Surya Chikitsa or Color Therapy is a drugless method of treating the diseases by using different colors from sunlight. The rays of the sun contain all the essential elements needed to reestablish and maintain the health of the human body. Sun rays are made-up of seven colors – (1) Red (2) Yellow (3) Orange (4) Green (5) Blue (6) Indigo (7) Violet.

 

These colors can be seen in rainbow. These seven colors have different qualities. In the other words there are only 7 medicines for all the bodily ailments. The law of nature is that where there is light, there is energy and there is life. There is coolness, heat and weight in colors. Place a thermometer in a glass of water and throw rays over it. Red rays will show heat and blue rays will show coolness. This proves the above fact.

 

The history of color therapy is very ancient. Indian Vedic scriptures have mentioned the significance of these colors. This system was first practiced in India by Indian Rishis (Indian Saints). Then slowly this knowledge reached to China, Egypt, Greece and spread throughout the world. According to the basic principles of Surya Chikitsa or Color Therapy, human body is composed of different colors and lack of any color in our body gives rise to disease. A man is said to be in a state of health as long as the colors of the spectrum are in a harmonious state in his body. The body parts, which are visible, have different colors and so have the internal organs. The brain, eyes, lungs, heart, liver, intestines, kidney, bones, blood have different colors. When closely examined, even the smallest cell of the body is found colored.

 

During the state of disease, there is a disturbance in the balance of colors in the human body. When a disorder arises, besides its chemical balance, its color balance too is affected. Surya Chikitsa or color therapy restores the chemical and color balance of the body and cures the disease. Color therapy removes the foreign matter from the system that causes disease. It removes the disorder from the root cause and permanently suppress the disease.

 

This is a universally accepted fact that development of all living forms of life depends mainly on solar energy. Today solar cells can produce electricity and can run cars, trains etc. When the sun is the life force of all living things, the efficacy of colors, which are emitted from the sun rays, can hardly be doubted. An experienced naturopath can use seven colors for curing different ailments, but for the ordinary person, following four groups will be helpful for treatment:-

  

Red, Orange and Yellow

 

Green

 

Blue, Indigo and Violet

 

White Solar Charged Water

   

Red, Orange, Yellow Charged Water

Nature: Stimulating, expanding and heating property.

Properties: Orange color mainly affects the stomach, liver, spleen, kidney and the intestine. It improves the blood circulation and tones up the muscles. It is helpful in cold, anemia, low blood pressure, rheumatism, sexual weakness, sprains, polio, paralysis, constipation, brain disorders, indigestion, diabetes and eye defects. This water removes weight and removes weakness. It also increases milk in nursing mother's breasts. It enhances mental power, willpower, intelligence and courage.

Precaution: It is injurious in cases of fever, boils, inflammatory disorders, when nerves are very active and in case of high palpitation of heart.

 

Green Charged Water

Nature: Neutral, harmonizing and eliminating.

Properties: It builds up muscles and gives energy. It strengthens the nerve center and purifies the blood. And it helps to expel foreign matter from the body and helps to perk up body and mind.

Benefits: It is a mixture of yellow and blue color. It is the king of colors. It keeps the body chemistry well balanced. Being highly medicinal and depressive, it is of great help in the treatment of inflammatory conditions, fevers like typhoid and malaria, liver trouble, eye trouble, indigestion, small pox, boils, pimples, skin trouble, eczema, nightly seminal ejaculations, diabetes, boils, ulcers, headache, nervous trouble, dry cough, cold etc.

 

Blue, Indigo, Violet Charged Water

Nature: Contracting, cooling and soothing.

Properties: It is a good antiseptic. It removes swelling caused by wind and help in curing burning sensation of any kind. It affects mostly the mouth, throat and the above part reaching the brain. It increases and stimulates the hormones and the antibodies. This water increases the resistance of our body from bacterial diseases. This color is related to human mentality.

Benefits: It is useful in skin diseases, high blood pressure, old ulcers, abdominal colic, dysentery, arthritis, over fatigue deafness, migraine etc. It is as helpful medicine in easing childbirth. It is very effective in high fever and headaches, and removes burning sensation from the body. It cures excessive bleeding during menstruation, and is an effective medicine in tonsillitis, swelling of gums, toothache, pyorrhea and other aliments of the throat. If one gets burnt on any part of the body, pouring blue waters or oil and giving blue rays on the affected part, will give him a quick recovery and will also help in removing the burning sensation.

Precaution: Injurious in paralysis, colds and anemia.

 

White Solar Charged Water

It can be prepared by keeping the water for 8-10 hours in direct sunlight. A liter of this water should be taken every morning. Those who are sick and sensitive can first start with 1 glass of water and gradually increase the amount. This water should be taken empty stomach in the morning. Without brushing your teeth. Nothing should be taken (tea, coffee, or breakfast) with in one hour after taking this water. Other color charged waters could be taken after 45 minutes if needed.

 

Method To Prepare Colored Water

Colored water (water treated with different color rays of the sun) can be prepared, by exposing water in transparent glass bottles of desired color in sunlight for 6-8 hours. To prepare blue water, use blue color bottle. If colored bottle is not available warp white bottle with transparent colored sheets. After treating the water keep it for 1-2 hours to cool and then use it. Color combination described in ancient Hindu books Red, yellow and blue are the original natural colors. By mixing these colors other colors are formed. Red color when mixed with yellow color in equal proportion produces orange color and yellow color. If mixed with blue produces green color.

 

Color Combination

Red and yellow make orange, blue violet make indigo. Yellow and green make lemon. Green and blue make turquose. Red and violet produce magenta. Magenta and red make scarlet. Blue and red make purple/ violet. Yellow and blue make green. Orange and violet make brown. Green and orange make olive. Green and violet make slate.

 

Sun Bath

The exposure of body to sun rays at a particular time is termed as sun bath. It has many medicinal values. Sunlight is of prime importance for maintaining good health. Out of the five naturopathy. Sun bath should be taken early in the morning. Sun showers three types of rays upon us. These are:-

 

Rays of visible (white) light: Sunlight has seven different colors, which can be seen during rainbow. They are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. Each color has an effect on the body.

 

Infra red rays: These rays generate heat, and are beneficial in the winter. They have a good effect on the body. It relaxes the muscles, reduces swelling and removes pain.

 

Ultra violet rays: When these rays are exposed on the skin, vitamin D. is produced. Sunlight is the best available source of vitamin D. Ultraviolet rays keep the skin healthy, cures disease of the bone known as ‘Rickets'.

   

Sunlight is beneficial for the whole body. Sunlight destroys certain bacteria and disease spreading germs. It increases red blood corpuscles and white blood corpuscles in the blood and helps to increase the natural resistance of the body. It is beneficial in rheumatism, lumbago, backache, gout, cramps and loss of appetite. Sunlight helps to develop the size and the strength of the muscles. It is also useful for pregnant lady. She gets relief from fatigue, backache, over stimulation etc.

  

Points To Remember While Taking Sun Bath

 

During sun bath, minimum possible clothes should be worn. The mild sunlight of morning and evening is to be taken. The intense sunlight of the mid day should be avoided. Do not look directly into the sun. Eyes should be closed and head should be covered during sun bath. Initially, the duration of sun bath should be 5 minutes. This time can be increased gradually. In summer, it should be taken for 15 minutes and for 50 minutes during winter. It is advisable to take a cold water bath after sun bath. If cold water bath is not possible, body should be wiped by a piece of cloth dipped in cold water. Sun bath should be taken in a place, which is sheltered from direct wind. It should not be given to patients suffering from fever or acute pulmonary tuberculosis.

 

DESCRIPTION SOURCE:

 

naturopathy.co.in/colortherapy.htm

  

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Eating fig for sexual health(stamina)

 

Fig is a dry fruit that is consumed throughout the world. It is a dry fruit that has great nutritional value. It as been used as a sexual enhancer by civilization of many thousand years old. The Egyptian started using it and then there have been signs that Persians as well as mughals royals used fig. these royals had many wives and sex slaves and it is said that fig helped them in their sexual escapades.

  

The miracle formula:

 

Eating fig raw can do wonders to your sexual health and sexual stamina but cooking it with milk will increase its powers many folds. This milk should be taken before sleep. Drinking this milk for a month will make you better sexually. You will witness better erections and also longer lasting ejaculations.

  

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How To Prevent Premature Ejaculation

 

Romanian postcard by Casa Filmului Acin.

 

Beautiful Italian actress Ornella Muti (1955) often appeared in sexy Italian comedies and dramas, but she also worked for such major European directors as Marco Ferreri, Francesco Rosi and Volker Schlöndorff. English language audiences probably know her best as the sensuous Princess Aura in Flash Gordon (1980).

 

Ornella Muti was born in Rome in 1955 as Francesca Romana Rivelli. Her Neapolitan father was a journalist. Her mother, Ilse Renate Krause, was a Russian Baltic German sculptor from Estonia. Her maternal grandparents emigrated from Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg, Russia) to Estonia. Ornella has an older sister, Claudia Rivera, who was a soap actress in the 1970s. As a teenager, the beauty with the cat-like blue eyes modelled and posed for illustrated novels. At 15, she made her film debut in the romantic melodrama La moglie più bella / The Most Beautiful Wife (Damiano Damiani, 1970). In the following years, she starred in such Giallos (Italian erotic thrillers) as Un posto ideale per uccidere / Oasis of Fear (Umberto Lenzi, 1971) with Irene Papas, and erotic dramas as Appasionata / Passionate (Gian Luigi Calderone, 1974) with Valentina Cortese. In Romanzo popolare / Come Home and Meet My Wife (Mario Monicelli, 1974), she married her 33 years older godfather (Ugo Tognazzi). Her international breakthrough was as the girlfriend of Gérard Depardieu in Marco Ferreri’s shocking psychological drama La dernière femme / The Last Woman (Marco Ferreri, 1976) about a man who mutilates himself drastically when the custody of his nine-month-old son is threatened. The role lead to more interesting films with well known directors including La Stanza Del Vescovo / The Bishop's Bedroom (Dino Risi, 1977) opposite Ugo Tognazi, Ritratto di Borghesia in Nero / Nest of Vipers (Tonino Cervi, 1977) with Senta Berger, and in France, Muti starred with Alain Delon in the crime thriller Mort d'un Pourri / Death of a Corrupt Man (George Lautner, 1977). I Nuovi Mostri / Viva Italia (Mario Monicelli, Dino Risi, Ettore Scola, 1979) with Vittorio Gassman, was a black comedy, comprised of nine short stories all related to the theme that most men are selfish cads. The film was nominated for the Oscar for Best Foreign Film. In America, the film was promoted by a poster with Muti in a swimsuit and a critic’s quote: “Ornella Muti is the best filled thing from Italy since ravioli.”

 

Ornella Muti made her British film debut as Princess Aura in Flash Gordon (Mike Hodges, 1980), based on the classic space opera adventure comic strip by Alex Raymond. In the 1930s, this comic strip had been the basis for a more straight-faced adventure serial. In the new Dino De Laurentiis production, Flash's story was mined for exaggerated, cartoon humour by screenwriter Lorenzo Semple Jr., who had been a central figure in the similarly campy 1960s Batman TV series. The sets are spectacular, and the rock score by Queen is appropriately over-the-top. Ornella Muti shines as the luscious princess of the planet Mongo who tries to lure the blonde hero (Sam J. Jones). IMDb reviewer colleran-2: “Ornella Muti is simply unbelievable as Ming's gorgeous but deadly daughter. Replying to Flash's query as to whether he can use the telepathy machine to contact Dale with a perfectly candid, ‘If I showed you how. But I'm not going to’.” Back in Italy, she appeared with Adriano Celentano in the comedy Il bisbetico domato / The Taming of the Scoundrel (Franco Castellano, Giuseppe Moccia, 1980), and with Giancarlo Giannini in the Russian-Italian drama La vita è bella / Life is Beautiful (Grigori Chukhrai, 1981). Then followed one of Muti’s greatest successes, Storie di ordinaria follia / Tales of Ordinary Madness (Marco Ferreri, 1981), an adaptation of Charles Bukowski's roman à clef 'Erections, Ejaculations, Exhibitions and General Tales of Ordinary Madness'. Nathan Southern at AllMovie: “Ben Gazzara delivers a gutsy, four-barreled performance as skid-row poet and storyteller Charles Bukowski (rechristened Charles Serking onscreen) (...); he eventually falls for a prostitute (Muti) who can express her affection only via self-mutilation. Ferreri lets Bukowski's ribald humour flow throughout and exposes the dark erotic currents at the heart of the author's narratives.” The film's success led to the belated release of the Hollywood production Love and Money (James Toback, 1982) with Muti prominently on the poster. The film had already been completed in 1980, but was shelved. She co-starred in Un amour de Swann / Swann in Love (Volker Schlöndorf, 1984), an ambitious attempt to film a portion of Marcel Proust's epic novel Remembrance of Things Past with Jeremy Irons as Charles Swann. Television fans could see her in the TV movie Casanova (Simon Langton, 1987), featuring Richard Chamberlain. That year, she also starred in the Gabriel García Márquez adaptation Cronaca di una morte annunciate / Chronicle of a Death Foretold (Francesco Rosi, 1987) opposite Rupert Everett.

 

One of Ornella Muti’s most beautiful films is Wait Until Spring Bandini (Dominique Deruddere, 1990), based on a novel by John Fante and produced by Francis Coppola’s Zoetrope production. This small-scale film follows the trials of the Bandini family as they try to struggle through hard times in 1920s Colorado. Muti plays the anxious mother, wife of Joe Mantegna. Her other English language films include the Sylvester Stallone comedy Oscar (John Landis, 1991) and another comedy flop, Once Upon a Crime (Eugene Levy, 1992) with John Candy. In Italy, she appeared in the historical comedy Il viaggio di Capitan Fracassa / Captain Fracassa's Journey (Ettore Scola, 1990) with Vincent Perez, and loads of forgettable films. In France she fared better and appeared in the thriller L'Inconnu de Strasbourg / The Unknown of Strasbourg (Valeria Sarmiento, 1998), director Lucas Belvaux's trilogy: Cavale / Trilogy: One (2002) - Un couple épatant / Trilogy: Two (2002) - Après la vie/Trilogy: Three (2002), and the comedy Les Bronzes 3: Amis Pour La Vie / Les Bronzes 3: Friends Forever (Patrice Leconte, 2006), but Ornella Muti is probably best known for a TV commercial of Giovanni Panzani pasta. Ornella Muti has been married twice, to Alessio Orano, her fellow actor in La moglie più bella / The Most Beautiful Wife (1975–1981), and Federico Facchinetti (1988–1996). Muti has three children. She has a daughter by Spanish film producer José Luis Bermúdez de Castro, Naike Rivelli (1974). Naike is also a model and actress and has a close resemblance to her mother. Muti also has a son, actor Andrea Facchinetti, and a second daughter, Carolina Facchinetti, both from her second marriage. In 1996, her first grandchild, Akash, was born, a son of Naike. A second grandson named Alessandro followed from Carolina. From 1998 to 2008, Muti lived with Stefano Piccolo, a plastic surgeon. Since 2008, her partner has been Fabrice Kerhervé. In 2008, Ornella Muti introduced her own line of jewellery. She opened new shops in Paris, Milan, Rome, Riga, Moscow and Almaty. She is also still active in the cinema. She appeared in Peter Greenaway’s The Tulse Luper Suitcases, Part 3: From Sark to the Finish (2003) with Roger Rees, The Tulse Luper Suitcases, Part 2: Vaux to the Sea (2004), and Peopling the Palaces at Venaria Reale (2007). She co-starred with Western icon Terence Hill and Paul Sorvino in the Spaghetti Western Doc West / Triggerman (Terence Hill, Giulio Base, 2008) and was part of the ensemble cast of Woody Allen's mediocre romantic comedy To Rome with Love (Woody Allen, 2012). In 2015, an Italian court sentenced Muti to eight months in prison or pay a fine of 30,000 euros for faking a medical certificate and skipping a play in which she was performing in 2010, to have dinner with Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and several celebrities at a charity event held in St Petersburg, Russia. In 2016 and again in 2022, she announced the intention to also have a Russian citizenship. Muti owns a permanent residence in Moscow, Russia. She told TASS: "It would be nice for me to get citizenship, because it is part of my culture associated with my mother. She died this year, and it would be a gift for her." Ornella Muti can be seen in the upcoming film Roma elastica (2026), written and directed by Bertrand Mandico and starring Marion Cotillard.

 

Sources: AllMovie, MyMovies.It (Italian), Wikipedia, and IMDb.

 

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Testosterone

The chemical structure of testosterone.

A ball-and-stick model of testosterone.

Names

IUPAC name

17β-Hydroxyandrost-4-en-3-one

Systematic IUPAC name

(8R,9S,10R,13S,14S,17S)-17-Hydroxy-10,13-dimethyl-1,2,6,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one

Other names

Androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one

Identifiers

CAS Number

58-22-0 ☑

3D model (JSmol)

Interactive image

ChEBI

CHEBI:17347 ☑

ChEMBL

ChEMBL386630 ☑

ChemSpider

5791 ☑

DrugBank

DB00624 ☑

ECHA InfoCard100.000.336

KEGG

D00075 ☑

PubChem CID

6013

UNII

3XMK78S47O ☑

InChI[show]

SMILES[show]

Properties

Chemical formula

C19H28O2

Molar mass288.431 g·mol−1

Melting point155 °C

Pharmacology

ATC code

G03BA03 (WHO)

License data

EU EMA: by INN

Routes of

administration

Transdermal (gel, cream, solution, patch), by mouth (as testosterone undecanoate), in the cheek, intranasal (gel), intramuscular injection (as esters), subcutaneous pellets

Pharmacokinetics:

Bioavailability

Oral: very low (due to extensive first pass metabolism)

Protein binding

97.0–99.5% (to SHBG and albumin)[1]

Metabolism

Liver (mainly reduction and conjugation)

Biological half-life

2–4 hours[citation needed]

Excretion

Urine (90%), feces (6%)

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

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Infobox references

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In male humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.[2] In addition, testosterone is involved in health and well-being,[3] and the prevention of osteoporosis.[4] Insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty and bone loss.

 

Testosterone is a steroid from the androstane class containing a keto and hydroxyl groups at the three and seventeen positions respectively. It is biosynthesized in several steps from cholesterol and is converted in the liver to inactive metabolites.[5] It exerts its action through binding to and activation of the androgen receptor.[5] In humans and most other vertebrates, testosterone is secreted primarily by the testicles of males and, to a lesser extent, the ovaries of females. On average, in adult males, levels of testosterone are about 7 to 8 times as great as in adult females.[6] As the metabolism of testosterone in males is more pronounced, the daily production is about 20 times greater in men.[7][8] Females are also more sensitive to the hormone.[9]

 

In addition to its role as a natural hormone, testosterone is used as a medication, for instance in the treatment of low testosterone levels in men and breast cancer in women.[10] Since testosterone levels decrease as men age, testosterone is sometimes used in older men to counteract this deficiency. It is also used illicitly to enhance physique and performance, for instance in athletes.

  

Contents

1Biological effects

1.1Before birth

1.2Early infancy

1.3Before puberty

1.4Pubertal

1.5Adult

1.6Aggression and criminality

1.7Brain

2Medical use

3Biological activity

3.1Steroid hormone activity

3.2Neurosteroid activity

4Biochemistry

4.1Biosynthesis

4.2Distribution

4.3Metabolism

4.4Levels

5Measurement

6History

7Other animals

8See also

9References

10Further reading

Biological effects[edit]

In general, androgens such as testosterone promote protein synthesis and thus growth of tissues with androgen receptors.[11] Testosterone can be described as having virilising and anabolic effects (though these categorical descriptions are somewhat arbitrary, as there is a great deal of mutual overlap between them).[12]

 

Anabolic effects include growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density and strength, and stimulation of linear growth and bone maturation.

Androgenic effects include maturation of the sex organs, particularly the penis and the formation of the scrotum in the fetus, and after birth (usually at puberty) a deepening of the voice, growth of facial hair (such as the beard) and axillary (underarm) hair. Many of these fall into the category of male secondary sex characteristics.

Testosterone effects can also be classified by the age of usual occurrence. For postnatal effects in both males and females, these are mostly dependent on the levels and duration of circulating free testosterone.

 

Before birth[edit]

Effects before birth are divided into two categories, classified in relation to the stages of development.

 

The first period occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of the gestation. Examples include genital virilisation such as midline fusion, phallic urethra, scrotal thinning and rugation, and phallic enlargement; although the role of testosterone is far smaller than that of dihydrotestosterone. There is also development of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles.

 

During the second trimester, androgen level is associated with sex formation.[13] This period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adult's own levels. A mother's testosterone level during pregnancy is correlated with her daughter's sex-typical behavior as an adult, and the correlation is even stronger than with the daughter's own adult testosterone level.[14]

 

Early infancy[edit]

Early infancy androgen effects are the least understood. In the first weeks of life for male infants, testosterone levels rise. The levels remain in a pubertal range for a few months, but usually reach the barely detectable levels of childhood by 4–7 months of age.[15][16] The function of this rise in humans is unknown. It has been theorized that brain masculinization is occurring since no significant changes have been identified in other parts of the body.[17] The male brain is masculinized by the aromatization of testosterone into estrogen, which crosses the blood–brain barrier and enters the male brain, whereas female fetuses have α-fetoprotein, which binds the estrogen so that female brains are not affected.[18]

 

Before puberty[edit]

Before puberty effects of rising androgen levels occur in both boys and girls. These include adult-type body odor, increased oiliness of skin and hair, acne, pubarche (appearance of pubic hair), axillary hair (armpit hair), growth spurt, accelerated bone maturation, and facial hair.[19]

 

Pubertal[edit]

Pubertal effects begin to occur when androgen has been higher than normal adult female levels for months or years. In males, these are usual late pubertal effects, and occur in women after prolonged periods of heightened levels of free testosterone in the blood. The effects include:[19][20]

 

Growth of spermatogenic tissue in testicles, male fertility, penis or clitoris enlargement, increased libido and frequency of erection or clitoral engorgement occurs. Growth of jaw, brow, chin, and nose and remodeling of facial bone contours, in conjunction with human growth hormone occurs.[21] Completion of bone maturation and termination of growth. This occurs indirectly via estradiol metabolites and hence more gradually in men than women. Increased muscle strength and mass, shoulders become broader and rib cage expands, deepening of voice, growth of the Adam's apple. Enlargement of sebaceous glands. This might cause acne, subcutaneous fat in face decreases. Pubic hair extends to thighs and up toward umbilicus, development of facial hair (sideburns, beard, moustache), loss of scalp hair (androgenetic alopecia), increase in chest hair, periareolar hair, perianal hair, leg hair, armpit hair.

 

Adult[edit]

Testosterone is necessary for normal sperm development. It activates genes in Sertoli cells, which promote differentiation of spermatogonia. It regulates acute HPA (hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis) response under dominance challenge.[22] Androgen including testosterone enhances muscle growth. Testosterone also regulates the population of thromboxane A2 receptors on megakaryocytes and platelets and hence platelet aggregation in humans.[23][24]

 

Adult testosterone effects are more clearly demonstrable in males than in females, but are likely important to both sexes. Some of these effects may decline as testosterone levels might decrease in the later decades of adult life.[25]

 

Health risks[edit]

Testosterone does not appear to increase the risk of developing prostate cancer. In people who have undergone testosterone deprivation therapy, testosterone increases beyond the castrate level have been shown to increase the rate of spread of an existing prostate cancer.[26][27][28]

 

Conflicting results have been obtained concerning the importance of testosterone in maintaining cardiovascular health.[29][30] Nevertheless, maintaining normal testosterone levels in elderly men has been shown to improve many parameters that are thought to reduce cardiovascular disease risk, such as increased lean body mass, decreased visceral fat mass, decreased total cholesterol, and glycemic control.[31]

 

High androgen levels are associated with menstrual cycle irregularities in both clinical populations and healthy women.[32]

 

Sexual arousal[edit]

See also: Hormones and sexual arousal

When testosterone and endorphins in ejaculated semen meet the cervical wall after sexual intercourse, females receive a spike in testosterone, endorphin, and oxytocin levels, and males after orgasm during copulation experience an increase in endorphins and a marked increase in oxytocin levels. This adds to the hospitable physiological environment in the female internal reproductive tract for conceiving, and later for nurturing the conceptus in the pre-embryonic stages, and stimulates feelings of love, desire, and paternal care in the male (this is the only time male oxytocin levels rival a female's).[citation needed]

 

Testosterone levels follow a nyctohemeral rhythm that peaks early each day, regardless of sexual activity.[33]

 

There are positive correlations between positive orgasm experience in women and testosterone levels where relaxation was a key perception of the experience. There is no correlation between testosterone and men's perceptions of their orgasm experience, and also no correlation between higher testosterone levels and greater sexual assertiveness in either sex.[34]

 

Sexual arousal and masturbation in women produce small increases in testosterone concentrations.[35] The plasma levels of various steroids significantly increase after masturbation in men and the testosterone levels correlate to those levels.[36]

 

Mammalian studies[edit]

Studies conducted in rats have indicated that their degree of sexual arousal is sensitive to reductions in testosterone. When testosterone-deprived rats were given medium levels of testosterone, their sexual behaviors (copulation, partner preference, etc.) resumed, but not when given low amounts of the same hormone. Therefore, these mammals may provide a model for studying clinical populations among humans suffering from sexual arousal deficits such as hypoactive sexual desire disorder.[37]

 

In every mammalian species examined demonstrated a marked increase in a male's testosterone level upon encountering a novel female. The reflexive testosterone increases in male mice is related to the male's initial level of sexual arousal.[38]

 

In non-human primates, it may be that testosterone in puberty stimulates sexual arousal, which allows the primate to increasingly seek out sexual experiences with females and thus creates a sexual preference for females.[39] Some research has also indicated that if testosterone is eliminated in an adult male human or other adult male primate's system, its sexual motivation decreases, but there is no corresponding decrease in ability to engage in sexual activity (mounting, ejaculating, etc.).[39]

 

In accordance with sperm competition theory, testosterone levels are shown to increase as a response to previously neutral stimuli when conditioned to become sexual in male rats.[40] This reaction engages penile reflexes (such as erection and ejaculation) that aid in sperm competition when more than one male is present in mating encounters, allowing for more production of successful sperm and a higher chance of reproduction.

 

Males[edit]

In men, higher levels of testosterone are associated with periods of sexual activity.[41][42]

 

Men who watch a sexually explicit movie have an average increase of 35% in testosterone, peaking at 60–90 minutes after the end of the film, but no increase is seen in men who watch sexually neutral films.[43] Men who watch sexually explicit films also report increased motivation, competitiveness, and decreased exhaustion.[44] A link has also been found between relaxation following sexual arousal and testosterone levels.[45]

 

Men's levels of testosterone, a hormone known to affect men's mating behaviour, changes depending on whether they are exposed to an ovulating or nonovulating woman's body odour. Men who are exposed to scents of ovulating women maintained a stable testosterone level that was higher than the testosterone level of men exposed to nonovulation cues. Testosterone levels and sexual arousal in men are heavily aware of hormone cycles in females.[46] This may be linked to the ovulatory shift hypothesis,[47] where males are adapted to respond to the ovulation cycles of females by sensing when they are most fertile and whereby females look for preferred male mates when they are the most fertile; both actions may be driven by hormones.

 

Females[edit]

Androgens may modulate the physiology of vaginal tissue and contribute to female genital sexual arousal.[48] Women's level of testosterone is higher when measured pre-intercourse vs pre-cuddling, as well as post-intercourse vs post-cuddling.[49] There is a time lag effect when testosterone is administered, on genital arousal in women. In addition, a continuous increase in vaginal sexual arousal may result in higher genital sensations and sexual appetitive behaviors.[50]

 

When females have a higher baseline level of testosterone, they have higher increases in sexual arousal levels but smaller increases in testosterone, indicating a ceiling effect on testosterone levels in females. Sexual thoughts also change the level of testosterone but not level of cortisol in the female body, and hormonal contraceptives may affect the variation in testosterone response to sexual thoughts.[51]

 

Testosterone may prove to be an effective treatment in female sexual arousal disorders,[52] and is available as a dermal patch. There is no FDA approved androgen preparation for the treatment of androgen insufficiency; however, it has been used off-label to treat low libido and sexual dysfunction in older women. Testosterone may be a treatment for postmenopausal women as long as they are effectively estrogenized.[52]

 

Romantic relationships[edit]

Falling in love decreases men's testosterone levels while increasing women's testosterone levels. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes.[53] However, it is suggested that after the "honeymoon phase" ends—about four years into a relationship—this change in testosterone levels is no longer apparent.[53] Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship[54] or married,[55] and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce;[55] however, causality cannot be determined in this correlation. Marriage or commitment could cause a decrease in testosterone levels.[56] Single men who have not had relationship experience have lower testosterone levels than single men with experience. It is suggested that these single men with prior experience are in a more competitive state than their non-experienced counterparts.[57] Married men who engage in bond-maintenance activities such as spending the day with their spouse/and or child have no different testosterone levels compared to times when they do not engage in such activities. Collectively, these results suggest that the presence of competitive activities rather than bond-maintenance activities are more relevant to changes in testosterone levels.[58]

 

Men who produce more testosterone are more likely to engage in extramarital sex.[55] Testosterone levels do not rely on physical presence of a partner; testosterone levels of men engaging in same-city and long-distance relationships are similar.[54] Physical presence may be required for women who are in relationships for the testosterone–partner interaction, where same-city partnered women have lower testosterone levels than long-distance partnered women.[59]

 

Fatherhood[edit]

Fatherhood decreases testosterone levels in men, suggesting that the emotions and behavior tied to decreased testosterone promote paternal care. In humans and other species that utilize allomaternal care, paternal investment in offspring is beneficial to said offspring's survival because it allows the parental dyad to raise multiple children simultaneously. This increases the reproductive fitness of the parents, because their offspring are more likely to survive and reproduce. Paternal care increases offspring survival due to increased access to higher quality food and reduced physical and immunological threats.[60] This is particularly beneficial for humans since offspring are dependent on parents for extended periods of time and mothers have relatively short inter-birth intervals.[61] While extent of paternal care varies between cultures, higher investment in direct child care has been seen to be correlated with lower average testosterone levels as well as temporary fluctuations.[62] For instance, fluctuation in testosterone levels when a child is in distress has been found to be indicative of fathering styles. If a father's testosterone levels decrease in response to hearing their baby cry, it is an indication of empathizing with the baby. This is associated with increased nurturing behavior and better outcomes for the infant.[63]

 

Motivation[edit]

Testosterone levels play a major role in risk-taking during financial decisions.[64][65]

 

Aggression and criminality [edit]

See also: Aggression § Testosterone, and Biosocial criminology

Most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone, although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex. Nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as antisocial behavior and alcoholism. Many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship.[66]

 

Testosterone is only one of many factors that influence aggression and the effects of previous experience and environmental stimuli have been found to correlate more strongly. A few studies indicate that the testosterone derivative estradiol (one form of estrogen) might play an important role in male aggression.[66][67][68][69] Studies have also found that testosterone facilitates aggression by modulating vasopressin receptors in the hypothalamus.[70]

 

The sexual hormone can encourage fair behavior. For the study, subjects took part in a behavioral experiment where the distribution of a real amount of money was decided. The rules allowed both fair and unfair offers. The negotiating partner could subsequently accept or decline the offer. The fairer the offer, the less probable a refusal by the negotiating partner. If no agreement was reached, neither party earned anything. Test subjects with an artificially enhanced testosterone level generally made better, fairer offers than those who received placebos, thus reducing the risk of a rejection of their offer to a minimum. Two later studies have empirically confirmed these results.[71][72][73] However men with high testosterone were significantly 27% less generous in an ultimatum game.[74] The Annual NY Academy of Sciences has also found anabolic steroid use which increase testosterone to be higher in teenagers, and this was associated with increased violence.[75] Studies have also found administered testosterone to increase verbal aggression and anger in some participants.[76]

 

Testosterone is significantly correlated with aggression and competitive behaviour and is directly facilitated by the latter. There are two theories on the role of testosterone in aggression and competition.[77] The first one is the challenge hypothesis which states that testosterone would increase during puberty thus facilitating reproductive and competitive behaviour which would include aggression.[77] Thus it is the challenge of competition among males of the species that facilitates aggression and violence.[77] Studies conducted have found direct correlation between testosterone and dominance especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone levels.[77] The same research also found fathers (those outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males.[77]

 

The second theory is similar and is known as "evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory of male aggression".[78][79] Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain in order to be competitive even to the point of risking harm to the person and others. By doing so, individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens enhance their resource acquiring abilities in order to survive, attract and copulate with mates as much as possible.[78] The masculinization of the brain is not just mediated by testosterone levels at the adult stage, but also testosterone exposure in the womb as a fetus. Higher pre-natal testosterone indicated by a low digit ratio as well as adult testosterone levels increased risk of fouls or aggression among male players in a soccer game.[80] Studies have also found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with higher aggression in males.[81][82][83][84][85]

 

The rise in testosterone levels during competition predicted aggression in males but not in females.[86] Subjects who interacted with hand guns and an experimental game showed rise in testosterone and aggression.[87] Natural selection might have evolved males to be more sensitive to competitive and status challenge situations and that the interacting roles of testosterone are the essential ingredient for aggressive behaviour in these situations.[88] Testosterone produces aggression by activating subcortical areas in the brain, which may also be inhibited or suppressed by social norms or familial situations while still manifesting in diverse intensities and ways through thoughts, anger, verbal aggression, competition, dominance and physical violence.[89] Testosterone mediates attraction to cruel and violent cues in men by promoting extended viewing of violent stimuli.[90] Testosterone specific structural brain characteristic can predict aggressive behaviour in individuals.[91]

 

Estradiol is known to correlate with aggression in male mice.[92] Moreover, the conversion of testosterone to estradiol regulates male aggression in sparrows during breeding season.[93] Rats who were given anabolic steroids that increase testosterone were also more physically aggressive to provocation as a result of "threat sensitivity".[94]

 

Brain[edit]

The brain is also affected by this sexual differentiation;[13] the enzyme aromatase converts testosterone into estradiol that is responsible for masculinization of the brain in male mice. In humans, masculinization of the fetal brain appears, by observation of gender preference in patients with congenital diseases of androgen formation or androgen receptor function, to be associated with functional androgen receptors.[95]

 

There are some differences between a male and female brain (possibly the result of different testosterone levels), one of them being size: the male human brain is, on average, larger.[96] Men were found to have a total myelinated fiber length of 176 000 km at the age of 20, whereas in women the total length was 149 000 km (approx. 15% less).[97]

 

No immediate short term effects on mood or behavior were found from the administration of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone for 10 weeks on 43 healthy men.[98] A correlation between testosterone and risk tolerance in career choice exists among women.[64][99]

 

Attention, memory, and spatial ability are key cognitive functions affected by testosterone in humans. Preliminary evidence suggests that low testosterone levels may be a risk factor for cognitive decline and possibly for dementia of the Alzheimer's type,[100][101][102][103] a key argument in life extension medicine for the use of testosterone in anti-aging therapies. Much of the literature, however, suggests a curvilinear or even quadratic relationship between spatial performance and circulating testosterone,[104] where both hypo- and hypersecretion (deficient- and excessive-secretion) of circulating androgens have negative effects on cognition.

 

Medical use[edit]

Main article: Testosterone (medication)

Testosterone is used as a medication for the treatment of males with too little or no natural testosterone production, certain forms of breast cancer,[10] and gender dysphoria in transgender men. This is known as hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), which maintains serum testosterone levels in the normal range. Decline of testosterone production with age has led to interest in androgen replacement therapy.[105] It is unclear if the use of testosterone for low levels due to aging is beneficial or harmful.[106]

 

Testosterone is included in the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines, which are the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[107] It is available as a generic medication.[10] The price depends on the form of testosterone used.[108] It can be administered as a cream or transdermal patch that is applied to the skin, by injection into a muscle, as a tablet that is placed in the cheek, or by ingestion.[10]

 

Common side effects from testosterone medication include acne, swelling, and breast enlargement in males.[10] Serious side effects may include liver toxicity, heart disease, and behavioral changes.[10] Women and children who are exposed may develop virilization.[10] It is recommended that individuals with prostate cancer not use the medication.[10] It can cause harm if used during pregnancy or breastfeeding.[10]

 

Biological activity[edit]

Steroid hormone activity[edit]

The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of multiple mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as DHT), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors.[109][110] Androgens such as testosterone have also been found to bind to and activate membrane androgen receptors.[111][112][113]

 

Free testosterone (T) is transported into the cytoplasm of target tissue cells, where it can bind to the androgen receptor, or can be reduced to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the cytoplasmic enzyme 5α-reductase. DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than testosterone, so that its androgenic potency is about 5 times that of T.[114] The T-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the cell nucleus and bind directly to specific nucleotide sequences of the chromosomal DNA. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects.

 

Androgen receptors occur in many different vertebrate body system tissues, and both males and females respond similarly to similar levels. Greatly differing amounts of testosterone prenatally, at puberty, and throughout life account for a share of biological differences between males and females.

 

The bones and the brain are two important tissues in humans where the primary effect of testosterone is by way of aromatization to estradiol. In the bones, estradiol accelerates ossification of cartilage into bone, leading to closure of the epiphyses and conclusion of growth. In the central nervous system, testosterone is aromatized to estradiol. Estradiol rather than testosterone serves as the most important feedback signal to the hypothalamus (especially affecting LH secretion).[115] In many mammals, prenatal or perinatal "masculinization" of the sexually dimorphic areas of the brain by estradiol derived from testosterone programs later male sexual behavior.[116]

 

Neurosteroid activity[edit]

Testosterone, via its active metabolite 3α-androstanediol, is a potent positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor.[117]

 

Testosterone has been found to act as an antagonist of the TrkA and p75NTR, receptors for the neurotrophin nerve growth factor (NGF), with high affinity (around 5 nM).[118][119][120] In contrast to testosterone, DHEA and DHEA sulfate have been found to act as high-affinity agonists of these receptors.[118][119][120]

 

Testosterone is an antagonist of the sigma σ1 receptor (Ki = 1,014 or 201 nM).[121] However, the concentrations of testosterone required for binding the receptor are far above even total circulating concentrations of testosterone in adult males (which range between 10 and 35 nM).[122]

 

Biochemistry[edit]

 

Human steroidogenesis, showing testosterone near bottom.[123]

Biosynthesis[edit]

Like other steroid hormones, testosterone is derived from cholesterol (see figure).[124] The first step in the biosynthesis involves the oxidative cleavage of the side-chain of cholesterol by cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc, CYP11A1), a mitochondrial cytochrome P450 oxidase with the loss of six carbon atoms to give pregnenolone. In the next step, two additional carbon atoms are removed by the CYP17A1 (17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase) enzyme in the endoplasmic reticulum to yield a variety of C19 steroids.[125] In addition, the 3β-hydroxyl group is oxidized by 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase to produce androstenedione. In the final and rate limiting step, the C17 keto group androstenedione is reduced by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase to yield testosterone.

 

The largest amounts of testosterone (>95%) are produced by the testes in men,[2] while the adrenal glands account for most of the remainder. Testosterone is also synthesized in far smaller total quantities in women by the adrenal glands, thecal cells of the ovaries, and, during pregnancy, by the placenta.[126] In the testes, testosterone is produced by the Leydig cells.[127] The male generative glands also contain Sertoli cells, which require testosterone for spermatogenesis. Like most hormones, testosterone is supplied to target tissues in the blood where much of it is transported bound to a specific plasma protein, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG).

 

Regulation[edit]

 

Hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular axis

In males, testosterone is synthesized primarily in Leydig cells. The number of Leydig cells in turn is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In addition, the amount of testosterone produced by existing Leydig cells is under the control of LH, which regulates the expression of 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase.[128]

 

The amount of testosterone synthesized is regulated by the hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular axis (see figure to the right).[129] When testosterone levels are low, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released by the hypothalamus, which in turn stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH. These latter two hormones stimulate the testis to synthesize testosterone. Finally, increasing levels of testosterone through a negative feedback loop act on the hypothalamus and pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH and FSH/LH, respectively.

 

Factors affecting testosterone levels may include:

 

Age: Testosterone levels gradually reduce as men age.[130][131] This effect is sometimes referred to as andropause or late-onset hypogonadism.[132]

Exercise: Resistance training increases testosterone levels,[133] however, in older men, that increase can be avoided by protein ingestion.[134] Endurance training in men may lead to lower testosterone levels.[135]

Nutrients: Vitamin A deficiency may lead to sub-optimal plasma testosterone levels.[136] The secosteroid vitamin D in levels of 400–1000 IU/d (10–25 µg/d) raises testosterone levels.[137] Zinc deficiency lowers testosterone levels[138] but over-supplementation has no effect on serum testosterone.[139]

Weight loss: Reduction in weight may result in an increase in testosterone levels. Fat cells synthesize the enzyme aromatase, which converts testosterone, the male sex hormone, into estradiol, the female sex hormone.[140] However no clear association between body mass index and testosterone levels has been found.[141]

Miscellaneous: Sleep: (REM sleep) increases nocturnal testosterone levels.[142] Behavior: Dominance challenges can, in some cases, stimulate increased testosterone release in men.[143] Drugs: Natural or man-made antiandrogens including spearmint tea reduce testosterone levels.[144][145][146] Licorice can decrease the production of testosterone and this effect is greater in females.[147]

Distribution[edit]

The plasma protein binding of testosterone is 98.0 to 98.5%, with 1.5 to 2.0% free or unbound.[148] It is bound 65% to sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and 33% bound weakly to albumin.[149]

 

Plasma protein binding of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone show

Metabolism[edit]

vte Testosterone metabolism in humans

Testosterone structures

The image above contains clickable linksTestosterone metabolism in humans. Conjugation (sulfation and glucuronidation) occurs both with testosterone and with all of the other steroids that have one or more available hydroxyl (-OH) groups in this diagram.

Both testosterone and 5α-DHT are metabolized mainly in the liver.[1][151] Approximately 50% of testosterone is metabolized via conjugation into testosterone glucuronide and to a lesser extent testosterone sulfate by glucuronosyltransferases and sulfotransferases, respectively.[1] An additional 40% of testosterone is metabolized in equal proportions into the 17-ketosteroids androsterone and etiocholanolone via the combined actions of 5α- and 5β-reductases, 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and 17β-HSD, in that order.[1][151][152] Androsterone and etiocholanolone are then glucuronidated and to a lesser extent sulfated similarly to testosterone.[1][151] The conjugates of testosterone and its hepatic metabolites are released from the liver into circulation and excreted in the urine and bile.[1][151][152] Only a small fraction (2%) of testosterone is excreted unchanged in the urine.[151]

 

In the hepatic 17-ketosteroid pathway of testosterone metabolism, testosterone is converted in the liver by 5α-reductase and 5β-reductase into 5α-DHT and the inactive 5β-DHT, respectively.[1][151] Then, 5α-DHT and 5β-DHT are converted by 3α-HSD into 3α-androstanediol and 3α-etiocholanediol, respectively.[1][151] Subsequently, 3α-androstanediol and 3α-etiocholanediol are converted by 17β-HSD into androsterone and etiocholanolone, which is followed by their conjugation and excretion.[1][151] 3β-Androstanediol and 3β-etiocholanediol can also be formed in this pathway when 5α-DHT and 5β-DHT are acted upon by 3β-HSD instead of 3α-HSD, respectively, and they can then be transformed into epiandrosterone and epietiocholanolone, respectively.[153][154] A small portion of approximately 3% of testosterone is reversibly converted in the liver into androstenedione by 17β-HSD.[152]

 

In addition to conjugation and the 17-ketosteroid pathway, testosterone can also be hydroxylated and oxidized in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes, including CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6.[155] 6β-Hydroxylation and to a lesser extent 16β-hydroxylation are the major transformations.[155] The 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone is catalyzed mainly by CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent CYP3A5 and is responsible for 75 to 80% of cytochrome P450-mediated testosterone metabolism.[155] In addition to 6β- and 16β-hydroxytestosterone, 1β-, 2α/β-, 11β-, and 15β-hydroxytestosterone are also formed as minor metabolites.[155][156] Certain cytochrome P450 enzymes such as CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 can also oxidize testosterone at the C17 position to form androstenedione.[155]

 

Two of the immediate metabolites of testosterone, 5α-DHT and estradiol, are biologically important and can be formed both in the liver and in extrahepatic tissues.[151] Approximately 5 to 7% of testosterone is converted by 5α-reductase into 5α-DHT, with circulating levels of 5α-DHT about 10% of those of testosterone, and approximately 0.3% of testosterone is converted into estradiol by aromatase.[2][151][157][158] 5α-Reductase is highly expressed in the male reproductive organs (including the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and epididymides),[159] skin, hair follicles, and brain[160] and aromatase is highly expressed in adipose tissue, bone, and the brain.[161][162] As much as 90% of testosterone is converted into 5α-DHT in so-called androgenic tissues with high 5α-reductase expression,[152] and due to the several-fold greater potency of 5α-DHT as an AR agonist relative to testosterone,[163] it has been estimated that the effects of testosterone are potentiated 2- to 3-fold in such tissues.[164]

 

Levels[edit]

Total levels of testosterone in the body are 264 to 916 ng/dL in men age 19 to 39 years,[165] while mean testosterone levels in adult men have been reported as 630 ng/dL.[166] Levels of testosterone in men decline with age.[165] In women, mean levels of total testosterone have been reported to be 32.6 ng/dL.[167][168] In women with hyperandrogenism, mean levels of total testosterone have been reported to be 62.1 ng/dL.[167][168]

 

Testosterone levels in males and females show

Total testosterone levels in males throughout life show

 

Reference ranges for blood tests, showing adult male testosterone levels in light blue at center-left.

Measurement[edit]

Testosterone’s bioavailable concentration is commonly determined using the Vermeulen calculation or more precisely using the modified Vermeulen method,[174][175] which considers the dimeric form of sex-hormone-binding-globulin.[176]

 

Both methods use chemical equilibrium to derive the concentration of bioavailable testosterone: in circulation testosterone has two major binding partners, albumin (weakly bound) and sex-hormone-binding-globulin (strongly bound). These methods are described in detail in the accompanying figure.

  

Dimeric sex-hormone-binding-globulin with its testosterone ligands

  

Two methods for determining concentration of bioavailable testosterone.

History[edit]

A testicular action was linked to circulating blood fractions – now understood to be a family of androgenic hormones – in the early work on castration and testicular transplantation in fowl by Arnold Adolph Berthold (1803–1861).[177] Research on the action of testosterone received a brief boost in 1889, when the Harvard professor Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard (1817–1894), then in Paris, self-injected subcutaneously a "rejuvenating elixir" consisting of an extract of dog and guinea pig testicle. He reported in The Lancet that his vigor and feeling of well-being were markedly restored but the effects were transient,[178] and Brown-Séquard's hopes for the compound were dashed. Suffering the ridicule of his colleagues, he abandoned his work on the mechanisms and effects of androgens in human beings.

 

In 1927, the University of Chicago's Professor of Physiologic Chemistry, Fred C. Koch, established easy access to a large source of bovine testicles — the Chicago stockyards — and recruited students willing to endure the tedious work of extracting their isolates. In that year, Koch and his student, Lemuel McGee, derived 20 mg of a substance from a supply of 40 pounds of bovine testicles that, when administered to castrated roosters, pigs and rats, remasculinized them.[179] The group of Ernst Laqueur at the University of Amsterdam purified testosterone from bovine testicles in a similar manner in 1934, but isolation of the hormone from animal tissues in amounts permitting serious study in humans was not feasible until three European pharmaceutical giants—Schering (Berlin, Germany), Organon (Oss, Netherlands) and Ciba (Basel, Switzerland)—began full-scale steroid research and development programs in the 1930s.

  

Nobel Prize winner, Leopold Ruzicka of Ciba, a pharmaceutical industry giant that synthesized testosterone.

The Organon group in the Netherlands were the first to isolate the hormone, identified in a May 1935 paper "On Crystalline Male Hormone from Testicles (Testosterone)".[180] They named the hormone testosterone, from the stems of testicle and sterol, and the suffix of ketone. The structure was worked out by Schering's Adolf Butenandt, at the Chemisches Institut of Technical University in Gdańsk.[181][182]

 

The chemical synthesis of testosterone from cholesterol was achieved in August that year by Butenandt and Hanisch.[183] Only a week later, the Ciba group in Zurich, Leopold Ruzicka (1887–1976) and A. Wettstein, published their synthesis of testosterone.[184] These independent partial syntheses of testosterone from a cholesterol base earned both Butenandt and Ruzicka the joint 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[182][185] Testosterone was identified as 17β-hydroxyandrost-4-en-3-one (C19H28O2), a solid polycyclic alcohol with a hydroxyl group at the 17th carbon atom. This also made it obvious that additional modifications on the synthesized testosterone could be made, i.e., esterification and alkylation.

 

The partial synthesis in the 1930s of abundant, potent testosterone esters permitted the characterization of the hormone's effects, so that Kochakian and Murlin (1936) were able to show that testosterone raised nitrogen retention (a mechanism central to anabolism) in the dog, after which Allan Kenyon's group[186] was able to demonstrate both anabolic and androgenic effects of testosterone propionate in eunuchoidal men, boys, and women. The period of the early 1930s to the 1950s has been called "The Golden Age of Steroid Chemistry",[187] and work during this period progressed quickly. Research in this golden age proved that this newly synthesized compound—testosterone—or rather family of compounds (for many derivatives were developed from 1940 to 1960), was a potent multiplier of muscle, strength, and well-being.[188]

 

Other animals[edit]

Testosterone is observed in most vertebrates. Testosterone and the classical nuclear androgen receptor first appeared in gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates).[189] Agnathans (jawless vertebrates) such as lampreys do not produce testosterone but instead use androstenedione as a male sex hormone.[190] Fish make a slightly different form called 11-ketotestosterone.[191] Its counterpart in insects is ecdysone.[192] The presence of these ubiquitous steroids in a wide range of animals suggest that sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history.[193]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone

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www.wsj.com/articles/new-research-delves-into-sexual-fant...

 

The Australian (reprint of WSJ article)

 

www.theaustralian.com.au/business/wall-street-journal/sex...

 

The New Zealand Herald (reprint of WSJ article)

 

www.nzherald.co.nz/relationships/news/article.cfm?c_id=41...

 

The Daily Mail (U.K.)

 

www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5883591/Americans-crave-...

 

NUVO (Indianapolis paper)

 

www.nuvo.net/arts/summer-reads-new-books-by-indy-authors/...

 

De Morgen (Begium newspaper)

 

www.demorgen.be/wetenschap/meeste-mensen-dromen-van-trioo...

 

Bustle

 

www.bustle.com/p/the-7-most-popular-sexual-fantasies-acco...

 

Mel Magazine

 

melmagazine.com/americans-crave-group-sex-fc57e932b3ae

 

Livestrong

 

www.livestrong.com/article/13713594-the-most-popular-sexu...

 

www.livestrong.com/slideshow/13713927-the-psychology-behi...

 

The Sunday Times (U.K.)

 

www.thetimes.co.uk/article/tell-me-what-you-want-an-exclu...

 

www.thetimes.co.uk/article/editor-s-letter-lorraine-candy...

 

Psychology Today

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/standard-deviations/20180... (book review by Michael Aaron)

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/stepmonster/201807/what-w... (Q&A with Wednesday Martin)

 

www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-myths-sex/201807/th...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-myths-sex/201807/wh...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-myths-sex/201808/why-...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-myths-sex/201808/what...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/women-who-stray/201807/th... (post by David Ley)

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-myths-sex/201809/4-un...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-myths-sex/201809/what...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-myths-sex/201810/seve...

 

www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sex-matters/201811/new-re... (post by Ari Tuckman)

 

Herald Sun (Australia)

 

www.heraldsun.com.au/lifestyle/relationships/a-new-survey...

 

The Sun (U.K.)

 

www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/6671001/six-common-sexual-fanta...

 

www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/6653023/heres-what-your-sexual-...

 

www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/6757293/two-year-sex-survey-brits/

 

www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/7562703/sexual-fantasies-person...

 

Daily Mirror (U.K.)

 

www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/sex-relationships/sex/top-6-mo...

 

www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/health/how-improve-your-sex-li...

 

Bild (German tabloid)

 

m.bild.de/unterhaltung/erotik/sex-und-liebe/von-diesem-se...

 

goop

 

goop.com/wellness/sexual-health/how-the-science-of-sexual...

 

Metro (U.K.)

 

metro.co.uk/2018/07/07/seven-common-sexual-fantasies-7690...

 

The I (U.K.)

 

inews.co.uk/opinion/the-most-unusual-sexual-fantasies-fro...

 

inews.co.uk/opinion/the-deeper-psychological-needs-behind...

 

The Independent (U.K.)

 

www.independent.co.uk/life-style/common-sexual-fantasies-...

 

VICE/TONIC (book excerpt)

 

tonic.vice.com/en_us/article/evk8ae/how-to-stop-feeling-g...

USA Today

 

usat.ly/2uacwCS

 

Republished in the Battle Creek Enquirer (Michigan) in print

 

Ask Me Anything on Reddit (July 10)

 

www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/8xr09r/i_am_justin_lehmill...

 

New York Journal of Books (review)

 

www.nyjournalofbooks.com/book-review/tell-me

 

Naked at Our Age by Joan Price (review)

 

betterthanieverexpected.blogspot.com/2018/07/tell-me-what...

 

The Atlantic

 

www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2018/07/sexual-fantasi...

 

The Indianapolis Star

 

www.indystar.com/story/entertainment/arts/2018/07/19/kins...

 

Republished in USA Today: www.usatoday.com/story/life/nation-now/2018/07/19/kinsey-...

 

Republished in Cincinnati Enquirer: www.cincinnati.com/story/entertainment/arts/2018/07/19/ki...

 

Republished in Louisville Courier Journal: www.courier-journal.com/story/entertainment/arts/2018/07/...

 

The Cut

 

www.thecut.com/article/what-its-like-to-be-a-sex-research...

CNN

 

www.cnn.com/2018/07/24/health/sex-fantasies-kerner/index....

 

Republished in CNN Chile: www.cnnchile.com/tendencias/esto-es-lo-que-tus-fantasias-...

 

Chicago Tribune

 

www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/stevens/ct-life-stevens...

 

Republished in Arizona Daily Star: tucson.com/lifestyles/balancing-act-americans-no-sexual-f...

 

Republished in the Santa Barbara News Press (print only)

 

Of Sex and Love Blog (review)

 

ofsexandlove.com/tell-me-what-you-want

 

Boston Globe

 

www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/2018/08/10/tell-what-you-wa...

 

Fatherly

 

www.fatherly.com/love-money/sex/sex-fantasies-common-desi...

 

Men’s Health Magazine (print) – “Ask an Advisor” feature entitled “Reel Sex” published in the September 2018 issue

 

Romance Daily News

 

www.romancedailynews.com/trends

 

RealClearLife

 

www.realclearlife.com/books/americas-sexual-fantasies-lai...

 

Yahoo Brazil

 

br.vida-estilo.yahoo.com/casais-acham-mais-facil-fazer-se...

 

Broadly

 

broadly.vice.com/en_us/article/qvmynb/five-most-common-se...

 

Maxim

 

www.maxim.com/maxim-man/most-popular-kinks-in-america-201...

 

NUVO (online and in print)

 

www.nuvo.net/arts/tell-me-what-you-want-science-and-sexua...

 

Brides.com

 

www.brides.com/story/fantasize-about-your-partner

 

The New York Times (review)

 

www.nytimes.com/2018/10/17/books/review/tell-me-what-you-...

 

Published in print on October 21, 2018

 

Huffington Post

 

www.huffpost.com/entry/what-your-sexual-fantasies-reveal-...

 

Elite Daily

 

www.elitedaily.com/p/what-do-your-sexual-fantasies-reveal...

 

Politico (op-ed written by me)

 

www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/10/27/sexual-fantasi...

 

Covered in Rolling Stone

 

www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/republican-de...

 

Covered in Yahoo

 

www.yahoo.com/entertainment/republicans-democrats-divided...

 

Covered in Yahoo News UK

 

sports.yahoo.com/left-wingers-right-wingers-different-sex...

 

Covered in Indy100

 

www.indy100.com/article/midterms-2018-sex-fantasy-study-s...

 

Covered in IFL Science

 

www.iflscience.com/editors-blog/republicans-and-democrats...

 

Covered in LGBTQ Nation

 

www.lgbtqnation.com/2018/10/republicans-democrats-vastly-...

 

Covered in Inquisitor

 

www.inquisitr.com/5136903/republicans-democrats-divided-o...

 

Covered on The Late Show With Stephen Colbert

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=3neoZaTEUeM&feature=youtu.be

 

Information (Danish newspaper)

 

www.information.dk/kultur/2018/10/bogkort-forskellene-paa...

 

Glamour Paris

 

www.glamourparis.com/amour-et-sexe/news/articles/tell-me-...

 

The California Therapist (book review by Dr. Marty Klein in the September/October 2018 issue)

 

viewer.zmags.com/publication/8054e4ab#/8054e4ab/80

 

Book review by author Piers Anthony in his HiPiers newsletter (November 2018)

 

hipiers.com/newsletter.html

 

Forthcoming:

 

Cosmo – book will be featured in Sex Q&A (October). Will also be mentioned in January issue in a piece on fantasies

 

Psychology Today (print edition – they will be reprinting some of my blog posts about the book in the November/December issue)

 

Playboy (German Edition) – November

 

Radio, Podcasts, and TV

 

Savage Lovecast – interview with Dan Savage on July 3, 2018

 

www.savagelovecast.com/episodes/610#.Wz5GgWaZPUJ

 

Sex with Dr. Jess Podcast – interview on July 6, 2018

 

www.sexwithdrjess.com/2018/07/what-do-your-neighbors-fant...

 

Pleasure Mechanics Podcast – July 13, 2018

 

www.pleasuremechanics.com/tell-me-what-you-want-exploring...

 

Talk Louisiana – July 18, 2018

 

wrkf.org/post/wednesday-june-18th-roger-villere-bruce-her...

 

Airtalk (NPR and KPCC) – August 6, 2018

 

www.scpr.org/programs/airtalk/2018/08/06/63458/when-it-co...

 

You: The Owner’s Manual (Radio MD) – August 7, 2018

 

radiomd.com/show/you-the-owners-manual-radio-show/item/38...

 

The Psychology Podcast with Dr. Scott Barry Kaufman – recorded August 22, 2018

 

scottbarrykaufman.com/podcast/the-science-of-sexual-fanta...

 

Covered in Scientific American: blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/podcast-reca...

 

Her podcast (Radio MD) – recorded August 23, 2018

 

radiomd.com/show/her/item/38121-sexual-fantasies

 

Me Time with Frangela (Television program) – August 23, 2018 and October 23, 2018

 

Science of Sex podcast with Dr. Zhana Vrangalova – recorded September 26, 2018

 

scienceofsexpodcast.com/42-what-your-sexual-fantasies-say...

 

Doctor Radio (Sirius XM) with Dr. Virginia Sadock – October 1, 2018

 

Savage Lovecast (second appearance) – recorded on October 9, 2018

 

www.savagelovecast.com/episodes/626#.W89E0i-ZPUI

 

Tell Me Everything (Sirius XM) – Interview with John Fugelsang – October 16, 2018

 

Sex with Emily podcast – October 23, 2018

 

sexwithemily.com/26352-2/

 

Sexology podcast with Dr. Nazanin Moali – recorded November 2, 2018

 

www.sexologypodcast.com/2018/11/13/sexual-fantasies-justi...

 

The Ersties Podcast (based in Berlin, Germany) – November 13, 2018

 

Sex with Strangers podcast – November 13, 2018

 

BBC Radio – Sex Takeover – November 20, 2018

 

Why Are People Into That?! Podcast – December 10, 2018

 

Book Mentions (not specifically about the book, but mention the book)

 

Cosmo

 

www.cosmopolitan.com/sex-love/a20967150/dry-orgasm-no-eja...

 

Playboy

 

www.playboy.com/read/the-peak-of-pegging-why-anal-erotici...

 

www.playboy.com/read/how-should-we-think-about-forced-sex...

 

VICE/TONIC

 

www.vice.com/en_us/article/3k449v/inside-the-disturbing-f...

 

tonic.vice.com/en_us/article/9k88b5/trying-not-to-think-a...

 

tonic.vice.com/en_us/article/7xqq4g/women-short-orgasms

 

tonic.vice.com/en_us/article/9km7mp/we-fantasize-about-ou...

 

IO Donna (Italian women’s magazine)

 

www.iodonna.it/benessere/amore-e-sesso/2018/06/29/i-miti-...

 

Prevention

 

www.prevention.com/sex/a21969931/sex-addiction-signs/

 

Metro (UK)

 

metro.co.uk/2018/07/23/people-call-sexual-partners-daddy-...

 

Quartz

 

qz.com/1348381/the-way-psychologists-talk-about-sex-revea...

 

Women’s Health (Australia)

 

www.womenshealth.com.au/what-to-do-sexless-marriage

 

Queerty

 

www.queerty.com/homophobic-republicans-prone-gay-sex-scan...

 

Chicago Tribune (online and in print)

 

www.chicagotribune.com/redeye/culture/ct-redeye-ask-anna-...

 

Patch.com

 

patch.com/pennsylvania/northwhitehall/lccc-holds-sexual-h...

 

Bustle

 

www.bustle.com/p/morning-sex-may-make-you-more-productive...

 

The Science Advice Goddess – column by Amy Alkon

 

(Syndicated in about 100 newspapers, many of which are print only)

 

www.creators.com/read/advice-goddess-amy-alkon/09/18/codg...

 

NUVO

 

www.nuvo.net/arts/banned-books-week-addresses-pornography...

 

The Advocate (October/November print issue and also online)

 

www.advocate.com/love-and-sex/2018/9/21/what-do-adults-fa...

 

The Atlantic

 

www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2018/10/premarital-coh...

 

Mel Magazine

 

melmagazine.com/en-us/story/why-were-all-so-thirsty-for-b...

 

melmagazine.com/en-us/story/the-enduring-appeal-of-the-er...

 

Toronto Sun

 

torontosun.com/life/relationships/why-do-men-send-unsolic...

 

High Praise for Dr. Justin Lehmiller! Our 2018-2019 Speaker for Sexual Health Alliance! published first on spanishflyhealth.tumblr.com/

 

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Echidnas /ɨˈkɪdnə/, sometimes known as spiny anteaters, belong to the family Tachyglossidae in the monotreme order of egg-laying mammals. The four extant species, together with the platypus, are the only surviving members of that order and are the only extant mammals that lay eggs. Their diet consists of ants and termites, but they are not closely related to the true anteaters of the Americas. They live in Australia and New Guinea.

Description: Echidnas are small, solitary mammals covered with coarse hair and spines. Superficially, they resemble the anteaters of South America and other spiny mammals such as hedgehogs and porcupines. They are usually black or brown in colour. There have been several reports of 'albino' echidnas, their eyes pink and their spines white. They have elongated and slender snouts that function as both mouth and nose. Like the platypus, they are equipped with electrosensors, but while the platypus has 40,000 electroreceptors on its bill, the long-billed echidna has only 2,000, and the short-billed echidna, which lives in a drier environment, has no more than 400 located at the tip of its snout. They have very short, strong limbs with large claws, and are powerful diggers. Echidnas have tiny mouths and toothless jaws. The echidna feeds by tearing open soft logs, anthills and the like, and using its long, sticky tongue, which protrudes from its snout, to collect prey.

Diet: The short-beaked echidna's diet consists largely of ants and termites, while the Zaglossus species typically eats worms and insect larvae. They have no teeth, and break down their food by grinding it between the bottoms of their mouths and their tongues. The echidnas' ears are slits on the sides of their heads that are usually unseen due to the fact that they are blanketed by their spines. The external ear is called the "pinna", which is created by a large cartilaginous funnel, deep in the muscle.

Habitat: Echidnas do not enjoy extreme temperatures, and use caves and rock crevasses to hide from harsh weather conditions. Echidnas can be found in forests, woodlands, snuggled under vegetation, roots or piles of debris. They sometimes hide in other animal burrows, such as rabbits and wombats. Echidnas have large territories causing their areas to overlap. In addition, echidnas are decent swimmers. When swimming, echidnas expose their snout and some of their spines. They are known to journey their way to water in order to groom and bathe themselves. Long-beaked echidnas have sharp, tiny spines on their tongues that help capture their prey. The echidnas feces are 7 centimeters long and are cylindrical in shape; they are usually broken and unrounded. When eating they consume large amounts of dirt and ant hill material, which makes up majority of their feces.

Classification: Echidnas and the platypus are the only egg-laying mammals, known as monotremes. The neocortex makes up half of the echidna's brain, compared to 80% of a human brain. Due to their low metabolism and accompanying stress resistance, echidnas are long-lived for their size; the longest recorded lifespan for a captive echidna is 50 years, with anecdotal accounts of wild individuals reaching 45 years. Contrary to previous research, the echidna does enter REM sleep, but only when the ambient temperature is around 25 °C (77 °F). At temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F) and 28 °C (~82 °F), REM sleep is suppressed. The average lifespan of an echidna in the wild is estimated around 16 years. When fully grown a female can weigh up to 4.5 kilograms and a male can weigh up to 6 kilograms. You can determine the echidnas' sex by their size; males are 25% larger than females. As well, the reproductive organs differ even though both sexes have a single opening they use to urinate, release their faeces and use to mate. Male echidnas have non-venomous spurs on the hind feet.

Reproduction: The female lays a single soft-shelled, leathery egg 22 days after mating, and deposits it directly into her pouch. Hatching takes place after 10 days; the young echidna then sucks milk from the pores of the two milk patches (monotremes have no nipples) and remains in the pouch for 45 to 55 days, at which time it starts to develop spines. The mother digs a nursery burrow and deposits the young, returning every five days to suckle it until it is weaned at seven months. Male echidnas have a four-headed penis. During mating, the heads on one side "shut down" and do not grow in size; the other two are used to release semen into the female's two-branched reproductive tract. Each time it has sex, it alternates heads in sets of two. When not in use, the penis is retracted inside a preputial sac in the cloaca. The male echidna's penis is 7 centimeters long when erect, and its shaft is covered with penile spines. These may be used to induce ovulation in the female. It is a challenge to study the echidna in their natural habitat and they show no interest in mating while in captivity. Therefore, no one has ever seen an echidna ejaculate. There have been previous attempts, trying to force the echidna to ejaculate through the use of electrically stimulated ejaculation in order to obtain semen samples but has only resulted in the penis swelling. Breeding season begins in late June and extends through September. Males will form lines up to ten individuals long, the youngest echidna trailing last, that follow the female and attempt to mate. During a mating season an echidna may switch between lines. This is known as the "train" system. Two weeks after mating, a single fertilized egg, weighing 380 milligrams and being about 1.4 centimeters long, is implanted in a rear-facing pouch that has developed on the female, where it is held for ten days before hatching. The young echidna, called a puggle, is then held in the pouch for two to three months before being expelled. Puggles will stay within their mother's den for up to a year before leaving.

(Source: Wikipedia)

 

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