @ Dunes, November 16, 2003.
Watch this video on Vimeo. Video created by Voltag Production.
The extent of my model collection as seen in 2003. Needless to say it's grown quite a bit since this photo was taken! Photo taken by Hayden Legge on the 8th May 2003.
Askil was booked on a flight from Southampton at half nine, so to get him there in time we had to be on the six o'clock ferry. And to be on that, we had to be on the road at five to drive to Newport and then back out to East Cowes as the floating bridge does not work at that time.
So, alarm at twenty to five, finish packing, and out to the car to load up, and inching past us on the Solent was a huge cruise ship, like a Vogon Constructor fleet vessel, lit up like a Christmas tree, but the shape of a brutalist concrete block.
I was pretty sure I could find the ferry terminal without the sat nav, so we drove through the empty streets of West Cowes, then on the main drag to Newport past the two illuminated prisons, past the retail park, over the now narrow River Medina, and out of the town towards Cowes.
Not much traffic, but what there was, was in a train behind us, all heading to the ferry terminal.
We arrived at half five, the ferry had just arrived, so we waited in line to be allowed on.
The ferry was not even a quarter full, but there was a rush up the stairs to get to the cafeteria in order to get fresh food.
We joined them and had a child's breakfast, which was four items off the menu, which was two sausages, bacon and hash browns for me.
The ferry glided out of her moorings, down the river and out into open water, with only light winds, it was a pleasant crossing, and near to Southampton dawn's warm light was spreading from the south east. The city itself was only just waking up.
From there it was a fifteen minute blast up to the motorway and along to the airport, dropping Askil and his bags off at the railway station so to avoid the £2 drop-off fee at the airport.
We were not the only ones doing this.
And I was alone again.
I turned the car round, drive back to the motorway, then up the M3 as the first rays of the sun lit the Hampshire countryside.
It was going to be a fine day, and I was heading back home.
I thought it was going to be the drive from hell, getting up the M3 before eight, then along the M25 the following hour. I mean, traffic was going to be awful, right? It always is on the M25, it used to still be mad at midnight when I used to drive back to Lyneham after a weekend at home.
Well, maybe because it was half term, but the traffic on the M3 was light, and lighter still on the M25. Only hold up being the A3 junction where it is being rebuilt, even then just for a few minutes, and clear after that.
I had some time to kill, so wasn't going straight home. I was doing some crawling in west Kent before then.
First up was Westerham, so important it is mention on a junction of the M25.
Off the motorway at the junction before Clacket Lane Services, so still in Surrey. I followed the A25 through Oxted, which I supposed was still in Sussex, though was hoping there be a sign where Kent began.
Indeed, at the midway point between Oxted and Westerham, there was the welcome to Kent sign, so the crawling could begin.
Westerham is a small town, just 4,000 souls live there, and the church it situated near the green. Around which I could find no parking. But opposite, through an arch there was some public parking, so abandoned the car there, grabbed the cameras and walked over to the church, and from the churchyard, the ground fell away steeply, revealing the roofs of the town in the warm spring sunshine.
I took a shot.
The church was open, a voice reading softly in the north chapel turned out to be the Vicar, conducting a service for just himself.
When he finished, he came to speak and told me not to miss the chapel behind the organ.
However, in the tower there is a remarkable survivor, the only known representation of the Royal coat of arms of Edward VI, who ruled after Henry VIII until his death at the young age of only 15, declaring Lady Jane Grey to succeed him.
It did not end well.
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The tower staircase is the feature most visitors remember, a wide circular construction of timber enclosed within vertical posts. It is quite an eye-catcher and has stood here for nearly five hundred years. The church has something of a Victorian feel to it by virtue of the thorough restoration and enormous amounts of money lavished on it at that time. Yet there are earlier features of note - most importantly the Royal Arms of Edward VI. They are painted on a wooden board, not stretched canvas, and the supporters - which include a dragon (unicorns didn't come along until 1603) - are very tall and lean. In fact the lion is little more than a pussy cat with his crown at quite a jaunty angle! The church also contains some very fine sixteenth-century memorial brasses, and a consecration cross may be picked out at the base of the tower. The south chapel has a fourteenth-century piscina with a credence shelf. However, when it comes to furnishings it is the stained glass that impresses. The east window is by Holiday (1882), the south chapel east window Crucifixion by Kempe (1888) is particularly good, whilst a north aisle window is by Morris and Co. to the designs of Burne-Jones and dates from 1909.
www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Westerham
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WESTERHAM, USUALLY CALLED, AND FREQUENTLY WRITTEN, WESTRAM,
IS the next parish westward from Brasted, being called in Domesday, Oistreham, and in the Textus Roffensis, Westerham; taking its name from its situation at the western extremity of this county.
WESTERHAM is a parish of large extent, and like those before described in a similar situation is much longer than it is in breadth. It extends to the summit of the range of chalk hills northward, where it bounds to Cowden, and southward, beyond the sand hill, into the Weald. In the whole it is about five miles and a half from north to south, and on an average, in breadth, about two miles and a half, bounding westward to Surry. The soil is much the same as the last described parishes, adjoining to the double range of hills. The high road from Maidstone and Sevenoke, across this parish, midway between these hills, towards Surry; on it is situated the town of Westerham, a very healthy and pleasant situation, at the west end of which is a seat, which has for many years belonged to the family of Price, and continues so now; and at the east end is the church and parsonage; besides which there are many genteel houses dispersed in it. The high road from Bromley by Leaves-green joins the Sevenoke road, on the north side of the town, near the south side of which is the mansion of Squeries. The river Darent takes its rise in this parish, at a small distance southward from Squeries, and having supplied the grounds of it, runs along near the south side of the town, and having turned a mill, it takes its course north east, and in about half a mile, passes by Hill-park towards Brasted; northward from hence the land rises about a mile and a half to the foot of the chalk hills, near which, close to the boundaries of Surry, is Gasum. From the town southward, to the summit of the sand hill, is about two miles, over a very hilly unfertile soil, interspersed with commons, waste rough grounds, and woods, among which, bounding to Surry, is Kent-hatch, taking its name from its situation; and on the summit of the hill the hamlet of Well-street, and a seat called Mariners, belonging to Mr. Stafford Whitaker; from whence, down the hill, this parish extends two miles further southward into the Weald, where, near the boundaries of it, is the estate of Broxham; the soil over which is a stiff clay and deep tillage land. The abbot of Westminster, in the 25th year of king Edward III. obtained the grant of a market, to be held weekly here on a Wednesday, which is still continued, and is plentifully supplied with all sorts of provisions; and a fair yearly, on the vigil, the day, and the day after the birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary, being Sept. 8; (fn. 1) which is now, by alteration of the style, held on the 19th and the following days, for bullocks, horses, and toys.
In the year 1596, the following astonishing scene happened in this parish, in two closes, separated from each other only by a hedge, about a mile and a half southward from the town, not far from the east side of the common highway, called Ockham-hill, leading from London towards Buckhurst, in Sussex; where part of them sunk, in three mornings, eighty feet at the least, and so from day to day. This great trench of ground, containing in length eighty perches, and in breadth twenty-eight, began, with the hedges and trees thereon, to loose itself from the rest of the ground lying round about it, and to slide and shoot all together southward, day and night, for the space of eleven days. The ground of two water pits, the one having six feet depth of water, and the other twelve feet at the least, having several tusts of alders and ashes growing in their bottoms, with a great rock of stone underneath, were not only removed out of their places, and carried southward, but mounted alost, and became hills, with their sedge, flags, and black mud upon the tops of them, higher than the face of the water which they had forsaken; and in the place from which they had been removed, other ground, which lay higher, had descended, and received the water on it. In one place of the plain field there was a great hole made, by the sinking of the earth, thirty feet deep; a hedge, with its trees, was carried southward; and there were several other sinkings of the earth, in different places, by which means, where the highest hills had been, there were the deepest dales; and where the lowest dales were before, there was the highest ground.
The whole measure of the breaking ground was at least nine acres; the eye witnesses to the truth of which were, Robert Bostock, esq. justice of the peace; Sir John Studley, vicar; John Dowling, gent. and many others of the neighbourhood.
In the spring of 1756, at Toy's-hill, about a mile and a half eastward from the above, a like circumstance was observed, in a field of two acres and an half, the situation of which was on the side of a hill, inclining towards the south; the land of which kept moving imperceptibly till the effect appeared, for some time, by which means the northern side was sunk two or three feet, and became full of clefts and chasms, some only a foot deep, others as large as ponds, six or eight feet deep, and ten or tweleve feet square, and most of them filled with water. Part of a hedge moved about three rods southward, and though straight before, then formed an angle with its two ends. Another hedge separated to the distance of eight feet, the southern part, which was on a level before with the rest of the field, after this, overhung it like a precipice, about the height of twelve feet; and the land on each side, which had not moved, was covered with the rest, which folded over it, to the height of six or seven feet.
Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, late bishop of Winchester, was born in this parish, in the year 1676.
General James Wolfe was likewife born here, on Jan. 2, 1727. He died in America, Sept. 13, 1759, the conqueror of Quebec, and an honour to his profession and his country.
THIS PLACE, in the reign of William the Conqueror, was in the possession of Eustace, earl of Bologne, and it is accordingly thus entered in the general survey of Domesday, taken in that reign, under the title of Terra Comitis Eustachii.
Earl Eustace holds of the king Oistreham. Earl Godwin held it of king Edward (the Confessor) and it was then, and is now taxed at four sulings. The arable land is ...... In demesne there are two carucates, and42 villeins, with 7 borderers, having 30 carucates. There are ten servants and one mill of five shillings, and 16 acres of meadow, and wood sufficient for the pannage of 100 hogs.— In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was worth 30 pounds, when he received it 24 pounds, and now 40 pounds.
This place came afterwards into the possession of the family of Camvill, called in Latin, De Cana Villa, the ancestor of which came into England with William the Conqueror, and bore for their arms, Azure, three lions passant argent, which coat still remains carved on the roof of the cloisters of Christ church, in Canterbury.
It appears by the second scutage, levied in the reign of king John, in the 2d and 3d years of that reign, that Thomas de Camvill then held this place of the honour of Bologne, as did his descendant, John de Camvill, in king Henry III.'s reign.
Roger de Camvill, son of Walter, a younger son of Richard de Camvill, founder of Cumbe abbey, held it in the same reign. He left issue an only daughter, Matilda, who married Nigell de Moubray, but died without issue, soon after which it came into the hands of the crown, where it remained till Edward I. by his letters patent, in his 20th year, granted the manors of Westram and Edulnebrugg, now Eatonbridge, the manor paramount of which parish has long been esteemed only as an appendage to this of Westerham, with their appurtenances, together with other estates, to Walter, abbot of Westminster, and his successors, for the performance of certain religious duties, for the repose of the soul of his queen Alianor, in the abbey there, and at the same time the king granted several liberties and free warren in all the de mesne lands of the manors, hamlets, and members of them, and the next year the abbot brought in his plea for these liberties (fn. 2) within the hundred of Westerham, and had them allowed to him. (fn. 3)
In the 27th year of that reign, the king granted a confirmation of these manors to the abbot and convent, with several more liberties within them. (fn. 4)
In the 1st year of the reign of king Edward II. the abbot of Westminster again brought his plea for certain liberties in Westerham, Edelinebrigge, &c. which were allowed him.
In the 9th year of king Edward III. the abbot had a fresh confirmation of these manors from the king, and in the 25th year of that reign he had a grant for a market and fair at Westerham.
In the 20th year of king Edward III. the abbot of Westminster paid respective aid for two knights fees, which he held in Westerham, and Edelnesbregge of Robert de Camvill, and he of the king, as of the honour of Bologne.
King Richard II. by his patent, in his 17th year, confirmed these manors, with all manner of liberties, to the abbot and his successors, with whom they remained till the final dissolution of that abbey, when they were, with their appurtenances, by an instrument under the common seal of the convent, in the 31st year of king Henry VIII. surrendered, together with the rest of their possessions, into the king's hands; who, by his letters patent, under his great seal, in his 32d year, for certain considerations therein mentioned, granted, among other premises, these manors, with all their members, rights, and appurtenances, lately belonging to the above monastery, to Sir John Gre sham, to hold in capite by the service of the 20th part of a knight's fee, paying yearly, for ever, the rent of 9l. 6s. 9d. sterling in his court of augmentation.
The family of Gresham is said to have been so named from the village of Gresham, in Norfolk. John Gresham of Gresham, gent. lived in the reigns of king Edward III. and king Richard II. His son, James Gresham, was of Holt, in that county, and was twice married; by the first marriage he had John, who succeeded him at Holt; and William, who was of Walsingham Parva, in Norfolk. John, the eldest son, had three sons; William, who succeeded him at Holt; Richard, who was afterwards knighted, and lord mayor of London in 1537, whose second son, Sir Thomas Gresham, by his industry in trade, rose to great credit and riches, and built the Royal Exchange. And Sir John, the third son, had the grant of the manors of Westerham, &c. in the 32d year of king Henry VIII. as above mentioned. They bore for their arms, Argent a chevron ermines between three mullets pierced sable. (fn. 5)
Sir John Gresham was of Titsey, in Surry, sheriff of London in 1537, and lord mayor in 1547. He died in 1556, having been a good benefactor to the poor, as well in London, as elsewhere, and was most sumptuously buried in the church of St. Michael Bassishaw, in London. (fn. 6) At his death he was possessed of the manors of Westerham and Eatonbridge-stangrave, which he held of the queen in capite by knights service, and also of the rectories of Westerham and Eatonbridge. He was twice married, but he left issue only by his first, five sons and six daughters. Of whom William was his eldest son and heir, and John was of Fulham, in Middlesex, and was ancestor to those of Fulham, Albury, and Haslemere, in Surry; as to the rest I find no mention of them.
William Gresham, esq. succeeded his father in these estates, and was of Titsey, in Surry, and afterwards knighted; (fn. 7) he died at Limpsfield, in Surry, in the 21st year of queen Elizabeth; in whose descendants, resident at Titsey, all of whom had the honour of knighthood, this estate continued down to Marmaduke Gresham, esq. who was advanced to the dignity of a baronet on July 31, 1660, and died possessed of this manor of Westerham, with that of Eatonbridge, alias Stangrave, with their appurtenances, being greatly advanced in years, at Gresham college, in 1696, and was buried at Titsey. (fn. 8)
Sir Charles Gresham, bart. his great grandson, died possessed of this estate in 1718, and was succeeded in it by his eldest son, Sir Marmaduke Gresham, bart. who, about the year 1740, sold this manor to John Warde, esq. of Squeries, in this parish, who died possessed of it in 1775, and his eldest son, John Warde, esq. now of Squeries, is the present owner of it.
There is both a court leet and a court baron held for this manor.
SQUERIES is a manor here, which gave both surname and seat to a family who resided at it, as appears by antient evidences, as early as the reign of king Henry III. when John de Squeries was possessed of it, and bore for his arms, A squirrel brouzing on a hazel nut, which coat was formerly painted in the windows of Westerham church.
His descendant, Thomas Squerie, possessed this estate in the beginning of the reign of king Henry VI. in the 17th year of which he died possessed of it with out issue male, leaving two daughters his coheirs; of whom Margaret, the eldest, married Sir William Cromer of Tunstal, in this county; and Dorothy, the youngest, married Richard Mervin of Fontels, in Wiltshire; and upon the division of their inheritance, this estate was allotted to Sir William Cromer, whose descendant, William Cromer, esq. (fn. 9) possessed it in the beginning of the reign of king Henry VIII. when by some means it came into the hands of the crown, (fn. 10) and that king, in his 36th year, granted, among other premises, this manor of Squeries, a messuage, called Painters, now an inn, known by the sign of the King's arms, and other lands in Westerham, to Thomas Cawarden, to hold in capite by knights service.
His descendant, about the middle of queen Elizabeth's reign, alienated this estate to Michael Beresford, esq descended of a family seated in Derbyshire for many generations, who bore for their arms, quarterly, first and fourth, Argent, semee of cross croslets fitchee sable, three fleurs de lis of the last within a bordure gules; second, Argent, a bear salient sable, muzed and collared, the cord wreathed over the back, or, third, Party per chevron argent, and or, three pheons sable; he left by Rofe, daughter of John Knevit, esq. several sons and daughters, of whom Tristram, the third son, was ancestor of the present Marquis of Waterford, and the others of this family in Ireland. George, the eldest son, succeeded his father at Squeries, and married Elizabeth, daughter of Ralph Cam, of London, afterwards remarried to Thomas Petley, of Filston, by whom he had several sons and daughters; of whom Michael Beresford, the eldest son, was of Squeries, which he alienated to George Strood, esq. afterwards knighted, who passed away this seat, with the estate belonging to it, to Thomas Lambert, esq. the parliamentary general; and he soon afterwards conveyed it to John Leach, esq. (fn. 11) whose son, Sir William Leach, sheriff, in 1667, sold it in 1681 to Sir Nicholas Crisp, of Hammersmith, who had been created a baronet in 1665, and bore for his arms, Or, on a chevron sable five horse-shoes argent, nailed of the second, (fn. 12) and his son, Sir John Crisp, bart. about the year 1701, sold it to William Villiers, earl of Jersey, whose son, William, earl of Jersey, passed it away by sale to John Warde, esq. and his son, John Warde, esq. died possessed of Squeries in 1775. He left by the daughter and sole heir of Charles Hoskins, esq. of Croydon, in Surry, who was his second wife, his first being the daughter of Mr. Gore, two sons, John and Charles, the eldest of whom in 1781 married Susannah, sister of James, viscount Grimston, and the youngest married in 1784 the daughter of Arthur Annesley, esq. of Oxfordshire, and one daughter, who in 1783 married Sir Nathaniel Duckenfield, bart. He died in 1751, and was succeeded in this seat by his eldest son, John Warde, esq. before-mentioned, the present possessor who resides in it.
There is a court-baron held for this manor, which pays a fee-farm to the crown of seventeen shillings per annum.
GASUM is an estate in this parish, lying at the foot of the chalk-hill, which was antiently possessed by the family of Shelley; one of whom, Thomas Shelley, in the 46th year of king Edward III's reign, settled it by his will on Thomas, his son; whose descendant, about the latter end of king Henry VI's reign, demised it by sale to John Potter, who bore for his arms, Sable, a fess ermine between three cinquesoils argent, whose descendant, in the next reign of king Edward IV. purchased another estate at Well-street, near the summit of the lower ridge of hills in the more southern part of this parish, of the heirs of Cothull, which estate had formerly had proprietors of its own name; one of whom, William At-Well, was in the possession of it in the 35th year of king Edward III. as appears by an antient court-roll of that date.
This branch of the family of Potter was descended from John Potter, who held lands at Dartford, in the 12th year of king Edward II. (fn. 13)
After the purchase at Well-street, they resided there, and continued possessors of it till the reign of king James I. when Thomas Potter, esq. of Well-street, died possessed of it, leaving an only daughter and heir Dorothy, married to Sir John Rivers, bart. of Chafford, who procured an act of parliament in the 21st year of that reign, to alter the tenure and custom of his lands, those of Sir George Rivers, and those of Thomas Potter, esq. deceased, being then of the nature of gavelkind, and to make them descendible according to the course of the common law, and to settle the inheritance of them, upon the said Sir John Rivers and his heirs, by dame Dorothy before-mentioned, his wife.
Sir John Rivers becoming thus possessed both of Gaysum and Well street, joined some years afterwards with his eldest son John Rivers, esq. in the conveyance of Well-street to Mr. Thomas Smith, of London, scrivener; who about the year 1661 alienated it to Robert Whitby, whose son, Samuel Whitby, in 1664 passed it away to John Bridger, esq. who left two daughters and coheirs, one of whom married with Mr. Francis Ellison, and the other sister dying without issue, he in his wife night became intitled to it, their son, Mr. Thomas Ellison gent. of Westerham, afterwards inherited this estate and died possessed of it some few years ago, and his devisee is the present proprietor of this estate.
But Gaysum continued in the descendants of Sir John Rivers, till the reign of king William, when it was sold, about the same time that Squeries was, to William earl of Jersey, since which it has had the same owners as that seat, the inheritance of it being at this time vested in John Warde, esq. of Squeries.
BROXHAM is a manor situated below the sand hills in that part of this parish within the Weald, and so close to the boundaries of it, that a part of it is within the adjoining parish of Eatonbridge. It was antiently in the possession of the family of de Insula, or Isley.
John de Insula, or Isley, was lord of this manor, and obtained a charter of free-warren for it, in the 11th year of king Edward II. From this name it soon afterwards passed into that of Ashway; Stephen de Ashway obtained a licence to inclose a park here, in the 41st year of king Edward III. (fn. 14) At the latter end of the next reign of Richard II. Sir John de Clinton was possessed of this manor, of which he died possessed in the 20th year of that reign.
He had by Idonea his wife, one of the sisters, and at length coheirs, of William de Say, two sons, William and Thomas. The former of whom died in his life-time, leaving by Elizabeth his wife, daughter of Sir John Deincourt, a son, William; who on his grandfather's death became his heir, and by reason of the descent of Idonea, his grandmother, bore the title of lord Clinton and Say, by which he received summons to parliament from the 23d of king Richard II. to the time of his death, in the 10th year of king Henry VI. He left by Anne his wife, daughter of lord Botreaux, a son John, (fn. 15) who soon after his father's death, passed away this manor to Thomas Squerie, of Squeries-court in this parish, with which it descended, in the same tract of ownership, to Michael Beresford, who possessed it about the middle of queen Elizabeth's reign, as may be seen more fully before, in the account of Squeriescourt. His grandson, Michael Beresford, esq. of Squeries, alienated Broxham to Mr. Thomas Petley, of Filston, in Shoreham, in whose family it descended in like manner as their seat in Riverhead already described in this volume, to Elizabeth, widow of Charles Petley, esq. in whom the possession of it continues vested at this time.
There is a court-baron now held for this manor.
HILL-PARK is a seat in this parish, which was formerly the residence of a family, called in old dateless deeds, De Valoniis, in English, Valons, by which name it was called till within these few years; after which it continued for many descents in the family of Casinghurst, one of whom, in the reign of Henry VII. conveyed it to John Islip, abbot of Westminster, who gave it to his servant, Wm. Middilton, and he much improved the building of this seat. He died in 1557, and lies buried in this church, together with Elizabeth and Dorothy, his wives, by whom he had fifteen children. He bore for his arms, Quarterly gules and or, in the first quarter a cross patonce argent, which coat was confirmed by patent to his son, David Middleton, descended, as is there said, from those of Bletsoe castle, in Northumberland, by William Segar, anno 8 king James I. (fn. 16)
In his family it continued till the latter end of the reign of queen Elizabeth, and then it was conveyed to Jacob Verzelini, esq. of Downe, in this county, a Venetian born, and he died possessed of it in the 5th of king James I. and lies buried in that church. (fn. 17) By his daughter and coheir Elizabeth, it went in marriage to Peter Manning, esq. of Trowmer, in the parish of Downe; one of whose descendants, in the next reign of Charles I. passed it away to Mr. Ranulph Manning of London, a branch of them, who bore for their arms, Argent, a chevron gules, between three cinquefoils of the second, in whose family it remained till the year 1718, when it was alienated to colonel Henry Harrison, who about the year 1732, passed it away to Wm. Turner, esq. and he, in 1753, conveyed it by sale to captain Peter Dennis, of the royal navy, who about the year 1766, sold it to William M'Gwire, esq. who had formerly been a governor in the East Indies; and he again, a few years afterwards, alienated it to Wills Hill, earl of Hilsborough, who having almost rebuilt this seat, and greatly improved the park and grounds about it, changed its former name of Valons to that of HILL-PARK, and afterwards resided here till the death of his lady, in 1780; soon after which he sold it to John Cottin, esq. who resided here, and served the office of sheriff, in 1787, and he still continues the owner of it.
The college of St. Peter, at Lingfield, in Surry, was possessed of a house, called Painters, in Westerham, with other lands in this parish, which were surrendered into the king's hands at the suppression of it, in the reign of king Henry VIII. and were afterwards granted, to hold in capite by knights service. This house has been for many years an inn, known by the name of the King's arms.
King Henry VIII. in his 31st year, granted to Sir John Gresham the manor of Lovestede, in Surry and Kent, to hold in capite by knights service. One of the former owners of this manor, John Lovestede, of Westerham, lies buried in this church, where his inscription on brass still remains.
Charities.
EDWARD COLTHURST, by deed in 1572, gave for decayed housekeepers lands and tenements vested in the vicar and churchwardens.
ALICE PLUMLEY gave by will in 1584, to ten poor persons, to be paid on Christmas and Easter days, land vested in the same, of the annual product of 1l.
JOHN BRONGER gave by will in 1615, for the use of the poor, the annual sum of 3s. 4d. vested in the same.
ARTHUR WILLARD gave by will in 1623, sundry cottages for the use of poor widows resident in the parish, now vested in the same.
JOHN TROT gave by will in 1629, for a penny loaf to six poor widows each, every Friday, land vested in the same, of the annual product of 1l. 6s.
GERTRUDE STYLE gave by will in 1635, for twenty housekeepers on Good-Friday, the sum of 20l. vested in the same, and of the annual produce of 1l.
WILLIAM HOLMDEN gave by will in 1640, for the use of the poor, land vested in the same, of the annual product of 4l. 4s.
THOMAS HARDY, citizen of London, gave by will in 1747, for the repairing his wife's monument in this church, remainder for the use of the poor, 100l. stock in S. S. Annuities, vested in the same, with six of the most substantial inhabitants, and of the annual product of 3l.
CHARLES WEST gave by will in 1765, for the use of the poor, 100l. stock vested in the same, and of the annual produce of 3l.
RALPH MANNING gave by will in 1786, for the use of twelve poor persons in equal shares, 100l. stock, vested in William Pigot, and of the annual produce of 3l.
WESTERHAM is in the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Rochester, and deanry of Malling. The church, which is dedicated to St. Mary, is a large handsome building, consisting of a nave, two side isles, and a cross isle; but being too small for the use of the inhabitants, a gallery has been erected for their accommodation in it.
Among other monuments and inscriptions in it are the following:—In the cross isle, at the west end, is a grave-stone near the south door, having the figure of a priest in brass, and inscription in black letter, for Sir William Dyne, priest, sometime parson of Tattisfylde, obt. 1567; a memorial for Bridget, daughter of Ranulph and Catherine Manning, obt. 1734.—In the middle isle, at the entrance, a stone, on which is the figure of a man, that of his wife is lost, and inscription in black letter, for Richard Hayward, and Anne his wife, he died in 1529, beneath were four sons now lost, six daughters now remain; in the pew, where the font is, a stone, with an inscription for Nicholas Manning, gent. of this parish, obt. 1723, and Mary his wife, daughter of Samuel Missenden, esq. deputy governor of the Merchant Adventurers of England, residing at Hamburgh, obt. 1735, arms, a chevron charged with a crescent for difference between three qua terfoils, impaling a cross ingrailed, a bird in the dexter point; on the south side is a mural monument, shewing that near it, in a brick grave, (which being full was arched over in 1733) lies interred Ranulph Manning, gent. obt. 1712, and Catharine his wife, daughter of Saul Missenden, esq. mentioned before, obt. 1732, erected by Ranulph Manning, their eldest son, who died in 1760; above, argent, a chevron gules between three cinquefoils of the second, and quarterings impaling Missenden; over the south door is a plain neat monument of marble, for the brave general James Wolfe, the son of colonel Edward Wolfe, and Henrietta his wife, who was born in this parish Jan. 2, 1727, and died in America, Sept. 13, 1759, conqueror of Quebec, and these lines:—
Whilst George in sorrow bows his laurell'd head, And bids the artist grace the soldier dead, We raise no sculptur'd trophies to thy name, Brave youth! the fairest in the list of fame; Proud of they birth, we boast th' auspicious year—Struck with thy fall, we shed a general tear; With humble grief inscribe one artless stone, And from thy matchless honours date our own.
In the south isle, a memorial for John Thorpe, descended of an antient gentleman's family in Kent and Sussex; he married Anne, daughter, and at length coheir of John Luck, S. T. B. of Mayfield, in Sussex, by whom he had four sons and three daughters, obt. 1703, erected by his grandsons, John and Oliver, sons of his son John Thorpe, of Penshurst, arms, quarterly, 1st and 4th, a fess dancette ermine;-2d and 3d three crescents; at the upper end a grave-stone, with the figures of a man and his two wives in brass, and inscription in black letter for Richard Potter, obt. 1511, beneath the figures of five boys and three girls; another with the figure of a man in brass, and like inscription for Thomas, son of John Potter, gent. obt. 1531; another, with the figure of a man and his two wives in brass, and inscription in black letter for William Myddleton, esq. and Elizabeth and Dorothy, his wives, he died 1557; beneath were the figures of fifteen children, seven of which yet remain.—In the middle of the isle, a brass plate and inscription for John Lovestede, of Westerham; on the south side a mural monument for Anthony Earning, merchant; he married the only daughter of Thomas Manning, esq. of Valens, by whom he left two sons and a daughter, obt. 1676: on the south side are two adjoining altar tombs for Thomas Manning, esq. of Valence, obt. 1695, and for Susan, his wife, daughter of Sir Thomas Dacres, obt. 1654; arms on both, Manning with quarterings; on the north side, at the upper end next the chancel, a mural monument, with the figures of a man and woman kneeling at a desk, for Thomas Potter, esq. of Westerham, who married Mary, daughter and coheir of Richard Tichbourne, esq. of Eatonbridge, by whom he left one son Nisell, and a daughter Dorothy, married to John, eldest son of Sir John Rivers, of Chafford; he married 2dly, Elizabeth, widow of Sir J. Rivers, late lord mayor of London, obt. 1611; above, the arms of Potter sable, a fess ermine between three cinquefoils, argent with impalements.— In the middle isle, are two gravestones, with figures and inscriptions in brass, for the Stacys. In the north isle, are several grave-stones, with memorials for the Dallings, of this parish, arms, on a bend, three acorns; a grave-stone and memorial for Mr. Andrew Daulinge, citizen of London, (son of Richard Daulinge, rector of Ringswold) who married Anne, eldest daughter of Mr. John Daulinge, gent. of Westerham, by whom he had seven sons and two daughters, and left her great with child, obt. 1714; several more memorials for the Dallings, who by their arms appear to have been the same family as the Daulings before-mentioned; on the north side a mural monument for Mr. Thomas Hardy, citizen of London, who died in 1747, and for others of his family; near it is a brass plate fixed to the wall, with an extract from his will, relating to his charity bequeathed to this parish, which has been given above among the other charities belonging to it; at the east end is a mural monument for Mary, wife of Henry Street, daughter of Sir John Gerrard, bart. obt. 1651, and left only one son Edward.—In the cross isle, at the east end, an elegant mural monument for Thomas Knight, esq. of Westerham, obt. 1708, being clerk of the assize for Norfolk; he married first, Catherine, daughter of Mr. Crispe, of Maidstone, and secondly, Jane, daughter of Mr. Blome, of Sevenoke, but left no issue; near it another for Eleanor, youngest daughter of Sir Thomas Seyliard, second baronet of that antient family, and of the lady Frances, his first wife, sole daughter and heir of Henry Wyat, esq. eldest son of Sir Francis Wyat, of Boxleyabbey, who died in 1726; she married Robert Paynter, esq. son of Allington, son of William, son of Anthony, son of William Paynter, esq. clerk of the ordnance to queen Elizabeth, and lord of the manors of East-court and Twydall, in Gillingham, he died in 1731, arms, Paynter gules, a chevron or, between three griffins heads erased of the second on a chief; or an helmet between two balls sable, with impalements and quarterings. A gravestone for the Heaths, of Leigh; another for Anthony Earning, merchant, obt. 1695; a grave-stone within the rails, shewing that Sir John Crisp, bart. paved this communion space in remembrance of Nich. Crisp, esq. eldest son of Sir Nich. Crisp, bart. who died in 1697, æt. 17, arms above, on a chevron five horse-shoes. (fn. 18)
George Strood, esq. in consideration of 16l. 14s. had granted to him, by the vicar, churchwardens, and major part of the parishioners, the uppermost part of the north isle of the church, called the organ–room, for a burying place for himself and his successors, owners of the mansion house of Squeries, to be decently kept and repaired at the cost of him and his successors for ever, which was ratified and confirmed in 1637, (the see of Rochester being then vacant) by the archbishop of Canterbury, as it was afterwards in 1640, by John, bishop of Rochester.
Alianor, queen to king Edward I. gave an acre of land, with its appurtenances in Westerham, and the advowson of the church, together with the chapels, tythes, and all other things and rights belonging to it, to the prior and convent of Canterbury, in pure and perpetual alms, free from all secular service for ever.
This grant appears, by the Chronicles of Christ church, to have been made, among other premises, in exchange for the port of Sandwich.
King Edward I. in his 18th year, confirmed the above gift, and farther granted to the prior and convent his licence, to appropriate this church, and the chapels belonging to it, and to hold the same to their own proper use for ever; which pope Celestine V. in 1294, confirmed, with the allowance of twenty marcs sterling to the vicar, out of the profits of this church and chapel; but the church not becoming vacant, this bull did not take place, and the prior and convent, in 1327, making heavy complaints of their great losses, by the inundation in Romneymarsh, among other grievances, petitioned Hamo, bishop of Rochester, for relief; who, accordingly, that year, appropriated this church, with the chapel of Edulwesbrogge annexed to it, to their use; and at the same time endowed a perpetual vicarage in this church, and a fit portion for a perpetual vicar in it, to be presented by the religious, and to be instituted by him and his successors; and he further decreed, with the consent of the religious, that the vicar should take and have entirely and wholly for his portion, the tithes of silva cedua, pannage, hay, herbage, flax, hemp, milk, butter, and cheese, wool, lambs, calves, pigs, swans, geese, apples, pidgeons, mills, fisheries, fowlings, merchandizing, and all other small tithes and oblations whatsoever, and all legacies and mortuaries to the church or chapel, of right or custom due, as well dead as living; and that the vicar should have, on the soil belonging to the church, to be chosen and assigned by the bishop, a competent house to reside in, to be built for this first time by the religious; and he decreed, that the portion of the vicar should for ever consist in the things above mentioned; and further, that the vicar, for the time being, should as often as there should be occasion, cause the books to be bound, and the vestments to be washed, mended, and renewed; and should find and provide, at his own costs, bread and wine, and processional tapers, and other necessary lights in the chancel, and ministers, as has been accustomed, as well in the church of Westerham as in the chapel of Edulwesbrege; and should, for the future, keep and maintain the buildings of the vicarage, and should wholly pay all episcopal and archideaconal procurations; and that he should sustain and take upon him the tenth and other extraordinary burthens then incumbent, or which might be imposed in future, according to the value of his portion; which, so far as related to the sustaining of the burthens of this kind, he taxed, and rated at ten marcs sterling; and lastly, that the religious should sustain, and take upon them for ever, the payment of the pension of ten shillings due to him and his successors, from this church, and all other burthens, ordinary and extraordinary, according to the value of their portion, which he valued at forty marcs.
Richard de Haute, the rector of this church, dying in 1327, the prior and convent of Christ-church were, by the archdeacon, put into the possession of it, with the chapel of Edelnesbregge annexed, in the person of Robert Hathebrand, monk of it, their proctor specially appointed for this purpose.
The rectory and advowson of the vicarage of Westerham, with the chapel of Eatonbridge, remained with the prior and convent of Christ-church till the general dissolution in the reign of king Henry VIII. in the 31st year of which, it was surrendered into the king's hands.
After which, the king granted to Sir John Gresham, the rectories of Westerham and Eatonbridge, with the advowson of the church and chapel belonging to it, and he died possessed of them in 1556, (fn. 19) as did his eldest son and heir, Sir William Gresham, of Titsey, in Surry, in the 21st year of queen Elizabeth, holding them in capite by knight's service. By his will in the 17th year of queen Elizabeth, he gave these rectories to his second son, Thomas, and his heirs male, (fn. 20) who, on the death of his elder brother, William, without male issue, became likewise his heir, and from him the rectory of Westerham, with Eatonbridge, descended to Sir Marmaduke Gresham, bart. who in his life-time gave it to his eldest son, Edward Gresham, esq. and he in the 30th year of king Charles II. procured an act of parliament to vest it in trustees to be sold for the payment of his debts.
Accordingly, Sir Marmaduke and Edward, his eldest son, joined in the conveyance of the rectory or parsonage of Westerham, with its appurtenances, to James Hudson, esq. of London, and John Steers, of Westerham, yeoman. By which word, appurtenances, the advowson of the church appurtenant to the rectory, though not intended so to do, passed with it.
After which, partly in right of his wife, and partly by purchase from the name of Steers, it came into the possession of John Bodicoate, esq. whose son, the Rev. Mr. John Bodicoate, died in 1791, and his widow, Harriet, re-married to Edward earl of Winterton, is at this time proprietor of the church of Westerham, with the advowson of the vicarage appurtenant to it.
By an antient valuation made in the 15th year of king Edward I. this church was valued at fifty marcs. (fn. 21)
¶By virtue of the commission of enquiry into the value of church livings, in 1650, issuing out of chancery, it was returned, that the parsonage and vicarage of Westerham were two distinct things. That the parsonage house, buildings, and sixty acres of glebe land were worth twenty pounds per annum, and the tythes were worth eighty pounds per annum, and one acre and an half of glebe land worth thirty shillings per annum, all which were impropriate and belonging to master Gresham the proprietor thereof. That there was a vicarage, house, garden and backside, worth forty pounds per annum, and vicarage tythes, worth fifty pounds per annum, which was the vicar's salary, and the said Mr. Gresham was patron thereof; that in former times the vicars of Westerham had been presented vicars of Westerham, (fn. 22) with the chapel of Eatonbridge, and had hired a curate there; but it was conceived that Eatonbridge had been, and still continued sitting to be, a distinct parish church. (fn. 23)
The church of Westerham, with the chapel of Eatonbridge annexed, is valued in the king's books at 19l. 19s. 4½d. and the yearly tenths at 1l. 19s. 11¼d. (fn. 24)
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Inle Lake, Myanmar
Inle Lake (Burmese: အင်းလေးကန်; MLCTS: ang: le: kan, [ʔɪ́ɰ̃lé kàɰ̃]), a freshwater lake located in the Nyaungshwe Township of Shan State, part of Shan Hills in Myanmar (Burma). It is the second largest lake in Myanmar with an estimated surface area of 44.9 square miles (116 km2), and one of the highest at an elevation of 2,900 feet (880 m). During the dry season, the average water depth is 7 feet (2.1 m), with the deepest point being 12 feet (3.7 m). During the rainy season, this can increase by 5 feet (1.5 m).
The watershed area for the lake lies to a large extent to the north and west of the lake. The lake drains through the Nam Pilu or Balu Chaung on its southern end. There is also a hot spring on its northwestern shore.
Large sections of the lake are covered by floating plants. Its clear and slightly alkaline waters (pH 7.8–8) are home to a diverse fauna and many species found nowhere else in the world (endemics). There are more than 35 native species of fish, including 17 endemics. Some of these, notably the Sawbwa barb, red dwarf rasbora, emerald dwarf rasbora, Lake Inle danio, Inle loach and the Inle snakehead, are of minor commercial importance for the aquarium trade. Several fish that are not native have been introduced. Additionally, the lake is home to about 45 species of freshwater snails, 30 of them endemic, along with a small endemic freshwater crab, Inlethelphusa acanthica. It hosts approximately 20,000 migratory gulls in November to January.
Peter I commonly known as Peter the Great, was Tsar of all Russia from 1682, and the first Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned jointly with his half-brother Ivan V until 1696. From this year, Peter was an absolute monarch who remained the ultimate authority. His methods were often harsh and autocratic.
Most of Peter's reign was consumed by long wars against the Ottoman and Swedish Empires. Despite initial difficulties, the wars were ultimately successful and led to expansion to the Sea of Azov and the Baltic Sea, thus laying the groundwork for the Imperial Russian Navy. His victory in the Great Northern War ended Sweden's era as a great power and its domination of the Baltic region while elevating Russia's standing to the extent it came to be acknowledged as an empire. Peter led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, Westernized, and based on radical Enlightenment.
In 1700, he introduced the Gregorian calendar but the Russian Orthodox Church was particularly resistant to this change; they wanted to maintain its distinct identity and avoid appearing influenced by Catholic practices.[citation needed] In 1703, he introduced the first Russian newspaper, Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, and ordered the civil script, a reform of Russian orthography largely designed by himself. He founded the city of Saint Petersburg on the shore of the Neva as a "window to the West" in May 1703. In 1712 Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg, where it remained – with only a brief interruption – until 1918. He promoted higher education and industrialization in the Russian Empire.
Peter had a great interest in plants, animals and minerals, in malformed creatures or exceptions to the law of nature for his cabinet of curiosities. He encouraged research of deformities, all along trying to debunk the superstitious fear of monsters. The Russian Academy of Sciences and the Saint Petersburg State University were founded in 1724, a year before his death.
Peter is primarily credited with the modernization of the country, transforming it into a major European power. His administrative reforms, creating a Governing Senate in 1711, the Collegium in 1717 and the Table of Ranks in 1722 had a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of the Russian government trace their origins to his reign.
Early life
Peter was named after the apostle. He grew up at Izmaylovo Estate and was educated from an early age by several tutors commissioned by his father, Tsar Alexis of Russia, most notably Nikita Zotov, Patrick Gordon, and Paul Menesius. On 29 January 1676, Alexis died, leaving the sovereignty to Peter's elder half-brother, the weak and sickly Feodor III of Russia. Throughout this period, the government was largely run by Artamon Matveev, an enlightened friend of Alexis, the political head of the Naryshkin family and one of Peter's greatest childhood benefactors.
This position changed when Feodor died in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the Miloslavsky family (Maria Miloslavskaya was the first wife of Alexis I) and Naryshkin family (Natalya Naryshkina was his second) over who should inherit the throne. He jointly ruled with his elder half-brother, Ivan V, until 1696. Ivan, was next in line but was chronically ill and of infirm mind. Consequently, the Boyar Duma (a council of Russian nobles) chose the 10-year-old Peter to become Tsar, with his mother as regent.
This arrangement was brought before the people of Moscow, as ancient tradition demanded, and was ratified. Sophia, one of Alexis' daughters from his first marriage, led a rebellion of the Streltsy (Russia's elite military corps) in April–May 1682. In the subsequent conflict, some of Peter's relatives and friends were murdered, including Artamon Matveyev, and Peter witnessed some of these acts of political violence.
The Streltsy made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys (the clan of Ivan) and their allies to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Tsars, with Ivan being acclaimed as the senior. Sophia then acted as regent during the minority of the sovereigns and exercised all power. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat. A large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, while feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and problems. He lived at Preobrazhenskoye. This throne can be seen in the Kremlin Armoury in Moscow.
At the age of 16, Peter discovered an English boat on the estate, had it restored and learned to sail. He received a sextant, but did not know how to use the instrument. Therefore, he began a search for a foreign expert in the German Quarter. Peter befriended two Dutch carpenters, Frans Timmerman and Karsten Brandt, and several other foreigners in Russian service. Peter studied arithmetic, geometry, and military sciences. He was not interested in a musical education but seems to have liked fireworks and drumming.
Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his name. He engaged in such pastimes as shipbuilding and sailing, as well as mock battles with his toy army. Peter's mother sought to force him to adopt a more conventional approach and arranged his marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina in 1689. The marriage was a failure, and ten years later Peter forced his wife to become a nun and thus freed himself from the union.
By the summer of 1689, Peter, planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful Crimean campaigns against the Crimean Khanate in an attempt to stop devastating Crimean Tatar raids into Russia's southern lands. When she learned of his designs, Sophia conspired with some leaders of the Streltsy, who continually aroused disorder and dissent. Peter, warned by others from the Streltsy, escaped in the middle of the night to the impenetrable monastery of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra; there he slowly gathered adherents who perceived he would win the power struggle. Sophia was eventually overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name and her position as a member of the royal family.
Still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Natalya Naryshkina. It was only when Natalya died in 1694 that Peter, then aged 22, became an independent sovereign. Formally, Ivan V was a co-ruler with Peter, though being ineffective. Peter became the sole ruler when Ivan died in 1696 without male offspring, two years later.
Peter grew to be extremely tall, especially for the time period, reportedly standing 6 ft 8 in (2.03 m). Peter had noticeable facial tics, and he may have suffered from petit mal seizures, a form of epilepsy. Meanwhile, he was a frequent guest in German quarter, where he met Anna and Willem Mons.
Ideology of Peter's reign
As a young man, Peter I adopted the Protestant model of existence in a pragmatic world of competition and personal success, which largely shaped the philosophy of his reformism. He perceived the Russian people as rude, unintelligent, stubborn in their sluggishness, a child, a lazy student. He highly appreciated the state's role in the life of society, saw it as an ideal instrument for achieving high goals, saw it as a universal institution for transforming people, with the help of violence and fear, into educated, conscious, law-abiding and useful to the whole society subjects.
He introduced into the concept of the autocrat's power the notion of the monarch's duties. He considered it necessary to take care of his subjects, to protect them from enemies, to work for their benefit. Above all, he put the interests of Russia. He saw his mission in turning it into a power similar to Western countries, and subordinated his own life and the lives of his subjects to the realization of this idea. Gradually penetrated the idea that the task should be solved with the help of reforms, which will be carried out at the autocrat's will, who creates good and punishes evil. He considered the morality of a statesman separately from the morality of a private person and believed that the sovereign in the name of state interests can go to murder, violence, forgery and deceit.
He went through the naval service, starting from the lowest ranks: bombardier (1695), captain (1696), colonel (1706), schout-bij-nacht (1709), vice-admiral (1714), admiral (1721). By hard daily work (according to the figurative expression of Peter the Great himself, he was simultaneously "forced to hold a sword and a quill in one right hand") and courageous behavior he demonstrated to his subjects his personal positive example, showed how to act, fully devoting himself to the fulfillment of duty and service to the fatherland.
Reign
Peter implemented sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Russia. Heavily influenced by his advisors from Western Europe, Peter reorganized the Russian army along modern lines and dreamed of making Russia a maritime power. He faced much opposition to these policies at home but brutally suppressed rebellions against his authority, including by the Streltsy, Bashkirs, Astrakhan, and the greatest civil uprising of his reign, the Bulavin Rebellion.
Peter implemented social modernization in an absolute manner by introducing French and western dress to his court and requiring courtiers, state officials, and the military to shave their beards and adopt modern clothing styles. One means of achieving this end was the introduction of taxes for long beards and robes in September 1698.
In his process to westernize Russia, he wanted members of his family to marry other European royalty. In the past, his ancestors had been snubbed at the idea, but now, it was proving fruitful. He negotiated with Frederick William, Duke of Courland to marry his niece, Anna Ivanovna. He used the wedding in order to launch his new capital, St Petersburg, where he had already ordered building projects of westernized palaces and buildings. Peter hired Italian and German architects to design it.
As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. For example, by the end of the century Russia came to export more iron than any other country in the world.
To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was the White Sea at Arkhangelsk. The Baltic Sea was at the time controlled by Sweden in the north, while the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea were controlled by the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire respectively in the south.
Peter attempted to acquire control of the Black Sea, which would require expelling the Tatars from the surrounding areas. As part of an agreement with Poland that ceded Kiev to Russia, Peter was forced to wage war against the Crimean Khan and against the Khan's overlord, the Ottoman Sultan. Peter's primary objective became the capture of the Ottoman fortress of Azov, near the Don River. In the summer of 1695 Peter organized the Azov campaigns to take the fortress, but his attempts ended in failure.
Peter returned to Moscow in November 1695 and began building a large navy in Voronezh. He launched about thirty ships against the Ottomans in 1696, capturing Azov in July of that year.
Grand Embassy
Peter knew that Russia could not face the Ottoman Empire alone. In 1697, he traveled "incognito" to Western Europe on an 18-month journey with a large Russian delegation–the so-called "Grand Embassy". He used a fake name, allowing him to escape social and diplomatic events, but since he was far taller than most others, he could not fool anyone. One goal was to seek the aid of European monarchs, but Peter's hopes were dashed. France was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, and Austria was eager to maintain peace in the east while conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen an inopportune moment: the Europeans at the time were more concerned about the War of the Spanish Succession over who would succeed the childless King Charles II of Spain than about fighting the Ottoman Sultan.
In Königsberg, the Tsar was apprenticed for two months to an artillery engineer. In July he met Sophia of Hanover at Coppenbrügge castle. She described him: "The tsar is a tall, handsome man, with an attractive face. He has a lively mind is very witty. Only, someone so well endowed by nature could be a little better mannered." Peter rented a ship in Emmerich am Rhein and sailed to Zaandam, where he arrived on 18 August 1697. He studied saw-mills, manufacturing and shipbuilding but left after a week. Through the mediation of Nicolaas Witsen, an expert on Russia, the Tsar was given the opportunity to gain practical experience in shipyard, belonging to the Dutch East India Company, for a period of four months, under the supervision of Gerrit Claesz Pool. The diligent and capable Tsar assisted in the construction of an East Indiaman ship Peter and Paul specially laid down for him. During his stay the Tsar engaged many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights, and seamen—including Cornelis Cruys, a vice-admiral who became, under Franz Lefort, the Tsar's advisor in maritime affairs. Peter later put his knowledge of shipbuilding to use in helping build Russia's navy.
Peter felt that the ship's carpenters in Holland worked too much by eye and lacked accurate construction drawings. On 11 January 1698 (Old Style) Peter arrived at Victoria Embankment with four chamberlains, three interpreters, two clock makers, a cook, a priest, six trumpeters, 70 soldiers from the Preobrazhensky regiment, four dwarfs and a monkey. Peter stayed at 21 Norfolk Street, Strand and met with King William III and Gilbert Burnet, attended a session of the Royal Society, received a doctorate from Oxford University, trained a telescope on Venus at the Greenwich Observatory, and saw a Fleet Review by Royal Navy at Deptford. He studied the English techniques of city-building he would later use to great effect at Saint Petersburg. At the end of April 1698 he left after learning to make watches, carpenting coffins and posing for Sir Godfrey Kneller.
The Embassy next went to Leipzig, Dresden, Prague and Vienna. Peter spoke with Augustus II the Strong and Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor.[18] Peter's visit was cut short, when he was forced to rush home by a rebellion of the Streltsy. The rebellion was easily crushed before Peter returned home; of the Tsar's troops, only one was killed. Peter nevertheless acted ruthlessly towards the mutineers. Over one thousand two hundred of the rebels were tortured and executed, and Peter ordered that their bodies be publicly exhibited as a warning to future conspirators. The Streltsy were disbanded, some of the rebels were deported to Siberia, and the individual they sought to put on the Throne — Peter's half-sister Sophia — was forced to become a nun.
Peter's visits to the West impressed upon him the notion that European customs were in several respects superior to Russian traditions. He commanded all of his courtiers and officials to wear European clothing and cut off their long beards, causing his Boyars, who were very fond of their beards, great upset. Boyars who sought to retain their beards were required to pay an annual beard tax of one hundred rubles. Peter also sought to end arranged marriages, which were the norm among the Russian nobility, because he thought such a practice was barbaric and led to domestic violence, since the partners usually resented each other.
In 1698, Peter I instituted a beard tax to modernize Russian society. In the same year Peter sent a delegation to Malta, under boyar Boris Sheremetev, to observe the training and abilities of the Knights of Malta and their fleet. Sheremetev investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base. On 12 September 1698, Peter officially founded the first Russian Navy base, Taganrog on the Sea of Azov.
In 1699, Peter changed the date of the celebration of the new year from 1 September to 1 January. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purported creation of the World, but after Peter's reforms, they were to be counted from the birth of Christ. Thus, in the year 7207 of the old Russian calendar, Peter proclaimed that the Julian Calendar was in effect and the year was 1700. On the death of Lefort in 1699, Menshikov succeeded him as Peter's prime favourite and confidant. In 1701, the Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation was founded; for fifteen years, not only naval officers, but also surveyors, engineers, and gunners were educated there.
Great Northern War
First Winter Palace
Peter made a temporary peace with the Ottoman Empire that allowed him to keep the captured fort of Azov, and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by the Swedish Empire a half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by the young King Charles XII. Sweden was also opposed by Denmark–Norway, Saxony, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Preobrazhensky regiment took part in all major battles of the Great Northern War.
Russia was ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the Battle of Narva in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII, rather than employ a slow methodical siege, attacked immediately using a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which gave Peter time to reorganize the Russian army. He invited Nicolaas Bidloo to organize a military hospital. In 1701, Peter the Great signed a decree on the opening of Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation.
While the Poles fought the Swedes, Peter founded the city of Saint Petersburg on 29 June 1703, in Ingermanland (a province of the Swedish Empire that he had captured). It was named after his patron saint Saint Peter. He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg, which he intended to become Russia's capital, so that all stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. Peter moved the capital to St. Petersburg in 1703. While the city was being built along the Neva he lived in a modest three-room log cabin (with a study but without a fire-place) which had to make room for the first version of the Winter palace. The first buildings which appeared were the Peter and Paul Fortress, a shipyard at the Admiralty and Alexander Nevsky Lavra.
Following several defeats, Polish King Augustus II the Strong abdicated in 1706. Swedish king Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at Golovchin in July. In the Battle of Lesnaya, Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from Riga. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow.
Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden and instead invaded Ukraine. Peter withdrew his army southward, employing scorched earth, destroying along the way anything that could assist the Swedes. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they resumed their efforts to capture Russian-ruled Ukraine, culminating in the Battle of Poltava on 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him south to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Russia had defeated what was considered to be one of the world's best militaries, and the victory overturned the view that Russia was militarily incompetent. In Poland, Augustus II was restored as King.
Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from his Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire, initiating the Russo-Turkish War of 1710. Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous, and in the ensuing Treaty of the Pruth, Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697. In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII.
The Ottomans called him Mad Peter (Turkish: deli Petro), for his willingness to sacrifice large numbers of his troops in wartime. Peter I loved all sorts of rarities and curiosities. In 1704 Abram Petrovich Gannibal, a child with Ethiopian origin, was presented to him; in 1716 Peter took him to Paris.
In 1711, Peter established by decree a new state body known as the Governing Senate. Normally, the Boyar duma would have exercised power during his absence. Peter, however, mistrusted the boyars; he instead abolished the Duma and created a Senate of ten members. The Senate was founded as the highest state institution to supervise all judicial, financial and administrative affairs. Originally established only for the time of the monarch's absence, the Senate became a permanent body after his return. A special high official, the Ober-Procurator, served as the link between the ruler and the senate and acted, in Peter own words, as "the sovereign's eye". Without his signature no Senate decision could go into effect; the Senate became one of the most important institutions of Imperial Russia.
1712, Peter I issued a decree establishing an Engineering School in Moscow, which was supposed to recruit up to 150 students, and two-thirds of them were to consist of nobles.[31] Therefore, on 28 February 1714, he issued a decree calling for compulsory education, which dictated that all Russian 10- to 15-year-old children of the nobility, government clerks, and lesser-ranked officials must learn basic mathematics and geometry, and should be tested on the subjects at the end of their studies.
Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of Livonia (the northern half of modern Latvia, and the southern half of modern Estonia), driving the Swedes out of Finland. In 1714 the Russian fleet won the Battle of Gangut. Most of Finland was occupied by the Russians.
In 1716, the Tsar visited Riga, and Danzig in January, Stettin, and obtained the assistance of the Electorate of Hanover and the Kingdom of Prussia fighting a war against Sweden at Wismar. He was forced to leave Mecklenburg. In Altona he met with Danish diplomats. He went on to Bad Pyrmont in May/June, because of an illness he stayed at this spa. He arrived in Amsterdam in December, where he bought some interesting collections: those of Frederik Ruysch, Levinus Vincent and Albertus Seba and paintings by Maria Sibylla Merian for his Kunstkamera. He visited a silk manufacture and a paper-mill, and learned to create paper and to spin silk. He visited Herman Boerhaave and Carel de Moor in Leiden and ordered two mercury thermometers from Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit and instruments from Musschenbroek. In April 1717 he continued his travel from Flushing to Brussels in the Austrian Netherlands and Dunkirk, Calais, Paris, where he obtained many books and proposed a marriage between his daughter and King Louis XV. Saint-Simon described him as "tall, well-formed and slim…with a look both bewildered and fierce." Via Reims, and Spa Peter travelled on to Maastricht, at that time one of the most important fortresses in Europe, where he was received by Daniël van Dopff, the commander of the fortress. He went back to Amsterdam and visited the Hortus Botanicus and left the city early September.
The Tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle near Åland, Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the Treaty of Nystad ended the Great Northern War. Russia acquired Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and a substantial portion of Karelia. In turn, Russia paid two million Riksdaler and surrendered most of Finland. The Tsar retained some Finnish lands close to Saint Petersburg, which he had made his capital in 1712. Between 1713 and 1728, and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia.
Title
Following his victory in the Great Northern War, he adopted the title of emperor in 1721.
By the grace of God, the most excellent and great sovereign emperor Pyotr Alekseevich the ruler of all the Russias: of Moscow, of Kiev, of Vladimir, of Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan and Tsar of Siberia, sovereign of Pskov, great prince of Smolensk, of Tver, of Yugorsk, of Perm, of Vyatka, of Bulgaria and others, sovereign and great prince of the Novgorod Lower lands, of Chernigov, of Ryazan, of Rostov, of Yaroslavl, of Belozersk, of Udora, of Kondia and the sovereign of all the northern lands, and the sovereign of the Iverian lands, of the Kartlian and Georgian Kings, of the Kabardin lands, of the Circassian and Mountain princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.
Later years
In 1717, Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the Khanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered.
In 1718, Peter investigated why the formerly Swedish province of Livonia was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government.
To the end of 1717, the preparatory phase of administrative reform in Russia was completed. After 1718, Peter established colleges in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added, to regulate mining and industry. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Peter did not have enough loyal, talented or educated persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another. Decisions depended on the majority vote.
Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 22 October 1721, soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed Emperor of All Russia. Some proposed that he take the title Emperor of the East, but he refused. Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title Tsar following a speech by the archbishop of Pskov in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia, and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word emperor connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations.
In 1722, Peter created a new order of precedence known as the Table of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917.
The once powerful Persian Safavid Empire to the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprising Derbent, Shirvan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Baku, and Astrabad. Within twelve years all the territories were ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht, the Treaty of Ganja, and as the result of a Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both.
Peter introduced new taxes to fund improvements in Saint Petersburg. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with a poll tax. The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families. The new head taxes were payable by serfs and paupers. In 1725 the construction of Peterhof, a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof (Dutch for "Peter's Court") was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian Versailles".
In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his urinary tract and bladder. In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. According to legend, in November, at Lakhta along the Gulf of Finland to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue.
This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler Jacob von Staehlin is the only source for the story, and it seems unlikely that no one else would have documented such an act of heroism. This, plus the interval of time between these actions and Peter's death seems to preclude any direct link.
In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with uremia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: "Leave all to ..." and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned.
Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February 1725. An autopsy revealed his bladder to be infected with gangrene. He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
After the death of Peter I, there were immediately students who came to the Military College with a request to "leave science" under the pretext of "unconsciousness and incomprehensibility."
Religion
Peter did not believe in miracles and founded The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters, an organization that mocked the Orthodox and Catholic Church when he was eighteen. In January 1695, Peter refused to partake in a traditional Russian Orthodox ceremony of the Epiphany Ceremony, and would often schedule events for The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters to directly conflict with the Church. He often used the nickname Pakhom Mikhailov (Russian: Пахом Михайлов) among the ministers of religion who made up his relatively close circle of long-term drinking companions. He drank less than the others, deliberately getting the others drunk in order to listen to their drunken conversations.
Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter refused to name a replacement, allowing the patriarch's coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Peter could not tolerate the patriarch exercising power superior to the tsar, as indeed had happened in the case of Philaret (1619–1633) and Nikon (1652–66). In 1716 he invited Theophan Prokopovich to come to the capital. In 1718 he ordered to translate the "Introduction to European History" (a work by Samuel Pufendorf); the Ecclesiastical Regulations of 1721 are based on it. The Church reform of Peter the Great therefore abolished the patriarchate, replacing it with a Holy Synod that was under the control of a Procurator, and the tsar appointed all bishops.
In 1721, Peter followed the advice of Prokopovich in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Peter implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army.
A clerical career was not a route chosen by upper-class society. Most parish priests were sons of priests and were very poorly educated and paid. The monks in the monasteries had a slightly higher status; they were not allowed to marry. Politically, the Church was impotent.
Marriages and family
Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina, with the advice of other nobles in 1689. This was consistent with previous Romanov tradition by choosing a daughter of a minor noble. This was done to prevent fighting between the stronger noble houses and to bring fresh blood into the family. He also had a mistress from Westphalia, Anna Mons.
Upon his return from his European tour in 1698, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the Tsaritsa and forced her to join a convent. She had borne him three children, although only one, Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, had survived past his childhood.
Menshikov introduced him to Marta Helena Skowrońska, a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, and took her as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704. Marta converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and was given the name Catherine. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter married secretly between 23 Oct and 1 December 1707 in St. Petersburg. Peter valued Catherine and married officially, at Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg on 19 February 1712.
His eldest child and heir, Alexei, was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. Alexei was tried and confessed under torture during questioning conducted by a secular court (count Tolstoy). He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. The sentence could only be carried out with Peter's signed authorization, and Alexei died in prison, as Peter hesitated before making the decision. Alexei's death most likely resulted from injuries suffered during his torture. Alexei's mother Eudoxia was punished. She was dragged from her home, tried on false charges of adultery, publicly flogged, and confined in monasteries while being forbidden to be talked to.
In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler.
Issue
By his two wives, he had fifteen children: three by Eudoxia and twelve by Catherine. These included four sons named Pavel and three sons named Peter, all of whom died in infancy. Only three of his children survived to adulthood. He also had three grandchildren: Tsar Peter II and Grand Duchess Natalia by Alexei and Tsar Peter III by Anna.
Mistresses and illegitimate children
Princess Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna of Moldavia (1700–1754), daughter of Dimitrie Cantemir
Unnamed son (1722 - 1723?) – different sources say that the baby was stillborn or died before he was one year old.
Lady Mary Hamilton, Catherine I's lady in waiting of Scottish descent.
Miscarriage (1715)
Unnamed child (1717 - 1718?)
Legacy
Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Riasanovsky points to a "paradoxical dichotomy" in the black and white images such as God/Antichrist, educator/ignoramus, architect of Russia's greatness/destroyer of national culture, father of his country/scourge of the common man. Voltaire's 1759 biography gave 18th-century Russians a man of the Enlightenment, while Alexander Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" poem of 1833 gave a powerful romantic image of a creator-god. Slavophiles in mid-19th century deplored Peter's westernization of Russia.
Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started his invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles.
The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as Mikhail Pokrovsky presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness." As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people.
After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy. Modernization models have become contested ground.
He initiated a wide range of economic, social, political, administrative, educational and military reforms which ended the dominance of traditionalism and religion in Russia and initiated its westernization. His efforts included secularization of education, organization of administration for effective governance, enhanced use of technology, establishing an industrial economy, modernization of the army and establishment of a strong navy.
Historian Y. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin."
According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a great power, without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged."
While the cultural turn in historiography has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture and dress. James Cracraft argues:
The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development.
In popular culture
Peter has been featured in many histories, novels, plays, films, monuments and paintings. They include the poems The Bronze Horseman, Poltava and the unfinished novel The Moor of Peter the Great, all by Alexander Pushkin. The former dealt with The Bronze Horseman, an equestrian statue raised in Peter's honour. Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy wrote a biographical historical novel about him, named Peter I, in the 1930s.
The 1922 German silent film Peter the Great directed by Dimitri Buchowetzki and starring Emil Jannings as Peter
In 1929 A.N. Tolstoy's play was true to the party line, depicting Peter as a tyrant who "suppressed everyone and everything as if he had been possessed by demons, sowed fear, and put both his son and his country on the rack."
The 1937–1938 Soviet film Peter the Great
The 1976 film How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor, starring Aleksey Petrenko as Peter, and Vladimir Vysotsky as Abram Petrovich Gannibal, shows Peter's attempt to build the Baltic Fleet.
Peter was played by Jan Niklas and Maximilian Schell in the 1986 NBC miniseries Peter the Great.
The 2007 film The Sovereign's Servant depicts the unsavoury brutal side of Peter during the campaign.
A character based on Peter plays a major role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes.
Peter is one of many supporting characters in Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle – mainly featuring in the third novel, The System of the World.
Peter was portrayed on BBC Radio 4 by Isaac Rouse as a boy, Will Howard as a young adult and Elliot Cowan as an adult in the radio plays Peter the Great: The Gamblers and Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades, written by Mike Walker and which were the last two plays in the first series of Tsar. The plays were broadcast on 25 September and 2 October 2016.
A verse in the "Engineers' Drinking Song" references Peter the Great:
There was a man named Peter the Great who was a Russian Tzar;
When remodeling his the castle put the throne behind the bar;
He lined the walls with vodka, rum, and 40 kinds of beers;
And advanced the Russian culture by 120 years!
Peter was played by Jason Isaacs in the 2020 'antihistory' Hulu series The Great.
Peter is featured as the leader of the Russian civilization in the computer game Sid Meier's Civilization VI.
Peter was played by Ivan Kolesnikov in the 2022 Russian historical documentary film Peter I: The Last Tsar and the First Emperor.
On a site of a roadbed extent 20,76м on aerial image we have revealed change of the sizes of a track that is connected with linearly-vortical structure fields of stresses and deformations!
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Regardless of the extent of the ongoing tyranny and oppression I have been forced to deal with in Greece for nearly a decade under the harshest environment, my efforts in finding Justice and Freedom for my life have not stopped and it never will until my last breath.
Hence, on December 23rd, 2022, while enduring day 140th of my 4th Hunger Strike outside the UNHCR office in Athens, I left my shelter again to reach the Indian Embassy and plead for their help in providing urgent Humanitarian aid and mediation with this UN Agency.
Although I managed to speak with two Embassy representatives and even though they said they would help, ultimately they had gotten the Police involved to take me away. This time I was held in Police Custody for 2-hours before being let go.
Watch the video and read in-depth details here: 👇
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Thank you. 🙏💔🆘
#HumanRights #Justice #Freedom #Immigration #Refugees #Politics #Democracy #Petition #Crowdfunding #Philanthropy #Europe #Greece #Athens #UnitedNations #UNHCR #India #IndiaInGreece
The extent of my excitement for railroad photography in/around Ames has all but bottomed out. I find myself reaching for new locations to photo... This is an angle I've gotten many times over, but always in afternoon lighting and never with a train actually crossing over coming the right direction. I need to get out of this town. Sigh.
Union Pacific Railroad
Clinton Subdivision
M.P. 194
[04.03.2010]
Extention of the San Cataldo Cementry, Strada Cimitero di San Cataldo, Modena
Architects: Aldo Rossi in collaboration with Gianni Braghieri (competition phase), 1972-1984
blog.creativekismet.com/2009/01/05/birds-of-change-exchan...
Sign up deadline is still: Friday, January 9th.
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The extent of my costume efforts for "Superhero Night". I was "Taco Bell Girl" and I fought hunger in the night (or whenever hunger strikes).
Situated on a slight rise about 200m NW of the original extent of Manorhamilton town and separated from it by NE-SW section of the Owenbeg River. Sir Frederick Hamilton received a grant of over 5,000 acres in 1621-2 which he proceeded to increase, and by 1631 he had over 16,000 acres. He had undertaken to build a castle, which was probably not finished until 1636. In January 1642, Manorhamilton was besieged by Irish rebels under such leaders as Brian McDonogh and Owen O'Rourke or Teige O'Connor Sligo, who were encamped at Lurganboy. On January 30th they burnt the town but failed to capture the castle, and they lifted the siege on April 3rd. In the following year Hamilton used the castle as a base for raids as far afield as Sligo and Donegal. Hamilton left Ireland in 1643-4 and died in Scotland in 1647, but the castle seems to have survived until it was burnt by the earl of Clanrickard in 1652.
The castle is a two or three-storey rectangular house, although most of the third storey does not survive. There are two wings projecting on the N side which are not separated from the main house by party walls. The house is U-shaped and open to the N. The wings have a court between them, but its S wall, which would have had the original doorway, does not survive. There is a sallyport which is partly below ground level at the centre of the S wall of the house. There are four slightly rhomboid corner-towers which have three storeys at SW and SE, but those at NE and NW have five and four storeys with the use of mezzanine floors.
The house had two large transom and mullion windows in the S wall at ground and first floors, but these are either robbed or blocked and there are smaller windows, either blocked or robbed, on the E and W walls. The NE wing was probably the kitchen as its W wall at the ground floor has a large robbed fireplace. The main house was poorly provided with fireplaces with only small ones at the S end of the E and W walls and in each wing at the first floor.
Each floor of the corner towers usually has a window and two gun-loops, and some even have fireplaces. The corner towers communicated with the main house through lintelled passages, but there are no garderobes or latrines in the house.
All the quoins, except those from two angles of the corner towers, have been robbed, as has most of the dressed stonework from windows and doorways. There is a plinth all around and string-courses externally over the ground and first floors. The corner towers have three courses of banded masonry only on their outward-facing walls over the first floor.
The house is within a bawn defined by a reconstructed wall at W and remnants of the N end of the E wall. The interior is flush with the surviving top of the S wall, but there is evidence of corner towers only at SW where the W wall survives to three floors, and at SE where the foundations of a tower are visible. Elsewhere the bawn is defined by more modern walls, but there is no indication of where the original entrance may have been. Archaeological testing in the vicinity of the castle has failed to produce any related material, but an excavation inside the bawn has produced evidence of a cobbled surface in the courtyard and evidence of a basement within the castle. The castle has now been conserved, and guided tours can be had for a modest fee.
Extention from concept of the daily light & shadow in Autumn, after explore the " rainy night" ,"dream light " , "mysterious light " & "cold night" , for the Series V, I am more interest about the contrast of light & shadow , and the light in between the noisy & calm space. Here are my presentation. Kindly advise what you thought.
This image is excerpted from a U.S. GAO report:
www.gao.gov/products/GAO-25-106488
Technology Business Management: Critical Go or No Go Action Required on Federal Agency Adoption of IT Spending Framework
hard working at weekend #eyelashes #extention #beauty #makeup #leemee #inhomeservice #sacramento #Davis #individuallashes #natural #cheapprice .#individual #lashes lovely customer today in Sacramento . call me to make appt curl 15, thickness 0.15
The extent to which I am a klutz, Ex. A : What you see here on my neck and hand is chocolate. I was eating it sitting at my computer and somehow didn't notice that it had gotten on my hand, and then apparently I smeared it all over my neck. I got some on my dress too, for good measure. Ex. B: Then, I spent a long time making myself tacos for dinner and proceeded to to knock the plate over off the counter with my hip as I finished piling it with vegetables and beans, catching most of it but losing a bit and covering myself, once again, in food. Le sigh. Then I showered and changed and went out to a really awesome concert instead of studying for my midterm.
Ra Ra Riot - Hounds of Love
true extent of the crowd a/k/a "supporters and onlookers" surrounding the rally that was setup in the style of a press conference.
JIRCAS Photo Archive
www.jircas.go.jp/ja/database/photoarchive
Author: Kaneda Chukichi
金田忠吉 (CAES)
Date: 1978.12
Description: このセンターの第一回の鯉渕専門家が植えたヤシは、実を生えらせ、訪問した我々とインドの人たちとの交流の仲立ちをしてくれた。
Project: 稲遺伝資源探索導入のための予備調査
Country: インド (India )
Place: Ijaetc,mandya,karnataka ()
Keywords: 稲遺伝資源探索導入のための予備調査,インド,生活(風俗),Extention,training
Slide no. 01-028-08
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A test shot using homemade extention tubes. Shot with a Canon 18-55mm IS lens. The very narrow field of focus is very difficult to work with and will take alot of practice to get perfect results. I think this shot is great considering the self made tubes only cost £7. Having once owned a Sigma 180mm Macro lens in the passed it does not compare but, still im pretty happy with the results.