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A stallion is a male horse that has not been gelded (castrated). Stallions follow the conformation and phenotype of their breed, but within that standard, the presence of hormones such as testosterone may give stallions a thicker, "cresty" neck, as well as a somewhat more muscular physique as compared to female horses, known as mares, and castrated males, called geldings.
Temperament varies widely based on genetics, and training, but because of their instincts as herd animals, they may be prone to aggressive behavior, particularly toward other stallions, and thus require careful management by knowledgeable handlers. With proper training and management, stallions are effective equine athletes at the highest levels of many disciplines, including horse racing, horse shows, and international Olympic competition.
"Stallion" is also used to refer to males of other equids, including zebras and donkeys.
Herd behavior
Fillies usually soon join a different band with a dominant stallion different from the one that sired them. Colts or young stallions without mares of their own usually form small, all-male, "bachelor bands" in the wild. Living in a group gives these stallions the social and protective benefits of living in a herd. A bachelor herd may also contain older stallions who have lost their herd in a challenge.
Reproductive anatomy
The external genitalia comprise:
the testes, which are suspended horizontally within the scrotum. The testes of an average stallion are ovoids 8 to 12 cm (3.1 to 4.7 in) long, 6 to 7 cm (2.4 to 2.8 in) high by 5 cm (2.0 in) wide;
the penis, within the "penile sheath". Stallions have a vascular penis. When non-erect, it is quite flaccid and contained within the sheath. The retractor penis muscle is relatively underdeveloped. Erection and protrusion take place gradually, by the increasing tumescence of the erectile vascular tissue in the corpus cavernosum penis. When not erect, the penis is housed within the prepuce, 50 cm (20 in) long and 2.5 to 6 cm (0.98 to 2.36 in) in diameter with the distal end 15 to 20 cm (5.9 to 7.9 in). The retractor muscle contracts to retract the penis into the sheath and relaxes to allow the penis to extend from the sheath. When erect, the penis doubles in length and thickness and the glans increases by three to four times. The urethra opens within the urethral fossa, a small pouch at the distal end of the glans. A structure called the urethral process projects beyond the glans.
The internal genitalia comprise the accessory sex glands, which include the vesicular glands, the prostate gland and the bulbourethral glands. These contribute fluid to the semen at ejaculation, but are not strictly necessary for fertility.
Management and handling of domesticated stallions
Domesticated stallions are trained and managed in a variety of ways, depending on the region of the world, the owner's philosophy, and the individual stallion's temperament. In all cases, however, stallions have an inborn tendency to attempt to dominate both other horses and human handlers, and will be affected to some degree by proximity to other horses, especially mares in heat. They must be trained to behave with respect toward humans at all times or else their natural aggressiveness, particularly a tendency to bite, may pose a danger of serious injury.
The advantage of natural types of management is that the stallion is allowed to behave "like a horse" and may exhibit fewer stable vices. In a harem model, the mares may "cycle" or achieve estrus more readily. Proponents of natural management also assert that mares are more likely to "settle" (become pregnant) in a natural herd setting. Some stallion managers keep a stallion with a mare herd year-round, others will only turn a stallion out with mares during the breeding season.
In some places, young domesticated stallions are allowed to live separately in a "bachelor herd" while growing up, kept out of sight, sound or smell of mares. A Swiss study demonstrated that even mature breeding stallions kept well away from other horses could live peacefully together in a herd setting if proper precautions were taken while the initial herd hierarchy was established.
As an example, in the New Forest, England, breeding stallions run out on the open Forest for about two to three months each year with the mares and youngstock. On being taken off the Forest, many of them stay together in bachelor herds for most of the rest of the year. New Forest stallions, when not in their breeding work, take part on the annual round-ups, working alongside mares and geldings, and compete successfully in many disciplines.
There are drawbacks to natural management, however. One is that the breeding date, and hence foaling date, of any given mare will be uncertain. Another problem is the risk of injury to the stallion or mare in the process of natural breeding, or the risk of injury while a hierarchy is established within an all-male herd. Some stallions become very anxious or temperamental in a herd setting and may lose considerable weight, sometimes to the point of a health risk. Some may become highly protective of their mares and thus more aggressive and dangerous to handle. There is also a greater risk that the stallion may escape from a pasture or be stolen. Stallions may break down fences between adjoining fields to fight another stallion or mate with the "wrong" herd of mares, thus putting the pedigree of ensuing foals in question.
Complete isolation has significant drawbacks; stallions may develop additional behavior problems with aggression due to frustration and pent-up energy. As a general rule, a stallion that has been isolated from the time of weaning or sexual maturity will have a more difficult time adapting to a herd environment than one allowed to live close to other animals. As horses are instinctively social creatures, even stallions are believed to benefit from being allowed social interaction with other horses, though proper management and cautions are needed.
Properly trained stallions can live and work close to mares and to one another. Examples include the Lipizzan stallions of the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria, where the entire group of stallions live part-time in a bachelor herd as young colts, then are stabled, train, perform, and travel worldwide as adults with few if any management problems. Even stallions who are unfamiliar with each other can work safely in reasonable proximity if properly trained; the vast majority of Thoroughbred horses on the racetrack are stallions, as are many equine athletes in other forms of competition. Stallions are often shown together in the same ring at horse shows, particularly in halter classes where their conformation is evaluated. In horse show performance competition, stallions and mares often compete in the same arena with one another, particularly in Western and English "pleasure"-type classes where horses are worked as a group. Overall, stallions can be trained to keep focused on work and may be brilliant performers if properly handled.
A breeding stallion is more apt to present challenging behavior to a human handler than one who has not bred mares, and stallions may be more difficult to handle in spring and summer, during the breeding season, than during the fall and winter. Some stallions are used for both equestrian uses and for breeding at the same general time of year. Though compromises may need to be made in expectations for both athletic performance and fertility rate, well-trained stallions with good temperaments can be taught that breeding behavior is only allowed in a certain area, or with certain cues, equipment, or with a particular handler.
Geldings
If a stallion is not to be used for breeding, castrating (gelding) the male horse will allow it to live full-time in a herd with both males and females, reduce aggressive or disruptive behavior, and allow the horse to be around other animals without being seriously distracted. If a horse is not to be used for breeding, it can be gelded prior to reaching sexual maturity. A horse gelded young may grow taller and behave better if this is done. Older stallions that are sterile or otherwise no longer used for breeding may also be gelded and will exhibit calmer behavior, even if previously used for breeding. However, they are more likely to continue stallion-like behaviors than horses gelded at a younger age, especially if they have been used as a breeding stallion. Modern surgical techniques allow castration to be performed on a horse of almost any age with relatively few risks.
In most cases, particularly in modern industrialized cultures, a male horse that is not of sufficient quality to be used for breeding will have a happier life without having to deal with the instinctive, hormone-driven behaviors that come with being left intact. Geldings are safer to handle and present fewer management problems.
Some in the animal rights community maintains that castration is mutilation and damaging to the animal's psyche.
Ridglings
A ridgling or "rig" is a cryptorchid, a stallion which has one or both testicles undescended. If both testicles are not descended, the horse may appear to be a gelding, but will still behave like a stallion. A gelding that displays stallion-like behaviors is sometimes called a "false rig". In many cases, ridglings are infertile, or have fertility levels that are significantly reduced. The condition is most easily corrected by gelding the horse. A more complex and costly surgical procedure can sometimes correct the condition and restore the animal's fertility, though it is only cost-effective for a horse that has very high potential as a breeding stallion. This surgery generally removes the non-descended testicle, leaving the descended testicle, and creating a horse known as a monorchid stallion. Keeping cryptorchids or surgically-created monorchids as breeding stallions is controversial, as the condition is at least partially genetic and some handlers claim that cryptorchids tend to have greater levels of behavioral problems than normal stallions.
शीघ्रपतन Erectile Dysfunction क्या होता है? शीघ्र गिर जाने को शीघ्रपतन कहते हैं। सेक्स के मामले में यह शब्द वीर्य के
स्खलन के लिए प्रयोग किया जाता है। पुरुष की इच्छा के विरुद्ध उसका वीर्य अचानक स्खलित हो जाए, स्त्री सहवास करते हुए
संभोग शुरू करते ही वीर्यपात....
Premature ejaculation (PE) is when ejaculation happens sooner than a man or his partner would like during
sex. Occasional PE is also known as rapid ejaculation, premature climax or early ejaculation.
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All rights are reserved to Sane Ciullo. (CC)
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This is going in his permanent record.
Mr. Finnell's goldenrod copy is most likely wrapped around his paddle with a worn rubber band to cover the remains of the last torn mimeographed star. The school's pink copy is all that remains.
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Lust (Latin, luxuria)
Lust is best described as thoughts or desires of a sexual nature or the desire for friendship, acceptence, or non-sexual companionship. Unfulfilled lusts usually lead to sexual or socialogical related compulsions including pedophilia, bestiality, premature ejaculation, and other forms of sexual deviance along with shyness and obsessive thoughts.
Dante's criterion was "excessive love of others," thereby detracting from the love due to God. However, Lust and love are two different things; while love is just the greatest degree of a relationship, Lust is little more than the desire for sexual release or community. The desire to masturbate is also considered a form of lust. In Purgatorio, the penitent walks within flames to purge himself of lustful thoughts.
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Body whorl 89% of shell height, so spire 11% (smaller % than spire on adults). Aperture 69% of shell height.
1: thin, fragile outer lip lacking any thickening indicates juvenile shell. (This juvenile is as big as some adults; use lip thickness, not size, to decide if a shell is adult or juvenile.)
2: distinct columellar lip, only on juveniles.
3: parietal lip not distinguished by glaze or other feature (but develops on adults) .
4: open umbilicus (sealed on adults).
Full SPECIES DESCRIPTION BELOW
Key id. features: flic.kr/p/2b9fTqj
Sets of OTHER SPECIES: www.flickr.com/photos/56388191@N08/collections/
Cepaea hortensis (O.F.Müller, 1774)
Synonyms: Helix hortensis O.F.Müller, 1774; Helix nemoralis var. hortensis in Jeffreys.
GLOSSARY below.
Shell description
Usual size of adults from 10mm high X 14mm wide up to 17mm high X20mm wide 1Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fVXJ . Slightly depressed globular shell with convex whorls. Periphery of body whorl smoothly rounded; no keel. Small spire usually less than 20% of shell height 2Ch flic.kr/p/Nu31sR . No umbilicus on adults 3Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fTqj , but present on some juveniles 4Ch flic.kr/p/2caGbTQ .
Sculpture: shell smooth and glossy. Growth lines usually weak, but occasionally more pronounced one may give false impression of an umbilicus 1Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fVXJ .
Aperture height about 50% of adult shell-height, about 70% on juvenile; approximately D-shape on adult; more rounded on juvenile 2Ch flic.kr/p/Nu31sR . Palatal (outer) lip rounded in its upper part, turning sharply into its noticeably straight basal part. Very small columellar lip on adults 5Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhFsa but present on juveniles 2Ch flic.kr/p/Nu31sR . Parietal lip is a glaze on body whorl of older shells 3Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fTqj , imperceptible on juveniles 4Ch flic.kr/p/2caGbTQ
The palatal (outer) lip of adults has a white thickening and rib just within the rim 6Ch flic.kr/p/2caG9xh & 5Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhFsa . Externally, brown pigment usually does not extend onto the rim of the palatal lip; it is usually pale yellowish. The adult lip becomes everted, and at the base a short section may be reflected to expose some of the white inner face 5Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhFsa & 6Ch flic.kr/p/2caG9xh . Exceptions occur with a dark lip or slight dark flush on the white (Cameron, 2008), and juveniles have a thin fragile lip lacking any thickening or white 4Ch flic.kr/p/2caGbTQ . On live specimens the external ground colour of the opaque shell is usually some shade of glossy yellow 7Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhBFT with or without one to five brown spiral bands 1Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fVXJ , 6Ch flic.kr/p/2caG9xh & 8Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhzBn which occasionally merge 9Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrvKB , sometimes to give an entirely brown shell. The shell is whitish where the outer coloured surface is eroded to reveal the lower layer of shell or where extensive damage has been repaired 10Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhxWt as only the leading edge of the mantle at the aperture rim can create the glossy yellow outer shell layer/periostracum . Occasionally the bands are transparent without brown pigment. Internally, the shell has similar pattern to the exterior 1Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fVXJ .
Body description
External anatomy of extended specimen.
Apart from the smooth sole and ventral surface of the head, the entire exposed body is covered in closely-set, ellipsoid tubercles 9Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrvKB . Those on the flanks are arranged in approximately longitudinal lines slanting upwards towards the posterior 11Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrtJc . Translucent greyish white on flanks darkens to brown dorsally with a medial dorsal line of single, colourless, transparent tubercles 11Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrtJc . Viscera are sometimes indistinctly visible through the body wall 12Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhwTM ; the black internal continuation of the ocular tentacles and smaller anterior tentacles especially so. When the ocular tentacle is extended, the eye is positioned on a terminal, spherical bulb 11Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrtJc . The foot is widest at about half of its length from the head; rounded at the anterior; tapering to a rounded point at the posterior 13Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrsVD . Sole yellow, darkening to brownish when compressed to adhere strongly to substrate 14Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhw6p . Pneumostome sometimes visible within shell aperture on right 15Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhtCt & 16Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhtoa .
Functional internal anatomy:
Muscular system
The largest muscle is the white columellar muscle which connects the columella of the shell to the foot, and is used to draw the animal into the shell. It may be seen when the animal is first extracted from the shell 17Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhs3e . Many other muscles, such as those retracting the tentacles and buccal mass, run close to and join the columellar muscle; all need to be severed during dissection 18Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2MXa if the body is to be straightened out for examination.
The ocular tentacles 19Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhqGD , and other organs such as anterior tentacles, dart sac and penis 20Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2Ma8 are withdrawn into the body by the pull of retractor muscles that invert the organs like a sock pulled outside in 18Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2MXa . They are everted out of the body by muscles increasing the hydrostatic pressure in them of the haemolymph (invertebrate blood) which occupies the haemocoel (body cavity) free of confinement by veins or arteries.
Respiratory system
The mantle cavity is sealed by a yellowish collar of thickened mantle that has a pneumostome (respiratory pore) which can be opened for inhalation/exhalation of air 15Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhtCt & 16Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhtoa or closed to seal the cavity against dehydration. The transparent, sometimes spotted, roof of the mantle cavity contains a network of blood vessels 21Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhqkB and is very thin, enabling oxygen from inhaled air to diffuse into the vessels and for carbon dioxide to leave with the exhaled air. Air is moved in and out of the mantle cavity by the snail lowering and raising the floor of the mantle cavity 22Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2KLg to reduce or increase the air pressure in the cavity relative to that of the atmosphere. The oxygenated blood (haemolymph) is circulated to the rest of the body by the heart near the mantle cavity 22Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2KLg . Colourless haemolymph, depleted of oxygen, returns to the vascular roof of the mantle cavity via capillary vessels.
Alimentary system
The mouth is a transverse slit from which a radula emerges to rasp and gather food particles into the buccal cavity 23Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhnNn . The radula is a broad chitinous band covered with thousands of white teeth arranged in transverse rows 24Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2JiX . It is created within a white radula sac which is folded at the posterior where it protrudes from the rear of the buccal mass 25Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhmWT . The radula rests on a pair of cartilaginous bolsters 26Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2HJR , the odontophore, which support it as it is thrust back and forth. At its anterior, the radula emerges from the sac and flattens in readiness for use. A static red jaw with strong ribs is set into the top of the mouth 27Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2H3k ; it retains food loosened by the radula. Copious saliva to assist ingestion is brought to the buccal cavity and mouth from salivary glands by long salivary ducts 28Ch flic.kr/p/29tGHW5 . The short anterior tentacles, which can be retracted by inversion, are close to the mouth 29Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2FDP . When not feeding, the mouth is concealed behind a pair of lobe-like lips that open laterally, and the lips are flanked by lobes of the head 29Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2FDP . The buccal cavity leads to the oesophagus and subsequently to a wider, long, capacious crop alongside of which the large salivary glands are located 28Ch flic.kr/p/29tGHW5 . The crop leads to the narrower intestine which loops through the digestive gland 18Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2MXa , where digestion takes place, before joining the rectum along the right side of the body 28Ch flic.kr/p/29tGHW5 and ending at the anus which defecates into the mantle cavity. Conservation of water is important for land molluscs such as C. hortensis so faeces are quite dry 30Ch flic.kr/p/29tGGtf . Faeces and excreta leave the mantle cavity with the exhalent current out of the pneumostome.
Nervous system
Instead of a single brain C. hortensis, like other gastropods, has a series of ganglia (nerve knots) on a nerve cord that runs in a ring around the oesophagus 19Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhqGD with a dorsal and a ventral longitudinal extension towards the posterior on each side of the body 31Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2Fng . Each ganglion innervates a, usually proximate, specific part of the body. The cerebral ganglia on the nerve ring connect 32Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrm5K to the ocular tentacles, eyes and other parts of the head such as a subsidiary ring with ganglia around the buccal mass 26Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2HJR to control its feeding movements. The pedal ganglia on the ventral part of the nerve ring connect to the foot, and other regions of the body are connected to ganglia on the longitudinal extensions towards the posterior.
Reproductive system
[This section is based on Kerney & Cameron (1979) and Cameron (2008) except the part in italics which is based on Lodi & Koene (2016). The functions of love darts, the bursa copulatrix and diverticulum are not fully understood; some different hypotheses are mentioned below image 36Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2CR4 .]
C. hortensis is a simultaneous hermaphrodite. A mating couple approach each other face to face and try to manoeuvre into position to shoot a sharp dart of crystalline calcium carbonate 33Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrkHT & upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Cepaea_horten... into the body wall of the other by forceful eversion of its containing dart sac 34Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2DXc . The dart is coated with mucus from a pair of 4-branched (sometimes 5-branched) mucus glands 34Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2DXc & 35Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrkqZ connected close to the opening of the dart sac. The penis 20Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2Ma8 of each is everted, like a sock turned inside out, through the atrium and out of the genital pore by hydrostatic pressure of haemolymph (blood). Each inserts its penis through the other's genital pore and atrium into its vagina 35Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrkqZ .
[The following two paragraphs are best understood if read from the caption below image 36Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2CR4 as numbers (1) to (17) refer to features in the image.]
Spermatozoa travel from the ovotestis (1) through the common duct (2 a.k.a. ovotestis duct or little hermaphrodite duct) to the albumen gland (3), thence through the prostate gland (4) and vas deferens (5) to the penis (6) where they are formed by its epiphallus (6e) and flagellum (6f) into a spermatophore (long thin package). The spermatophore is ejected through the everted penis into the other snail's vagina (7) 37Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrjXK . Fertilization is delayed for a few weeks, sometimes months, while a store of allosperm is accumulated in the diverticulum from couplings with other partners. To try to ensure that a single partner's sperm does not monopolize the fertilization, each allosperm deposit is reduced by the bursa copulatrix (8) digesting some of it on its transit from the vagina along the bursal duct (9) towards the diverticulum (10 small on this species). The insertion of a love dart from its sac (11) by the sperm-inserting partner earlier in the mating process partially counters the reduction of its allosperm contribution as the dart is coated from the mucus glands (12) with mucus containing chemicals that cause contraction waves in the vagina (7) which intermittently constrict the duct branch (13) to the bursa copulatrix (8), and increase the contractions of the diverticulum (10) which probably ease the passage of the spermatophore into it. Allosperm are stored in the diverticulum until required.
Ova pass from the ovotestis (1) through the common duct (2 a.k.a. ovotestis duct) to the albumen gland (3) 38Ch flic.kr/p/29tGBPL where they each receive a coating of nutrient albumen and move into the fertilization chamber (14). Stored allosperm are released to swim down the bursal duct (9) and up the oviduct (15) 37Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrjXK to fertilize the ova in the fertilization chamber. The fertilized ova then travel down the oviduct, through the atrium (16), and out of the genital pore (17) to be laid in a cavity excavated in the soil. Hatching occurs after some weeks; the period depending on temperature and humidity. Crawling miniature adults emerge as there is no larval stage.
Key identification features
Cepaea hortensis
Features in common with C. nemoralis (Linnaeus, 1758)
1. No umbilicus on adults 3Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fTqj , but present on some juveniles 4Ch flic.kr/p/2caGbTQ .
2. On adults, outer lip of aperture rounded in its upper part, turning sharply into a straight basal part. Juveniles differ. 2Ch flic.kr/p/Nu31sR .
Feature frequent on Cepaea hortensis, but sometimes on C. nemoralis
3. On adults, outer lip of aperture has a white thickening and rib just within the rim 6Ch flic.kr/p/2caG9xh & 5Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhFsa . Externally, brown pigment bands do not extend onto the rim of the lip; it is usually pale yellow. Lips on juveniles of both Cepaea spp. lack thickening, rib and colour distinction 2Ch flic.kr/p/Nu31sR . Care is needed not to mistake the pale mantle for a pale lip when sometimes reflected over and concealing the outer lip.
4. The red jaw has 2 to 4 strong ribs is set into the top of the mouth 27Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2H3k (Number has overlap with C. nemoralis which has 4 to 7 ribs.)
Reliable diagnostic features that differentiate C. hortensis from C. nemoralis
5. The love dart has four vanes that are thin at base and thicker and bifurcated distally, giving a cross section like a Maltese cross 33Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrkHT . But, the dart is very brittle and often missing. For examination, a stereoscopic dissecting microscope at c.X20 is needed.
6. A pair of 4-branched (occasionally 5-branched) mucus glands are connected close to the opening of the dart sac 34Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2DXc & 35Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrkqZ .
Similar species
Cepaea nemoralis
1. As 1 above for C. hortensis.
2. As 2 above for C. hortensis.
3. On adults, outer lip of aperture usually has a brown thickening and rib just within the rim 45Ch flic.kr/p/29tLEUA . But white lipped specimens occur 46Ch flic.kr/p/Q7eHQf . Lips on juveniles of both Cepaea spp. lack thickening, rib and colour distinction. Care is needed not to mistake the pale mantle for a pale lip when sometimes reflected over and concealing the outer lip.
4. The red jaw has 4 to 7 strong ribs (Hudson in Topley, 2006). Number has overlap with C. nemoralis which has 4 to 7 ribs.
5. The love dart has four vanes thickest at base and tapering steadily distally giving a cross section of a simple cross 47Ch flic.kr/p/2aRuFYg . But, the dart is very brittle and often missing. For examination, a stereoscopic dissecting microscope at c.X20 is needed.
6. A pair of 2-branched or 3-branched mucus glands are connected close to the opening of the dart sac 48Ch flic.kr/p/Q7eG9j . (In a Croatian study, two specimens with C. nemoralis type love darts had 4-branched glands (Štamol & Slapnik, 2015)).
7. maximum diameter 24mm, so Cepaea with diameter greater than 20mm (max. for C. hortensis) are most probably C. nemoralis 46Ch flic.kr/p/Q7eHQf . In mixed populations, C. nemoralis is usually obviously larger than C. hortensis.
Comment:
Relying for identification of a single specimen solely upon the feature suggested by the vernacular names "White-lipped snail" (C. hortensis) and "Brown-lipped snail" (C. nemoralis) can lead to misidentification. In areas where a species has not been previously recorded, several specimens should be examined and the mucus gland and love dart dissected before submitting the record to a recording scheme. The Pennine specimens illustrated in this account come from a garden where for 35 years C. hortensis was common, but C. nemoralis not seen until the hot dry summer of 2018 when 9 adults were found; 8 with brown lips and one with a white lip (love darts and mucus glands examined).
Special care is needed in continental Europe where further similar species occur. On the basis of lip colour, C. hortensis was regarded for over 150 years as living in Croatia. Recent fieldwork at its previously recorded sites failed to discover it, but found 6 white-lipped and 2 brown-lipped specimens with darts and mucus glands as described for C. nemoralis, casting doubt on the occurrence of C. hortensis in Croatia and possibly other Balkan areas (Štamol & Slapnik, 2015).
Habits and ecology
In moderately moist, sheltered habitats, including under leaf litter and stones, lush road verges, woods, rocks and gardens. Also on well drained maritime turf and sand dunes in cool, moist Scotland from the Firth of Forth northwards (Boycott, 1934).
The varied colours of the faeces 30Ch flic.kr/p/29tGGtf reflect the diet of mixed decaying organic detritus and soft living plant material. Feeding action is precisely controlled to maximize use of a food source with minimum effort or waste. On a piece of glass coated with dried flour paste the foot is attached firmly to hold the shell stationary 14Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhw6p . The head is extended and makes a stroke of the radula to rasp flour to the stationary jaw and into the mouth 23Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhnNn . The head is then moved slightly to the side and a second radula stroke made parallel and immediately adjacent to the first so it does not scrape any of the surface already dealt with, but leaves no waste between strokes except for a small triangle left by the narrowed tip. This is repeated until the head can swing no further. A timed swing of the head accommodated 15 radula strokes and took 23 seconds so each stroke and repositioning took c.1.5 seconds 39Ch flic.kr/p/29tGAgq . The animal then advances slightly so the next swing is on new food leaving no waste except a narrow strip containing the triangles formed by the radula tip. In captivity on horizontal glass, the snail shifted periodically to clear a rounded area. An area of paste about equal to the basal area of the snail was cleared every 6 minutes 40Ch flic.kr/p/2b9fsbw . In the wild the feeding pattern can be seen on alga-coated surfaces, but the area cleared is often linear. This was replicated when the sheet of glass was stood on edge and the snail worked upwards, suggesting that it is negatively geotaxic 41Ch flic.kr/p/29tLLt1 . However, observations of radula tracks in the wild 41.1Ch flic.kr/p/2c3kMNf (Craik & Anderson, 2018) show that the track of an unobserved gastropod species was linear with few radula strokes per head-swing on surfaces poor in alga not worth expending energy on, and changed immediately on reaching an alga-rich area to head swings five times wider with many more radula strokes per swing and a sinuous route, avoiding previously cleared tracks, to clear a non-linear patch of algae. In captivity on bare glass devoid of food, the radula of C. hortensis was not extended 29Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2FDP .
Activity is mainly nocturnal, avoiding dehydration and visual predators by spending daylight hours under stones or dense vegetation. They may be active in the open during daylight in humid weather without drying wind, sometimes with adverse results; on a humid morning two jackdaws cleared some garden steps of about 20 specimens in a few minutes, swallowing them whole. C. hortensis and C. nemoralis are the preferred molluscan food of thrushes (Boycott, 1934); piles of smashed shells are found around stones used as their “anvils” (image by G. Watson flic.kr/p/9yNrQD ) . Similar “middens” with many Cepaea shells are left by field mice and voles which bite open the spire, avoiding the reinforced aperture lip 42Ch flic.kr/p/Q7eLdG .
Water passes readily in and out of the highly permeable tissues and organs of molluscs so conservation and control of water are important for C. hortensis and other land molluscs. The principal source is osmotic absorption by the body and superficial mucus from wet and damp surroundings (Machin in Fretter and Peake, 1975), but water is also extracted efficiently from food so faeces are fairly dry 30Ch flic.kr/p/29tGGtf . Some water is lost with urine brought from the kidney by the ureter 21Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhqkB to the mantle cavity close to the anus. Faeces and excreta leave the mantle cavity through the pneumostome. If the body surface becomes dry, water is transferred to it in exuded mucus. Much water is lost with foot mucus during locomotion 29Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2FDP & 43Ch flic.kr/p/29tLFVJ , so the snail reduces loss in dry conditions by retracting into the shell and ceasing movement. Activity also usually ceases in heavy rain when the body may become over hydrated or the mucus over diluted (Boycott, 1934; Machin in Fretter and Peake, 1975). In very dry weather, the snail retracts into the shelter of the non-permeable shell, seals the entrance with a transparent, elastic epiphragm made of a film of dried mucus 44Ch flic.kr/p/Q7eKaj and may aestivate.
Locomotion is by monotaxic, direct, compression waves on the sole. On C. hortensis each wave is almost as wide as the sole, leaving only a narrow strip along each side that is not involved in the muscular waves. When travelling on glass, 3 or 4 transverse waves at a time may be discerned as slightly darker bands moving forwards on the sole 43Ch flic.kr/p/29tLFVJ . The bands are concave and raised slightly from the substrate. Though faint, their movement makes them more obvious when seen in action. Copious mucus is exuded by the foot to provide a film for it to move over.
Longevity: unlike most smaller species which have an annual life cycle, Cepaea hortensis can live longer; annual growth lines on adults often suggest a lifespan of about 3 years 7Ch flic.kr/p/2cfhBFT .
Distribution and status
Mainly North-West Europe: southern Scandinavia (Arctic Circle on coast of Norway) to Mediterranean coast of France and Mallorca, but scarce/absent on other Mediterranean coasts; east to Germany and Austria with a few records further east in Poland and Hungary, and a group of records in southern Finland, Estonia and Latvia. Probably scarce/absent in the Balkans. Introduced into North America; mainly Newfoundland to the Great Lakes and New York. GBIF map www.gbif.org/species/2294279 . Widespread and common in Britain up to Shetland, except for acid uplands in Scotland and Wales and historically, acidically polluted southern Lancashire; U.K. interactive map NBN records.nbnatlas.org/occurrences/search?q=lsid:NHMSYS0020...
Acknowledgements
I gratefully thank Clive Craik and Linda Pryke for use of their images, and Ben Rowson of the National Museum Wales for help in interpreting anatomical images, but any errors are my responsibility.
Links and references
Bargmann, H.E. 1930. The morphology of the central nervous system in the Gastropoda Pulmonata. J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) 37 (250): 1 to 59.
Block, M.R. 1967. Dissecting Snails. Papers for students no. 8. London, the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Boycott, A.E. 1934. The habitats of land mollusca in Britain. J. Ecol. 22: 1 to 38.
Cameron, R. 2008. Land snails in the British Isles. Telford, Field Studies Council.
Cordero, A.M. (accessed October 2018) The phylogenetic distribution of darts in helicoid land snails. University of California, Berkeley.
www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/museum/75th/ab8.html
Craik, C. & Anderson, P. 2018. Fine art on a flat roof. Mollusc World 48: 26 – 27.
Fretter, V. & Peak, J. 1975. Pulmonates, functional anatomy and physiology. London, Academic Press.
Hudson, B. in Topley, P. 2006. Baker Hudson and some notes on Cepaea. Mollusc World 11: 8.
Janus, H. 1965. The young specialist looks at molluscs. London, Burke.
Jeffreys, J.G. 1862-69. British conchology. vol. 1 (1862). London, van Voorst. As Helix nemoralis var. hortensis Free pdf at archive.org/stream/britishconcholog01jeffr#page/184/searc... . Use slide at base of page to select pp.185 to 188.
Kerney, M. & Cameron, R. 1979. A field guide to the land snails of Britain and north-west Europe. London, William Collins.
Koene, J.M. and Schulenburg, H. (Mating) A love-dart at the heart of sexual conflict in snails. [Scanning Electron microscope of love dart of C. hortensis][CC BY 2.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cepaea_hortensis_SEM_dart...
Lodi, M. & Koene, J.M. (2016) On the effect specificity of accessory gland products transferred by the love-dart of land snails. BMC Evolutionary Biology 16: 104. pdf at bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-016...
Pfleger, V. 1998. A field guide in colour to molluscs. Leicester, Blitz Editions.
Silverside, A.J. Lastdragon.org Biodiversity reference. Cepaea nemoralis (L.) Grove snail and Cepaea hortensis (O.F. Müll.) White-lipped snail. Accessed October 2018. bioref.lastdragon.org/Mollusca/Cepaea.html
Štamol, V. & Slapnik, R. 2015. Cepaea hortensis (O. F. Müller, 1774)
(Mollusca: Gastropoda) in Croatia? Nat. Croat. 24 (2): 331 to 336.
pdf at hrcak.srce.hr/file/220664
Zając, K.S. & Kramarz, P. 2017. Terrestrial gastropods - how do they reproduce? Invertebrate Survival Journal 14:199-209
pdf at www.researchgate.net/publication/317212919_Terrestrial_ga...
Current taxonomy: (WoRMS) www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1002172
Glossary
aestivate = to become dormant with a low metabolic rate, similar to hibernation, in response to warm, dry conditions.
alimentary system = organs for ingestion, digestion and absorption of food and the discharge of residual waste.
allosperm = sperm received from another individual. (Term used to avoid ambiguity of origin when discussing hermaphroditic reproduction.)
aperture = mouth of gastropod shell; outlet for head and foot.
atrium (genital) = cavity within genital pore leading to reproductive organs.
buccal mass = anterior of digestive system including an odontophore that supports anterior of radula, and a complex of muscles to operate them and other mouthparts.
bursa copulatrix = (a.k.a. spermatheca) copulatory pouch or sac for receiving allosperm for storage or partial consumption (sources differ on function; see caption of 36Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2CR4 ).
capillary vessels = fine branching blood vessels.
cartilages = (in gastropods) structures of tough, resilient material, histologically resembling vertebrate cartilage, embedded in tough connective tissue of left and right bolsters of the odontophore. Support and maintain shape of odontophore, and provide attachment for muscles controlling its movement.
cartilaginous = made of, or resembling, cartilage.
cerebral = to do with integration of sensory and neural functions to initiate and coordinate body activity.
chitin = semitransparent flexible horny protein.
chitinous = made of chitin.
columella = solid or hollow axial “little column” around which gastropod shell spirals; hidden inside shell, except on final whorl next to lower part of inner lip of aperture where hollow ones may end in an umbilicus or siphonal canal.
columellar = (adj.) of or near central axis of spiral gastropod.
columellar lip = lower (abapical) part of inner lip of aperture.
common duct = (a.k.a. ovotestis duct or little hermaphrodite duct) duct in hermaphrodite species from ovotestis to the albumen gland and/or prostate gland.
ditaxic = (of locomotion waves on foot) double series of waves, out of phase with each other, one series on each side of central furrow on sole.
direct = (of locomotion waves on foot) waves travel from posterior to anterior.
distal = away from centre of body or from point of attachment.
diverticulum(of bursal duct) = blind ended branch from the bursal duct for receiving allosperm for storage or partial consumption/processing (sources differ on function; see caption of 36Ch flic.kr/p/Nu2CR4 ).
epiphallus = extension of penis between the retractor muscle and junction of the vas deferens with the penis (strictly, an enlarged section of the vas deferens). Where body of spermatophore is formed.
everted = turned outside out and, like a sock, capable of turning outside in (inverted).
flagellum = long whiplike extension beyond the epihallus. Where the tail of the spermatophore is formed.
ganglia = knots on a nerve cord.
ganglion = a knot on a nerve cord.
haemocoel = system of interconnected spaces (sinuses) containing blood within body of a mollusc.
haemolymph = invertebrate blood.
height = (of gastropod shells) distance from apex of spire to base of aperture.
innervate = to arouse or stimulate a nerve or an organ to activity.
little hermaphrodite duct = (a.k.a. common duct or ovotestis duct) duct in hermaphrodite species from ovotestis to the albumen gland and/or prostate gland.
love dart = (a.k.a. gypsobelum) sharp, calcareous or chitinous dart which some hermaphroditic land snails and slugs stab each other during courtship. See 33Ch flic.kr/p/2aRrkHT and 36Ch (caption) flic.kr/p/Nu2CR4 .
mantle = sheet of tissue that secretes the shell and forms a cavity. In terrestrial gastropds ('pulmonates') the cavity roof contains a network of blood vessels enabling the cavity to act like a lung.
medial = midline of body or organ.
median = at/near centre of body as opposed to the sides.
monotaxic = (of locomotion waves on foot) single series of waves across complete width of foot.
ocular = of or connected with the eyes.
osmosis = movement of water or a solution through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of more concentrated solution, tending to equalize the concentration on either side of the membrane.
oviduct = internal duct to carry ova to the exterior.
ovotestis = hermaphrodite organ serving as both ovary and testis.
ovotestis duct = (a.k.a. common duct or little hermaphrodite duct) duct in hermaphrodite species from ovotestis to the albumen gland and/or prostate gland.
palatal lip = outer lip of gastropod aperture.
parietal lip ( or parietal wall) = inner side of gastropod aperture, often lacking clear lip structure with just a glaze on side of whorl adapically of columellar lip.
periostracum = thin horny layer of chitinous material often coating shells.
periphery = perimeter of the body whorl of a gastropod at its widest. Sometimes marked by a keel or coloured band.
odontophore = firm, usually medially grooved, approximately ellipsoid structure of cartilage supporting radula. Protruded like a tongue to operate radula. .
pneumostome = closeable breathing pore or respiratory opening in mantle of a pulmonate slug or snail.
prostate gland = gland that adds material to spermatozoa travelling through it to form semen.
proximal = towards the centre of the body or point of attachment.
proximate = very close to.
pulmonate = member of Pulmonata, one of three subclasses into which the class Gastropoda (slugs and snails) was divided during the 20th Century (other two were Prosobranchia and Opisthobranchia). This classification is no longer used by scientists, but pulmonate is a useful informal term to signify terrestrial slugs and snails, and freshwater snails, breathing atmospheric air through the lining of the mantle cavity, and with no operculum. There are also several freshwater and land prosobranchs. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonata
radula = ribbon of chitin bearing chitinous teeth that is extruded on a tongue-like odontophore of cartilage to rasp food.
spermatophore = a package made of mucoprotein containing an ejaculation of semen; created in the epiphallus and flagellum during copulation.
umbilicus = cavity up axis of some gastropods, open as a hole or chink on base of shell, often sealed over.
ureter = duct by which urine passes from the kidney out of the body.
vas deferens = tube carrying sperm to the penis.
vascular = relating to, containing or consisting of a vessel or vessels, especially those carrying blood.
When the female showed an unmistakable posture of invitation to mate, I had just a few seconds to prepare for the proceedings. Remark the change of the position of the feet of the male: initially on the back of the male, presumemably on the time of ejaculation he grabs her at the abdominal side. Please have a look at the whole series, in the Marken album they can be viewed in chronological order.
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Cock and ball torture (CBT), penis torture or dick torture is a sexual activity involving application of pain or constriction to the penis or testicles. This may involve directly painful activities, such as genital piercing, wax play, genital spanking, squeezing, ball-busting, genital flogging, urethral play, tickle torture, erotic electrostimulation, kneeing or kicking.[1] The recipient of such activities may receive direct physical pleasure via masochism, or emotional pleasure through erotic humiliation, or knowledge that the play is pleasing to a sadistic dominant. Many of these practices carry significant health risks.[2]
Contents
Devices and practices
Top left: Erotic electrostimulation. Top right: Trampling the penis. Bottom left: Wax play. Bottom right: Chastity piercing.
Similar to many other sexual activities, CBT can be performed using toys and devices to make the penis and testicles more easily accessible for attack, or for foreplay purposes.[3][4]
Ball stretcher
A metal ball stretcher and cock ring, which forces penis' erection.
A ball stretcher is a sex toy that is used to elongate the scrotum and provide a feeling of weight pulling the testicles away from the body. This can be particularly enjoyable for the wearer as it can make an orgasm more intense, as testicles are prevented from moving up. Intended to make one's testicles permanently hang much lower than before (if used regularly for extended periods of time), this sex toy can be potentially harmful to the male genitals as the circulation of blood can be easily cut off if over-tightened.
While leather stretchers are most common, other models consist of an assortment of steel rings that fastens with screws, causing additional but only mildly uncomfortable weight to the wearer's testicles. The length of the stretcher may vary from 1-4 inches.[5] A more dangerous type of ball stretcher can be home-made simply by wrapping rope or string around one's scrotum until it is eventually stretched to the desired length.
Ball crusher
A ball crusher is a device made from either metal or often clear acrylic that squeezes the testicles slowly by turning a nut or screw. How tight it is clamped depends on the pain tolerance of the person it is used on. A ball crusher is often combined with bondage, either with a partner or by oneself.
Parachute
A parachute is a small collar, usually made from leather, which fastens around the scrotum, and from which weights can be hung. It is conical in shape, with three or four short chains hanging beneath, to which weights can be attached.
Used as part of cock and ball torture within a BDSM relationship, the parachute provides a constant drag, and a squeezing effect on the testicles. Moderate weights of 3–5 kg can be suspended, especially during bondage, though occasionally much heavier weights are used. Smaller weights can be used when the male wearing it is free to move; the swinging effect of the weight can restrict sudden movements, as well as providing a visual stimulus for the dominant partner.[citation needed]
Humbler
Man with humbler
A humbler is a BDSM physical restraint device used to restrict the movement of a submissive male participant in a BDSM scene.
The humbler consists of a testicle cuff device that clamps around the base of the scrotum, mounted in the center of a bar that passes behind the thighs at the base of the buttocks. This forces the wearer to keep his legs folded forward, as any attempt to straighten the legs even slightly pulls hard on the scrotum, causing anything from considerable discomfort to extreme pain.
Testicle cuffs
A testicle cuff is a ring-shaped device around the scrotum between the body and the testicles which when closed does not allow the testicles to slide through it. A common type has two connected cuffs, one around the scrotum and the other around the base of the penis. They are just one of many devices to restrain the male genitalia. A standard padlock, which cannot be removed without its key, may also be locked around the scrotum.
Some passive men enjoy the feeling of being "owned", while dominant individuals enjoy the sense of "owning" their partners. Requiring such a man wear testicle cuffs symbolizes that his sexual organs belong to his partner, who may be either male or female. There is a level of humiliation involved, by which they find sexual arousal. The cuffs may even form part of a sexual fetish of the wearer or his partner.[citation needed]
However, these are extreme uses of testicle cuffs. More conventionally, the device pulls down the testicles and keeps them there during stimulation, which has a number of benefits:
Making the penis appear longer. Pulling the testicles down and away from the base of the penis stretches the skin over the base of the penis and pubic bone, exposing the additional inch or so of penile shaft that is normally hidden from view.
Improving sexual arousal. While some men may be aroused by the feeling of being "owned", the physical feeling of stretching the ligaments that suspend the testicles has an effect similar to the more common practice of stretching one's legs and pointing the toes.
Preventing the testicles from lifting up so far that they become lodged under the skin immediately adjacent to the base of the penis, a condition which can be very uncomfortable, especially if the testicle is then squashed by the slap of skin during thrusting in sexual intercourse.
Delaying or intensifying ejaculation by preventing the testicles from rising normally to the "point of no return". It is much harder to reach an orgasm.
Cock harness
A cock harness is a penile sex toy designed to be worn around the penis and scrotum. Its function is similar to that of a cock ring. These devices are often associated with BDSM activities. The Gates of Hell is a male chastity device made up of multiple cock rings that can be used for CBT.[6] Kali's Teeth is a metal bracelet with interior spikes that closes around the penis and can be used for preventing or punishing erections.[7]
Ball busting
Ball busting: A woman kicking male submissive's testicles at Folsom Street Fair, USA
"Ball busting" is the practice of kicking or kneeing men in the testicles. It carries several medical risks, including the danger of testicular rupture from blunt trauma.
CBT in Japan
Tamakeri (玉蹴り) (lit. ball kicking) is a sexual fetish and subgenre of BDSM within which a man's testicles are abused. The genre is also referred to as ballbusting ("bb" for short).[8][9] Tamakeri is the Japanese term, but it is used by many non-Japanese people to describe media where Asian people—mainly women—are participating in it. The dynamics of tamakeri consist of a masochist having their testicles hurt by a sadist.[10] The fetish is popular among heterosexual and homosexual men and women.[11]
Denkianma (電気按摩) (lit. "electric massage") is a popular Japanese prank played between two people where one person puts their foot into the genital area of the other and shakes it in a vibrating motion.[12][13] Often this is done by grabbing the other person's feet, raising them, and then placing one's own foot on their crotch and vibrating it. This is often done between school aged boys as a prank similar to kancho and could be seen by a western audience as a type of bullying. In 2006 the crisps company Doritos released a new flavour of potato chip called "Denkianma".[14]
Safety
This section needs attention from an expert in health. The specific problem is: concerns medical topics, but lacks appropriate citations.
Loss of blood flow is one of the biggest risks in cock and ball torture, which can be seen with loss of color and edemas.[15] Bondage in which the testicles are tied to something else is especially dangerous, increasing the risk of the testicles getting damaged through excessive tension or pulling.
The most serious injuries are testicular rupture, testicular torsion and testicular avulsion, which are medical emergencies that require urgent medical attention.[16]
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Tantra is (it would be more precise to tell "are"), form a set of texts which have been elaborated during past centuries; important ones are nearly one thousand years old. The word Tantra comes from the sanskrit root "trayati" which means to release, to disengage. Accordingly, the Tantra ultimate target is to free human beings from their limitations.
Tantrisme includes a set of methods, even we can say accurate methods, which aim at getting a transmutation of the energies at work in the human being.
Let us explain.
The Yogi experiment (this exactly means that we don't speak about any belief, therefore it is not a religious postulate) that the human being is composed of several "levels", from the coarsest (the physical body) to the most subtle.
These levels, or layers, are named kosha in sanskrit. We don't intend to discuss here about the intrinsic existence or non-existence of the soul. At the very least, this concept leads to some confusion when it is compared with the super-conscious states experienced by the great Yogis (we don't speak about the students of a Yoga course - even a high level one...).
"Ordinary" man is conducted by his passions : he does not have any control on his body, on his breathing, on his reactions, on his mental activity, etc. He is only conscious of his body and, in the best cases, of the crude aspects of his breathing. He even does not know anything about the prana - the energy of life - which underlays the breathing. And he is the toy of his "mental - psychic - body"...
Let us try to understand why.
The traditional Yoga teaches that the whole Universe is energy. This root power is guided by the three Guna . The word Guna can be translated, for want of something better, by "mode of existence", "position characterizing everything".
For a human being, excessive tamas leads to breakdown, melancoly, excessive râjas brings restlessness, anger, greediness, etc.
Tamasic and rajasic energies circulate in the body and grant to him the present turn of mind. The subtle channels which carry those energies are called nadi .
Those short explanations being understood (assuming that the aglossary has been consulted for the Sanskrit words -if necessary), one may understand that the Yogi purpose and practice aims to balance the Tamas and Râjas energies, and to develop and improve the Sattwa energy. To achieve this objective, there is a lot of techniques. The Yoga (codified by Patañjali) consists of eight stages, which are not necessarily in succession, but it is merely unwise to overpass the preliminary stages :
Yama, or social behaviour : ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (honesty), brahmâcharya (sexual control) , aparigraha (absence of possessivity)
Niyama, or moral rules in the personal life : shaucha (cleanliness), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity) , svâdhyâya (self-observance), îshvarapranidhâna (surrender to God)
Asana, postures
Prânâyâma , breath control, Prana and other energies named above mastering (the Prana is the life energy, conveyed by the breath)
Pratyâhâra : senses withdrawal
Dhâranâ, concentration on a visible or mental meditation support
Dhyâna : the deep meditation state
Samâdhi : the immersion in the Super-Consciousness.
More or less, the Yoga path follows this way. However, everybody has to find (with the help of a capable teacher), the framework of the techniques which fits to him best : Hatha Yoga, obviously, and also Râja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Kriya Yoga, Antar Mauna, Mantra Yoga, Jñana Yoga, etc... Every teaching underlines such-and-such aspect, but, in any case, it has to satisfy the compulsory and preliminary purification of the disciple energies, before they can be adequately transmuted.
On his side, tantrism offers a more direct track, expected to bring quicker results (only a few decades span of painstaking and regular work). To be simple, one may say that the goal is to awaken the Sattvic energy of the Kundalini, asleep in the Mûladhâra chakra and to conduct this energy, via the sushumna nadi, crossing every chakra, up to the Sahasrara chakra.
We don't intend here to explain more about the chakra symbolism; in fact, it looks to be a very complex matter. Furthermore, it is linked to practices which are irrelevant in this Web site.
We will only keep in mind that tantric practices emphasize the importance of the Shakti .
Hatha Yoga is fundamentaly a tantric way; consequently, it may be practiced in this full the prospect. However, when Hatha Yoga migrated from India to Western countries, it grew weaker. Anyway, remember that this word Hatha means effort, strengh, and yhat there is a trap in the meaning of that word effort : all the Yoga teachers tell their student not to force themselves... The Hatha Yoga popularization led most people to know only the physical branch, the asana (postures). From there, appeared anti-stress yoga for overworked yuppies, exhausted housewifes, depressed unmarried men and women. It's not so bad, it's even really nice, but it's the very basic Yoga.
On the other side, tantrism practice may lead, in Western countries, to unfortunate delusions. Invoking and awakening the Shakti Power requires a very strict life training, assiduous practice of advanced forms of Yoga (asana, prânâyâma), and meditation sessions coupled with continuous specific mantra repetition (japa). All this context must be under the control of a competent Yoga teacher (guru) and reserved only to adequately trained Yoga students.
In addition, a "sexual" positioning of the tantric Yoga has been developed in Western countries. One may suppose that this tendency is due to a particular demand
It is true, since many centuries, that specific forms of tantrism focused on sexuality, more precisely on the mastering of this very powerful force.
However, tantrism adapted to European people has sometimes distorted the fundations of this very complex and secret science. We may say secret, since this science requires from the practiser a high level of qualification, because of real dangers, psychological as well as physical.
Indeed, sexual intercourse, as practised in tantrism, is the acme of a long partners training. Furthermore, this act is not permitted to culminate in the ejaculation. The orgasm energy must be voluntarily directed, through the sushumna, from the lowest chakra (Mûladhara) to the Sahasrara chakra... Adding the fact that the shakti (here, that word points out the sexual partner) orgasm is not expected, most amateurs should be discouraged...
Unfortunately, in our countries, the "sexual" tantrism aspects are too often discussed, or even teached with a dubious complacency by pseudo guru to yoga students greedy to get "powers" and sensations. When they don't validate a form of sex exchange, these questionable practices generally end up at disillusions. At best, the "tantric "students have to content themselves with unusual energy signs (colors, visions, heat, trembling, etc.). These experiences may reinforce their ego (self-satisfaction), leading them to a way opposite to the Yoga way...
In any event, we may underline that sexual aspects in tantrism must only be eventually tackled in the long run, after full achievement of a deep work on energies, opening out onto the control on purified chakra working.
A few good books :
Arthur Avalon. La Puissance du Serpent. Mystiques et Religions. Dervy-Livres, Paris, 1981
Julius Evola. Le Yoga tantrique; sa métaphysique, ses pratiques. Arthème Fayard, Paris; collection documents spirituels, 1971
Tara Michaël. Introduction aux voies du Yoga. Editions du Rocher, Monaco; 1980
Tara Michaël. Hatha Yoga Pradîpikâ. Fayard, Paris, 1974
Tara Michaël. Corps subtil et corps causal. Les six cakra et le kundalini Yoga. Le Courrier du Livre, Paris; 1979
Sri Swami Sivananda. Yoga de la Kundalini. Préface d'André Van Lysebeth. EPI Editeurs, Rue des Saints Pères, Paris; 1973
Ganesh and Tantrism
Ganesh is the Lord of the Mûlâdhâra chakra, which is the first chakra, the chakra of the base. The Mûlâdhâra chakra corresponds to the Earth (Prithivî) element; it is represented by a yellow-colored square figure, in which is written the root-mantra (bîja-mantra ) LAM; this square is bordered, on the four sides, by four petals. Inside the square figure, below the bîja-mantra, one generally finds the Shiva Lingam , black-colored, in a turned down summit triangle. The snake, representing the Kundalini asleep power, is wound around this Shiva Lingam. Every bîja-mantra is associated with a carrier-animal (vâhana ). The vâhana of LAM is the elephant.
Therefore, in tantric practices, Ganesh is invoked as the Power able to awake the Kundalini Shakti.
Indeed, the target of tantric practices (once the context has been correctly appreciated, and the mentionned-above precautions have been assimilated), is to wake the energy asleep in the mûladhâra chakra and to make it rising, crossing every chakra, up to the Sahasrara Chakra. Let us stress this point : this practice is difficult and somewhat risky if the student expects to run over the stages too quickly. It is easy to understand why : in every chakra there are blokages (energy nodes, grantha) which indicate the lack of yogic preparation of this chakra energies.
For exemple : if excessive rajasic energies are vigorously set in motion by intensive prânâyâma, that can get jammed in the Svâdishthâna chakra and generate intemperates sexual needs (nice result !), or in the Manipûra chakra irritate the person who does not understand what happens and why she feels herself so bad.
In the practices involving Ganesh, we have to remember that the god power is used to transform our negative forces in positive ones. We know that Hindu gods are definitely universal forces which take on various functions.
About this topic, read again the "background" chapter.
Gods act through the mantra which invoke them. Indeed, mantra are very powerful phonemes. We talk about bîja mantra which are the true vibrations of the deity.
It is absolutely necessary, for several reasons, that working with the Kundalini implies the use of a bîja mantra under the effective supervision of a skilled teacher, and in certain circumstances. This is why it's really not very interesting to learn bîja-mantra in books.
On the other hand, Vedic mantra, used in exoteric rituals, are not dangerous ones; and they always bring very benefic results.
Ganesh mantra
There are many kinds of tantric mantra. Some are personal mantra used for japa practice, other satisfy particular purposes.
Mantra bring strong psychic, therapeutic, and spiritual results. LAM is the bîja-mantra of the Earth element. Therefore, it is in connexion with the Mûladhara chakra. GAM is also linked with the Earth element; it is the reason why one can say that it is a Ganesh bîja-mantra. GLAUM is another bîja-mantra in connexion with Ganesh. By contrast, OM is a universal mantra, which must be pronounced before all the other mantra. However, we have observed that Ganesh, for his devotees, is OM Himself.
For instance : OM GAM Ganeshaya Namaha.
Please note : the final a f the word namaha is not pronounced.
Mantra purposes are many :
OM Shrî Ganeshâya namaha : the most classical Ganesh mantra; this is a good mantra for youg people (among others), to assist success at school
OM GAM Ganapataye namaha (Ganapati Up.) : used in order to remove all obstacles before starting anything
OM namo bhagavate Gajânanâya namaha : devotional mantra used to feel the all-pervaiding presence of Lord Ganesh and to obtain His darshana
OM Vakratundâya HUM : powerful mantra quoted in the Ganesha Purâna, used to rectify twisted events
OM Kshipra Prasâdâya namaha : to obtain quickly Ganesh's help and to purify the aura
OM HRîM SHRîM KLîM GLAUM GAM Ganapataye Varavarada sarvajaname vashamanâya svaha : this is a mantra of self giving to Lord Ganesh
OM HRîM SHRîM KLîM GAUM GAH Shrîmahâganâdhipataye namaha
OM HRîM SHRîM KLîM namo bhagavate Gajânanâya
Shrîmahâganapati pranava mûlamantra GAM OM
HRîM SHRîM KLîM GAUM varadamûrtaye namaha
OM HRîM SHRîM KLîM namo Ganeshvarâya brahmarûpâya charâve sarvasiddhipradeyâya brahmanaspataye namaha
Shrî Gajânana jaya Gajânana
HRîM GAM HRîM Ganapataye namaha
Bîjâya Bhâlachandrâya Ganeshaparamâtmane pranatakleshanâsâya Herambâya namo namaha
âpadâmapahartâram dâtâram sukhasampadâm ksipraprasâdanam devam bhûyo bhûyo namâmyaham
Namo Ganapate tubhyam Herambâyaikadantine svânandavâsine tubhyam brahmanaspataye namaha
Suklâmbaradharam devam sasisûryanibhânanam prasannavadanam dhyâyet sarvavighnopasântaye
Namastamai Ganeshâya brahmavidyâpradâyine yasyâ gastayate nâma vighnasâgarasosane
Yadbhrûpranihitam lakshmîm labhante bhaktakotayah svatantramekam netâram vighnarâjam namâmyaham
Thus, one may verify that most mantra are specialized ones. They are adressed to specific Ganesh forms which represent all the specific powers of this god.
To consult the chapter on the Ganesh names. The very broad range of these names represents a good abstract of the Ganesh powers.
Ganesh Gâyatrî mantra
Gâyatrî mantra are Vedic mantra. They are used during pûjâ.
Mahâkarnâya vidmahe vakratundâya dhîmahi tanno danti prachodayât
Ekadantâya Vidmahe Vakratundâya dhîmahi tanno danti prachodayât (Ganapati Up.)
OM tatpurushâya vidmahe Vakratundâya dhîmahi tanno danti prachodayât (Narayana Up.)
OM tat karâtâya vidmahe hasti mukhâya dhîmahi tanno danti prachodayât (Maibrâyani Samhita 2:6-9)
OM ekadantâya vidmahe vakratundâya dhîmahi tanno danti prachodayât
Ganapati Upanishad
om bhadram karnebih shrnuyâma devâh
bhadram pashyema akshabhir yajatrah
sthurair angaih tushtuvâmsah tanûbhir
vyashema devahitam yadâyuh
om shântih shântih shântih
Mantra 1
om lam namaste ganapataye
Mantra 2
tvam eva pratyaksham tattvam asi; tvam eva kevalam kartâsi; tvam eva kevalam dhartâsi; tvam evam kevalam hartâsi; tvam evam sarvam khalu idam brahmâsi; tvam sâkshât âtmâsi
Mantra 3
nityam rtam vachmi; satyam vachmi
Mantra 4
ava tvam mâm; ava vaktâram; ava shrotâram; ava dâtâram; ava dhâtâram; avânûchânam; ava shishyam; ava purastâttât; ava dakshinâttât; ava pashchâttât; ava uttarâttât; ava cha ûrdhvâttât; avâdharâttât; sarvato mâm pâhi pâhi samantât
Mantra 5
tvam vâñgmayah tvam chinmayah; tvam ânandamayah tvam brahmamayah; tvam sat-chit-ânanda advitîyo asi; tvam pratyaksham brahma asi; tvam jñânamayo vijñânamayo asi
Mantra 6
sarvam jagat idam tvatto jâyate; sarvam jagat idam tvattasstishthati; sarvama jagat idam tvayi layam eshyati; sarvat jagat idam tvayi pratyeti;
tvam bhûmih âpo analo anilo nabhah; tvam chatvâri vâk parimitâ padâni;
tvam guna trayâtîtah; tvam deha trayâtîtah; tvam kâla trayâtîtah; tvam mulâdhare sthito asi nityam; tvam shakti trayâtmakah;
tvam yogino dhyâyanti nityam; tvam brahmâ, tvam vishnuh, tvam rudrah, tvam indra, tvam agnih, tvam vâyuh, tvam sûryah, tvam chandramâh, tvam brahma, bhûr bhuvah suvar om.
Mantra 7. Ganapati Mantra : Ganapati Manu
ganâdîn pûrvam uchchârya, varnâdim tad anantaram; anusvarâh paratarah ardha indu lasitam tatha; târena yuktam, etat eva manu svarûpam.
Mantra 8
gakârah pûrva rûpam; akâro madhyama rûpam; anusvârah cha antya rûpam; bindur uttara rûpam; nâdah sandhânam; samhitâ sandih; sâ eshâ gâneshî vidyâ
Mantra 9
ganakah rishih; nrchat gâyatrî chhandah; shrî mahâ ganapatir devatâ; om ganapataye namah
Mantra 10. Ganapati Gayatri
eka dantaya vidmahe; vakratundaya dhîmahi; tanno dantih prachodayât
Mantra 11. Meditation on Ganapati (Dhyâna)
eka dantam chatur hastam pâshâm angkusha dhârinam; abhayam varadam hastair bibhrânam mûshaka dhvajam
Mantra 12
raktam lambodaram shûrpam sukarnam rakta vâsanam; rakta gandhânuliptânggam rakta pushpaih supûjitam
Mantra 13
bhaktânu kampinam devam jagat kâranam achyutam; âvir bhûtam cha srshtyâdau prakriteh purushât param
Mantra 14
evam dhyâyati yo nityam, sa yogî yoginâm varah
Mantra 15
namo vrâtapataye, namo ganapataye, namah pramatha pataye, namaste astu lambodarâya ekandatâya, vighna vinâshine shiva sutâya varada mûrtaye namo namah
The endd of the Upanishad is :
om saha nau avatu sahau nau bhunaktu saha vîryam karavâvahai tejasvinau avadhîtam astu mâ vidvishâvahai
om shântih shântih shântih
Nota : From the book "Ganapati" by R.L. Kashyap, Ed Saksi, 2005.
Before my first orgasm, I always thought ejaculation or squirting was the preserve for a few. My first experience was uplifting, the amount of fluid spurting from my urethra was profuse and the fragrance quite pleasant. Before then, I only thought female ejaculation was silly made up stories from porn.
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