Fifth generation

International (GE; 1991–1997)

Overview:

Also calledMazda 626

Mazda Cronos (Japan)

ɛ̃fini MS-6

Ford Telstar

Autozam Clef

ProductionNovember 1991 – 1997

AssemblyJapan: Hofu

Colombia: Bogotá

United States: Flat Rock, Michigan (AAI)

DesignerYasuo Aoyagi (1989)

Body and chassis

Body style4-door sedan

5-door hatchback

LayoutTransverse front-engine, front-wheel drive

Transverse front-engine, four-wheel drive

PlatformMazda GE platform

RelatedMazda MX-6

Ford Probe

Powertrain

Engine

1.8 L FP I4

2.0 L FS-DE I4

2.0 L KF-ZE V6

2.5 L KL-DE V6

2.5 L KL-ZE V6

2.0 L RFT Comprex diesel I4

Transmission5-speed manual

4-speed automatic

Dimensions

Wheelbase2,610 mm (102.8 in)

Length4,670–4,695 mm (183.9–184.8 in) (sedan/hatchback)

Width1,750 mm (68.9 in)

Height1,400 mm (55.1 in)

Curb weight1,180–1,340 kg (2,601–2,954 lb) (sedan/hatchback)

For the fifth generation, GE series sedan and hatchback, the Capella name was dropped—although export markets retained the 626 title. Its nameplate replacements, the Mazda Cronos (sedan) and ɛ̃fini MS-6 (hatchback) that launched in November 1991 were pitched to Japanese customers instead. Built on the GE platform, the hatchback-only MS-6 was launched under the ɛ̃fini brand, as a separate car from the sedan-only Cronos, as Mazda was at the beginning of an ambitious five-brand expansion plan of doubling sales. Including the badge-engineered Ford Telstar (sold at Japanese Ford dealerships called Autorama), the Mazda MX-6 coupe, and the Autozam Clef, a total of five cars were spawned off the same platform, launched under four different brands in Japan over a two-year period.

All of these models ended their production run prematurely, most likely due to the difficulties involved in promoting so many new nameplates as the Japanese economy began to feel the effects of the recession as a result of the Japanese asset price bubble from 1985-1991. While the MS-6 shared the Cronos GE platform, it was marketed as the more sporty of the two. The Capella badge lived on with the wagon/van versions on the previous GV series until 1999. Until 1989, Japanese car taxation used a car's width as a key determinant. The Cronos and its siblings all exceed the critical 1,700 mm (66.9 in) level in width. The series GE platform shared the same width dimension as the luxury brand ɛ̃fini MS-8 and ɛ̃fini MS-6, sharing the 2.5 V6. Moving in accord with early-1990s zeitgeist, Mazda considered width a key factor in the Cronos' sales failure, and proceeded to create a narrower stopgap model from the CG platform. This car was introduced in 1994 as the new CG series Capella sedan.

Export

Nonetheless, the GE Cronos and MS-6 continued to be sold as the Mazda 626 in nearly all export markets. The 626 was again Wheels magazine's Car of the Year for a second time in 1992.

The European (E-spec) and Asian (JDM) models had many differences versus the North American (A-spec) models. These include: raised turn signal side markers vs the A-Spec flush mounted side markers, small fog lights with silver bezels vs the A-Spec full fitting fog lights, different interior cloth patterns, projector headlamps (glass lenses), a 1.8 L FP engine, and a hatchback model. Europe also received a diesel-engined version, using the "Comprex" pressure-wave supercharged RF engine seen in the previous generation JDM Capella. Power in Europe is 75 PS (55 kW) ECE at 4000 rpm, while the Japanese model claims 82 PS (60 kW) JIS at the same engine speed.[15]

For the first time for a Mazda, the 626 began overseas manufacture manufacture in the US at Flat Rock, Michigan on 1 September 1992 for the 1993 model year. The car was originally known as the "626 Cronos" in Canada, but dropped the Cronos for the 1996 model year. Mazda's 2.5 L V6 engine debuted to rave reviews. Though the 626's manual transmission was highly regarded, Four-cylinder 626s from 1994 onwards used the Ford CD4E automatic transmission (designated by Mazda as LA4A-EL), which was an attempt to solve some of the 1993 model's transmission related issues. The CD4E was manufactured by Ford at their Batavia, Ohio facility. The CD4E was manufactured in Batavia, Ohio under the partnership name of ZF Batavia; a joint venture between Ford and ZF Friedrichshafen AG. It wasn't until a few years after the fourth generation of the Mazda 626 was produced that it became known for its extremely high failure rate, thus making the change in 1994 to the CD4E an irrelevant one. It is widely known to transmission specialists that the CD4E overheats due to a poorly designed valve body and torque converter. Mazda issued a couple of Technical Service Bulletins (0400502, 01598, 003/97K, 006/95) regarding the transmission and torque converter. Dealerships were briefly instructed to install an external transmission cooler, but at cost to the owner and only if requested. The CD4E was produced until 2008 at Batavia. No recall was ever issued for a single year of the CD4E, causing a loss of confidence from the general public in years to come. In 1994, a passenger side airbag was added, whilst some models of the 1994 and 1995 Mazda 626 2.0L automatics were outfitted with Ford's EEC-IV diagnostic system. In North America, the V6 spread to the LX trim in addition to the leather ES trim. New for 1996 and 1997 models were a redesigned hood (raised center portion), chrome grille fairing (attached to the hood), and the introduction of the On Board Diagnostics II revision (OBD-II).

In Colombia the car was named 626 Matsuri to differentiate from the past version that was sold at the same time.

Mazda New Zealand assembled this generation for four years with few changes. Ford's variants (since 1987 all built in the same Ford-Mazda joint venture Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ) factory in Wiri, South Auckland) had minor styling and equipment differences (the top Telstar hatchback had an electric sunroof) and anti-lock brakes were now standard on some models, for which factory engineers had to build a special test rig at the end of the assembly line. These were also the first 626/Telstar models to have factory fitted air conditioning, though only on the top Limited (626) and TX-5 Ghia (Telstar) five-door hatchbacks.

[Text from Wikipedia]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_Capella

The version shown here is a US-Specification 626 Sedan. This can be identified by the side marker reflectors (front and rear). US models were commonly painted this sand-gold hue, popular at the time, and light tan leather interiors.

This miniland-scale Lego Mazda 626 Capella Sedan (GE - 1991) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

Fifth generation

International (GE; 1991–1997)

Overview:

Also calledMazda 626

Mazda Cronos (Japan)

ɛ̃fini MS-6

Ford Telstar

Autozam Clef

ProductionNovember 1991 – 1997

AssemblyJapan: Hofu

Colombia: Bogotá

United States: Flat Rock, Michigan (AAI)

DesignerYasuo Aoyagi (1989)

Body and chassis

Body style4-door sedan

5-door hatchback

LayoutTransverse front-engine, front-wheel drive

Transverse front-engine, four-wheel drive

PlatformMazda GE platform

RelatedMazda MX-6

Ford Probe

Powertrain

Engine

1.8 L FP I4

2.0 L FS-DE I4

2.0 L KF-ZE V6

2.5 L KL-DE V6

2.5 L KL-ZE V6

2.0 L RFT Comprex diesel I4

Transmission5-speed manual

4-speed automatic

Dimensions

Wheelbase2,610 mm (102.8 in)

Length4,670–4,695 mm (183.9–184.8 in) (sedan/hatchback)

Width1,750 mm (68.9 in)

Height1,400 mm (55.1 in)

Curb weight1,180–1,340 kg (2,601–2,954 lb) (sedan/hatchback)

For the fifth generation, GE series sedan and hatchback, the Capella name was dropped—although export markets retained the 626 title. Its nameplate replacements, the Mazda Cronos (sedan) and ɛ̃fini MS-6 (hatchback) that launched in November 1991 were pitched to Japanese customers instead. Built on the GE platform, the hatchback-only MS-6 was launched under the ɛ̃fini brand, as a separate car from the sedan-only Cronos, as Mazda was at the beginning of an ambitious five-brand expansion plan of doubling sales. Including the badge-engineered Ford Telstar (sold at Japanese Ford dealerships called Autorama), the Mazda MX-6 coupe, and the Autozam Clef, a total of five cars were spawned off the same platform, launched under four different brands in Japan over a two-year period.

All of these models ended their production run prematurely, most likely due to the difficulties involved in promoting so many new nameplates as the Japanese economy began to feel the effects of the recession as a result of the Japanese asset price bubble from 1985-1991. While the MS-6 shared the Cronos GE platform, it was marketed as the more sporty of the two. The Capella badge lived on with the wagon/van versions on the previous GV series until 1999. Until 1989, Japanese car taxation used a car's width as a key determinant. The Cronos and its siblings all exceed the critical 1,700 mm (66.9 in) level in width. The series GE platform shared the same width dimension as the luxury brand ɛ̃fini MS-8 and ɛ̃fini MS-6, sharing the 2.5 V6. Moving in accord with early-1990s zeitgeist, Mazda considered width a key factor in the Cronos' sales failure, and proceeded to create a narrower stopgap model from the CG platform. This car was introduced in 1994 as the new CG series Capella sedan.

Export

Nonetheless, the GE Cronos and MS-6 continued to be sold as the Mazda 626 in nearly all export markets. The 626 was again Wheels magazine's Car of the Year for a second time in 1992.

The European (E-spec) and Asian (JDM) models had many differences versus the North American (A-spec) models. These include: raised turn signal side markers vs the A-Spec flush mounted side markers, small fog lights with silver bezels vs the A-Spec full fitting fog lights, different interior cloth patterns, projector headlamps (glass lenses), a 1.8 L FP engine, and a hatchback model. Europe also received a diesel-engined version, using the "Comprex" pressure-wave supercharged RF engine seen in the previous generation JDM Capella. Power in Europe is 75 PS (55 kW) ECE at 4000 rpm, while the Japanese model claims 82 PS (60 kW) JIS at the same engine speed.[15]

For the first time for a Mazda, the 626 began overseas manufacture manufacture in the US at Flat Rock, Michigan on 1 September 1992 for the 1993 model year. The car was originally known as the "626 Cronos" in Canada, but dropped the Cronos for the 1996 model year. Mazda's 2.5 L V6 engine debuted to rave reviews. Though the 626's manual transmission was highly regarded, Four-cylinder 626s from 1994 onwards used the Ford CD4E automatic transmission (designated by Mazda as LA4A-EL), which was an attempt to solve some of the 1993 model's transmission related issues. The CD4E was manufactured by Ford at their Batavia, Ohio facility. The CD4E was manufactured in Batavia, Ohio under the partnership name of ZF Batavia; a joint venture between Ford and ZF Friedrichshafen AG. It wasn't until a few years after the fourth generation of the Mazda 626 was produced that it became known for its extremely high failure rate, thus making the change in 1994 to the CD4E an irrelevant one. It is widely known to transmission specialists that the CD4E overheats due to a poorly designed valve body and torque converter. Mazda issued a couple of Technical Service Bulletins (0400502, 01598, 003/97K, 006/95) regarding the transmission and torque converter. Dealerships were briefly instructed to install an external transmission cooler, but at cost to the owner and only if requested. The CD4E was produced until 2008 at Batavia. No recall was ever issued for a single year of the CD4E, causing a loss of confidence from the general public in years to come. In 1994, a passenger side airbag was added, whilst some models of the 1994 and 1995 Mazda 626 2.0L automatics were outfitted with Ford's EEC-IV diagnostic system. In North America, the V6 spread to the LX trim in addition to the leather ES trim. New for 1996 and 1997 models were a redesigned hood (raised center portion), chrome grille fairing (attached to the hood), and the introduction of the On Board Diagnostics II revision (OBD-II).

In Colombia the car was named 626 Matsuri to differentiate from the past version that was sold at the same time.

Mazda New Zealand assembled this generation for four years with few changes. Ford's variants (since 1987 all built in the same Ford-Mazda joint venture Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ) factory in Wiri, South Auckland) had minor styling and equipment differences (the top Telstar hatchback had an electric sunroof) and anti-lock brakes were now standard on some models, for which factory engineers had to build a special test rig at the end of the assembly line. These were also the first 626/Telstar models to have factory fitted air conditioning, though only on the top Limited (626) and TX-5 Ghia (Telstar) five-door hatchbacks.

[Text from Wikipedia]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_Capella

The version shown here is a US-Specification 626 Sedan. This can be identified by the side marker reflectors (front and rear). US models were commonly painted this sand-gold hue, popular at the time, and light tan leather interiors.

This miniland-scale Lego Mazda 626 Capella Sedan (GE - 1991) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art (also known simply as (the) Baltic, stylised as BALTIC) is a centre for contemporary art located on the south bank of the River Tyne in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. It hosts a frequently changing variety of exhibitions, events, and educational programmes with no permanent exhibition. The idea to open a centre for contemporary arts in Gateshead was developed in the 1990s, which was a time of regeneration for the local area—the Sage and Gateshead Millennium Bridge was also being conceived of in this period.

Baltic opened in July 2002 in a converted flour mill, which had operated in various capacities from 1950-1984. The architectural design of Baltic was devised by Dominic Williams of Ellis Williams Architects, who won a competition to design the new contemporary arts centre in 1994. The building features exhibition spaces, a visitor centre, a rooftop restaurant and external viewing platforms which offer views of the River Tyne. Baltic's current director, the centre's fifth, is Sarah Munro, who joined in November 2015. As of January 2022, Baltic had welcomed over 8 million visitors.

Baltic Flour Mills was built by Joseph Rank of Rank Hovis to a late-1930s design by Hull-based architects Gelder and Kitchen. The first foundations were laid in the late 1930s, and although construction ceased during the Second World War, the mill was completed and started operating in 1950. Known locally as "the pride of Tyneside", 300 people were employed by the mill at its height. The building was composed of two parallel brick façades running east to west, sandwiched between a foundation of concrete silos. The structure could store 22,000 tons of grain. The design of the building also featured a larger silo in which to store and clean wheat. The site was extended in 1957 by the addition of Blue Cross Mill which processed animal feed. In 1976, a fire forced both mills to close, but the silos remained in operation until 1984 to store a portion of the grain owned by the European Economic Community. Baltic Flour Mills was one of a number of mills located along the banks of the Tyne, all of which, due to their size, were prominent local landmarks. The Spillers mill just downstream from Baltic on the north bank of the river was demolished in 2011. Another large mill was owned by the CWS and was located just upstream of Dunston Staiths.

The opening of Baltic as a designated centre for contemporary art was part of the revitalisation and post-industrial regeneration of Gateshead's riverside. The regeneration began in the early 1990s and transformed the Quayside into a centre of modern architecture, including the Sage and Millennium Bridge. In 1991, Northern Arts (now part of Arts Council England) released a five-year plan in which it stated its intention to create "major new capital facilities for the Contemporary Visual Arts and Music in Central Tyneside". Northern Arts were keen to convert an old building into a centre for art, rather than build a new one, and the Labour-run Gateshead Council expressed interest in converting the old Flour Mills. This was in contrast to the Conservative-run Newcastle City Council's approach to development, which saw private firms develop mainly flats, hotels, and offices. Gateshead Council purchased the Baltic Flour Mills silo building, and in 1994 they invited the Royal Institute of British Architects to open a competition which would find an architect to design the new arts centre.

In 1994, Gateshead Council invited the Royal Institute of British Architects to hold a competition to select a design for the conversion of the Baltic Flour Mills. The objective of the competition was to "provide a national and international Centre for Contemporary visual arts". The brief cited a number of similar examples of old buildings which had been converted into arts centres around the world, including a converted flour mill in Porto, Portugal and the Bankside Power Station in London (now the site of the Tate Modern). After evaluating a total of 140 entries, Dominic Williams – a relatively unknown architect who had only been working for three years – won the competition. He entered the competition with Ellis Williams Architects, his father's firm. Andrew Guest remarks that this "simple, honest, industrial" design was an example of architecture which recognised the designs and context of the past. Williams and Ellis Williams Architects stated their intention to "retain as much of the existing character and fabric of the building as possible" while also clearly presenting the structure's new purpose as an art gallery.

The conversion of the flour mills was a complex and technically challenging task. The grain silos were removed, leaving the brick façades unsupported, and a 1,000 tonne steel frame was required to support the remaining building. Four new main floors were inserted into the building supported by a row of pillars. Intermediary floors made out of steel frames and thin concrete were also inserted. These were designed to be removable as to adapt the building and create variable spaces for art. With 13 separate levels in total, Williams claimed he purposefully wanted to create a sense of disorientation for visitors within the building and allow an element of discovery. A spiral staircase winds up the building towards an open-plan office for staff. An efficient ductwork system was installed within the beams which carries heated or chilled air throughout the building. Such a design, conceived of by environmental engineers Atelier Ten, was uncommon for the time. The north and south elevations of the original building were retained along with the original BALTIC FLOUR MILLS lettering and red and yellow bricks. The east and west sides were fully glazed, capturing natural light and allowing views of the River Tyne. Additionally, service towers in the corners of the building, a rooftop viewing box, and a low-rise visitor centre were completed—these now comprise part of the building's major elements. The building stands at 138 feet (42 m) tall. Glass elevators situated close to the exterior offer views of Newcastle, Gateshead and the River Tyne. A restaurant sits at the top of the building, built in a manner which still allows natural light to reach the top gallery floor. The building's interior largely features glass, concrete, aluminium, Welsh Slate, 'Cor-Ten' steel, and Swedish pine. The furniture, purposely built to be flexible and adaptable, was designed by Swedish designer Åke Axelsson.

Awards

Baltic won a RIBA award in 2003, a Civic Trust Award in 2004, and in 2006 was selected as one of the top 10 most outstanding arts and culture schemes in the UK as part of the Gulbenkian Prize. In 2012, it won the National Lottery Awards prize for Best Arts Project.

The founding director, Sune Nordgren, was appointed in 1997. He oversaw the period prior to Baltic's opening, including the construction of the gallery. After almost six years, Nordgren left to take up a new post as founding director of the National Museum for Art, Architecture and Design, Oslo, Norway. At this time, Baltic was facing financial problems. After Nordgren's departure, a former Baltic chairman accused the centre of overspending on commissions during Nordgren's tenure. Baltic's situation was described by Arts Council England as having "serious inadequacies in financial procedures". Nordgren was briefly succeeded by Stephen Snoddy, who had previously run a new gallery in Milton Keynes. Snoddy only remained with the organisation for 11 months, citing difficulties in leaving his family behind in Manchester while working at Baltic. He was succeeded as director by Peter Doroshenko in 2005. Doroshenko's previous institutions included the Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst and the Institute of Visual Arts in Milwaukee. He was brought to Baltic to increase visitor numbers and resolve the centre's financial situation, which was criticised by Arts Council England and an insider as being chaotic. Doroshenko organized several exhibitions during his time at Baltic, including Spank the Monkey.

In November 2007, Doroshenko left the gallery to head up the PinchukArtCentre in Kiev, Ukraine. He stated that he believed he had made Baltic a more "approachable and visitor friendly place."[30] However, Design Week reported that there were claims that Doroshenko did not deliver the expected "international programme of artistic excellence." Additionally, staff at the centre had complained about his "intolerable" and "bullying" management style. Godfrey Worsdale, founding director of the Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, was appointed as director of Baltic in 2008. Worsdale oversaw the 10 year anniversary of Baltic and the hosting of the Turner Prize in 2011. He was awarded an honorary degree from Northumbria University in 2012 in recognition for his work on contemporary art after being on the judging panel for the Turner Prize. He departed in 2015 to take up a new post as director of the Henry Moore Foundation. Sarah Munro MBE became director in November 2015. She was previously artistic director of Tramway in Glasgow and head of arts for Glasgow Life.

History as arts centre

During the four-year construction of Baltic, the new organisation arranged a series of events, publications, and artists in residence in anticipation of the centre's opening. In 1999, after the silos had been removed and before the new floors were inserted, the shell of the building was used to house an art installation by Anish Kapoor. Taratantara was a trumpet-shaped installation of PVC 50 metres (160 ft) long and was situated within the centre of the mill. This installation drew 16,000 visitors and marked a turning point between the building's old purpose and its new life as a centre for art. In October 2000, Jenny Holzer's Truisms – a series of aphorisms and slogans – were projected onto the side of the building. Kapoor and Holtzer's works were intended to engage casual passers-by in an artistic dialogue. The identity of Baltic was also solidified by the publication of 16 newsletters between October 1998 and July 2002 when the centre opened to the public. A significant part of this branding was the use of the now registered typeface BALTIC Affisch, designed by Swedish designers Ulf Greger Nilsson and Henrik Nygren and based on the BALTIC FLOUR MILLS lettering on the building's brick façade.

Opening

After ten years in the planning and a capital investment of £50m, including £33.4m from the Arts Council Lottery Fund, Baltic opened to the public at midnight on Saturday 13 July 2002. The novelty of opening the new building at midnight was intentional: founding director Sune Nordgren sought a dramatic gesture to herald the beginning of the new centre for arts. The inaugural exhibition, B.OPEN, had work by Chris Burden, Carsten Höller, Julian Opie, Jaume Plensa and Jane and Louise Wilson. Opie, who had previously assisted Dominic Williams with aspects of the building's conversion design, contributed an installation consisting of nude outlines on the walls of floor of the gallery. Plensa's installation featured a room filled with gongs which were available for the audience to play. Plensa also contributed Blake in Gateshead – a beam of light which stretched around 2 kilometres (6,600 ft) into the sky. The installation was placed through the glass doorway of the ground floor. Burden constructed a 1/20th scale replica of the Tyne Bridge out of Meccano. Jane and Louise Wilson created Dreamtime, a video of a rocket launch. An early exhibit by the Japanese artist Yoshitomo Nara was also included. The B.OPEN event attracted over 35,000 visitors in the first week. A live art performance, including Tatsumi Orimito's Bread Man and Anne Bjerge Hansen's Moving Bakery, took place during the opening weekend, in which bread was handed out to passers-by in memory of the Baltic Flour Mill's history. When BALTIC opened, there was a target set for 250,000 visitors a year. It achieved one million visitors in its first year, and by its 10-year anniversary in 2012, 4 million people had visited.

Notable events

On 20 September 2007, Baltic management contacted Northumbria Police for advice regarding whether or not a photograph should be displayed as part of the Thanksgiving installation, a forthcoming exhibition by American photographer Nan Goldin. The photograph, along with the rest of the installation, is part of the Sir Elton John Photography Collection. Entitled Klara and Edda belly-dancing features two naked young girls and had previously been exhibited around the world without objections. The installation, which had been scheduled for a four-month exhibition, opened with the remaining photographs whilst Klara and Edda belly-dancing was in possession of the police. However, it closed after just nine days at the request of Elton John. Although this had a determinantal effect on Baltic's reputation in the short-term, Graham Whitham argues in Understand Contemporary Art that it may have given it a higher profile and greater publicity in the long-run.

Beryl Cook

In 2007, the largest survey of artist Beryl Cook's work to date was featured in an exhibition at Baltic.[9] Cook enjoyed widespread recognition of her art towards the end of her life; the exhibition at Baltic took place one year before her death. Her paintings depict everyday and familiar social situations in a playful, colourful, and "portly" style. Peter Doreshenko, the director of Baltic at the time of the exhibition, was keen for the gallery to reject the seriousness audiences may associate with it. The exhibition of Cook's work was part of this populist effort to attract new audiences to the then financially-struggling gallery, whose visitor numbers had dropped to less than 500,000 and whose reputation was decreasing. Adrian Searle of The Guardian reviewed the exhibition and, whilst acknowledging that fans would enjoy it, commented "look too long and you may feel a bit queasy".

Turner Prize

In 2011, Baltic was the venue for the Turner Prize. This was the first time the event had been held outside of London or Liverpool Tate. The Turner Prize exhibition at Baltic attracted 149,770 visitors to the gallery – almost double the average attendance in London. The event at Baltic was also free, whilst Turner exhibitions at Tate Britain had always previously charged for entry. The winning exhibit was by Martin Boyce with the runners-up being Karla Black, Hilary Lloyd and George Shaw.

Judy Chicago

The first major retrospective of American artist Judy Chicago's work was exhibited in Baltic from November 2019 to April 2020. The exhibition included her abstract paintings, records of performance pieces, and began and ended with a four-metre tapestry which portrayed the creation the world from a woman's perspective. At the time of the exhibition, Chicago was in her 80s. Hannah Clugston of The Guardian noted that the more recent featured works embraced the theme of death, particularly End: A Meditation on Death and Extinction, which is based on the stages of grief.

Baltic Open Submission

In March 2020, Baltic announced it would be closing due to the COVID-19 pandemic until further notice. In May 2021, it reopened to visitors with four exhibitions. Baltic Open Submission featured works created during lockdown by 158 artists from the North East. The 158 artists were chosen from over 540 original submissions and selected by a panel of three North East-based artists. The final pieces included paintings, drawings, and sound and video installations.

Community and cultural impact

At the opening of Baltic, director Sune Nordgren outlined the role of the arts centre within the public sphere. He stated that Baltic should be "a meeting place, a site for connections and confrontation between artists and the public." In an October 2002 lecture at the Power Plant Gallery in Toronto, Nordgren reaffirmed the importance of local outreach and explained his intention for Baltic to regard the local history and culture, comparing his intention to examples of modern art museums where this was not considered, such as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao (designed in Los Angeles and placed in Spain). From its inception, Baltic emphasised the importance of artist-public relationships and its role as a community hub. "Participate" initiatives encouraged people in the local community to interact with resident artists. A media learning centre in a local library was set up as an extension of Baltic's community resources.

In a 2016 talk on Baltic's 10-year strategic plan (officially named Untitled), the current director of Baltic – Sarah Munro – emphasised that the North East of England "has always led, not followed" the agenda for contemporary arts, and that Baltic had been a big part of this trend. She argued that the visual arts can be used to further the economic and social growth of the area, even amidst the backdrop of political issues and austerity. Baltic also launched an international award for emerging artists in 2016, which offered a £30,000 commission and an accompanying exhibition to four recipients. It was the first such competition in the UK to be judged entirely by artists: in 2017, they were Monica Bonvicini, Lorna Simpson, Pedro Cabrita Reis and Mike Nelson. Munro commented that the award was to foster "a dialogue with our audiences at a local, national and international level."

Local university partnerships and graduate internships are also important to Baltic's community and cultural influence. In 2011, Baltic and Northumbria University established an artistic partnership through the BxNU Institute of Contemporary Art, a centre for artistic and curatorial research. Christine Borland was appointed as Baltic Professor. A designated gallery space, known as Baltic 39, was established on the top floor of refurbished Edwardian warehouses at 31-39 High Bridge in Newcastle. It was designed by Viennese architects Jabornegg & Palffy and housed artwork from students at the university. Baltic 39 was based at High Bridge from 2012 to 2021.

Their annual Self-Publishing Artists’ Market (aka S.P.A.M.) takes the form of a lively programme exploring print culture and practice through talks and workshops with over 50 stalls selling zines and artists’ books. S.P.A.M. Spreads reimagines the market in printed form and has included contributions by artists, activists, illustrators, zine-makers, writers and curators including Vanessa Murrell, Melody Sproates, Okocha Obasi, Stephanie Francis-Shanahan.

Repòs

per Josep Viladomat.

1925.

Els Jardins de Laribal

És una de les perles del Parc de Montjuïc i passejar-s'hi és una autèntica delícia. La vegetació riquíssima, juntament amb l'aigua que baixa per cascades i llisca delicadament pel mig d'amples baranes, els bancs de rajola i les placetes, creen un conjunt de bellesa excepcional. Aquest és un lloc per estar-s'hi, per contemplar-lo i per anar descobrint els mil detalls que el configuren, amb una harmonia difícil de superar.

Els Jardins de Laribal, de gran valor històric, estan configurats per terrasses, camins, placetes, bassinyols i una vegetació esponerosa i consolidada. Una sèrie de terrasses superposades estan unides entre elles per camins i dreceres de fort pendent, amb trams d'escales intercalats amb un disseny sempre diferent. Pèrgoles de maó vist, pedra i pilars blancs, ombregen les àrees més planeres. La vegetació, és majoritàriament exòtica, rica i variada en espècies.

Jardins mediterranis

Aquests jardins, inclosos dins del recinte de l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona de 1929, van obtenir una gran anomenada. Els seus autors, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier i Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, van crear un nou estil paisatgístic d'arrel mediterrània.

La vegetació preexistent -des de plantes autòctones fins als arbres fruiters del passat agrícola de la muntanya-, es va integrar en els jardins amb un concepte de jardineria renovador i original, que segueix lliurement la inspiració dels antics jardins àrabs i dels "cármenes" de Granada, amb una gran presència de rajoles ceràmiques, aigües ornamentals i el conreu de plantes de flor en testos situats en baranes i ampits.

Les escales del Generalife

L'aigua és l'essència del jardí, amb estanys i estanyols. Per connectar la part superior del parc amb els Jardins Amargós -actualment Jardins del Teatre Grec-, Forestier va fer una escala inspirada en la dels jardins del Generalife, amb cascades als passamans, estanyols amb brolladors als replans i bancs d'obra per reposar i gaudir de la fresca i el so de l'aigua.

Els jardins de la font del Gat

Unes pèrgoles mirador porten d'uns jardins als altres, units per eixos de rampes, escales i cascades que desemboquen a la font del Gat, des de la qual es poden contemplar unes magnífiques vistes de Barcelona.

Ocupen el pendent que va des de la part més alta dels Jardins Laribal fins al passeig de Santa Madrona, i integren la popular font del Gat i un edifici del segle dinou. Es tracta d'un conjunt de camins, terrasses i racons que s'adapten al relleu del terreny amb escales, rampes i una cascada monumental amb quatre seccions separades per camins i canals, que van connectant els diferents trams.

Tot està cobert d'una espessa fronda mediterrània i d'arbres fruiters, com ara nesprers i figueres, i palmeres d'enormes capçades. Si ens ho mirem des de baix, a tocar del pg. de Santa Madrona, uns xiprers altíssims situats a l'inici de la cascada accentuen la verticalitat del conjunt.

El roserar de la Colla de l'Arròs

Una glorieta de xiprers, amb una petita font al centre, marca l'inici d'un recorregut que, sota una pèrgola amb pilars de terracota, porta a un pati ovalat i reclòs, també envoltat de xiprers: és el roserar de la Colla de l'Arròs.

El jardí es configura en diversos plans, amb aire de pati, que estan vorejats per vorades, també de xiprer, i rengleres de troanes. En diversos parterres rectangulars hi ha plantades varietats antigues de rosers. Al centre destaca un bassinyol quadrangular amb rajols esmaltats, presidit a la part de dalt per Estival, un nu femení de marbre que contempla el roserar i, més enllà, Barcelona.

La plaça del Claustre

És a tocar del passeig de Santa Madrona i, de fet, es tracta del Jardí de Sant Miquel, on destaquen tres grans plàtans ja existents abans que Forestier dissenyés els jardins. Al fons, els murs del que fou una antiga pedrera confereixen a aquesta part dels jardins Laribal un aire reclòs i claustral. D'aquí el seu nom. A la dreta, un passadís comunica amb els Jardins del Teatre Grec.

Vegetació

La vegetació madura i mediterrània dóna sentit als jardins. Així, hi ha, entre d'altres espècies, pins blancs (Pinus halepensis), pins pinyers (Pinus pinea), llorers (Laurus nobilis), tarongers amargs (Citrus aurantium) i xiprers (Cupressus sempervirens).

Les escales del Generalife estan envoltades per grans acàcies (Robinia pseudoacacia) i arbustos com la troana (Ligustrum lucidum) i el pitòspor (Pittosporum tobira), una espècie arbustiva molt abundant als jardins, juntament amb el baladre (Nerium oleander) i l'evònim del Japó (Evonymus japonicus).

En testos de terracota, llueixen les elegants fulles de saló (Aspidistra elatior) i els geranis (Pelargonium sp.), i cobrint les pèrgoles, anglesines (Wisteria sinensis) i Rosa banksiae. En diferents llocs dels jardins hi ha plantes aromàtiques, com l'espígol (Lavandula angustifolia) i el romaní (Rosmarinus officinalis), i espècies entapissants com l'heura (Hedera helix)

Els Jardins de Laribal també hi ha pins australians (Casuarina cunninghamiana), eucaliptus (Eucalyptus globulus), xiprers de Lambert (Cupressus macrocarpa), cedres de l'Himàlaia (Cedrus deodara) i, a la plaça del Claustre, tres grans exemplars de plàtan (Platanus X hispanica).

Art i arquitectura

L'escultura és notable en aquests jardins, tant per la seva qualitat com per la seva bellesa. Presidint el roserar hi ha Estival, de Jaume Otero (1929), una figura femenina asseguda d'estil art déco feta de marbre.

La Noia de la trena, de Josep Viladomat (1928), és un altre nu femení, en aquest cas de bronze, i representa una noia jove recollint-se els cabells en una trena. És en una placeta ombrívola, molt a prop de les escales que comuniquen amb altres nivells dels jardins.

La tercera escultura també és d'una dona i de Josep Viladomat, que la va fer partint d'un original de Manolo Hugué. Es tracta de Repòs (1925), un nu femení de pedra de mida natural situat en una placeta circular molt a prop de l'entrada que hi ha al costat de la Fundació Joan Miró.

A prop del roserar hi ha una font de ceràmica esmaltada amb motius marins, coronada amb un brollador, obra del ceramista Llorenç Artigas.

La font del Gat

L'aigua que raja de la font del Gat ho fa des del cap d'un felí, esculpit per Joan Antoni Homs el 1918, que és quan van quedar enllestits els Jardins Laribal. Aquesta font era una de les moltes que aleshores rajava a Barcelona, i el lloc on està situada, molt popular a la ciutat a finals del segle XIX.

Tan popular era la font, que el periodista i autor teatral Joan Amich va escriure una cançó: "La Marieta de l'ull viu", que avui encara es canta i que inclou l'estrofa: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat...".

Història

Al començament del segle passat, la zona que avui ocupen els jardins Laribal era lloc de trobades populars, sobretot a la font del Gat, o de reunions selectes, com ara les que feia la Colla de l'Arròs, un grup entre gastronòmic i polític que va tenir una certa influència a la Barcelona de la darreria del segle XIX i principi del XX, i que es reunia en un petit edifici situat on ara hi ha el Museu Etnològic.

La part alta dels actuals jardins pertanyia a la finca de Josep Laribal, un prestigiós advocat el nom del qual s'ha perpetuat als jardins. S'hi va fer construir un xalet neoàrab, envoltat d'uns jardins eclèctics, amb grans arbres.

Mort Laribal, el 1908 la finca va ser adquirida per l'Ajuntament, que hi va fundar l'Escola del Bosc, encara existent. Simultàniament, es van iniciar els estudis per urbanitzar i enjardinar la muntanya, amb un projecte global que va ser encarregat inicialment a Josep Amargós.

L'Exposició de 1929

Els Jardins de Laribal, enllestits el 1922, estan vinculats a un esdeveniment posterior: l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona de 1929. Aquest esdeveniment va representar la culminació d'un projecte iniciat l'any 1905 per organitzar a Montjuïc una exposició sobre les indústries elèctriques, l'energia emergent d'aquell temps.

Un dels comissaris de l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona va ser Francesc Cambó, que va encarregar els treballs d'enjardinament a l'enginyer i paisatgista francès Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. Va ser ajudant seu el jove arquitecte Nicolau M. Rubió i Tudurí, que el 1917 es convertiria en el director de la Direcció de Parcs Públics i Arbrat, antecedent del Servei de Parcs i Jardins de Barcelona, del qual va ser primer responsable i una de les persones determinants en el futur desenvolupament dels espais verds públics de la ciutat.

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These gardens are one of the treasures of the Park of Montjuïc and taking a stroll around them is a real pleasure. The rich plant life, together with the water that flows delicately through the wide handrails; the tiled benches and the small squares all create exceptionally beautiful gardens. It is a place to be, to gaze at and to discover the thousands of details that shape a harmony that is difficult to surpass.

The historically-important Laribal Gardens are sculpted by terraces, pathways, small squares, ponds and lush, established plant life. A series of terraces are linked by paths and steeply sloped shortcuts, with stretches of differently designed stairways interspersed. The flattest areas are afforded shade by exposed brick, stone and white pillar pergolas. The mostly exotic plant life has a rich and varied range of species.

Mediterranean Gardens

These gardens, which were included in the International Exposition of Barcelona (a World's Fair) in 1929, were greatly reputed. The garden's designers, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier and Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, created a new style of Mediterranean landscaping.

The pre-existing plant life, from native plants to fruit trees from the mountain's agricultural past, was integrated into the gardens with an original and innovative gardening concept that is openly inspired by the ancient Arabian gardens and from the "Carmenes" in Granada with prominent ceramic tiles, ornamental water features and flowering plants in pots on railings and parapets.

The Stairway of the Generalife Gardens

Water is the essence of this garden, with its large and small ponds. In order to connect the upper area of the park with the Amargós Gardens, now the Teatre Grec Gardens, Forestier designed a stairway inspired by the one in the Generalife Gardens, with waterfalls on the banisters, small ponds with fountains on the landings and benches for relaxing and enjoying the freshness and sound of the water.

The Gardens of the Font del Gat

Viewpoint pergolas link the gardens with ramps, stairs and waterfalls that flow into the Font del Gat ("Fountain of the Cat"), a point at which magnificent views of Barcelona can be enjoyed.

The gardens lie on the slope from the highest point of the Laribal Gardens down to the Passeig de Santa Madrona and include the popular Font del Gat and a nineteenth-century building. There are paths, terraces and corners that adapt to the terrain with stairways, ramps and a monumental waterfall with four sections separated by paths and canals that connect the different areas.

Everything is covered in a thick, Mediterranean foliage, fruit trees such as loquat and fig and enormous palm trees. From the Passeig de Santa Madrona below, some very tall cypresses by the waterfall accentuate its height.

The Rose Gardens of the Colla de l'Arròs

A circle of cypress trees with a small fountain in the centre marks the beginning of a path that, beneath a pergola with terracotta pillars, leads to an oval patio surrounded by cypresses. These are the Rose Gardens of the Colla de l'Arròs.

These gardens are arranged on different levels with the feeling of being on a patio, bordered by rows of cypresses and privets. In various rectangular parterres, many diverse old varieties of roses have been planted. At the centre is a square pool with ceramic tiles, dominated by the marble female nude sculpture "Estival", who looks over the rose garden and beyond to Barcelona.

Plaça del Claustre

From the Sant Miquel Garden, next to the Passeig de Santa Madrona, there are three large London Plane trees that existed before Forestier designed the gardens. At the end, the walls of what was once an old quarry gives this part of the Laribal Gardens a confined and cloister-like air. This is where it gets its name. On the right there is a path that connects the gardens with the Teatre Grec Gardens.

Plant Life

The mature and Mediterranean plant life gives the gardens meaning. Among other species there are Aleppo Pines (Pinus halepensis), Umbrella Pines (Pinus pinea), Bay Laurels (Laurus nobilis), Bitter Orange trees (Citrus aurantium) and Mediterranean Cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens).

The Generalife stairs are surrounded by large Black Locust trees (Robinia pseudoacacia) and shrubs such as the Chinese Privet (Ligustrum lucidum) and the Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira), a species in abundance in the gardens along with the Oleander (Nerium oleander) and the Japanese Spindle tree (Euonymus japonicus).

The elegant leaves of an Aspidistra elatior shine in terracotta pots and Garden Geraniums (Pelargonium sp.), Chinese Wisterias (Wisteria sinensis) and Lady Banks' Roses (Rosa banksiae) cover the pergolas. In different areas around the gardens aromatic plants like Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Rosemary (Rosmarinus offcinalis) and climbing plants such as Ivy (Hedera helix) can be found.

In the Laribal Gardens there are also River Oaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana), Tasmanian Blue Gums (Eucalyptus globules), Monterey Cypresses (Cupressus macrocarpa) Deodar Cedar (Cedrus deodara) and in Plaça del Claustre, three large London Planes (Platanus X hispanica).

Art and Architecture

The sculptures are notable in these gardens, both for their quality and their beauty. There is an Art Deco style marble female nude, "Estival" (1929) by Jaume Otero, that dominates the rose garden.

The "Noia de la trena" (1928) by Joseph Viladomar is another female nude, in this case made of bronze, which represents a young girl plaiting her hair. It is in a small shaded square, close to the stairway that links to other areas of the gardens.

The third sculpture is again of a woman and by Joseph Viladomar and was based on the Manolo Hugué original. "Repòs" (1925) a life-sized female nude made of stone situated in a small square close to the entrance next to the Joan Miró Foundation.

Near the rose garden, there is a glazed ceramic fountain influenced by the sea, crowned by a jet, which was the work of Llorenç Artigas.

The Font del Gat

The water from the Font del Gat ("Fountain of the Cat") pours from a feline head, sculpted by Joan Antoni Homs in 1918, when the Laribal Gardens were being finished. This fountain is one of many that flowed in Barcelona at the time and is situated in a place in the city that was very popular at the end of the nineteenth century.

The fountain was so popular that the journalist and playwright Joan Amich wrote a song about it: "La Marieta de l'ull viu" that is still sung today and includes the verse: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat..." ("Coming down from the cat Fountain / a girl, a girl / Coming down from the cat Fountain / a girl with a soldier...").

History

The area where the Laribal Gardens now lie was a popular meeting place at the beginning of the last century, in particular the Font del Gat, which was also an area for exclusive gatherings, such as those of Colla de l'Arròs, a gastronomic-political group who had a certain influence over Barcelona at the turn of the last century, would meet in a small building situated where the Museu Etnològic (Ethnological Museum) now stands.

The upper part of the current gardens once belonged to Joseph Laribal, an esteemed lawyer whose name the gardens bear. He built a neo-Arabian chalet, surrounded by eclectic gardens, with large trees.

After Laribal died in 1908, the house was acquired by the Town Council, which established the Escola del Bosc, which still exists to this day. Simultaneously, studies began for the development and gardening of the mountain, a comprehensive project that was initially the responsibility of Josep Amargós.

The 1929 World's Fair

Completed in 1922, the Laribal Gardens are linked to a later event: the International Exposition of Barcelona of 1929 (a World's Fair). This event represented the culmination of a project which began in 1905 to organise an exhibition on Montjuïc about the electrical industries, the emerging energy at the time.

One of the commissioners at the International Exhibition of Barcelona was Francesc Cambó, who was responsible for the gardening and engineering work and the work of the French landscape architect Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. His assistant was the young architect Nicolau M. Rubió I Tudurí, who, in 1917, became the director of the Public and Wooded Parks Board, the predecessor of the Parks and Gardens Service of Barcelona, of which he was mainly responsible and one of the key people in the development of green spaces in the city.

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Es una de las perlas del Parque de Montjuïc y pasearse por ellos es un autentica delicia. La riquísima vegetación, junto con el agua que baja por cascadas y se escurre delicadamente en medio de amplias barandillas, los bancos de ladrillo y las placetas, crean un conjunto de una belleza excepcional. Es un lugar en el que estar, para contemplarlo e ir descubriendo los miles de detalles que lo configuran, con una armonía difícil de superar.

Los Jardines de Laribal, de gran valor histórico, están formados por terrazas, caminos, placetas, pequeños estanques y una vegetación lozana y consolidada. Una serie de terrazas sobrepuestas están unidas entre si por caminos y atajos de gran pendiente, con tramos de escaleras intercalados de diseño siempre diferente. Pérgolas de ladrillo visto, piedra y pilares blancos dan sombra a las zonas más llanas. La vegetación, exótica en su mayoría, es rica y variada en especies.

Jardines mediterráneos

Estos jardines, incluidos en el recinto de la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona de 1929, obtuvieron una gran reputación. Sus autores, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier y Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, crearon un nuevo estilo paisajístico de raíz mediterránea.

La vegetación preexistente, desde plantas autóctonas hasta árboles frutales del pasado agrícola de la montaña, se integró en los jardines con un concepto de jardinería renovador y original, que sigue libremente la inspiración de los antiguos jardines árabes y de los "cármenes" de Granada, con una gran presencia de azulejos de cerámica, aguas ornamentales y el cultivo de plantas de flor en macetas colocadas en barandillas y alféizares.

Las escaleras del Generalife

El agua es la esencia del jardín, con pequeños y grandes estanques. Para conectar la parte superior del parque con los Jardines Amargós, actualmente Jardines del Teatre Grec, Forestier diseñó una escalera inspirada en la de los jardines del Generalife, con cascadas en los pasamanos, estanques con fuentes en los rellanos y bancos de piedra para reponerse y disfrutar del frescor y el sonido del agua.

Los jardines de la Font del Gat

Unas pérgolas mirador llevan de unos jardines a otros, unidos por ejes de rampas, escaleras y cascadas que desembocan en la Font del Gat desde donde se pueden contemplar unas magníficas vistas de Barcelona.

Ocupan la pendiente que va desde la parte más alta de los jardines Laribal hasta el paseo de Santa Madrona e integran la popular Font del Gat y un edificio decimonónico. Se trata de un conjunto de caminos, terrazas y rincones que se adaptan al relieve con escaleras, rampas y una cascada monumental con cuatro secciones separadas por caminos y canales, que van conectando los diferentes tramos.

Todo está cubierto por un espeso follaje mediterráneo y árboles frutales, como nísperos e higueras y palmeras de enormes copas. Si lo miramos desde abajo, junto al paseo de Santa Madrona, vemos que los altísimos cipreses situados al inicio de la cascada acentúan la verticalidad del conjunto.

La rosaleda de la Colla de l'Arròs

Una glorieta de cipreses, con una pequeña fuente en el centro, marca el inicio de un recorrido que, debajo de una pérgola con pilares de terracota, conduce a un patio ovalado y recluido también rodeado de cipreses: la rosaleda de la Colla de l'Arròs

El jardín se configura en diferentes planos, con aire de patio, que están rodeados de cipreses e hileras de aligustres. En diferentes parterres rectangulares se han plantado antiguas variedades de rosales. En el centro destaca un pequeño estanque cuadrangular con azulejos esmaltados, presidido en la parte superior por Estival, una escultura de un desnudo femenino en mármol que contempla la rosaleda y, más allá, Barcelona.

La plaza del Claustre

De hecho se trata del jardín de Sant Miquel, junto al paseo de Santa Madrona, en el que destacan tres grandes plataneros que ya existían antes de que Forestier diseñara los jardines. Al fondo, los muros de lo que antes había sido una antigua cantera confieren a esta parte de los jardines Laribal un aire recluido y claustral. Y de aquí viene su nombre. A la derecha encontramos un corredor que comunica con los jardines del Teatre Grec.

Vegetación

La vegetación madura y mediterránea da sentido a los jardines. Así, entre otras especies, hay pinos carrascos (Pinus halepensis), pinos piñoneros (Pinus pinea), laureles (Laurus nobilis), naranjos amargos (Citrus aurantium) y cipreses (Cupressus sempervirens).

Las escaleras del Generalife están rodeadas de grandes acacias (Robinia pseudoacacia) y arbustos como el aligustre (Ligustrum lucidum) y el pitosporo (Pittosporum tobira), una especie de arbusto muy abundante en los jardines, junto con la adelfa (Nerium oleander) y el evónimo del Japón (Evonymus japonicus).

En macetas de terracota lucen las elegantes hojas de salón (Aspidistra elatior) y los geranios (Pelargonium sp.), al tiempo que las glicinias (Wisteria sinensis) y los rosales de Banksia (Rosa banksiae) cubren las pérgolas. En diferentes lugares de los jardines encontramos plantas aromáticas, como la lavanda (Lavandula angustifolia), el romero (Rosmarinus officinalis) y otras especies tapizantes como la hiedra (Hedera helix).

En los jardines de Laribal también encontramos pinos australianos (Casuarina cunninghamiana), eucaliptos (Eucalyptus globulus), cipreses de Lambert (Cupressus macrocarpa), cedros del Himalaya (Cedrus deodara) y, en la plaza del Claustre, tres grandes ejemplares de platanero (Platanus X hispanica).

Arte y arquitectura

En estos jardines la escultura es notable, tanto por su calidad como por su belleza. Presidiendo la rosaleda tenemos el Estival, de Jaume Otero (1929), una figura femenina sentada, de estilo art decó y realizada en mármol.

La Noia de la trena, de Josep Viladomat (1928), es otro desnudo femenino, en este caso de bronce, que representa una joven que se recoge el pelo en una trenza. Se encuentra en una placeta sombría muy cerca de las escaleras que comunican con los otros niveles de los jardines.

La tercera escultura también es de una mujer y de Josep Viladomat, que la realizó en base a un original de Manolo Hugué. Se trata de Repòs (1925), un desnudo femenino de piedra, a tamaño natural, situado en una placeta circular muy cerca de la entrada que hay al lado de la Fundació Joan Miró.

Cerca de la rosaleda se encuentra una fuente de cerámica esmaltada con motivos marinos, coronada con un surtidor, obra del ceramista Llorenç Artigas.

La Font del Gat

El agua de la Font del Gat mana desde la cabeza de un felino, esculpido por Joan Antoni Homs en 1918, año en el que se terminaron los jardines Laribal. Esta fuente era una de las muchas que manaban en aquellos momentos en Barcelona y, el lugar en el que se encuentra era muy popular en la ciudad a finales del siglo XIX.

La fuente era tan popular que el periodista y autor teatral Joan Amich escribió una canción: "La Marieta de l'ull viu", que todavía hoy se canta e incluye la estrofa: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat...".

Historia

A principios del siglo pasado, en la zona que hoy ocupan los jardines Laribal se celebraban encuentros populares, sobre todo en la Font del Gat, o reuniones selectas, como las que hacía la Colla de l'Arròs, un grupo medio gastronómico medio político que tuvo una cierta influencia en la Barcelona del final del siglo XIX y principio del XX y que se reunía en un pequeño edificio situado donde ahora se encuentra el Museo Etnológico.

La parte alta de los actuales jardines pertenecía a la finca de Josep Laribal, un prestigioso abogado cuyo nombre se ha perpetuado en los jardines. Allí se hizo construir un chalet neoárabe, rodeado de unos jardines eclécticos, con grandes árboles.

Tras la muerte de Laribal en 1908, la finca fue adquirida por el Ayuntamiento que fundó en ella la Escola del Bosc, que todavía existe. Simultáneamente, se iniciaron los estudios para urbanizar y enjardinar la montaña, con un proyecto global que inicialmente se encargó a Josep Amargós.

La Exposición de 1929

Los jardines de Laribal, terminados en el 1922, también están vinculados con un acontecimiento posterior: la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona de 1929. Este acontecimiento representó la culminación de un proyecto iniciado en 1905 para organizar en Montjuïc una exposición sobre las industrias eléctricas, la energía emergente de aquel momento.

Uno de los comisarios de la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona fue Francesc Cambó, que encargó los trabajos de ajardinamiento al ingeniero y paisajista francés Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. Su ayudante fue el joven arquitecto Nicolau M. Rubió i Tudurí, que en 1917 se convertiría en el director de la Dirección de Parques Públicos y Arbolado, antecedente del Servicio de Parques y Jardines de Barcelona, del que fue el primer responsable y una de las personas determinantes en el futuro desarrollo de los espacios verdes públicos de la ciudad.

A cigarette, also known colloquially as a fag in British English, is a narrow cylinder containing psychoactive material, usually tobacco, that is rolled into thin paper for smoking. Most cigarettes contain a "reconstituted tobacco" product known as "sheet", which consists of "recycled [tobacco] stems, stalks, scraps, collected dust, and floor sweepings", to which are added glue, chemicals and fillers; the product is then sprayed with nicotine that was extracted from the tobacco scraps, and shaped into curls. The cigarette is ignited at one end, causing it to smolder; the resulting smoke is orally inhaled via the opposite end. Most modern cigarettes are filtered, although this does not make them safer. Cigarette manufacturers have described cigarettes as a drug administration system for the delivery of nicotine in acceptable and attractive form. Cigarettes are addictive (because of nicotine) and cause cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart disease, and other health problems.

The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette but is sometimes used to refer to other substances, such as a cannabis cigarette. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its usually smaller size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping, which is typically white. Cigar wrappers are typically composed of tobacco leaf or paper dipped in tobacco extract.

Smoking rates have generally declined in the developed world, but continue to rise in some developing nations. Cigarette smoking causes health harms and death. Nicotine is also highly addictive. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease[9] and lose on average 14 years of life.

Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including low birth weight, fetal abnormalities, and premature birth. Second-hand smoke from cigarettes causes many of the same health problems as smoking, including cancer, which has led to legislation and policy that has prohibited smoking in many workplaces and public areas. Cigarette smoke contains over 7,000 chemical compounds, including arsenic, formaldehyde, cyanide, lead, nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and other poisonous substances. Over 70 of these are carcinogenic. Additionally, cigarettes are a frequent source of deadly fires in private homes, which prompted both the European Union and the United States to require cigarettes to be fire-standard compliant.

HISTORY

The earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes. The Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America until recent times.

The North American, Central American, and South American cigarette used various plant wrappers; when it was brought back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced, and by the 17th century, fine paper. The resulting product was called papelate and is documented in Goya's paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, and El juego de la pelota a pala (18th century).

By 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name cigarette; and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them. The French word was adopted by English in the 1840s. Some American reformers promoted the spelling cigaret, but this was never widespread and is now largely abandoned.

The first patented cigarette-making machine was invented by Juan Nepomuceno Adorno of Mexico in 1847. However, production climbed markedly when another cigarette-making machine was developed in the 1880s by James Albert Bonsack, which vastly increased the productivity of cigarette companies, which went from making about 40,000 hand-rolled cigarettes daily to around 4 million.

In the English-speaking world, the use of tobacco in cigarette form became increasingly widespread during and after the Crimean War, when British soldiers began emulating their Ottoman Turkish comrades and Russian enemies, who had begun rolling and smoking tobacco in strips of old newspaper for lack of proper cigar-rolling leaf. This was helped by the development of tobaccos suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry.

Cigarettes may have been initially used in a manner similar to pipes, cigars, and cigarillos and not inhaled; for evidence, see the Lucky Strike ad campaign asking consumers "Do You Inhale?" from the 1930s. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have become perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. Unter dem Halbmond) that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and Latakia from their pipes (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).

The widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. At the start of the 20th century, the per capita annual consumption in the U.S. was 54 cigarettes (with less than 0.5% of the population smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year), and consumption there peaked at 4,259 per capita in 1965. At that time, about 50% of men and 33% of women smoked (defined as smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year). By 2000, consumption had fallen to 2,092 per capita, corresponding to about 30% of men and 22% of women smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year, and by 2006 per capita consumption had declined to 1,691; implying that about 21% of the population smoked 100 cigarettes or more per year.

The adverse health effects of cigarettes were known by the mid-19th century when they became known as coffins nails.[31] German doctors were the first to identify the link between smoking and lung cancer, which led to the first antitobacco movement in Nazi Germany. During World War I and World War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the Vietnam War, cigarettes were included with C-ration meals. In 1975, the U.S. government stopped putting cigarettes in military rations. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse health effects of tobacco smoking started to become widely known and text-only health warnings became common on cigarette packets.

The United States has not implemented graphical cigarette warning labels, which are considered a more effective method to communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking. Canada, Mexico, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Greece, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Hungary, the United Kingdom, France, Romania, Singapore, Egypt, Nepal and Turkey, however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects tobacco use has on the human body.

The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the "axis of smoking" (thus forming circles along the length of the cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters may remove some of the tar before it reaches the smoker.

The "holy grail" for cigarette companies has been a cancer-free cigarette. On record, the closest historical attempt was produced by scientist James Mold. Under the name project TAME, he produced the XA cigarette. However, in 1978, his project was terminated.

Since 1950, the average nicotine and tar content of cigarettes has steadily fallen. Research has shown that the fall in overall nicotine content has led to smokers inhaling larger volumes per puff.

LEGISLATION

SMOKING RESTRICTIONS

Many governments impose restrictions on smoking tobacco, especially in public areas. The primary justification has been the negative health effects of second-hand smoke. Laws vary by country and locality. Nearly all countries have laws restricting places where people can smoke in public, and over 40 countries have comprehensive smoke-free laws that prohibit smoking in virtually all public venues. Bhutan is currently the only country in the world to completely outlaw the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco and tobacco products under the Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010. However, small allowances for personal possession are permitted as long as the possessors can prove that they have paid import duties. The Pitcairn Islands had previously banned the sale of cigarettes, but it now permits sales from a government-run store. The Pacific island of Niue hopes to become the next country to prohibit the sale of tobacco. Iceland is also proposing banning tobacco sales from shops, making it prescription-only and therefore dispensable only in pharmacies on doctor's orders. New Zealand hopes to achieve being tobacco-free by 2025 and Finland by 2040. Singapore and the Australian state of Tasmania have proposed a 'tobacco free millennium generation initiative' by banning the sale of all tobacco products to anyone born in and after the year 2000. In March 2012, Brazil became the world's first country to ban all flavored tobacco including menthols. It also banned the majority of the estimated 600 additives used, permitting only eight. This regulation applies to domestic and imported cigarettes. Tobacco manufacturers had 18 months to remove the noncompliant cigarettes, 24 months to remove the other forms of noncompliant tobacco. Under sharia law, the consumption of cigarettes by Muslims is prohibited.

SMOKING AGE

Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products to people under the state purchase age has been prohibited by law in all 50 states of the United States. The purchasing age in the United States is 18 in 42 of the 50 states — but 19 in Alabama, Alaska, Utah, and Nassau, Suffolk, and Onondaga Counties in New York, and 21 in California, Hawaii, New Jersey, Oregon, Maine and more than 180 municipalities across the nation. The intended effect of this is to prevent older high school students from purchasing cigarettes for their younger peers. In Massachusetts, parents and guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to minors are prohibited.

Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase cigarettes (except for Quebec and the prairie provinces, where the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New Zealand, Poland, and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18.

Since 1 October 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland) (rising from 16). It is also illegal to sell lighters, rolling papers, and all other tobacco-associated items to people under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age increase from 16 to 18 came into force in Northern Ireland on 1 September 2008. In the Republic of Ireland, bans on the sale of the smaller 10-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco products (candy cigarettes) came into force on May 31, 2007, in a bid to cut underaged smoking.

Most countries in the world have a legal vending age of 18. In Macedonia, Italy, Malta, Austria, Luxembourg, and Belgium, the age for legal vending is 16. Since January 1, 2007, all cigarette machines in public places in Germany must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of smokers in its population, has a legal age of 18. Japan is one of the highest tobacco-consuming nations, and requires purchasers to be 20 years of age (suffrage in Japan is 20 years old). Since July 2008, Japan has enforced this age limit at cigarette vending machines through use of the taspo smart card. In other countries, such as Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products regardless of age.Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18 on the 1 September 2007.

Some police departments in the United States occasionally send an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold, and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is issued a fine. Similar enforcement practices are regularly performed by Trading Standards officers in the UK, Israel, and the Republic of Ireland.

TAXATION

Cigarettes are taxed both to reduce use, especially among youth, and to raise revenue.Higher prices for cigarettes discourage smoking. Every 10% increase in the price of cigarettes reduces youth smoking by about 7% and overall cigarette consumption by about 4%. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that globally cigarettes be taxed at a rate of three-quarters of cigarettes sale price as a way of deterring cancer and other negative health outcomes.

Cigarette sales are a significant source of tax revenue in many localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the health field.

In the United States, states are a primary determinant of the total tax rate on cigarettes. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low rate. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack in Missouri to $8.00 per pack in Silver Bay, New York.As part of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, the federal government collects user fees to fund Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulatory measures over tobacco.

FIRE-SAFE CIGARETTE

According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the University of Sydney, the burning agents in cigarette paper are responsible for fires and reducing them would be a simple and effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity of cigarettes. Since the 1980s, prominent cigarette manufacturers such as Philip Morris and R.J. Reynolds developed fire safe cigarettes, but did not market them.

The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline cellulose to the paper. Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create "fire-safe" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish. This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.

New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire-safe standard. Canada has passed a similar nationwide mandate based on the same standard. All U.S. states are gradually passing fire-safe mandates.

The European Union in 2011 banned cigarettes that do not meet a fire-safety standard. According to a study made by the European Union in 16 European countries, 11,000 fires were due to people carelessly handling cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. This caused 520 deaths with 1,600 people injured.

CIGARETTE ADVERTISING

Many countries have restrictions on cigarette advertising, promotion, sponsorship, and marketing. For example, in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises. In Ontario, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec, Canada and the Australian Capital Territory the display of tobacco is prohibited for everyone, regardless of age, as of 2010. This retail display ban includes noncigarette products such as cigars and blunt wraps.

WARNING MESSAGES IN PACKAGES

As a result of tight advertising and marketing prohibitions, tobacco companies look at the pack differently: they view it as a strong component in displaying brand imagery and a creating significant in-store presence at the point of purchase. Market testing shows the influence of this dimension in shifting the consumer's choice when the same product displays in an alternative package. Studies also show how companies have manipulated a variety of elements in packs designs to communicate the impression of lower in tar or milder cigarettes, whereas the components were the same.

Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health hazards. The United States was the first, later followed by other countries including Canada, most of Europe, Australia, Pakistan, India, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In 1985, Iceland became the first country to enforce graphic warnings on cigarette packaging. At the end of December 2010, new regulations from Ottawa increased the size of tobacco warnings to cover three-quarters of the cigarette package in Canada. As of November 2010, 39 countries have adopted similar legislation.

In February 2011, the Canadian government passed regulations requiring cigarette packs to contain 12 new images to cover 75% of the outside panel and eight new health messages on the inside panel with full color.

As of April 2011, Australian regulations require all packs to use a bland olive green that researchers determined to be the least attractive color, with 75% coverage on the front of the pack and all of the back consisting of graphic health warnings. The only feature that differentiates one brand from another is the product name in a standard color, position, font size, and style. Similar policies have since been adopted in France and the United Kingdom. In response to these regulations, Philip Morris International, Japan Tobacco Inc., British American Tobacco Plc., and Imperial Tobacco attempted to sue the Australian government. On August 15, 2012, the High Court of Australia dismissed the suit and made Australia the first country to introduce brand-free plain cigarette packaging with health warnings covering 90 and 70% of back and front packaging, respectively. This took effect on December 1, 2012.

CONSTRUCTION

Modern commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a cellulose acetate–based filter. While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.

PAPER

The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilize the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette, as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two rows of small laser-drilled air holes.

TOBACCO BLEND

The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.

Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing byproducts in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf "strips" produces several byproducts such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate"). To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these byproducts are processed separately into forms where they can then be added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common tobacco byproducts include:

Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming, finely milled burley-leaf stem, and pectin.

Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and "class tobacco", which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size (about 0.6 mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing: RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco byproducts, processing the leftover tobacco fibers from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing. At this stage, ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system.

Expanded (ES) or improved stem (IS): ES is rolled, flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stem follows the same process, but is simply steamed after shredding. Both products are then dried. These products look similar in appearance, but are different in taste.

In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also recycled tobacco offal and the plant stem. The stem is first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged or blended into the cut leaf. According to data from the World Health Organization, the amount of tobacco per 1000 cigarettes fell from 2.28 pounds in 1960 to 0.91 pounds in 1999, largely as a result of reconstituting tobacco, fluffing, and additives.

A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf, and oriental-leaf tobacco is mixed with various additives to improve its flavors.

ADDITIVES

Various additives are combined into the shredded tobacco product mixtures, with humectants such as propylene glycol or glycerol, as well as flavoring products and enhancers such as cocoa solids, licorice, tobacco extracts, and various sugars, which are known collectively as "casings". The leaf tobacco is then shredded, along with a specified amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES, and IS. A perfume-like flavor/fragrance, called the "topping" or "toppings", which is most often formulated by flavor companies, is then blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the consistency in flavor and taste of the cigarettes associated with a certain brand name.[85] Additionally, they replace lost flavors due to the repeated wetting and drying used in processing the tobacco. Finally, the tobacco mixture is filled into cigarette tubes and packaged.

A list of 599 cigarette additives, created by five major American cigarette companies, was approved by the Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. None of these additives is listed as an ingredient on the cigarette pack(s). Chemicals are added for organoleptic purposes and many boost the addictive properties of cigarettes, especially when burned.

One of the classes of chemicals on the list, ammonia salts, convert bound nicotine molecules in tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process, known as freebasing, could potentially increase the effect of nicotine on the smoker, but experimental data suggests that absorption is, in practice, unaffected.

CIGARETTE TUBE

Cigarette tubes are prerolled cigarette paper usually with an acetate or paper filter at the end. They have an appearance similar to a finished cigarette, but are without any tobacco or smoking material inside. The length varies from what is known as King Size (84 mm) to 100s (100 mm).

Filling a cigarette tube is usually done with a cigarette injector (also known as a shooter). Cone-shaped cigarette tubes, known as cones, can be filled using a packing stick or straw because of their shape. Cone smoking is popular because as the cigarette burns, it tends to get stronger and stronger. A cone allows more tobacco to be burned at the beginning than the end, allowing for an even flavor

The United States Tobacco Taxation Bureau defines a cigarette tube as "Cigarette paper made into a hollow cylinder for use in making cigarettes."

CIGARETTE FILTER

A cigarette filter or filter tip is a component of a cigarette. Filters are typically made from cellulose acetate fibre. Most factory-made cigarettes are equipped with a filter; those who roll their own can buy them separately. Filters can reduce some substances from smoke but do not make cigarettes any safer to smoke.

CIGARETTE BUTT

The common name for the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a cigarette butt. The butt is typically about 30% of the cigarette's original length. It consists of a tissue tube which holds a filter and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash. They are the most numerically frequent litter in the world. Cigarette butts accumulate outside buildings, on parking lots, and streets where they can be transported through storm drains to streams, rivers, and beaches. It is also called a fag-end or dog-end.

In a 2013 trial the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, partnered with TerraCycle to create a system for recycling of cigarette butts. A reward of 1¢ per collected butt was offered to determine the effectiveness of a deposit system similar to that of beverage containers

LIGHTS

Some cigarettes are marketed as “Lights”, “Milds”, or “Low-tar.” These cigarettes were historically marketed as being less harmful, but there is no research showing that they are any less harmful. The filter design is one of the main differences between light and regular cigarettes, although not all cigarettes contain perforated holes in the filter. In some light cigarettes, the filter is perforated with small holes that theoretically diffuse the tobacco smoke with clean air. In regular cigarettes, the filter does not include these perforations. In ultralight cigarettes, the filter's perforations are larger. he majority of major cigarette manufacturers offer a light, low-tar, and/or mild cigarette brand. Due to recent U.S. legislation prohibiting the use of these descriptors, tobacco manufacturers are turning to color-coding to allow consumers to differentiate between regular and light brands.

REPLACEMENT

An electronic cigarette is a handheld battery-powered vaporizer that simulates smoking by providing some of the behavioral aspects of smoking, including the hand-to-mouth action of smoking, but without combusting tobacco. Using an e-cigarette is known as "vaping" and the user is referred to as a "vaper." Instead of cigarette smoke, the user inhales an aerosol, commonly called vapor. E-cigarettes typically have a heating element that atomizes a liquid solution called e-liquid. E-cigarettes are automatically activated by taking a puff; others turn on manually by pressing a button. Some e-cigarettes look like traditional cigarettes, but they come in many variations. Most versions are reusable, though some are disposable. There are first-generation, second-generation, third-generation, and fourth-generation devices. E-liquids usually contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavorings, additives, and differing amounts of contaminants. E-liquids are also sold without propylene glycol, nicotine, or flavors.

The benefits and the health risks of e-cigarettes are uncertain. There is tentative evidence they may help people quit smoking, although they have not been proven to be more effective than smoking cessation medicine. There is concern with the possibility that non-smokers and children may start nicotine use with e-cigarettes at a rate higher than anticipated than if they were never created. Following the possibility of nicotine addiction from e-cigarette use, there is concern children may start smoking cigarettes. Youth who use e-cigarettes are more likely to go on to smoke cigarettes. Their part in tobacco harm reduction is unclear, while another review found they appear to have the potential to lower tobacco-related death and disease. Regulated US Food and Drug Administration nicotine replacement products may be safer than e-cigarettes, but e-cigarettes are generally seen as safer than combusted tobacco products. It is estimated their safety risk to users is similar to that of smokeless tobacco. The long-term effects of e-cigarette use are unknown. The risk from serious adverse events was reported in 2016 to be low. Less serious adverse effects include abdominal pain, headache, blurry vision, throat and mouth irritation, vomiting, nausea, and coughing. Nicotine itself is associated with some health harms. In 2019, an outbreak of severe lung illness across multiple states in the US has been linked to the use of vaping products.

E-cigarettes create vapor made of fine and ultrafine particles of particulate matter, which have been found to contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavors, tiny amounts of toxicants, carcinogens, heavy metals, and metal nanoparticles, and other substances. Its exact composition varies across and within manufacturers, and depends on the contents of the liquid, the physical and electrical design of the device, and user behavior, among other factors. E-cigarette vapor potentially contains harmful chemicals not found in tobacco smoke. E-cigarette vapor contains fewer toxic chemicals, and lower concentrations of potential toxic chemicals than cigarette smoke. The vapor is probably much less harmful to users and bystanders than cigarette smoke,although concern exists that the exhaled vapor may be inhaled by non-users, particularly indoors.

WIKIPEDIA

Botero

Celebrate Life!

Kunsthal

Rotterdam, 2016

Met trots brengt de Kunsthal Rotterdam deze zomer een groot retrospectief van de wereldberoemde Colombiaanse kunstenaar Fernando Botero (1932). Geselecteerd uit Botero’s eigen collectie laat de tentoonstelling een overzicht zien van de door hemzelf meest geliefde schilderijen uit zijn omvangrijke oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ brengt bijna honderd schilderijen, tekeningen en pastels en een enkel beeldhouwwerk bij elkaar, met als blikvanger een enorme ‘Caballo’, Botero’s bekende beeldhouwwerk van een paard.

Te zien zijn schilderijen van het op zijn jeugdherinneringen geïnspireerde leven in Latijns-Amerika en reproducties van klassieke meesters in de herkenbare Botero stijl. Ook stierenvechten en het circus zijn thema’s die in de werken aan bod komen. De kunst van Botero staat letterlijk bol van het Latijns Amerikaanse leven. De reusachtige, opgeblazen lichamen en voorwerpen lijken ondanks hun omvang gewichtloos en daardoor soms zelfs te zweven. Dit volume is een vast onderdeel van Botero’s werk en geeft zijn kunst iets overdadigs, met nu eens een komisch en dan weer een ontroerend effect. Bijzonder is de serie van vrouwelijke Santa’s, geïnspireerd op de iconische beelden van vrouwelijke heiligen. Botero verbeeldt hen als wereldse heldinnen, met betekenisvolle accessoires zoals een bijbel of kaars, waarbij hun aureool in verrassend contrast staat met de kledij en lichaamshouding.

Latijns Amerikaanse leven

‘Botero: Celebrate Life! laat zien hoe Fernando Botero een magische wereld schept vol personages en scenes uit het dagelijks leven, waar politiek en religie nadrukkelijk onderdeel van uitmaken. Hoewel zijn werk in eerste instantie licht en luchtig oogt, is ook de gewelddadige geschiedenis van zijn vaderland Colombia voelbaar. Zijn afkomst en achtergrond hebben Botero op een diepgaande manier beïnvloed, wat direct tot uiting komt in zijn werken van de president, executies en huilende weduwen en indirect in zijn schilderijen van feestende mensen, die met uitdrukkingsloze gezichten dansen onder het licht van kale peertjes.

Hommage aan oude meesters

Fernando Botero is een veelzijdig kunstenaar, die zowel put uit de Latijns-Amerikaanse traditie als uit de Europese kunstgeschiedenis. Zo brengt hij een hommage aan beroemde werken van oude meesters zoals Diego Velázquez, van Eyck en Piero della Francesca. De werken zijn een eerbetoon aan de kunstenaars die hij jarenlang bestudeerde en een ode aan de technieken, het vakmanschap en de esthetiek van de oude meesters. Religie is voor Botero een geliefd onderwerp. Op satirische wijze geeft hij commentaar in schilderijen van nonnen, kardinalen en pausen. Andere thema's in zijn werk proberen de magie van het dagelijks leven in Latijns Amerika te vangen. Zo tonen zijn werken van stierengevechten niet alleen de matador, maar ook zangers, musici, dansers en verschillende leden van de familie van de stierenvechter. Zijn stillevens tonen de vruchten en drankjes van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent, met hun briljante kleuren en populaire delicatessen. En in zijn schilderijen met het thema circus herkennen we de komische en absurde houdingen, waarbij naast het altijd terugkerende volume ook het kleurgebruik heel bepalend is.

This summer Kunsthal Rotterdam is proud to present a large-scale retrospective of the world-famous Colombian artist Fernando Botero (1932). This selection from Botero’s own collection provides a panorama of the artist’s personal favorites from his considerable oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ will exhibit almost a hundred paintings, sketches and pastels as well as a few sculptures, including the enormous eye-catcher ‘Caballo’, Botero’s famous sculpture of a horse.

Visitors will be able to see paintings of life in Latin America based on reminiscences from his youth, and reproductions of classical masters in the recognizable Botero style. The bull-fight and the circus are also featured in these works. Botero’s art is full of Latin American life. The gigantic, inflated bodies and objects appear weightless in spite of their volume, which sometimes even seems to make them look as if they are floating. This volume is a recurrent feature in Botero’s work and gives his art an exuberance that can be comical or moving. The series of female Santas, inspired by the iconic images of female saints, is remarkable. Botero represents them as worldly heroines with meaningful accessories such as a bible or candle, putting their halo in sharp contrast with their clothing and posture.

Latin American life

'Botero: Celebrate Life!' shows how Fernando Botero creates a magical world full of characters and scenes from daily life, of which politics and religion form an important part. Although his work appears at first sight to be airy and light-hearted, the violent history of his native country Colombia can be felt. His origin and background have influenced Botero profoundly, which finds expression directly in his works of the president, executions and weeping widows, and indirectly in his paintings of people partying, dancing with expressionless faces under the light of naked light bulbs.

Homage to the Old Masters

Fernando Botero is a multi-faceted artist who draws on both the Latin American tradition and the history of European art. He pays homage to famous works by such Old Masters as Diego Velázquez, Jan van Eyck and Piero della Francesca. The works are a tribute to the artists whom he studied for years and an ode to the techniques, craftsmanship and aesthetics of the Old Masters. Religion is one of Botero’s favorite themes. He comments on it satirically in paintings of nuns, cardinals and popes. Other themes in his work try to capture the magic of everyday life in Latin America. For example, his images of bull-fights include not only the matador, but also the singers, musicians, dancers and various members of the bull-fighter’s family. His still-lifes show the fruits and beverages of the South American continent with their brilliant colors and popular delicacies. And in his paintings of the circus we can recognize the comical and absurd postures in which not only the constantly recurring volume but also the use of color are highly determinant elements.

Privatsammlung

Some 80% of Scotland’s land mass is under agricultural production, making the industry the single biggest determinant of the landscape we see around us. Scotland’s farmers, crofters and growers produce output worth around £2.9 billion a year, and are responsible for much of Scotland’s £5 billion food and drink exports. The export target for 2017 is £7.1 billion.

Around 67,000 people are directly employed in agriculture in Scotland – this represents around 8% of the rural workforce and means that agriculture is the third largest employer in rural Scotland after the service and public sectors. It is estimated that a further 360,000 jobs (1 in 10 of all Scottish jobs) are dependent on agriculture.

The agri-food sector is now the UKs largest manufacturing sector.

Around 85% of Scotland is classified as Less Favoured Area. This is an EU classification which recognises natural and geographic disadvantage.

There are large numbers of farms in north west Scotland, but these are significantly smaller in terms of the numbers of livestock/area of crops grown than farms elsewhere. Sheep farming is the predominant type of farming in the north west and there are also many sheep farms in the south of the country. Larger cereal farms are concentrated in the east. Beef farming takes place throughout Scotland, but is particularly common in the south west. This area also has the bulk of the dairy industry.

A cigarette, also known colloquially as a fag in British English, is a narrow cylinder containing psychoactive material, usually tobacco, that is rolled into thin paper for smoking. Most cigarettes contain a "reconstituted tobacco" product known as "sheet", which consists of "recycled [tobacco] stems, stalks, scraps, collected dust, and floor sweepings", to which are added glue, chemicals and fillers; the product is then sprayed with nicotine that was extracted from the tobacco scraps, and shaped into curls. The cigarette is ignited at one end, causing it to smolder; the resulting smoke is orally inhaled via the opposite end. Most modern cigarettes are filtered, although this does not make them safer. Cigarette manufacturers have described cigarettes as a drug administration system for the delivery of nicotine in acceptable and attractive form. Cigarettes are addictive (because of nicotine) and cause cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart disease, and other health problems.

The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette but is sometimes used to refer to other substances, such as a cannabis cigarette. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its usually smaller size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping, which is typically white. Cigar wrappers are typically composed of tobacco leaf or paper dipped in tobacco extract.

Smoking rates have generally declined in the developed world, but continue to rise in some developing nations. Cigarette smoking causes health harms and death. Nicotine is also highly addictive. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease[9] and lose on average 14 years of life.

Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including low birth weight, fetal abnormalities, and premature birth. Second-hand smoke from cigarettes causes many of the same health problems as smoking, including cancer, which has led to legislation and policy that has prohibited smoking in many workplaces and public areas. Cigarette smoke contains over 7,000 chemical compounds, including arsenic, formaldehyde, cyanide, lead, nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and other poisonous substances. Over 70 of these are carcinogenic. Additionally, cigarettes are a frequent source of deadly fires in private homes, which prompted both the European Union and the United States to require cigarettes to be fire-standard compliant.

HISTORY

The earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes. The Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America until recent times.

The North American, Central American, and South American cigarette used various plant wrappers; when it was brought back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced, and by the 17th century, fine paper. The resulting product was called papelate and is documented in Goya's paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, and El juego de la pelota a pala (18th century).

By 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name cigarette; and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them. The French word was adopted by English in the 1840s. Some American reformers promoted the spelling cigaret, but this was never widespread and is now largely abandoned.

The first patented cigarette-making machine was invented by Juan Nepomuceno Adorno of Mexico in 1847. However, production climbed markedly when another cigarette-making machine was developed in the 1880s by James Albert Bonsack, which vastly increased the productivity of cigarette companies, which went from making about 40,000 hand-rolled cigarettes daily to around 4 million.

In the English-speaking world, the use of tobacco in cigarette form became increasingly widespread during and after the Crimean War, when British soldiers began emulating their Ottoman Turkish comrades and Russian enemies, who had begun rolling and smoking tobacco in strips of old newspaper for lack of proper cigar-rolling leaf. This was helped by the development of tobaccos suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry.

Cigarettes may have been initially used in a manner similar to pipes, cigars, and cigarillos and not inhaled; for evidence, see the Lucky Strike ad campaign asking consumers "Do You Inhale?" from the 1930s. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have become perceived as more agreeable. However, Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. Unter dem Halbmond) that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and Latakia from their pipes (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).

The widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. At the start of the 20th century, the per capita annual consumption in the U.S. was 54 cigarettes (with less than 0.5% of the population smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year), and consumption there peaked at 4,259 per capita in 1965. At that time, about 50% of men and 33% of women smoked (defined as smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year). By 2000, consumption had fallen to 2,092 per capita, corresponding to about 30% of men and 22% of women smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year, and by 2006 per capita consumption had declined to 1,691; implying that about 21% of the population smoked 100 cigarettes or more per year.

The adverse health effects of cigarettes were known by the mid-19th century when they became known as coffins nails.[31] German doctors were the first to identify the link between smoking and lung cancer, which led to the first antitobacco movement in Nazi Germany. During World War I and World War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the Vietnam War, cigarettes were included with C-ration meals. In 1975, the U.S. government stopped putting cigarettes in military rations. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse health effects of tobacco smoking started to become widely known and text-only health warnings became common on cigarette packets.

The United States has not implemented graphical cigarette warning labels, which are considered a more effective method to communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking. Canada, Mexico, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Greece, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Hungary, the United Kingdom, France, Romania, Singapore, Egypt, Nepal and Turkey, however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects tobacco use has on the human body.

The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the "axis of smoking" (thus forming circles along the length of the cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters may remove some of the tar before it reaches the smoker.

The "holy grail" for cigarette companies has been a cancer-free cigarette. On record, the closest historical attempt was produced by scientist James Mold. Under the name project TAME, he produced the XA cigarette. However, in 1978, his project was terminated.

Since 1950, the average nicotine and tar content of cigarettes has steadily fallen. Research has shown that the fall in overall nicotine content has led to smokers inhaling larger volumes per puff.

LEGISLATION

SMOKING RESTRICTIONS

Many governments impose restrictions on smoking tobacco, especially in public areas. The primary justification has been the negative health effects of second-hand smoke. Laws vary by country and locality. Nearly all countries have laws restricting places where people can smoke in public, and over 40 countries have comprehensive smoke-free laws that prohibit smoking in virtually all public venues. Bhutan is currently the only country in the world to completely outlaw the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco and tobacco products under the Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010. However, small allowances for personal possession are permitted as long as the possessors can prove that they have paid import duties. The Pitcairn Islands had previously banned the sale of cigarettes, but it now permits sales from a government-run store. The Pacific island of Niue hopes to become the next country to prohibit the sale of tobacco. Iceland is also proposing banning tobacco sales from shops, making it prescription-only and therefore dispensable only in pharmacies on doctor's orders. New Zealand hopes to achieve being tobacco-free by 2025 and Finland by 2040. Singapore and the Australian state of Tasmania have proposed a 'tobacco free millennium generation initiative' by banning the sale of all tobacco products to anyone born in and after the year 2000. In March 2012, Brazil became the world's first country to ban all flavored tobacco including menthols. It also banned the majority of the estimated 600 additives used, permitting only eight. This regulation applies to domestic and imported cigarettes. Tobacco manufacturers had 18 months to remove the noncompliant cigarettes, 24 months to remove the other forms of noncompliant tobacco. Under sharia law, the consumption of cigarettes by Muslims is prohibited.

SMOKING AGE

Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products to people under the state purchase age has been prohibited by law in all 50 states of the United States. The purchasing age in the United States is 18 in 42 of the 50 states — but 19 in Alabama, Alaska, Utah, and Nassau, Suffolk, and Onondaga Counties in New York, and 21 in California, Hawaii, New Jersey, Oregon, Maine and more than 180 municipalities across the nation. The intended effect of this is to prevent older high school students from purchasing cigarettes for their younger peers. In Massachusetts, parents and guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to minors are prohibited.

Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase cigarettes (except for Quebec and the prairie provinces, where the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New Zealand, Poland, and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18.

Since 1 October 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland) (rising from 16). It is also illegal to sell lighters, rolling papers, and all other tobacco-associated items to people under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age increase from 16 to 18 came into force in Northern Ireland on 1 September 2008. In the Republic of Ireland, bans on the sale of the smaller 10-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco products (candy cigarettes) came into force on May 31, 2007, in a bid to cut underaged smoking.

Most countries in the world have a legal vending age of 18. In Macedonia, Italy, Malta, Austria, Luxembourg, and Belgium, the age for legal vending is 16. Since January 1, 2007, all cigarette machines in public places in Germany must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of smokers in its population, has a legal age of 18. Japan is one of the highest tobacco-consuming nations, and requires purchasers to be 20 years of age (suffrage in Japan is 20 years old). Since July 2008, Japan has enforced this age limit at cigarette vending machines through use of the taspo smart card. In other countries, such as Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products regardless of age.Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18 on the 1 September 2007.

Some police departments in the United States occasionally send an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold, and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is issued a fine. Similar enforcement practices are regularly performed by Trading Standards officers in the UK, Israel, and the Republic of Ireland.

TAXATION

Cigarettes are taxed both to reduce use, especially among youth, and to raise revenue.Higher prices for cigarettes discourage smoking. Every 10% increase in the price of cigarettes reduces youth smoking by about 7% and overall cigarette consumption by about 4%. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that globally cigarettes be taxed at a rate of three-quarters of cigarettes sale price as a way of deterring cancer and other negative health outcomes.

Cigarette sales are a significant source of tax revenue in many localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the health field.

In the United States, states are a primary determinant of the total tax rate on cigarettes. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low rate. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack in Missouri to $8.00 per pack in Silver Bay, New York.As part of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, the federal government collects user fees to fund Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulatory measures over tobacco.

FIRE-SAFE CIGARETTE

According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the University of Sydney, the burning agents in cigarette paper are responsible for fires and reducing them would be a simple and effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity of cigarettes. Since the 1980s, prominent cigarette manufacturers such as Philip Morris and R.J. Reynolds developed fire safe cigarettes, but did not market them.

The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline cellulose to the paper. Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create "fire-safe" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish. This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.

New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire-safe standard. Canada has passed a similar nationwide mandate based on the same standard. All U.S. states are gradually passing fire-safe mandates.

The European Union in 2011 banned cigarettes that do not meet a fire-safety standard. According to a study made by the European Union in 16 European countries, 11,000 fires were due to people carelessly handling cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. This caused 520 deaths with 1,600 people injured.

CIGARETTE ADVERTISING

Many countries have restrictions on cigarette advertising, promotion, sponsorship, and marketing. For example, in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises. In Ontario, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec, Canada and the Australian Capital Territory the display of tobacco is prohibited for everyone, regardless of age, as of 2010. This retail display ban includes noncigarette products such as cigars and blunt wraps.

WARNING MESSAGES IN PACKAGES

As a result of tight advertising and marketing prohibitions, tobacco companies look at the pack differently: they view it as a strong component in displaying brand imagery and a creating significant in-store presence at the point of purchase. Market testing shows the influence of this dimension in shifting the consumer's choice when the same product displays in an alternative package. Studies also show how companies have manipulated a variety of elements in packs designs to communicate the impression of lower in tar or milder cigarettes, whereas the components were the same.

Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health hazards. The United States was the first, later followed by other countries including Canada, most of Europe, Australia, Pakistan, India, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In 1985, Iceland became the first country to enforce graphic warnings on cigarette packaging. At the end of December 2010, new regulations from Ottawa increased the size of tobacco warnings to cover three-quarters of the cigarette package in Canada. As of November 2010, 39 countries have adopted similar legislation.

In February 2011, the Canadian government passed regulations requiring cigarette packs to contain 12 new images to cover 75% of the outside panel and eight new health messages on the inside panel with full color.

As of April 2011, Australian regulations require all packs to use a bland olive green that researchers determined to be the least attractive color, with 75% coverage on the front of the pack and all of the back consisting of graphic health warnings. The only feature that differentiates one brand from another is the product name in a standard color, position, font size, and style. Similar policies have since been adopted in France and the United Kingdom. In response to these regulations, Philip Morris International, Japan Tobacco Inc., British American Tobacco Plc., and Imperial Tobacco attempted to sue the Australian government. On August 15, 2012, the High Court of Australia dismissed the suit and made Australia the first country to introduce brand-free plain cigarette packaging with health warnings covering 90 and 70% of back and front packaging, respectively. This took effect on December 1, 2012.

CONSTRUCTION

Modern commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a cellulose acetate–based filter. While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.

PAPER

The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilize the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette, as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two rows of small laser-drilled air holes.

TOBACCO BLEND

The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.

Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing byproducts in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf "strips" produces several byproducts such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate"). To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these byproducts are processed separately into forms where they can then be added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common tobacco byproducts include:

Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming, finely milled burley-leaf stem, and pectin.

Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and "class tobacco", which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size (about 0.6 mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing: RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco byproducts, processing the leftover tobacco fibers from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing. At this stage, ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system.

Expanded (ES) or improved stem (IS): ES is rolled, flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stem follows the same process, but is simply steamed after shredding. Both products are then dried. These products look similar in appearance, but are different in taste.

In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also recycled tobacco offal and the plant stem. The stem is first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged or blended into the cut leaf. According to data from the World Health Organization, the amount of tobacco per 1000 cigarettes fell from 2.28 pounds in 1960 to 0.91 pounds in 1999, largely as a result of reconstituting tobacco, fluffing, and additives.

A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf, and oriental-leaf tobacco is mixed with various additives to improve its flavors.

ADDITIVES

Various additives are combined into the shredded tobacco product mixtures, with humectants such as propylene glycol or glycerol, as well as flavoring products and enhancers such as cocoa solids, licorice, tobacco extracts, and various sugars, which are known collectively as "casings". The leaf tobacco is then shredded, along with a specified amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES, and IS. A perfume-like flavor/fragrance, called the "topping" or "toppings", which is most often formulated by flavor companies, is then blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the consistency in flavor and taste of the cigarettes associated with a certain brand name.[85] Additionally, they replace lost flavors due to the repeated wetting and drying used in processing the tobacco. Finally, the tobacco mixture is filled into cigarette tubes and packaged.

A list of 599 cigarette additives, created by five major American cigarette companies, was approved by the Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. None of these additives is listed as an ingredient on the cigarette pack(s). Chemicals are added for organoleptic purposes and many boost the addictive properties of cigarettes, especially when burned.

One of the classes of chemicals on the list, ammonia salts, convert bound nicotine molecules in tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process, known as freebasing, could potentially increase the effect of nicotine on the smoker, but experimental data suggests that absorption is, in practice, unaffected.

CIGARETTE TUBE

Cigarette tubes are prerolled cigarette paper usually with an acetate or paper filter at the end. They have an appearance similar to a finished cigarette, but are without any tobacco or smoking material inside. The length varies from what is known as King Size (84 mm) to 100s (100 mm).

Filling a cigarette tube is usually done with a cigarette injector (also known as a shooter). Cone-shaped cigarette tubes, known as cones, can be filled using a packing stick or straw because of their shape. Cone smoking is popular because as the cigarette burns, it tends to get stronger and stronger. A cone allows more tobacco to be burned at the beginning than the end, allowing for an even flavor

The United States Tobacco Taxation Bureau defines a cigarette tube as "Cigarette paper made into a hollow cylinder for use in making cigarettes."

CIGARETTE FILTER

A cigarette filter or filter tip is a component of a cigarette. Filters are typically made from cellulose acetate fibre. Most factory-made cigarettes are equipped with a filter; those who roll their own can buy them separately. Filters can reduce some substances from smoke but do not make cigarettes any safer to smoke.

CIGARETTE BUTT

The common name for the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a cigarette butt. The butt is typically about 30% of the cigarette's original length. It consists of a tissue tube which holds a filter and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash. They are the most numerically frequent litter in the world. Cigarette butts accumulate outside buildings, on parking lots, and streets where they can be transported through storm drains to streams, rivers, and beaches. It is also called a fag-end or dog-end.

In a 2013 trial the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, partnered with TerraCycle to create a system for recycling of cigarette butts. A reward of 1¢ per collected butt was offered to determine the effectiveness of a deposit system similar to that of beverage containers

LIGHTS

Some cigarettes are marketed as “Lights”, “Milds”, or “Low-tar.” These cigarettes were historically marketed as being less harmful, but there is no research showing that they are any less harmful. The filter design is one of the main differences between light and regular cigarettes, although not all cigarettes contain perforated holes in the filter. In some light cigarettes, the filter is perforated with small holes that theoretically diffuse the tobacco smoke with clean air. In regular cigarettes, the filter does not include these perforations. In ultralight cigarettes, the filter's perforations are larger. he majority of major cigarette manufacturers offer a light, low-tar, and/or mild cigarette brand. Due to recent U.S. legislation prohibiting the use of these descriptors, tobacco manufacturers are turning to color-coding to allow consumers to differentiate between regular and light brands.

REPLACEMENT

An electronic cigarette is a handheld battery-powered vaporizer that simulates smoking by providing some of the behavioral aspects of smoking, including the hand-to-mouth action of smoking, but without combusting tobacco. Using an e-cigarette is known as "vaping" and the user is referred to as a "vaper." Instead of cigarette smoke, the user inhales an aerosol, commonly called vapor. E-cigarettes typically have a heating element that atomizes a liquid solution called e-liquid. E-cigarettes are automatically activated by taking a puff; others turn on manually by pressing a button. Some e-cigarettes look like traditional cigarettes, but they come in many variations. Most versions are reusable, though some are disposable. There are first-generation, second-generation, third-generation, and fourth-generation devices. E-liquids usually contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavorings, additives, and differing amounts of contaminants. E-liquids are also sold without propylene glycol, nicotine, or flavors.

The benefits and the health risks of e-cigarettes are uncertain. There is tentative evidence they may help people quit smoking, although they have not been proven to be more effective than smoking cessation medicine. There is concern with the possibility that non-smokers and children may start nicotine use with e-cigarettes at a rate higher than anticipated than if they were never created. Following the possibility of nicotine addiction from e-cigarette use, there is concern children may start smoking cigarettes. Youth who use e-cigarettes are more likely to go on to smoke cigarettes. Their part in tobacco harm reduction is unclear, while another review found they appear to have the potential to lower tobacco-related death and disease. Regulated US Food and Drug Administration nicotine replacement products may be safer than e-cigarettes, but e-cigarettes are generally seen as safer than combusted tobacco products. It is estimated their safety risk to users is similar to that of smokeless tobacco. The long-term effects of e-cigarette use are unknown. The risk from serious adverse events was reported in 2016 to be low. Less serious adverse effects include abdominal pain, headache, blurry vision, throat and mouth irritation, vomiting, nausea, and coughing. Nicotine itself is associated with some health harms. In 2019, an outbreak of severe lung illness across multiple states in the US has been linked to the use of vaping products.

E-cigarettes create vapor made of fine and ultrafine particles of particulate matter, which have been found to contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavors, tiny amounts of toxicants, carcinogens, heavy metals, and metal nanoparticles, and other substances. Its exact composition varies across and within manufacturers, and depends on the contents of the liquid, the physical and electrical design of the device, and user behavior, among other factors. E-cigarette vapor potentially contains harmful chemicals not found in tobacco smoke. E-cigarette vapor contains fewer toxic chemicals, and lower concentrations of potential toxic chemicals than cigarette smoke. The vapor is probably much less harmful to users and bystanders than cigarette smoke,although concern exists that the exhaled vapor may be inhaled by non-users, particularly indoors.

WIKIPEDIA

Botero

Celebrate Life!

Kunsthal

Rotterdam, 2016

Met trots brengt de Kunsthal Rotterdam deze zomer een groot retrospectief van de wereldberoemde Colombiaanse kunstenaar Fernando Botero (1932). Geselecteerd uit Botero’s eigen collectie laat de tentoonstelling een overzicht zien van de door hemzelf meest geliefde schilderijen uit zijn omvangrijke oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ brengt bijna honderd schilderijen, tekeningen en pastels en een enkel beeldhouwwerk bij elkaar, met als blikvanger een enorme ‘Caballo’, Botero’s bekende beeldhouwwerk van een paard.

Te zien zijn schilderijen van het op zijn jeugdherinneringen geïnspireerde leven in Latijns-Amerika en reproducties van klassieke meesters in de herkenbare Botero stijl. Ook stierenvechten en het circus zijn thema’s die in de werken aan bod komen. De kunst van Botero staat letterlijk bol van het Latijns Amerikaanse leven. De reusachtige, opgeblazen lichamen en voorwerpen lijken ondanks hun omvang gewichtloos en daardoor soms zelfs te zweven. Dit volume is een vast onderdeel van Botero’s werk en geeft zijn kunst iets overdadigs, met nu eens een komisch en dan weer een ontroerend effect. Bijzonder is de serie van vrouwelijke Santa’s, geïnspireerd op de iconische beelden van vrouwelijke heiligen. Botero verbeeldt hen als wereldse heldinnen, met betekenisvolle accessoires zoals een bijbel of kaars, waarbij hun aureool in verrassend contrast staat met de kledij en lichaamshouding.

Latijns Amerikaanse leven

‘Botero: Celebrate Life! laat zien hoe Fernando Botero een magische wereld schept vol personages en scenes uit het dagelijks leven, waar politiek en religie nadrukkelijk onderdeel van uitmaken. Hoewel zijn werk in eerste instantie licht en luchtig oogt, is ook de gewelddadige geschiedenis van zijn vaderland Colombia voelbaar. Zijn afkomst en achtergrond hebben Botero op een diepgaande manier beïnvloed, wat direct tot uiting komt in zijn werken van de president, executies en huilende weduwen en indirect in zijn schilderijen van feestende mensen, die met uitdrukkingsloze gezichten dansen onder het licht van kale peertjes.

Hommage aan oude meesters

Fernando Botero is een veelzijdig kunstenaar, die zowel put uit de Latijns-Amerikaanse traditie als uit de Europese kunstgeschiedenis. Zo brengt hij een hommage aan beroemde werken van oude meesters zoals Diego Velázquez, van Eyck en Piero della Francesca. De werken zijn een eerbetoon aan de kunstenaars die hij jarenlang bestudeerde en een ode aan de technieken, het vakmanschap en de esthetiek van de oude meesters. Religie is voor Botero een geliefd onderwerp. Op satirische wijze geeft hij commentaar in schilderijen van nonnen, kardinalen en pausen. Andere thema's in zijn werk proberen de magie van het dagelijks leven in Latijns Amerika te vangen. Zo tonen zijn werken van stierengevechten niet alleen de matador, maar ook zangers, musici, dansers en verschillende leden van de familie van de stierenvechter. Zijn stillevens tonen de vruchten en drankjes van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent, met hun briljante kleuren en populaire delicatessen. En in zijn schilderijen met het thema circus herkennen we de komische en absurde houdingen, waarbij naast het altijd terugkerende volume ook het kleurgebruik heel bepalend is.

This summer Kunsthal Rotterdam is proud to present a large-scale retrospective of the world-famous Colombian artist Fernando Botero (1932). This selection from Botero’s own collection provides a panorama of the artist’s personal favorites from his considerable oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ will exhibit almost a hundred paintings, sketches and pastels as well as a few sculptures, including the enormous eye-catcher ‘Caballo’, Botero’s famous sculpture of a horse.

Visitors will be able to see paintings of life in Latin America based on reminiscences from his youth, and reproductions of classical masters in the recognizable Botero style. The bull-fight and the circus are also featured in these works. Botero’s art is full of Latin American life. The gigantic, inflated bodies and objects appear weightless in spite of their volume, which sometimes even seems to make them look as if they are floating. This volume is a recurrent feature in Botero’s work and gives his art an exuberance that can be comical or moving. The series of female Santas, inspired by the iconic images of female saints, is remarkable. Botero represents them as worldly heroines with meaningful accessories such as a bible or candle, putting their halo in sharp contrast with their clothing and posture.

Latin American life

'Botero: Celebrate Life!' shows how Fernando Botero creates a magical world full of characters and scenes from daily life, of which politics and religion form an important part. Although his work appears at first sight to be airy and light-hearted, the violent history of his native country Colombia can be felt. His origin and background have influenced Botero profoundly, which finds expression directly in his works of the president, executions and weeping widows, and indirectly in his paintings of people partying, dancing with expressionless faces under the light of naked light bulbs.

Homage to the Old Masters

Fernando Botero is a multi-faceted artist who draws on both the Latin American tradition and the history of European art. He pays homage to famous works by such Old Masters as Diego Velázquez, Jan van Eyck and Piero della Francesca. The works are a tribute to the artists whom he studied for years and an ode to the techniques, craftsmanship and aesthetics of the Old Masters. Religion is one of Botero’s favorite themes. He comments on it satirically in paintings of nuns, cardinals and popes. Other themes in his work try to capture the magic of everyday life in Latin America. For example, his images of bull-fights include not only the matador, but also the singers, musicians, dancers and various members of the bull-fighter’s family. His still-lifes show the fruits and beverages of the South American continent with their brilliant colors and popular delicacies. And in his paintings of the circus we can recognize the comical and absurd postures in which not only the constantly recurring volume but also the use of color are highly determinant elements.

Lorenzo Lotto, 1480-1556,

actif à Venise, Bergame et dans les Marches

Vierge et l'Enfant avec sainte Catherine et Jacques le Majeur, environ de 1527 à 1533

Le motif, si populaire à Venice, d'une réunion de saints autour de la Madone par la génération des étudiants de Bellini avait expérimenté une conversion: L'ordre strictement hiérarchique des saints est assoupli de plus en plus. Lotto a joué un rôle déterminant dans cette évolution; il a le premier la Madone, anciennement toujours trônant entièrement intégrée dans l'environnement et laissa ce rassemblement, étroitement lié entre figure et la nature par la lumière changeante et les ombres faire apparaître mysterieusement animé.

Lorenzo Lotto, 1480-1556,

tätig in Venedig, Bergamo und in den Marken

Maria mit Kind und Heiliger Katharina und Jakobus dem Älteren, um 1527/33

Das in Venedig so beliebte Motiv einer Versammlung von Heiligen um die Madonna erfuhr durch die Generation der Bellini-Schüler eine Wandlung: Die streng hierarchische Ordnung der Heiligen wird mehr und mehr gelockert. Lotto hatte an dieser Entwicklung maßgeblichen Anteil; er band als erster die früher stets thronende Madonna gänzlich in die Umgebung ein und ließ dieses eng verschränkte Miteinander von Figur und Natur durch wechselhaftes Licht und Schatten geheimnivoll belebt erscheinen.

Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum

Federal Museum

Logo KHM

Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture

Founded 17 October 1891

Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria

Management Sabine Haag

www.khm.at website

Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square

The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.

The museum

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.

History

Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery

The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building .

Architectural History

The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währingerstraße/ Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the grain market (Getreidemarkt).

From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience with of Joseph Semper at the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.

Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.

Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper moved to Vienna in the sequence. From the beginning, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, built in 1878, the first windows installed in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade from 1880 to 1881 and built the dome and the Tabernacle. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.

The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made ​​the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times .

Kuppelhalle

Entrance (by clicking the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)

Grand staircase

Hall

Empire

The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891 , the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol will need another two years.

189, the farm museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:

Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection

The Egyptian Collection

The Antique Collection

The coins and medals collection

Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects

Weapons collection

Collection of industrial art objects

Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)

Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.

Restoration Office

Library

Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.

1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his " Estonian Forensic Collection " passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d' Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.

The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The farm museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.

Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.

First Republic

The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.

It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.

On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House" , by the Republic. Of 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.

Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.

With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Collection of ancient coins

Collection of modern coins and medals

Weapons collection

Collection of sculptures and crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Picture Gallery

The Museum 1938-1945

Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.

With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the empire.

After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to perform certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.

The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. This was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.

The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.

The museum today

Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.

In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.

Management

1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials

1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director

1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director

1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director

1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief in 1941 as first director

1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation

1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation

1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director

1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation

1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director

1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director

1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director

1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director

1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director

1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director

1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director

1990: George Kugler as interim first director

1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director

Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director

Collections

To the Kunsthistorisches Museum are also belonging the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.

Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)

Picture Gallery

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Vienna Chamber of Art

Numismatic Collection

Library

New Castle

Ephesus Museum

Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Arms and Armour

Archive

Hofburg

The imperial crown in the Treasury

Imperial Treasury of Vienna

Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage

Insignia of imperial Austria

Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire

Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece

Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure

Ecclesiastical Treasury

Schönbrunn Palace

Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna

Armory in Ambras Castle

Ambras Castle

Collections of Ambras Castle

Major exhibits

Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:

Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438

Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80

Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16

Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526

Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24

Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07

Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)

Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75

Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68

Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06

Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508

Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32

The Little Fur, about 1638

Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66

Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559

Kids, 1560

Tower of Babel, 1563

Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564

Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565

Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565

Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565

Bauer and bird thief, 1568

Peasant Wedding, 1568/69

Peasant Dance, 1568/69

Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567

Cabinet of Curiosities:

Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543

Egyptian-Oriental Collection:

Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut

Collection of Classical Antiquities:

Gemma Augustea

Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós

Gallery: Major exhibits

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum

Botero

Celebrate Life!

Kunsthal

Rotterdam, 2016

Met trots brengt de Kunsthal Rotterdam deze zomer een groot retrospectief van de wereldberoemde Colombiaanse kunstenaar Fernando Botero (1932). Geselecteerd uit Botero’s eigen collectie laat de tentoonstelling een overzicht zien van de door hemzelf meest geliefde schilderijen uit zijn omvangrijke oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ brengt bijna honderd schilderijen, tekeningen en pastels en een enkel beeldhouwwerk bij elkaar, met als blikvanger een enorme ‘Caballo’, Botero’s bekende beeldhouwwerk van een paard.

Te zien zijn schilderijen van het op zijn jeugdherinneringen geïnspireerde leven in Latijns-Amerika en reproducties van klassieke meesters in de herkenbare Botero stijl. Ook stierenvechten en het circus zijn thema’s die in de werken aan bod komen. De kunst van Botero staat letterlijk bol van het Latijns Amerikaanse leven. De reusachtige, opgeblazen lichamen en voorwerpen lijken ondanks hun omvang gewichtloos en daardoor soms zelfs te zweven. Dit volume is een vast onderdeel van Botero’s werk en geeft zijn kunst iets overdadigs, met nu eens een komisch en dan weer een ontroerend effect. Bijzonder is de serie van vrouwelijke Santa’s, geïnspireerd op de iconische beelden van vrouwelijke heiligen. Botero verbeeldt hen als wereldse heldinnen, met betekenisvolle accessoires zoals een bijbel of kaars, waarbij hun aureool in verrassend contrast staat met de kledij en lichaamshouding.

Latijns Amerikaanse leven

‘Botero: Celebrate Life! laat zien hoe Fernando Botero een magische wereld schept vol personages en scenes uit het dagelijks leven, waar politiek en religie nadrukkelijk onderdeel van uitmaken. Hoewel zijn werk in eerste instantie licht en luchtig oogt, is ook de gewelddadige geschiedenis van zijn vaderland Colombia voelbaar. Zijn afkomst en achtergrond hebben Botero op een diepgaande manier beïnvloed, wat direct tot uiting komt in zijn werken van de president, executies en huilende weduwen en indirect in zijn schilderijen van feestende mensen, die met uitdrukkingsloze gezichten dansen onder het licht van kale peertjes.

Hommage aan oude meesters

Fernando Botero is een veelzijdig kunstenaar, die zowel put uit de Latijns-Amerikaanse traditie als uit de Europese kunstgeschiedenis. Zo brengt hij een hommage aan beroemde werken van oude meesters zoals Diego Velázquez, van Eyck en Piero della Francesca. De werken zijn een eerbetoon aan de kunstenaars die hij jarenlang bestudeerde en een ode aan de technieken, het vakmanschap en de esthetiek van de oude meesters. Religie is voor Botero een geliefd onderwerp. Op satirische wijze geeft hij commentaar in schilderijen van nonnen, kardinalen en pausen. Andere thema's in zijn werk proberen de magie van het dagelijks leven in Latijns Amerika te vangen. Zo tonen zijn werken van stierengevechten niet alleen de matador, maar ook zangers, musici, dansers en verschillende leden van de familie van de stierenvechter. Zijn stillevens tonen de vruchten en drankjes van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent, met hun briljante kleuren en populaire delicatessen. En in zijn schilderijen met het thema circus herkennen we de komische en absurde houdingen, waarbij naast het altijd terugkerende volume ook het kleurgebruik heel bepalend is.

This summer Kunsthal Rotterdam is proud to present a large-scale retrospective of the world-famous Colombian artist Fernando Botero (1932). This selection from Botero’s own collection provides a panorama of the artist’s personal favorites from his considerable oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ will exhibit almost a hundred paintings, sketches and pastels as well as a few sculptures, including the enormous eye-catcher ‘Caballo’, Botero’s famous sculpture of a horse.

Visitors will be able to see paintings of life in Latin America based on reminiscences from his youth, and reproductions of classical masters in the recognizable Botero style. The bull-fight and the circus are also featured in these works. Botero’s art is full of Latin American life. The gigantic, inflated bodies and objects appear weightless in spite of their volume, which sometimes even seems to make them look as if they are floating. This volume is a recurrent feature in Botero’s work and gives his art an exuberance that can be comical or moving. The series of female Santas, inspired by the iconic images of female saints, is remarkable. Botero represents them as worldly heroines with meaningful accessories such as a bible or candle, putting their halo in sharp contrast with their clothing and posture.

Latin American life

'Botero: Celebrate Life!' shows how Fernando Botero creates a magical world full of characters and scenes from daily life, of which politics and religion form an important part. Although his work appears at first sight to be airy and light-hearted, the violent history of his native country Colombia can be felt. His origin and background have influenced Botero profoundly, which finds expression directly in his works of the president, executions and weeping widows, and indirectly in his paintings of people partying, dancing with expressionless faces under the light of naked light bulbs.

Homage to the Old Masters

Fernando Botero is a multi-faceted artist who draws on both the Latin American tradition and the history of European art. He pays homage to famous works by such Old Masters as Diego Velázquez, Jan van Eyck and Piero della Francesca. The works are a tribute to the artists whom he studied for years and an ode to the techniques, craftsmanship and aesthetics of the Old Masters. Religion is one of Botero’s favorite themes. He comments on it satirically in paintings of nuns, cardinals and popes. Other themes in his work try to capture the magic of everyday life in Latin America. For example, his images of bull-fights include not only the matador, but also the singers, musicians, dancers and various members of the bull-fighter’s family. His still-lifes show the fruits and beverages of the South American continent with their brilliant colors and popular delicacies. And in his paintings of the circus we can recognize the comical and absurd postures in which not only the constantly recurring volume but also the use of color are highly determinant elements.

See: www.facebook.com/events/501459483222848/

A rally in Washington, DC in support of the equal health and livelihood of trans people, that included basic information about trans health issues and stories of denied / inappropriate care, as well as hope for the future

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See: Thanks for publishing my photo, @TheInkLine in Oregon allows third gender option – (Except that Washington, DC is actually the first) – Ted Eytan, MD

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Congo begins on the far bank; it is one of the least-governed areas on the planet, representing a kind of hole in the world's governance. Improved governance will be a determinant of the future of Africa.

Usable with attribution and link to Futureatlas.com

Bolea, Huesca (Spain).

View Large On White

This fountain is an old thermal baths with Roman tubular conduction.

Esta fuente son unos antiguos baños termales con conducción tubular romana.

ENGLISH

Bolea belongs to "the Sotonera" region, being its capital, about 700 inhabitants, an altitude of 627 mts. of height and 20 km. to Huesca; they are known as "boleanos" (from Bolea).

This villa is located to the Northwest of the city of Huesca, dominating the sides of the tip of Gratal and Caballera mountain range, to 656 ms. of altitude, on a promontory; from there the plains of the Hole of Huesca and the Sotonera watered by the Sotón river can be contemplated. Its economy is based on the culture of cereals, almonds tree, cherry trees and olive trees.

There is unamimity in the origin of Bolea, whose word is accepted that comes from Indo-European "bols" and the place was simply born like a castle; soon the Roman influence would come, but more determinant would be the Arab one until Sancho Ramírez (1081). It was here, where Alfonso I the Fighting, the 11 of January of 1125, prepared his famous expedition to Andalusia. The Muslim castle of the Pueyo, after Reconquest, became church and it still announces its origin from the summit, with the battered tower-bell to the winds.

Still it was Muslim when king of Aragón, Sancho Ramírez, in 1093, he names to the villa, priorato of the Abbey of Montearagón, privilege that would show until 1571. In 1577, when happening to depend on the Bishopric of Huesca, the temple becomes Colegiata, with a chapter formed by a Vicar and nine canons, who received the tithes of all the ample region that from its strategic position, dominated. In 1548, it's included Bolea between the cities and more important villas of the kingdom of Aragón. In 1890 it got to count on almost 2.500 inhabitants. As a result of the ecclesiastical confiscation (half-full of century XIX), the Colegiata is going to lose all its privileges and it will be converted in a parochial church, which it is at the present time. The building was declared Historical-Artistic Monument at 23 of February of 1983.

More info: articulos.altoaragon.org/i_osca80.htm

---------------------------

CASTELLANO

Bolea pertenece a "La Sotonera", ostentando la capitalidad, con poco más de 700 habitantes, una altitud de 627 mts. de altura, dista 20 Km. a Huesca; su gentilicio es boleano.

Esta villa está situada al NorOeste de la ciudad de Huesca, dominando las faldas del pico de Gratal y sierra Caballera, a 656 ms. de altitud, sobre un promontorio; desde allí se pueden contemplar las llanuras de la Hoya de Huesca y la Sotonera regada por el río Sotón. Su economía está basada en el cultivo de cereales, almendros, cerezos y olivos.

Hay unanimidad en el origen de Bolea, cuyo vocablo se acepta que procede del indoeuropeo "bols" y el lugar nació como castillo simplemente; luego vendría la influencia romana, pero más determinante sería la árabe hasta Sancho Ramírez (1081). Fué aquí, donde Alfonso I "El Batallador", el 11 de Enero de 1125, preparó su famosa expedición a Andalucía. El castillo musulmán del Pueyo, tras la reconquista, se convirtió en iglesia y todavía pregona su origen desde la cumbre, con la maltrecha torre campanario a los vientos.

Bolea aún era musulmana cuando el rey de Aragón Sancho Ramírez, en el año 1093, nombra a la villa, priorato de la Abadía de Montearagón, privilegio que ostentaría hasta 1571. En el año 1577, al pasar a depender del Obispado de Huesca, el templo se convierte en Colegiata, con un capítulo formado por un Vicario y nueve canónigos-racioneros, que recibían los diezmos de toda la amplia comarca que desde su estratégica posición, dominaba. En 1548, se incluye a Bolea entre las ciudades y villas más importantes del reino de Aragón. En 1890 llegó a contar con casi 2.500 habitantes. A raiz de la desamortización eclesiástica (mediados del siglo XIX), la Colegiata va a perder todos sus privilegios y se convertirá en iglesia parroquial, lo que es en la actualidad. El edificio fué declarado Monumento Histórico-Artístico el 23 de Febrero de 1983.

Más info: articulos.altoaragon.org/osca80.htm

New England Fall foliage is renowned for its great colors and attracts visitors from all over the US. The challenge is trying to time your trip. The peak of the foliage is very unpredictable as many factors contribute to when it occurs. Being a New Englander for twenty five years, I have seen it as early as late September and as late as mid-November. Complicating the challenge is that most of the hotels are sold out well in advance so booking a trip is akin to a crapshoot. What affects the timing of foliage? Weather condition is the main determinant of the timing and the intensity of color with temperature and moisture being the most important factors. Is there a way to time it? Yes, but it means moving to New England so you can drive to catch the peak season. This photo, taken in mid-October in Maine, was on a photo tour that I co-hosted with Jeff Clow. We were extremely lucky to be there when the peak foliage in Maine happened.

Botero

Celebrate Life!

Kunsthal

Rotterdam, 2016

Met trots brengt de Kunsthal Rotterdam deze zomer een groot retrospectief van de wereldberoemde Colombiaanse kunstenaar Fernando Botero (1932). Geselecteerd uit Botero’s eigen collectie laat de tentoonstelling een overzicht zien van de door hemzelf meest geliefde schilderijen uit zijn omvangrijke oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ brengt bijna honderd schilderijen, tekeningen en pastels en een enkel beeldhouwwerk bij elkaar, met als blikvanger een enorme ‘Caballo’, Botero’s bekende beeldhouwwerk van een paard.

Te zien zijn schilderijen van het op zijn jeugdherinneringen geïnspireerde leven in Latijns-Amerika en reproducties van klassieke meesters in de herkenbare Botero stijl. Ook stierenvechten en het circus zijn thema’s die in de werken aan bod komen. De kunst van Botero staat letterlijk bol van het Latijns Amerikaanse leven. De reusachtige, opgeblazen lichamen en voorwerpen lijken ondanks hun omvang gewichtloos en daardoor soms zelfs te zweven. Dit volume is een vast onderdeel van Botero’s werk en geeft zijn kunst iets overdadigs, met nu eens een komisch en dan weer een ontroerend effect. Bijzonder is de serie van vrouwelijke Santa’s, geïnspireerd op de iconische beelden van vrouwelijke heiligen. Botero verbeeldt hen als wereldse heldinnen, met betekenisvolle accessoires zoals een bijbel of kaars, waarbij hun aureool in verrassend contrast staat met de kledij en lichaamshouding.

Latijns Amerikaanse leven

‘Botero: Celebrate Life! laat zien hoe Fernando Botero een magische wereld schept vol personages en scenes uit het dagelijks leven, waar politiek en religie nadrukkelijk onderdeel van uitmaken. Hoewel zijn werk in eerste instantie licht en luchtig oogt, is ook de gewelddadige geschiedenis van zijn vaderland Colombia voelbaar. Zijn afkomst en achtergrond hebben Botero op een diepgaande manier beïnvloed, wat direct tot uiting komt in zijn werken van de president, executies en huilende weduwen en indirect in zijn schilderijen van feestende mensen, die met uitdrukkingsloze gezichten dansen onder het licht van kale peertjes.

Hommage aan oude meesters

Fernando Botero is een veelzijdig kunstenaar, die zowel put uit de Latijns-Amerikaanse traditie als uit de Europese kunstgeschiedenis. Zo brengt hij een hommage aan beroemde werken van oude meesters zoals Diego Velázquez, van Eyck en Piero della Francesca. De werken zijn een eerbetoon aan de kunstenaars die hij jarenlang bestudeerde en een ode aan de technieken, het vakmanschap en de esthetiek van de oude meesters. Religie is voor Botero een geliefd onderwerp. Op satirische wijze geeft hij commentaar in schilderijen van nonnen, kardinalen en pausen. Andere thema's in zijn werk proberen de magie van het dagelijks leven in Latijns Amerika te vangen. Zo tonen zijn werken van stierengevechten niet alleen de matador, maar ook zangers, musici, dansers en verschillende leden van de familie van de stierenvechter. Zijn stillevens tonen de vruchten en drankjes van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent, met hun briljante kleuren en populaire delicatessen. En in zijn schilderijen met het thema circus herkennen we de komische en absurde houdingen, waarbij naast het altijd terugkerende volume ook het kleurgebruik heel bepalend is.

This summer Kunsthal Rotterdam is proud to present a large-scale retrospective of the world-famous Colombian artist Fernando Botero (1932). This selection from Botero’s own collection provides a panorama of the artist’s personal favorites from his considerable oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ will exhibit almost a hundred paintings, sketches and pastels as well as a few sculptures, including the enormous eye-catcher ‘Caballo’, Botero’s famous sculpture of a horse.

Visitors will be able to see paintings of life in Latin America based on reminiscences from his youth, and reproductions of classical masters in the recognizable Botero style. The bull-fight and the circus are also featured in these works. Botero’s art is full of Latin American life. The gigantic, inflated bodies and objects appear weightless in spite of their volume, which sometimes even seems to make them look as if they are floating. This volume is a recurrent feature in Botero’s work and gives his art an exuberance that can be comical or moving. The series of female Santas, inspired by the iconic images of female saints, is remarkable. Botero represents them as worldly heroines with meaningful accessories such as a bible or candle, putting their halo in sharp contrast with their clothing and posture.

Latin American life

'Botero: Celebrate Life!' shows how Fernando Botero creates a magical world full of characters and scenes from daily life, of which politics and religion form an important part. Although his work appears at first sight to be airy and light-hearted, the violent history of his native country Colombia can be felt. His origin and background have influenced Botero profoundly, which finds expression directly in his works of the president, executions and weeping widows, and indirectly in his paintings of people partying, dancing with expressionless faces under the light of naked light bulbs.

Homage to the Old Masters

Fernando Botero is a multi-faceted artist who draws on both the Latin American tradition and the history of European art. He pays homage to famous works by such Old Masters as Diego Velázquez, Jan van Eyck and Piero della Francesca. The works are a tribute to the artists whom he studied for years and an ode to the techniques, craftsmanship and aesthetics of the Old Masters. Religion is one of Botero’s favorite themes. He comments on it satirically in paintings of nuns, cardinals and popes. Other themes in his work try to capture the magic of everyday life in Latin America. For example, his images of bull-fights include not only the matador, but also the singers, musicians, dancers and various members of the bull-fighter’s family. His still-lifes show the fruits and beverages of the South American continent with their brilliant colors and popular delicacies. And in his paintings of the circus we can recognize the comical and absurd postures in which not only the constantly recurring volume but also the use of color are highly determinant elements.

Situado na freguesia de Belém, na cidade e concelho de Lisboa, tem, desde 2016, o estatuto de Panteão Nacional.

Ponto culminante da arquitectura manuelina, este Mosteiro é o mais notável conjunto monástico português do seu tempo e uma das principais igrejas-salão da Europa. A sua construção iniciou-se, por iniciativa do rei D. Manuel I, no dealbar do século XVI e prologou-se por uma centena de anos, tendo sido dirigida por um conjunto notável de arquitetos / mestres de obras (destaque-se o papel determinante de João de Castilho).

O Mosteiro dos Jerónimos encontra-se classificado como Monumento Nacional desde 1907 e, em 1983, foi classificado como Património Mundial pela UNESCO, juntamente com a Torre de Belém. Em 7 de Julho de 2007 foi eleito como uma das sete maravilhas de Portugal.

Located in the parish of Belém, in the city and municipality of Lisbon, it has, since 2016, the status of National Pantheon.

A culminating point of the Manueline architecture, this Monastery is the most remarkable Portuguese monastic complex of its time and one of the main churches-hall of Europe. Its construction began, on the initiative of King Manuel I, at the dawn of the sixteenth century and was prologue for a hundred years, and was led by a remarkable group of architects / masters of works (note the role Determinant of João de Castilho).

The Jeronimos Monastery has been classified as a National Monument since 1907 and in 1983 it was classified as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO along with the Torre de Belém. On July 7, 2007 it was elected as one of the seven wonders of Portugal.

Fifth generation

International (GE; 1991–1997)

Overview:

Also calledMazda 626

Mazda Cronos (Japan)

ɛ̃fini MS-6

Ford Telstar

Autozam Clef

ProductionNovember 1991 – 1997

AssemblyJapan: Hofu

Colombia: Bogotá

United States: Flat Rock, Michigan (AAI)

DesignerYasuo Aoyagi (1989)

Body and chassis

Body style4-door sedan

5-door hatchback

LayoutTransverse front-engine, front-wheel drive

Transverse front-engine, four-wheel drive

PlatformMazda GE platform

RelatedMazda MX-6

Ford Probe

Powertrain

Engine

1.8 L FP I4

2.0 L FS-DE I4

2.0 L KF-ZE V6

2.5 L KL-DE V6

2.5 L KL-ZE V6

2.0 L RFT Comprex diesel I4

Transmission5-speed manual

4-speed automatic

Dimensions

Wheelbase2,610 mm (102.8 in)

Length4,670–4,695 mm (183.9–184.8 in) (sedan/hatchback)

Width1,750 mm (68.9 in)

Height1,400 mm (55.1 in)

Curb weight1,180–1,340 kg (2,601–2,954 lb) (sedan/hatchback)

For the fifth generation, GE series sedan and hatchback, the Capella name was dropped—although export markets retained the 626 title. Its nameplate replacements, the Mazda Cronos (sedan) and ɛ̃fini MS-6 (hatchback) that launched in November 1991 were pitched to Japanese customers instead. Built on the GE platform, the hatchback-only MS-6 was launched under the ɛ̃fini brand, as a separate car from the sedan-only Cronos, as Mazda was at the beginning of an ambitious five-brand expansion plan of doubling sales. Including the badge-engineered Ford Telstar (sold at Japanese Ford dealerships called Autorama), the Mazda MX-6 coupe, and the Autozam Clef, a total of five cars were spawned off the same platform, launched under four different brands in Japan over a two-year period.

All of these models ended their production run prematurely, most likely due to the difficulties involved in promoting so many new nameplates as the Japanese economy began to feel the effects of the recession as a result of the Japanese asset price bubble from 1985-1991. While the MS-6 shared the Cronos GE platform, it was marketed as the more sporty of the two. The Capella badge lived on with the wagon/van versions on the previous GV series until 1999. Until 1989, Japanese car taxation used a car's width as a key determinant. The Cronos and its siblings all exceed the critical 1,700 mm (66.9 in) level in width. The series GE platform shared the same width dimension as the luxury brand ɛ̃fini MS-8 and ɛ̃fini MS-6, sharing the 2.5 V6. Moving in accord with early-1990s zeitgeist, Mazda considered width a key factor in the Cronos' sales failure, and proceeded to create a narrower stopgap model from the CG platform. This car was introduced in 1994 as the new CG series Capella sedan.

Export

Nonetheless, the GE Cronos and MS-6 continued to be sold as the Mazda 626 in nearly all export markets. The 626 was again Wheels magazine's Car of the Year for a second time in 1992.

The European (E-spec) and Asian (JDM) models had many differences versus the North American (A-spec) models. These include: raised turn signal side markers vs the A-Spec flush mounted side markers, small fog lights with silver bezels vs the A-Spec full fitting fog lights, different interior cloth patterns, projector headlamps (glass lenses), a 1.8 L FP engine, and a hatchback model. Europe also received a diesel-engined version, using the "Comprex" pressure-wave supercharged RF engine seen in the previous generation JDM Capella. Power in Europe is 75 PS (55 kW) ECE at 4000 rpm, while the Japanese model claims 82 PS (60 kW) JIS at the same engine speed.[15]

For the first time for a Mazda, the 626 began overseas manufacture manufacture in the US at Flat Rock, Michigan on 1 September 1992 for the 1993 model year. The car was originally known as the "626 Cronos" in Canada, but dropped the Cronos for the 1996 model year. Mazda's 2.5 L V6 engine debuted to rave reviews. Though the 626's manual transmission was highly regarded, Four-cylinder 626s from 1994 onwards used the Ford CD4E automatic transmission (designated by Mazda as LA4A-EL), which was an attempt to solve some of the 1993 model's transmission related issues. The CD4E was manufactured by Ford at their Batavia, Ohio facility. The CD4E was manufactured in Batavia, Ohio under the partnership name of ZF Batavia; a joint venture between Ford and ZF Friedrichshafen AG. It wasn't until a few years after the fourth generation of the Mazda 626 was produced that it became known for its extremely high failure rate, thus making the change in 1994 to the CD4E an irrelevant one. It is widely known to transmission specialists that the CD4E overheats due to a poorly designed valve body and torque converter. Mazda issued a couple of Technical Service Bulletins (0400502, 01598, 003/97K, 006/95) regarding the transmission and torque converter. Dealerships were briefly instructed to install an external transmission cooler, but at cost to the owner and only if requested. The CD4E was produced until 2008 at Batavia. No recall was ever issued for a single year of the CD4E, causing a loss of confidence from the general public in years to come. In 1994, a passenger side airbag was added, whilst some models of the 1994 and 1995 Mazda 626 2.0L automatics were outfitted with Ford's EEC-IV diagnostic system. In North America, the V6 spread to the LX trim in addition to the leather ES trim. New for 1996 and 1997 models were a redesigned hood (raised center portion), chrome grille fairing (attached to the hood), and the introduction of the On Board Diagnostics II revision (OBD-II).

In Colombia the car was named 626 Matsuri to differentiate from the past version that was sold at the same time.

Mazda New Zealand assembled this generation for four years with few changes. Ford's variants (since 1987 all built in the same Ford-Mazda joint venture Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ) factory in Wiri, South Auckland) had minor styling and equipment differences (the top Telstar hatchback had an electric sunroof) and anti-lock brakes were now standard on some models, for which factory engineers had to build a special test rig at the end of the assembly line. These were also the first 626/Telstar models to have factory fitted air conditioning, though only on the top Limited (626) and TX-5 Ghia (Telstar) five-door hatchbacks.

[Text from Wikipedia]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_Capella

The version shown here is a International-Specification 626 Liftback.

This miniland-scale Lego Mazda 626 Capella Sedan (GE - 1991) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art (also known simply as (the) Baltic, stylised as BALTIC) is a centre for contemporary art located on the south bank of the River Tyne in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. It hosts a frequently changing variety of exhibitions, events, and educational programmes with no permanent exhibition. The idea to open a centre for contemporary arts in Gateshead was developed in the 1990s, which was a time of regeneration for the local area—the Sage and Gateshead Millennium Bridge was also being conceived of in this period.

Baltic opened in July 2002 in a converted flour mill, which had operated in various capacities from 1950-1984. The architectural design of Baltic was devised by Dominic Williams of Ellis Williams Architects, who won a competition to design the new contemporary arts centre in 1994. The building features exhibition spaces, a visitor centre, a rooftop restaurant and external viewing platforms which offer views of the River Tyne. Baltic's current director, the centre's fifth, is Sarah Munro, who joined in November 2015. As of January 2022, Baltic had welcomed over 8 million visitors.

Baltic Flour Mills was built by Joseph Rank of Rank Hovis to a late-1930s design by Hull-based architects Gelder and Kitchen. The first foundations were laid in the late 1930s, and although construction ceased during the Second World War, the mill was completed and started operating in 1950. Known locally as "the pride of Tyneside", 300 people were employed by the mill at its height. The building was composed of two parallel brick façades running east to west, sandwiched between a foundation of concrete silos. The structure could store 22,000 tons of grain. The design of the building also featured a larger silo in which to store and clean wheat. The site was extended in 1957 by the addition of Blue Cross Mill which processed animal feed. In 1976, a fire forced both mills to close, but the silos remained in operation until 1984 to store a portion of the grain owned by the European Economic Community. Baltic Flour Mills was one of a number of mills located along the banks of the Tyne, all of which, due to their size, were prominent local landmarks. The Spillers mill just downstream from Baltic on the north bank of the river was demolished in 2011. Another large mill was owned by the CWS and was located just upstream of Dunston Staiths.

The opening of Baltic as a designated centre for contemporary art was part of the revitalisation and post-industrial regeneration of Gateshead's riverside. The regeneration began in the early 1990s and transformed the Quayside into a centre of modern architecture, including the Sage and Millennium Bridge. In 1991, Northern Arts (now part of Arts Council England) released a five-year plan in which it stated its intention to create "major new capital facilities for the Contemporary Visual Arts and Music in Central Tyneside". Northern Arts were keen to convert an old building into a centre for art, rather than build a new one, and the Labour-run Gateshead Council expressed interest in converting the old Flour Mills. This was in contrast to the Conservative-run Newcastle City Council's approach to development, which saw private firms develop mainly flats, hotels, and offices. Gateshead Council purchased the Baltic Flour Mills silo building, and in 1994 they invited the Royal Institute of British Architects to open a competition which would find an architect to design the new arts centre.

In 1994, Gateshead Council invited the Royal Institute of British Architects to hold a competition to select a design for the conversion of the Baltic Flour Mills. The objective of the competition was to "provide a national and international Centre for Contemporary visual arts". The brief cited a number of similar examples of old buildings which had been converted into arts centres around the world, including a converted flour mill in Porto, Portugal and the Bankside Power Station in London (now the site of the Tate Modern). After evaluating a total of 140 entries, Dominic Williams – a relatively unknown architect who had only been working for three years – won the competition. He entered the competition with Ellis Williams Architects, his father's firm. Andrew Guest remarks that this "simple, honest, industrial" design was an example of architecture which recognised the designs and context of the past. Williams and Ellis Williams Architects stated their intention to "retain as much of the existing character and fabric of the building as possible" while also clearly presenting the structure's new purpose as an art gallery.

The conversion of the flour mills was a complex and technically challenging task. The grain silos were removed, leaving the brick façades unsupported, and a 1,000 tonne steel frame was required to support the remaining building. Four new main floors were inserted into the building supported by a row of pillars. Intermediary floors made out of steel frames and thin concrete were also inserted. These were designed to be removable as to adapt the building and create variable spaces for art. With 13 separate levels in total, Williams claimed he purposefully wanted to create a sense of disorientation for visitors within the building and allow an element of discovery. A spiral staircase winds up the building towards an open-plan office for staff. An efficient ductwork system was installed within the beams which carries heated or chilled air throughout the building. Such a design, conceived of by environmental engineers Atelier Ten, was uncommon for the time. The north and south elevations of the original building were retained along with the original BALTIC FLOUR MILLS lettering and red and yellow bricks. The east and west sides were fully glazed, capturing natural light and allowing views of the River Tyne. Additionally, service towers in the corners of the building, a rooftop viewing box, and a low-rise visitor centre were completed—these now comprise part of the building's major elements. The building stands at 138 feet (42 m) tall. Glass elevators situated close to the exterior offer views of Newcastle, Gateshead and the River Tyne. A restaurant sits at the top of the building, built in a manner which still allows natural light to reach the top gallery floor. The building's interior largely features glass, concrete, aluminium, Welsh Slate, 'Cor-Ten' steel, and Swedish pine. The furniture, purposely built to be flexible and adaptable, was designed by Swedish designer Åke Axelsson.

Awards

Baltic won a RIBA award in 2003, a Civic Trust Award in 2004, and in 2006 was selected as one of the top 10 most outstanding arts and culture schemes in the UK as part of the Gulbenkian Prize. In 2012, it won the National Lottery Awards prize for Best Arts Project.

The founding director, Sune Nordgren, was appointed in 1997. He oversaw the period prior to Baltic's opening, including the construction of the gallery. After almost six years, Nordgren left to take up a new post as founding director of the National Museum for Art, Architecture and Design, Oslo, Norway. At this time, Baltic was facing financial problems. After Nordgren's departure, a former Baltic chairman accused the centre of overspending on commissions during Nordgren's tenure. Baltic's situation was described by Arts Council England as having "serious inadequacies in financial procedures". Nordgren was briefly succeeded by Stephen Snoddy, who had previously run a new gallery in Milton Keynes. Snoddy only remained with the organisation for 11 months, citing difficulties in leaving his family behind in Manchester while working at Baltic. He was succeeded as director by Peter Doroshenko in 2005. Doroshenko's previous institutions included the Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst and the Institute of Visual Arts in Milwaukee. He was brought to Baltic to increase visitor numbers and resolve the centre's financial situation, which was criticised by Arts Council England and an insider as being chaotic. Doroshenko organized several exhibitions during his time at Baltic, including Spank the Monkey.

In November 2007, Doroshenko left the gallery to head up the PinchukArtCentre in Kiev, Ukraine. He stated that he believed he had made Baltic a more "approachable and visitor friendly place."[30] However, Design Week reported that there were claims that Doroshenko did not deliver the expected "international programme of artistic excellence." Additionally, staff at the centre had complained about his "intolerable" and "bullying" management style. Godfrey Worsdale, founding director of the Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art, was appointed as director of Baltic in 2008. Worsdale oversaw the 10 year anniversary of Baltic and the hosting of the Turner Prize in 2011. He was awarded an honorary degree from Northumbria University in 2012 in recognition for his work on contemporary art after being on the judging panel for the Turner Prize. He departed in 2015 to take up a new post as director of the Henry Moore Foundation. Sarah Munro MBE became director in November 2015. She was previously artistic director of Tramway in Glasgow and head of arts for Glasgow Life.

History as arts centre

During the four-year construction of Baltic, the new organisation arranged a series of events, publications, and artists in residence in anticipation of the centre's opening. In 1999, after the silos had been removed and before the new floors were inserted, the shell of the building was used to house an art installation by Anish Kapoor. Taratantara was a trumpet-shaped installation of PVC 50 metres (160 ft) long and was situated within the centre of the mill. This installation drew 16,000 visitors and marked a turning point between the building's old purpose and its new life as a centre for art. In October 2000, Jenny Holzer's Truisms – a series of aphorisms and slogans – were projected onto the side of the building. Kapoor and Holtzer's works were intended to engage casual passers-by in an artistic dialogue. The identity of Baltic was also solidified by the publication of 16 newsletters between October 1998 and July 2002 when the centre opened to the public. A significant part of this branding was the use of the now registered typeface BALTIC Affisch, designed by Swedish designers Ulf Greger Nilsson and Henrik Nygren and based on the BALTIC FLOUR MILLS lettering on the building's brick façade.

Opening

After ten years in the planning and a capital investment of £50m, including £33.4m from the Arts Council Lottery Fund, Baltic opened to the public at midnight on Saturday 13 July 2002. The novelty of opening the new building at midnight was intentional: founding director Sune Nordgren sought a dramatic gesture to herald the beginning of the new centre for arts. The inaugural exhibition, B.OPEN, had work by Chris Burden, Carsten Höller, Julian Opie, Jaume Plensa and Jane and Louise Wilson. Opie, who had previously assisted Dominic Williams with aspects of the building's conversion design, contributed an installation consisting of nude outlines on the walls of floor of the gallery. Plensa's installation featured a room filled with gongs which were available for the audience to play. Plensa also contributed Blake in Gateshead – a beam of light which stretched around 2 kilometres (6,600 ft) into the sky. The installation was placed through the glass doorway of the ground floor. Burden constructed a 1/20th scale replica of the Tyne Bridge out of Meccano. Jane and Louise Wilson created Dreamtime, a video of a rocket launch. An early exhibit by the Japanese artist Yoshitomo Nara was also included. The B.OPEN event attracted over 35,000 visitors in the first week. A live art performance, including Tatsumi Orimito's Bread Man and Anne Bjerge Hansen's Moving Bakery, took place during the opening weekend, in which bread was handed out to passers-by in memory of the Baltic Flour Mill's history. When BALTIC opened, there was a target set for 250,000 visitors a year. It achieved one million visitors in its first year, and by its 10-year anniversary in 2012, 4 million people had visited.

Notable events

On 20 September 2007, Baltic management contacted Northumbria Police for advice regarding whether or not a photograph should be displayed as part of the Thanksgiving installation, a forthcoming exhibition by American photographer Nan Goldin. The photograph, along with the rest of the installation, is part of the Sir Elton John Photography Collection. Entitled Klara and Edda belly-dancing features two naked young girls and had previously been exhibited around the world without objections. The installation, which had been scheduled for a four-month exhibition, opened with the remaining photographs whilst Klara and Edda belly-dancing was in possession of the police. However, it closed after just nine days at the request of Elton John. Although this had a determinantal effect on Baltic's reputation in the short-term, Graham Whitham argues in Understand Contemporary Art that it may have given it a higher profile and greater publicity in the long-run.

Beryl Cook

In 2007, the largest survey of artist Beryl Cook's work to date was featured in an exhibition at Baltic.[9] Cook enjoyed widespread recognition of her art towards the end of her life; the exhibition at Baltic took place one year before her death. Her paintings depict everyday and familiar social situations in a playful, colourful, and "portly" style. Peter Doreshenko, the director of Baltic at the time of the exhibition, was keen for the gallery to reject the seriousness audiences may associate with it. The exhibition of Cook's work was part of this populist effort to attract new audiences to the then financially-struggling gallery, whose visitor numbers had dropped to less than 500,000 and whose reputation was decreasing. Adrian Searle of The Guardian reviewed the exhibition and, whilst acknowledging that fans would enjoy it, commented "look too long and you may feel a bit queasy".

Turner Prize

In 2011, Baltic was the venue for the Turner Prize. This was the first time the event had been held outside of London or Liverpool Tate. The Turner Prize exhibition at Baltic attracted 149,770 visitors to the gallery – almost double the average attendance in London. The event at Baltic was also free, whilst Turner exhibitions at Tate Britain had always previously charged for entry. The winning exhibit was by Martin Boyce with the runners-up being Karla Black, Hilary Lloyd and George Shaw.

Judy Chicago

The first major retrospective of American artist Judy Chicago's work was exhibited in Baltic from November 2019 to April 2020. The exhibition included her abstract paintings, records of performance pieces, and began and ended with a four-metre tapestry which portrayed the creation the world from a woman's perspective. At the time of the exhibition, Chicago was in her 80s. Hannah Clugston of The Guardian noted that the more recent featured works embraced the theme of death, particularly End: A Meditation on Death and Extinction, which is based on the stages of grief.

Baltic Open Submission

In March 2020, Baltic announced it would be closing due to the COVID-19 pandemic until further notice. In May 2021, it reopened to visitors with four exhibitions. Baltic Open Submission featured works created during lockdown by 158 artists from the North East. The 158 artists were chosen from over 540 original submissions and selected by a panel of three North East-based artists. The final pieces included paintings, drawings, and sound and video installations.

Community and cultural impact

At the opening of Baltic, director Sune Nordgren outlined the role of the arts centre within the public sphere. He stated that Baltic should be "a meeting place, a site for connections and confrontation between artists and the public." In an October 2002 lecture at the Power Plant Gallery in Toronto, Nordgren reaffirmed the importance of local outreach and explained his intention for Baltic to regard the local history and culture, comparing his intention to examples of modern art museums where this was not considered, such as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao (designed in Los Angeles and placed in Spain). From its inception, Baltic emphasised the importance of artist-public relationships and its role as a community hub. "Participate" initiatives encouraged people in the local community to interact with resident artists. A media learning centre in a local library was set up as an extension of Baltic's community resources.

In a 2016 talk on Baltic's 10-year strategic plan (officially named Untitled), the current director of Baltic – Sarah Munro – emphasised that the North East of England "has always led, not followed" the agenda for contemporary arts, and that Baltic had been a big part of this trend. She argued that the visual arts can be used to further the economic and social growth of the area, even amidst the backdrop of political issues and austerity. Baltic also launched an international award for emerging artists in 2016, which offered a £30,000 commission and an accompanying exhibition to four recipients. It was the first such competition in the UK to be judged entirely by artists: in 2017, they were Monica Bonvicini, Lorna Simpson, Pedro Cabrita Reis and Mike Nelson. Munro commented that the award was to foster "a dialogue with our audiences at a local, national and international level."

Local university partnerships and graduate internships are also important to Baltic's community and cultural influence. In 2011, Baltic and Northumbria University established an artistic partnership through the BxNU Institute of Contemporary Art, a centre for artistic and curatorial research. Christine Borland was appointed as Baltic Professor. A designated gallery space, known as Baltic 39, was established on the top floor of refurbished Edwardian warehouses at 31-39 High Bridge in Newcastle. It was designed by Viennese architects Jabornegg & Palffy and housed artwork from students at the university. Baltic 39 was based at High Bridge from 2012 to 2021.

Their annual Self-Publishing Artists’ Market (aka S.P.A.M.) takes the form of a lively programme exploring print culture and practice through talks and workshops with over 50 stalls selling zines and artists’ books. S.P.A.M. Spreads reimagines the market in printed form and has included contributions by artists, activists, illustrators, zine-makers, writers and curators including Vanessa Murrell, Melody Sproates, Okocha Obasi, Stephanie Francis-Shanahan.

The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. In many contexts, potato refers to the edible tuber, but it can also refer to the plant itself. Common or slang terms include tater, tattie and spud. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the second half of the 16th century by the Spanish. Today they are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. As of 2014, potatoes were the world's fourth-largest food crop after maize (corn), wheat, and rice.

Wild potato species can be found throughout the Americas, from the United States to southern Chile. The potato was originally believed to have been domesticated independently in multiple locations, but later genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species traced a single origin for potatoes. In the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia, from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex, potatoes were domesticated approximately 7,000–10,000 years ago. In the Andes region of South America, where the species is indigenous, some close relatives of the potato are cultivated.

Following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 1,000 different types of potatoes. Over 99% of presently cultivated potatoes worldwide descended from varieties that originated in the lowlands of south-central Chile, which have displaced formerly popular varieties from the Andes.

The importance of the potato as a food source and culinary ingredient varies by region and is still changing. It remains an essential crop in Europe, especially eastern and central Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world in overall production as of 2014.

Being a nightshade similar to tomatoes, the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin solanine and are not fit for human consumption. Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produce glycoalkaloids in amounts small enough to be negligible to human health, but if green sections of the plant (namely sprouts and skins) are exposed to light, the tuber can accumulate a high enough concentration of glycoalkaloids to affect human health.

ETYMOLOGY

The English word potato comes from Spanish patata (the name used in Spain). The Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a hybrid of the Taíno batata (sweet potato) and the Quechua papa (potato). The name originally referred to the sweet potato although the two plants are not closely related. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard referred to sweet potatoes as "common potatoes", and used the terms "bastard potatoes" and "Virginia potatoes" for the species we now call "potato". In many of the chronicles detailing agriculture and plants, no distinction is made between the two. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as "Irish potatoes" or "white potatoes" in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes.

The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil (or a hole) prior to the planting of potatoes. The word has an unknown origin and was originally (c. 1440) used as a term for a short knife or dagger, probably related to the Latin "spad-" a word root meaning "sword"; cf. Spanish "espada", English "spade" and "spadroon". It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools. Around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself, the first record of this usage being in New Zealand English. The origin of the word "spud" has erroneously been attributed to an 18th-century activist group dedicated to keeping the potato out of Britain, calling itself The Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet (S.P.U.D.). It was Mario Pei's 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the word's false origin. Pei writes, "the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago. Some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the main words in this title gave rise to spud." Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, and there is no evidence that a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet ever existed.

CHARACTERISTICS

Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens. In general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, though a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties.

After flowering, potato plants produce small green fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds. Like all parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic alkaloid solanine and are therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true potato seed", "TPS" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. New varieties grown from seed can be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers cut to include at least one or two eyes, or cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Plants propagated from tubers are clones of the parent, whereas those propagated from seed produce a range of different varieties.

GENETICS

There are about 5,000 potato varieties worldwide. Three thousand of them are found in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. They belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the 5,000 cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties. Cross-breeding has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species. Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the United States and in the European UnionThe major species grown worldwide is Solanum tuberosum (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): S. stenotomum, S. phureja, S. goniocalyx, and S. ajanhuiri. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): S. chaucha and S. juzepczukii. There is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): S. curtilobum. There are two major subspecies of Solanum tuberosum: andigena, or Andean; and tuberosum, or Chilean. The Andean potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated; the Chilean potato, however, native to the Chiloé Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile.

The International Potato Center, based in Lima, Peru, holds an ISO-accredited collection of potato germplasm. The international Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium announced in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato genome. The potato genome contains 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs, making it a medium-sized plant genome. More than 99 percent of all current varieties of potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile. Nonetheless, genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato subspecies derive from a single origin in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme Northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex). The wild Crop Wild Relatives Prebreeding project encourages the use of wild relatives in breeding programs. Enriching and preserving the gene bank collection to make potatoes adaptive to diverse environmental conditions is seen as a pressing issue due to climate change.

Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources, although at least one wild potato species, Solanum fendleri, naturally ranges from Peru into Texas, where it is used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploid Solanum demissum, as a source of resistance to the devastating late blight disease. Another relative native to this region, Solanum bulbocastanum, has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight.

Potatoes yield abundantly with little effort, and adapt readily to diverse climates as long as the climate is cool and moist enough for the plants to gather sufficient water from the soil to form the starchy tubers. Potatoes do not keep very well in storage and are vulnerable to moulds that feed on the stored tubers and quickly turn them rotten, whereas crops such as grain can be stored for several years with a low risk of rot. The yield of Calories per acre (about 9.2 million) is higher than that of maize (7.5 million), rice (7.4 million), wheat (3 million), or soybean (2.8 million).

VARIETIES

There are close to 4,000 varieties of potato including common commercial varieties, each of which has specific agricultural or culinary attributes. Around 80 varieties are commercially available in the UK. In general, varieties are categorized into a few main groups based on common characteristics, such as russet potatoes (rough brown skin), red potatoes, white potatoes, yellow potatoes (also called Yukon potatoes) and purple potatoes.

For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy baking potatoes have more starch (20–22%) than waxy boiling potatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.

The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions that is updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)—which is run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).

PIGMENTATION

Dozens of potato cultivars have been selectively bred specifically for their skin or, more commonly, flesh color, including gold, red, and blue varieties that contain varying amounts of phytochemicals, including carotenoids for gold/yellow or polyphenols for red or blue cultivars. Carotenoid compounds include provitamin A alpha-carotene and beta-carotene, which are converted to the essential nutrient, vitamin A, during digestion. Anthocyanins mainly responsible for red or blue pigmentation in potato cultivars do not have nutritional significance, but are used for visual variety and consumer appeal. Recently, as of 2010, potatoes have also been bioengineered specifically for these pigmentation traits.

GENETICALLY ENGINEERED POTATOES

Genetic research has produced several genetically modified varieties. 'New Leaf', owned by Monsanto Company, incorporates genes from Bacillus thuringiensis, which confers resistance to the Colorado potato beetle; 'New Leaf Plus' and 'New Leaf Y', approved by US regulatory agencies during the 1990s, also include resistance to viruses. McDonald's, Burger King, Frito-Lay, and Procter & Gamble announced they would not use genetically modified potatoes, and Monsanto published its intent to discontinue the line in March 2001.

Waxy potato varieties produce two main kinds of potato starch, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. BASF developed the Amflora potato, which was modified to express antisense RNA to inactivate the gene for granule bound starch synthase, an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose. Amflora potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely of amylopectin, and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only—not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years. Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was made resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum. In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF.

In November 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company, which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made via RNA interference.

HISTORY

The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 and 5000 BC. It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.

The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancon (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC. The most widely cultivated variety, Solanum tuberosum tuberosum, is indigenous to the Chiloé Archipelago, and has been cultivated by the local indigenous people since before the Spanish conquest.

According to conservative estimates, the introduction of the potato was responsible for a quarter of the growth in Old World population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900. In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca civilization, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spanish introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century, part of the Columbian exchange. The staple was subsequently conveyed by European mariners to territories and ports throughout the world. The potato was slow to be adopted by European farmers, but soon enough it became an important food staple and field crop that played a major role in the European 19th century population boom. However, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus-like oomycete Phytophthora infestans, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland as well as parts of the Scottish Highlands, resulting in the crop failures that led to the Great Irish Famine. Thousands of varieties still persist in the Andes however, where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.

PRODUCTION

In 2016, world production of potatoes was 377 million tonnes, led by China with over 26% of the world total (see table). Other major producers were India, Russia, Ukraine and the United States. It remains an essential crop in Europe (especially eastern and central Europe), where per capita production is still the highest in the world, but the most rapid expansion over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia.

NUTRITION

A raw potato is 79% water, 17% carbohydrates (88% is starch), 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (see table). In an amount measuring 100 grams, raw potato provides 322 kilojoules (77 kilocalories) of energy and is a rich source of vitamin B6 and vitamin C (23% and 24% of the Daily Value, respectively), with no other vitamins or minerals in significant amount (see table). The potato is rarely eaten raw because raw potato starch is poorly digested by humans. When a potato is baked, its contents of vitamin B6 and vitamin C decline notably, while there is little significant change in the amount of other nutrients.

Potatoes are often broadly classified as having a high glycemic index (GI) and so are often excluded from the diets of individuals trying to follow a low-GI diet. The GI of potatoes can vary considerably depending on the cultivar or cultivar category (such as "red", russet, "white", or King Edward), growing conditions and storage, preparation methods (by cooking method, whether it is eaten hot or cold, whether it is mashed or cubed or consumed whole), and accompanying foods consumed (especially the addition of various high-fat or high-protein toppings). In particular, consuming reheated or cooled potatoes that were previously cooked may yield a lower GI effect.

In the UK, potatoes are not considered by the National Health Service (NHS) as counting or contributing towards the recommended daily five portions of fruit and vegetables, the 5-A-Day program.

COMPARISON TO OTHER STAPLE FOODS

This table shows the nutrient content of potatoes next to other major staple foods, each one measured in its respective raw state, even though staple foods are not commonly eaten raw and are usually sprouted or cooked before eating. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains (or other foods) may be different from the values in this table. Each nutrient (every row) has the highest number highlighted to show the staple food with the greatest amount in a 100-gram raw portion.

TOXICITY

Potatoes contain toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), as well as the food plants eggplant and tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are generally concentrated in its leaves, flowers, sprouts, and fruits (in contrast to the tubers). In a summary of several studies, the glycoalkaloid content was highest in the flowers and sprouts and lowest in the tuber flesh. (The glycoalkaloid content was, in order from highest to lowest: flowers, sprouts, leaves, skin, roots, berries, peel [skin plus outer cortex of tuber flesh], stems, and tuber flesh.)

Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber. Cooking at high temperatures—over 170 °C—partly destroys these compounds. The concentration of glycoalkaloids in wild potatoes is sufficient to produce toxic effects in humans. Glycoalkaloid poisoning may cause headaches, diarrhea, cramps, and, in severe cases, coma and death. However, poisoning from cultivated potato varieties is very rare. Light exposure causes greening from chlorophyll synthesis, giving a visual clue as to which areas of the tuber may have become more toxic. However, this does not provide a definitive guide, as greening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other.

Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The Lenape variety was released in 1967 but was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids. Since then, breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below 200 mg/kg). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, they can still approach solanine concentrations of 1000 mg/kg. In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solanine levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with 7–187 mg/kg being found. While a normal potato tuber has 12–20 mg/kg of glycoalkaloid content, a green potato tuber contains 250–280 mg/kg and its skin has 1500–2200 mg/kg.

GROWTH AND CULTIVATION

SEED POTATOES

Potatoes are generally grown from seed potatoes, tubers specifically grown to be free from disease and to provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the US, this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of all 50 states where potatoes are grown. These locations are selected for their cold, hard winters that kill pests and summers with long sunshine hours for optimum growth. In the UK, most seed potatoes originate in Scotland, in areas where westerly winds prevent aphid attack and thus prevent spread of potato virus pathogens.

PHASES OF GROWTH

Potato growth is divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts emerge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second, photosynthesis begins as the plant develops leaves and branches. In the third phase, stolons develop from lower leaf axils on the stem and grow downwards into the ground and on these stolons new tubers develop as swellings of the stolon. This phase is often, but not always, associated with flowering. Tuber formation halts when soil temperatures reach 27 °C; hence potatoes are considered a cool-season, or winter, crop. Tuber bulking occurs during the fourth phase, when the plant begins investing the majority of its resources in its newly formed tubers. At this phase, several factors are critical to a good yield: optimal soil moisture and temperature, soil nutrient availability and balance, and resistance to pest attacks. The fifth and final phase is the maturation of the tubers: the plant canopy dies back, the tuber skins harden, and the sugars in the tubers convert to starches.

CHALLENGES

New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development of solanine as a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up"). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area with organic mulches such as straw or plastic sheets.

Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potatoes themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of mounded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, young plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are rogued in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.

Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.

PESTS

The historically significant Phytophthora infestans (late blight) remains an ongoing problem in Europe and the United States. Other potato diseases include Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, black leg, powdery mildew, powdery scab and leafroll virus.

Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the Colorado potato beetle, the potato tuber moth, the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), the potato aphid, beet leafhoppers, thrips, and mites. The potato cyst nematode is a microscopic worm that thrives on the roots, thus causing the potato plants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years, crop rotation is recommended.

During the crop year 2008, many of the certified organic potatoes produced in the United Kingdom and certified by the Soil Association as organic were sprayed with a copper pesticide to control potato blight (Phytophthora infestans). According to the Soil Association, the total copper that can be applied to organic land is 6 kg/ha/year.

According to an Environmental Working Group analysis of USDA and FDA pesticide residue tests performed from 2000 through 2008, 84% of the 2,216 tested potato samples contained detectable traces of at least one pesticide. A total of 36 unique pesticides were detected on potatoes over the 2,216 samples, though no individual sample contained more than 6 unique pesticide traces, and the average was 1.29 detectable unique pesticide traces per sample. The average quantity of all pesticide traces found in the 2,216 samples was 1.602 ppm. While this was a very low value of pesticide residue, it was the highest amongst the 50 vegetables analyzed.

HARVEST

At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar to the graip but with tines at a 90° angle to the handle. In larger plots, the plow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.

Immature potatoes may be sold as "creamer potatoes" and are particularly valued for taste. These are often harvested by the home gardener or farmer by "grabbling", i.e. pulling out the young tubers by hand while leaving the plant in place. A creamer potato is a variety of potato harvested before it matures to keep it small and tender. It is generally either a Yukon Gold potato or a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively, and measures approximately 2.5 cm in diameter. The skin of creamer potatoes is waxy and high in moisture content, and the flesh contains a lower level of starch than other potatoes. Like potatoes in general, they can be prepared by boiling, baking, frying, and roasting. Slightly older than creamer potatoes are "new potatoes", which are also prized for their taste and texture and often come from the same varieties.

Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures 10 to 16 °C with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.

STORAGE

Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of decomposition, which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area is dark, ventilated well and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near 4 °C. For short-term storage, temperatures of about 7 to 10 °C are preferred.

On the other hand, temperatures below 4 °C convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns. They are believed to be probable carcinogens and their occurrence in cooked foods is being studied for potentially influencing health problems.

Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10–12 months. The commercial storage and retrieval of potatoes involves several phases: first drying surface moisture; wound healing at 85% to 95% relative humidity and temperatures below 25 °C; a staged cooling phase; a holding phase; and a reconditioning phase, during which the tubers are slowly warmed. Mechanical ventilation is used at various points during the process to prevent condensation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.

When stored in homes unrefrigerated, the shelf life is usually a few weeks.

If potatoes develop green areas or start to sprout, trimming or peeling those green-colored parts is inadequate to remove copresent toxins, and such potatoes are no longer edible.

YIELD

The world dedicated 18.6 million ha in 2010 for potato cultivation. The average world farm yield for potato was 17.4 tonnes per hectare, in 2010. Potato farms in the United States were the most productive in 2010, with a nationwide average of 44.3 tonnes per hectare. United Kingdom was a close second.

New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes potatoes per hectare.

There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies ranges between 38–44 tonnes per hectare. China and India accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, and had yields of 14.7 and 19.9 tonnes per hectare respectively. The yield gap between farms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity loss of over 400 million tonnes of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world potato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop breed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment. Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the yield gap, can be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developing world.

USES

Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch granules. Most potato dishes are served hot but some are first cooked, then served cold, notably potato salad and potato chips (crisps). Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiled or steamed potatoes; French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasted; scalloped, diced, or sliced and fried (home fries); grated into small thin strips and fried (hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rösti or potato pancakes. Unlike many foods, potatoes can also be easily cooked in a microwave oven and still retain nearly all of their nutritional value, provided they are covered in ventilated plastic wrap to prevent moisture from escaping; this method produces a meal very similar to a steamed potato, while retaining the appearance of a conventionally baked potato. Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient. Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on size and type, to become soft.

OTHER THAN FOR EATING

Potatoes are also used for purposes other than eating by humans, for example:

Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, poitín, or akvavit.

They are also used as fodder for livestock. Livestock-grade potatoes, considered too small and/or blemished to sell or market for human use but suitable for fodder use, have been called chats in some dialects. They may be stored in bins until use; they are sometimes ensiled. Some farmers prefer to steam them rather than feed them raw and are equipped to do so efficiently.

Potato starch is used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards.

Maine companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtain polylactic acid for use in plastic products; other research projects seek ways to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging.

Potato skins, along with honey, are a folk remedy for burns in India. Burn centres in India have experimented with the use of the thin outer skin layer to protect burns while healing.

Potatoes (mainly Russets) are commonly used in plant research. The consistent parenchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity provide a very nice "model tissue" for experimentation. Wound-response studies are often done on potato tuber tissue, as are electron transport experiments. In this respect, potato tuber tissue is similar to Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans and Escherichia coli: they are all "standard" research organisms.

Potatoes have been delivered with personalized messages as a novelty. Potato delivery services include Potato Parcel and Mail A Spud.

WIKIPEDIA

Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. (Weft is an old English word meaning "that which is woven"; compare leave and left.[a]) The method in which these threads are inter-woven affects the characteristics of the cloth. Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band which meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back strap loom, or other techniques without looms.

The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: plain weave, satin weave, or twill. Woven cloth can be plain (in one colour or a simple pattern), or can be woven in decorative or artistic design.

PROCESS AND TERMINOLOGY

In general, weaving involves using a loom to interlace two sets of threads at right angles to each other: the warp which runs longitudinally and the weft (older woof) that crosses it. One warp thread is called an end and one weft thread is called a pick. The warp threads are held taut and in parallel to each other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms.

Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the primary motion of the loom.

Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames (heddles) to form a clear space where the pick can pass

Picking: where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier or a shuttle.

Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the reed.

The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines (most often adjacent threads belonging to the opposite group) that run in two planes, one above another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the upper group is lowered by the loom mechanism, and the lower group is raised (shedding), allowing to pass the shuttle in the opposite direction, also in a straight motion. Repeating these actions form a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the final distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large.

The secondary motion of the loom are the:

Let off Motion: where the warp is let off the warp beam at a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design

Take up Motion: Takes up the woven fabric in a regulated manner so that the density of filling is maintained

The tertiary motions of the loom are the stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main stop motions are the

warp stop motion

weft stop motion

The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam or weavers beam, the cloth-roll (apron bar), the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered. The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by a dobby mechanism, where the healds are raised according to pegs inserted into a revolving drum. Where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inserted. Traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle.

On a conventional loom, the weft thread is carried on a pirn, in a shuttle that passes through the shed. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick. The "picking" on a power loom is done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or underpick mechanism controlled by cams 80–250 times a minute. When a pirn is depleted, it is ejected from the shuttle and replaced with the next pirn held in a battery attached to the loom. Multiple shuttle boxes allow more than one shuttle to be used. Each can carry a different colour which allows banding across the loom.

The rapier-type weaving machines do not have shuttles, they propel the weft by means of small grippers or rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it up and pulls it the rest of the way. Some carry the filling yarns across the loom at rates in excess of 2,000 metres per minute. Manufacturers such as Picanol have reduced the mechanical adjustments to a minimum, and control all the functions through a computer with a graphical user interface. Other types use compressed air to insert the pick. They are all fast, versatile and quiet.

The warp is sized in a starch mixture for smoother running. The loom warped (loomed or dressed) by passing the sized warp threads through two or more heddles attached to harnesses. The power weavers loom is warped by separate workers. Most looms used for industrial purposes have a machine that ties new warps threads to the waste of previously used warps threads, while still on the loom, then an operator rolls the old and new threads back on the warp beam. The harnesses are controlled by cams, dobbies or a Jacquard head.

The raising and lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives rise to many possible weave structures:

plain weave: plain, and hopsacks, poplin, taffeta, poult-de-soie, pibiones and grosgrain.

twill weave: these are described by weft float followed by warp float, arranged to give diagonal pattern. 2/1 twill, 3/3 twill, 1/2 twill. These are softer fabrics than plain weaves.

satin weave: satins and sateens,

complex computer-generated interlacings.

pile fabrics : such as velvets and velveteens

Both warp and weft can be visible in the final product. By spacing the warp more closely, it can completely cover the weft that binds it, giving a warp faced textile such as repp weave. Conversely, if the warp is spread out, the weft can slide down and completely cover the warp, giving a weft faced textile, such as a tapestry or a Kilim rug. There are a variety of loom styles for hand weaving and tapestry.

HISTORY

There are some indications that weaving was already known in the Paleolithic era, as early as 27,000 years ago. An indistinct textile impression has been found at the Dolní Věstonice site. According to the find, the weavers of Upper Palaeolithic were manufacturing a variety of cordage types, produced plaited basketry and sophisticated twined and plain woven cloth. The artifacts include imprints in clay and burned remnants of cloth.

The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru. The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10100 and 9080 BCE.

MIDDLE EAST AND AFRICA

The earliest known Neolithic textile production in the Old World is supported by a 2013 find of a piece of cloth woven from hemp, in burial F. 7121 at the Çatalhöyük site suggested to be from around 7000 B.C. Further finds come from the advanced civilisation preserved in the pile dwellings in Switzerland. Another extant fragment from the Neolithic was found in Fayum, at a site dated to about 5000 BCE. This fragment is woven at about 12 threads by 9 threads per cm in a plain weave. Flax was the predominant fibre in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE) and continued popularity in the Nile Valley, though wool became the primary fibre used in other cultures around 2000 BCE. Weaving was known in all the great civilisations, but no clear line of causality has been established. Early looms required two people to create the shed and one person to pass through the filling. Early looms wove a fixed length of cloth, but later ones allowed warp to be wound out as the fell progressed. The weavers were often children or slaves. Weaving became simpler when the warp was sized.

THE AMERICAS

The Indigenous people of the Americas wove textiles of cotton throughout tropical and subtropical America and in the South American Andes of wool from camelids, primarily domesticated llamas and alpacas. Cotton and the camelids were both domesticated by about 4,000 BCE. American weavers are "credited with independently inventing nearly every non-mechanized technique known today."

In the Inca Empire of the Andes, women did most of the weaving using backstrap looms to make small pieces of cloth and vertical frame and single-heddle looms for larger pieces. Andean textile weavings were of practical, symbolic, religious, and ceremonial importance and used as currency, tribute, and as a determinant of social class and rank. Sixteenth-century Spanish colonists were impressed by both the quality and quantity of textiles produced by the Inca Empire. Some of the techniques and designs are still in use in the 21st century.

The oldest-known weavings in North America come from the Windover Archaeological Site in Florida. Dating from 4900 to 6500 B.C. and made from plant fibres, the Windover hunter-gatherers produced "finely crafted" twined and plain weave textiles.

EAST ASIA

The weaving of silk from silkworm cocoons has been known in China since about 3500 BCE. Silk that was intricately woven and dyed, showing a well developed craft, has been found in a Chinese tomb dating back to 2700 BCE.

Silk weaving in China was an intricate process that was very involved. Men and women, usually from the same family, had their own roles in the weaving process. The actual work of weaving was done by both men and women. Women were often weavers since it was a way they could contribute to the household income while staying at home. Women would usually weave simpler designs within the household while men would be in charge of the weaving of more intricate and complex pieces of clothing. The process of sericulture and weaving emphasized the idea that men and women should work together instead of women being subordinate to men. Weaving became an integral part of Chinese women's social identity. Several rituals and myths were associated with the promotion of silk weaving, especially as a symbol of female power. Weaving contributed to the balance between men and women's economic contributions and had many economic benefits.

There were many paths into the occupation of weaver. Women usually married into the occupation, belonged to a family of weavers and or lived in a location that had ample weather conditions that allowed for the process of silk weaving. Weavers usually belonged to the peasant class. Silk weaving became a specialized job requiring specific technology and equipment that was completed domestically within households. Although most of the silk weaving was done within the confines of the home and family, there were some specialized workshops that hired skilled silk weavers as well. These workshops took care of the weaving process, although the raising of the silkworms and reeling of the silk remained work for peasant families. The silk that was woven in workshops rather than homes were of higher quality, since the workshop could afford to hire the best weavers. These weavers were usually men who operated more complicated looms, such as the wooden draw-loom. This created a competitive market of silk weavers.

The quality and ease of the weaving process depended on the silk that was produced by the silk worms. The easiest silk to work with came from breeds of silk worms that spun their cocoons so that it could be unwound in one long strand. The reeling, or unwinding of silk worm cocoons is started by placing the cocoons in boiling water in order to break apart the silk filaments as well as kill the silk worm pupae. Women would then find the end of the strands of silk by sticking their hand into the boiling water. Usually this task was done by women of ages eight to twelve, while the more complex jobs were given to older women. They would then create a silk thread, which could vary in thickness and strength from the unwound cocoons.

After the reeling of the silk, the silk would be dyed before the weaving process began. There were many different looms and tools for weaving. For high quality and intricate designs, a wooden draw-loom or pattern loom was used. This loom would require two or three weavers and was usually operated by men. There were also other smaller looms, such as the waist loom, that could be operated by a single woman and were usually used domestically.

Sericulture and silk weaving spread to Korea by 200 BCE, to Khotan by 50 CE, and to Japan by about 300 CE.

The pit-treadle loom may have originated in India though most authorities establish the invention in China. Pedals were added to operate heddles. By the Middle Ages such devices also appeared in Persia, Sudan, Egypt and possibly the Arabian Peninsula, where "the operator sat with his feet in a pit below a fairly low-slung loom." In 700 CE, horizontal looms and vertical looms could be found in many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. In Africa, the rich dressed in cotton while the poorer wore wool. By the 12th century it had come to Europe either from the Byzantium or Moorish Spain where the mechanism was raised higher above the ground on a more substantial frame.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

In the Philippines, numerous pre-colonial weaving traditions exist among different ethnic groups. They used various plant fibers, mainly abacá or banana, but also including tree cotton, buri palm (locally known as buntal) and other palms, various grasses (like amumuting and tikog), and barkcloth. The oldest evidence of weaving traditions are Neolithic stone tools used for preparing barkcloth found in archeological sites in Sagung Cave of southern Palawan and Arku Cave of Peñablanca, Cagayan. The latter has been dated to around 1255–605 BCE.

MEDIEVAL EUROPE

The predominant fibre was wool, followed by linen and nettlecloth for the lower classes. Cotton was introduced to Sicily and Spain in the 9th century. When Sicily was captured by the Normans, they took the technology to Northern Italy and then the rest of Europe. Silk fabric production was reintroduced towards the end of this period and the more sophisticated silk weaving techniques were applied to the other staples.

The weaver worked at home and marketed his cloth at fairs. Warp-weighted looms were commonplace in Europe before the introduction of horizontal looms in the 10th and 11th centuries. Weaving became an urban craft and to regulate their trade, craftsmen applied to establish a guild. These initially were merchant guilds, but developed into separate trade guilds for each skill. The cloth merchant who was a member of a city's weavers guild was allowed to sell cloth; he acted as a middleman between the tradesmen weavers and the purchaser. The trade guilds controlled quality and the training needed before an artisan could call himself a weaver.

By the 13th century, an organisational change took place, and a system of putting out was introduced. The cloth merchant purchased the wool and provided it to the weaver, who sold his produce back to the merchant. The merchant controlled the rates of pay and economically dominated the cloth industry. The merchants' prosperity is reflected in the wool towns of eastern England; Norwich, Bury St Edmunds and Lavenham being good examples. Wool was a political issue. The supply of thread has always limited the output of a weaver. About that time, the spindle method of spinning was replaced by the great wheel and soon after the treadle-driven spinning wheel. The loom remained the same but with the increased volume of thread it could be operated continuously.

The 14th century saw considerable flux in population. The 13th century had been a period of relative peace; Europe became overpopulated. Poor weather led to a series of poor harvests and starvation. There was great loss of life in the Hundred Years War. Then in 1346, Europe was struck with the Black Death and the population was reduced by up to a half. Arable land was labour-intensive and sufficient workers no longer could be found. Land prices dropped, and land was sold and put to sheep pasture. Traders from Florence and Bruges bought the wool, then sheep-owning landlords started to weave wool outside the jurisdiction of the city and trade guilds. The weavers started by working in their own homes then production was moved into purpose-built buildings. The working hours and the amount of work were regulated. The putting-out system had been replaced by a factory system.

The migration of the Huguenot Weavers, Calvinists fleeing from religious persecution in mainland Europe, to Britain around the time of 1685 challenged the English weavers of cotton, woollen and worsted cloth, who subsequently learned the Huguenots' superior techniques.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Before the Industrial Revolution, weaving was a manual craft and wool was the principal staple. In the great wool districts a form of factory system had been introduced but in the uplands weavers worked from home on a putting-out system. The wooden looms of that time might be broad or narrow; broad looms were those too wide for the weaver to pass the shuttle through the shed, so that the weaver needed an expensive assistant (often an apprentice). This ceased to be necessary after John Kay invented the flying shuttle in 1733. The shuttle and the picking stick sped up the process of weaving. There was thus a shortage of thread or a surplus of weaving capacity. The opening of the Bridgewater Canal in June 1761 allowed cotton to be brought into Manchester, an area rich in fast flowing streams that could be used to power machinery. Spinning was the first to be mechanised (spinning jenny, spinning mule), and this led to limitless thread for the weaver.

Edmund Cartwright first proposed building a weaving machine that would function similar to recently developed cotton-spinning mills in 1784, drawing scorn from critics who said the weaving process was too nuanced to automate. He built a factory at Doncaster and obtained a series of patents between 1785 and 1792. In 1788, his brother Major John Cartwight built Revolution Mill at Retford (named for the centenary of the Glorious Revolution). In 1791, he licensed his loom to the Grimshaw brothers of Manchester, but their Knott Mill burnt down the following year (possibly a case of arson). Edmund Cartwight was granted a reward of £10,000 by Parliament for his efforts in 1809. However, success in power-weaving also required improvements by others, including H. Horrocks of Stockport. Only during the two decades after about 1805, did power-weaving take hold. At that time there were 250,000 hand weavers in the UK. Textile manufacture was one of the leading sectors in the British Industrial Revolution, but weaving was a comparatively late sector to be mechanised. The loom became semi-automatic in 1842 with Kenworthy and Bulloughs Lancashire Loom. The various innovations took weaving from a home-based artisan activity (labour-intensive and man-powered) to steam driven factories process. A large metal manufacturing industry grew to produce the looms, firms such as Howard & Bullough of Accrington, and Tweedales and Smalley and Platt Brothers. Most power weaving took place in weaving sheds, in small towns circling Greater Manchester away from the cotton spinning area. The earlier combination mills where spinning and weaving took place in adjacent buildings became rarer. Wool and worsted weaving took place in West Yorkshire and particular Bradford, here there were large factories such as Lister's or Drummond's, where all the processes took place. Both men and women with weaving skills emigrated, and took the knowledge to their new homes in New England, to places like Pawtucket and Lowell.

Woven 'grey cloth' was then sent to the finishers where it was bleached, dyed and printed. Natural dyes were originally used, with synthetic dyes coming in the second half of the 19th century. The need for these chemicals was an important factor in the development of the chemical industry.

The invention in France of the Jacquard loom in about 1803, enabled complicated patterned cloths to be woven, by using punched cards to determine which threads of coloured yarn should appear on the upper side of the cloth. The jacquard allowed individual control of each warp thread, row by row without repeating, so very complex patterns were suddenly feasible. Samples exist showing calligraphy, and woven copies of engravings. Jacquards could be attached to handlooms or powerlooms.

THE ROLE OF WEAVER

A distinction can be made between the role and lifestyle and status of a handloom weaver, and that of the powerloom weaver and craft weaver. The perceived threat of the power loom led to disquiet and industrial unrest. Well known protests movements such as the Luddites and the Chartists had hand loom weavers amongst their leaders. In the early 19th century power weaving became viable. Richard Guest in 1823 made a comparison of the productivity of power and hand loom weavers:

A very good Hand Weaver, a man twenty-five or thirty years of age, will weave two pieces of nine-eighths shirting per week, each twenty-four yards long, and containing one hundred and five shoots of weft in an inch, the reed of the cloth being a forty-four, Bolton count, and the warp and weft forty hanks to the pound, A Steam Loom Weaver, fifteen years of age, will in the same time weave seven similar pieces.

He then speculates about the wider economics of using powerloom weavers:

...it may very safely be said, that the work done in a Steam Factory containing two hundred Looms, would, if done by hand Weavers, find employment and support for a population of more than two thousand persons.

HAND LOOM WEAVERS

Hand loom weaving was done by both sexes but men outnumbered women partially due to the strength needed to batten. They worked from home sometimes in a well lit attic room. The women of the house would spin the thread they needed, and attend to finishing. Later women took to weaving, they obtained their thread from the spinning mill, and working as outworkers on a piecework contract. Over time competition from the power looms drove down the piece rate and they existed in increasing poverty.

POWER LOOM WEAVERS

Power loom workers were usually girls and young women. They had the security of fixed hours, and except in times of hardship, such as in the cotton famine, regular income. They were paid a wage and a piece work bonus. Even when working in a combined mill, weavers stuck together and enjoyed a tight-knit community. The women usually minded the four machines and kept the looms oiled and clean. They were assisted by 'little tenters', children on a fixed wage who ran errands and did small tasks. They learnt the job of the weaver by watching. Often they would be half timers, carrying a green card which teacher and overlookers would sign to say they had turned up at the mill in the morning and in the afternoon at the school. At fourteen or so they come full-time into the mill, and started by sharing looms with an experienced worker where it was important to learn quickly as they would both be on piece work. Serious problems with the loom were left to the tackler to sort out. He would inevitably be a man, as were usually the overlookers. The mill had its health and safety issues, there was a reason why the women tied their hair back with scarves. Inhaling cotton dust caused lung problems, and the noise was causing total hearing loss. Weavers would mee-maw as normal conversation was impossible. Weavers used to 'kiss the shuttle', that is, suck thread though the eye of the shuttle. This left a foul taste in the mouth due to the oil, which was also carcinogenic.

CRAFT WEAVERS

Arts and Crafts was an international design philosophy that originated in England and flourished between 1860 and 1910 (especially the second half of that period), continuing its influence until the 1930s. Instigated by the artist and writer William Morris (1834–1896) during the 1860s and inspired by the writings of John Ruskin (1819–1900), it had its earliest and most complete development in the British Isles[ but spread to Europe and North America. It was largely a reaction against mechanisation and the philosophy advocated of traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. Hand weaving was highly regard and taken up as a decorative art.

BAUHAUS WEAVING WORKSHOP

In the 1920s the weaving workshop of the Bauhaus design school in Germany aimed to raise weaving, previously seen as a craft, to a fine art, and also to investigate the industrial requirements of modern weaving and fabrics. Under the direction of Gunta Stölzl, the workshop experimented with unorthodox materials, including cellophane, fiberglass, and metal. From expressionist tapestries to the development of soundproofing and light-reflective fabric, the workshop’s innovative approach instigated a modernist theory of weaving. Former Bauhaus student and teacher Anni Albers published the seminal 20th-century text On Weaving in 1965. Other notables from the Bauhaus weaving workshop include Otti Berger, Margaretha Reichardt, and Benita Otte.

OTHER CULTURES

WEAVING IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES (1500-1800)

Colonial America relied heavily on Great Britain for manufactured goods of all kinds. British policy was to encourage the production of raw materials in colonies and discourage manufacturing. The Wool Act 1699 restricted the export of colonial wool. As a result, many people wove cloth from locally produced fibres. The colonists also used wool, cotton and flax (linen) for weaving, though hemp could be made into serviceable canvas and heavy cloth. They could get one cotton crop each year; until the invention of the cotton gin it was a labour-intensive process to separate the seeds from the fibres.

A plain weave was preferred as the added skill and time required to make more complex weaves kept them from common use. Sometimes designs were woven into the fabric but most were added after weaving using wood block prints or embroidery.

AMERIC'AN SOUTHWEST

Textile weaving, using cotton dyed with pigments, was a dominant craft among pre-contact tribes of the American southwest, including various Pueblo peoples, the Zuni, and the Ute tribes. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeing Navajo blankets. With the introduction of Navajo-Churro sheep, the resulting woolen products have become very well known. By the 18th century the Navajo had begun to import yarn with their favorite color, Bayeta red. Using an upright loom, the Navajos wove blankets worn as garments and then rugs after the 1880s for trade. Navajo traded for commercial wool, such as Germantown, imported from Pennsylvania.[citation needed] Under the influence of European-American settlers at trading posts, Navajos created new and distinct styles, including "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns), "Teec Nos Pos" (colorful, with very extensive patterns), "Ganado" (founded by Don Lorenzo Hubbell), red dominated patterns with black and white, "Crystal" (founded by J. B. Moore), Oriental and Persian styles (almost always with natural dyes), "Wide Ruins," "Chinlee," banded geometric patterns, "Klagetoh," diamond type patterns, "Red Mesa" and bold diamond patterns. Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony, or hózhó.

AMAZON CULTURES

Among the indigenous people of the Amazon basin densely woven palm-bast mosquito netting, or tents, were utilized by the Panoans, Tupinambá, Western Tucano, Yameo, Záparoans, and perhaps by the indigenous peoples of the central Huallaga River basin (Steward 1963:520). Aguaje palm-bast (Mauritia flexuosa, Mauritia minor, or swamp palm) and the frond spears of the Chambira palm (Astrocaryum chambira, A.munbaca, A.tucuma, also known as Cumare or Tucum) have been used for centuries by the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon to make cordage, net-bags hammocks, and to weave fabric. Among the Urarina, the production of woven palm-fiber goods is imbued with varying degrees of an aesthetic attitude, which draws its authentication from referencing the Urarina's primordial past. Urarina mythology attests to the centrality of weaving and its role in engendering Urarina society. The post-diluvial creation myth accords women's weaving knowledge a pivotal role in Urarina social reproduction. Even though palm-fiber cloth is regularly removed from circulation through mortuary rites, Urarina palm-fiber wealth is neither completely inalienable, nor fungible since it is a fundamental medium for the expression of labor and exchange. The circulation of palm-fiber wealth stabilizes a host of social relationships, ranging from marriage and fictive kinship (compadrazco, spiritual compeership) to perpetuating relationships with the deceased.

COMPUTER SCIENCE

The Nvidia Parallel Thread Execution ISA derives some terminology (specifically the term Warp to refer to a group of concurrent processing threads) from historical weaving traditions.

WIKIPEDIA

« […] A person entering the space of non-place is relieved of his usual determinants. He becomes no more than what he does or experiences in the role of passenger, customer or driver. […] The passenger through non-places retrieves his identity only at customs, at the tollbooth, at the checkout counter. Meanwhile, he obeys the same code as others, receives the same messages, responds to the same entreaties. The space of non-place creates neither singular identity nor relations, only solitude, and similitude »

see the whole series here

‘We Are’, the public art project is actualised by A-Kill and Delhi-based street artist Khatra, and assisted by Chennai-based artists Raghupathy and Jaya.

The main facade of Indira Nagar MRTS is now a canvas for a panoramic mural that raises awareness on the stigma associated with HIV/AIDS. A black-and-white photographic portrait featuring halved, smiling faces of a man and a woman stands tall against a radiant blue sky dotted with clouds.

The half-faces seem to merge into each other on a single wall. An initiative by St+art India Foundation and Tamil Nadu State Aids Control Society (TANSACS) along with Tidel Park and Southern Railway, the mural was initiated in an attempt to wake the city up to the discrimination faced by people with HIV.

It also reflects the theme of this year’s World AIDS Day as declared by UNAIDS — Global Solidarity, Shared Responsibility.To that end, portraits of people with HIV and otherwise are placed one after the other to drive home the point that there are no physical determinants to AIDS.

The first portrait that features on the facade is that of a couple with HIV/AIDS. A-Kill, whose works derive from street photography, had shot them at Chengalpattu while researching for the project. A-Kill’s creative process spurts from something called a lazy grid or doodle grid, which are markings across the wall that help him ascertain the scale of the surface.

On these seemingly incoherent markings, the image is superimposed. “There will be a red ribbon running throughout the entire portrait,” adds A-Kill.

Texts : Extracts from an article that appeared in "The Hindu" dated January 13, 2021 by Gowri S

Photos : shot by me on January 15, 2021

Work is progressing at a faster pace and expected to be completed by month end

La catedral de Santiago de Compostel·la (en gallec, catedral de Santiago de Compostela) està acull el que, segons la tradició, és el sepulcre de l'apòstol Sant Jaume, i això va convertir el temple en un dels principals destins de pelegrinatge d'Europa durant l'edat mitjana mitjançant l'anomenat Camí de Sant Jaume, una ruta iniciàtica en què se seguia les petjades de la Via Làctia comunicant la península Ibèrica amb la resta del continent. Això va ser determinant perquè els regnes hispànics medievals participessin en els moviments culturals de l'època. Actualment continua sent un important destí de pelegrinatge. Un privilegi concedit el 1122 pel papa Calixt II va declarar que serien «Any Sant Jubilar» a Compostel·la, tots els anys en què el dia 25 de juliol, dia de sant Jaume, coincidís amb diumenge. Va ser confirmat pel papa Alexandre III a la seva butlla "Regis aeterni" datada el 1179.

El nucli antic de Santiago de Compostel·la és Patrimoni de la Humanitat per la UNESCO des de 1985.

L'estructura de l'edifici comprèn una àrea de vuit mil metres quadrats, consta de planta de creu llatina de tres naus d'una longitud de prop de cent metres amb un creuer de també tres naus i de prop de setanta metres de longitud. L'alçada de la nau central és de vint-i-dos metres en tot el seu recorregut i assoleix els trenta-dos de màxim a la volta del creuer. El cimbori, situat sobre el centre del transsepte, és gòtic, substituint l'antic romànic.

Prop de l'altar major, la girola està composta per diverses capelles romàniques absidals la central de planta quadrada i també té dos absis a cada un dels braços del creuer. Sobre les naus laterals, separades de la central per quaranta-dos pilars, es troba un trifori amb coberta de quart de canó i balcó de finestrals de doble arcuació. La nau central es cobreix amb volta de canó sobre arcs faixons i les laterals amb voltes d'aresta.

La il·luminació prové de les finestres dels dos pisos de les naus laterals del període romànic, a la capella major són polilobulades i les que corresponen a la girola són ulls de bou. L'ornamentació s'aprecia als capitells historiats a la part de l'absis i amb adorns vegetals a la galeria.

La catedral disposa de dos grans orgues, situats a la part central dels trams alts de la nau principal, són de començament del segle XVIII. Encarregats pel capítol catedralici al mestre salamantí Manuel de la Viña i la caixa a l'arquitecte Antonio Afonsín i a l'escultor Manuel Romay. Cap al 1980, la consola va ser substituïda i s'hi va incloure mecanismes electrònics i informàtics per una empresa de Roma.

Pàgina a la UNESCO World Heritage List.

A Google Maps.

Heliconia, derived from the Greek word Ἑλικώνιος (helikṓnios), is a genus of flowering plants in the monotypic family Heliconiaceae. Most of the ca 194 known species are native to the tropical Americas, but a few are indigenous to certain islands of the western Pacific and Maluku. Many species of Heliconia are found in the tropical forests of these regions. Most species are listed as either vulnerable or data deficient by the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Several species are widely cultivated as ornamentals, and a few are naturalized in Florida, Gambia, and Thailand. Common names for the genus include lobster-claws, toucan beak, wild plantain, or false bird-of-paradise. The last term refers to their close similarity to the bird-of-paradise flowers (Strelitzia). Collectively, these plants are also simply referred to as "heliconias".

DESCRIPTION

These herbaceous plants range from 0.5 to nearly 4.5 m tall, depending on the species. The simple leaves of these plants are 15–300 cm. They are characteristically long, oblong, alternate, or growing opposite one another on nonwoody petioles often longer than the leaf, often forming large clumps with age. Their flowers are produced on long, erect or drooping panicles, and consist of brightly colored, waxy bracts, with small true flowers peeping out from the bracts. The growth habit of heliconias is similar to Canna, Strelitzia, and bananas, to which they are related. The flowers can be hues of reds, oranges, yellows, and greens, and are subtended by brightly colored bracts. Floral shape often limits pollination to a subset of the hummingbirds in the region.

LEAF

The leaves in different positions on the plant have a different absorption potential of sunlight for photosynthesis when exposed to different degrees of sunlight. They also look like lobster claws.

FLOWERS

The flowers produce ample nectar that attracts pollinators, most prevalent of which are hummingbirds.

SEEDS

Fruits are blue-purple when ripe and primarily bird dispersed. Studies of post-dispersal seed survival showed that seed size was not a determinant. The highest amount of seed predation came from mammals.

TAXONOMY

Heliconia is the only genus in the monotypic family Heliconiaceae, but was formerly included in the family Musaceae, which includes the bananas (e.g., Musa, Ensete;). However, the APG system of 1998, and its successor, the APG II system of 2003, confirm the Heliconiaceae as distinct and places them in the order Zingiberales, in the commelinid clade of monocots.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

Most of the 194 known species are native to the tropical Americas, but a few are indigenous to certain islands of the western Pacific and Maluku. Many species of Heliconia are found in the tropical forests of these regions. Several species are widely cultivated as ornamentals, and a few are naturalized in Florida, Gambia and Thailand.

ECOLOGY

Heliconias are an important food source for forest hummingbirds, especially the hermits (Phathornithinae), some of which – such as the rufous-breasted hermit (Glaucis hirsuta) – also use the plant for nesting. The Honduran white bat (Ectophylla alba) also lives in tents it makes from heliconia leaves.

BATS

POLLINATION

Although Heliconia are almost exclusively pollinated by hummingbirds, some bat pollination has been found to occur. Heliconia solomonensis is pollinated by the macroglosine bat (Melonycteris woodfordi) in the Solomon Islands. Heliconia solomonensis has green inflorescences and flowers that open at night, which is typical of bat pollinated plants. The macroglosine bat is the only known nocturnal pollinator of Heliconia solomonensis.

HABITAT

Many bats use Heliconia leaves for shelter. The Honduran white bat, Ectohylla alba, utilizes five species of Heliconia to make diurnal tent-shaped roosts. The bat cuts the side veins of the leaf extending from the midrib, causing the leaf to fold like a tent. This structure provides the bat with shelter from rain, sun, and predators. In addition, the stems of the Heliconia leaves are not strong enough to carry the weight of typical bat predators, so shaking of the leaf alerts roosting bats to presence of predators. The bats Artibeus anderseni and A. phaeotis form tents from the leaves of Heliconia in the same manner as the Honduran white bat. The neotropical disk-winged bat, Thyroptera tricolor, has suction disks on the wrists which allow it to cling to the smooth surfaces of the Heliconia leaves. This bat roosts head-up in the rolled young leaves of Heliconia plants.

INSECTS

Heliconias provide shelter for a diverse range of insects within their young rolled leaves and water-filled floral bracts. Insects that inhabit the rolled leaves often feed upon the inner surfaces of the leaf, such as beetles of the family Chrysomelidae. In bracts containing small amounts of water, fly larvae and beetles are the dominant inhabitants. In bracts with greater quantities of water the typical inhabitants are mosquito larva. Insects living in the bracts often feed on the bract tissue, nectar of the flower, flower parts, other insects, microorganisms, or detritus in the water contained in the bract (Siefert 1982). Almost all species of Hispini beetles that use rolled leaves are obligate herbivores of plants of the order of Zingiberales, which includes Heliconia. These beetles live in and feed from the rolled leaf, the stems, the inflorescences, or the unfurled mature leaves of the Heliconia plant. In addition, these beetles deposit their eggs on the leaf surface, petioles of immature leaves, or in the bracts of the Heliconia. Furthermore, some wasp species such as Polistes erythrocephalus build their nest on the protected underside of large leaves.

HUMMINGBIRDS

Hummingbirds are the main pollinators of heliconia flowers in many locations. The concurrent diversification of hummingbird-pollinated taxa in the order Zingiberales and the hummingbird family (Trochilidae: Phaethorninae) starting 18 million years ago supports the idea that these radiations have influenced one another through evolutionary time. At La Selva Research Station in Costa Rica, specific species of Heliconia were found to have specific hummingbird pollinators. These hummingbirds can be organized into two different groups: hermits and non-hermits. Hermits are the subfamily Phaethornithinae, consisting of the genera Anopetia, Eutoxeres, Glaucis, Phaethornis, Ramphodon, and Threnetes. Non-hermits are a catch-all group of other hummingbirds that often visit heliconias, comprising several clades (McGuire 2008). Hermits are generally traplining foragers; that is, individuals visit a repeated circuit of high-reward flowers instead of holding fixed territories Non-hermits are territorial over their Heliconia clumps, causing greater self-pollination. Hermits tend to have long curved bills while non-hermits tend to possess short straight bills, a morphological difference that likely spurred the divergence of these groups in the Miocene era. Characteristics of Heliconia flowers that select for either hermit or non-hermit pollinator specificity are degree of self-compatibility, flowering phenology, nectar production, color, and shape of flower. The hummingbird itself will choose the plants its feeds from on the basis of its beak shape, its perch on the plant, and its territory choice.

Hummingbird visits to the Heliconia flower do not affect its production of nectar. This may account for the flowers not having a consistent amount of nectar produced from flower to flower.

Different Heliconia species have different flowering seasons. This suggests that the species compete for pollinators. Many species of Heliconia, even the newly colonized species, are visited by many different pollinators.

CULTIVATION

Several cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden planting, including:

H. psittacorum × H. spathocircinata, both species of South America, mainly Brazil

H. × rauliniana = H. marginata (Venezuela) × H. bihai (Brazil)

H. chartacea cv. 'Sexy Pink'

Most commonly grown landscape Heliconia species include H. augusta, H. bihai, H. brasiliensis, H. caribaea, H. latispatha, H. pendula, H. psittacorum, H. rostrata, H. schiediana, and H. wagneriana.

USES

Heliconias are grown for the florist's trade and as landscape plants. These plants do not grow well in cold, dry conditions. They are very drought intolerant, but can endure some soil flooding. Heliconias need an abundance of water, sunlight, and soils that are rich in humus in order to grow well. These flowers are grown in tropical regions all over the world as ornamental plants. The flower of H. psittacorum (parrot heliconia) is especially distinctive, its greenish-yellow flowers with black spots and red bracts reminiscent of the bright plumage of parrots.

WIKIPEDIA

Key Note represents yet another engaging, creative, larger than life, layered-in-meaning and deeply insightful metal work by veteran Burningman sculptor Michael Christian. Less grandeur but even more thoughtful than his work in years past. Christian continues to imbue the the surface of his pieces with insight that is related to the larger figural form in a delightful and surprising manner. This years piece has a surface treatment created from a casting of multiple locks.

About this photo: The imperceptible melding of the chain with its shadow was the primary determinant of this particular angle and height of view. That combined with an indefinite horizon and a fortuitous blue sky around the head, comprises my own commentary of sorts on the often unrecognized factors of will power, burden, obligation, and vision that both empower and restrain our own journey through life.

xianspace.com/bm2009/

Rooikeelflap

(Euplectes ardens)

The red-collared widowbird is a species of bird in the family Ploceidae. Red-collared widowbirds are found in grasslands and bush clearings in Eastern and Southern Africa. They are known for their long tails and brilliant red badges, both which act as sexual ornaments. They are often associated with other widowbird and bishop species. They are polygynous, where males acquisition of territory is an important determinant in their access to mates. Red-collared widowbirds have a wide range and there is little concern in terms of conservation status.

When Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert first described the red-collared widowbird from a South African specimen in 1783, he named it Fringilla ardens, assigning it to a genus of Old World finches. In 1829, William John Swainson created Euplectes, and moved the widowbirds and bishops from Fringilla into this new genus. Traditionally, Euplectes is thought to contain two clades, with the bishops in one clade and the widowbirds in another. However, molecular evidence suggests that the red-collared widowbird is actually a long-tailed bishop rather than a true widowbird. In captivity, they have been successfully bred with southern red bishop, yellow-mantled widowbird, fan-tailed widowbird, and black-winged red bishop.

There are three recognized subspecies:

1. E. a. ardens

2. E. a. laticauda was first identified by Martin Lichtenstein in 1823

3. E. a. suahelicus was first identified by Victor Gurney Logan Van Someren in 1921.

The latter two taxa were split in 2017 as the red-cowled widowbird (Euplectes laticauda) by del Hoyo and Collar.

Red-collared widowbirds are found throughout Eastern and Southern Africa. While their habitats are varied, they are often found in open grasslands, agricultural areas, clearings in forests, and on slopes with limited tree coverage.

Euplectes ardens ardens are found in South Mali, North Guinea, inland Sierra Leone. North Liberia, North Ivory Coast, Southwest Niger, Central and Southeast Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central and Northeast Angola, Uganda, West Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Northwest and South Mozambique, Swaziland, and East South Africa.

Euplectes ardens laticauda are found in Southeast Sudan. Ethiopia, and Eritrea.

Euplectes ardens suahelicus are found in the highlands of Kenya and Tanzania.

Wikipedia

Some 80% of Scotland’s land mass is under agricultural production, making the industry the single biggest determinant of the landscape we see around us. Scotland’s farmers, crofters and growers produce output worth around £2.9 billion a year, and are responsible for much of Scotland’s £5 billion food and drink exports. The export target for 2017 is £7.1 billion.

Around 67,000 people are directly employed in agriculture in Scotland – this represents around 8% of the rural workforce and means that agriculture is the third largest employer in rural Scotland after the service and public sectors. It is estimated that a further 360,000 jobs (1 in 10 of all Scottish jobs) are dependent on agriculture.

The agri-food sector is now the UKs largest manufacturing sector.

Around 85% of Scotland is classified as Less Favoured Area. This is an EU classification which recognises natural and geographic disadvantage.

There are large numbers of farms in north west Scotland, but these are significantly smaller in terms of the numbers of livestock/area of crops grown than farms elsewhere. Sheep farming is the predominant type of farming in the north west and there are also many sheep farms in the south of the country. Larger cereal farms are concentrated in the east. Beef farming takes place throughout Scotland, but is particularly common in the south west. This area also has the bulk of the dairy industry.

La catedral de Santiago de Compostel·la (en gallec, catedral de Santiago de Compostela) està acull el que, segons la tradició, és el sepulcre de l'apòstol Sant Jaume, i això va convertir el temple en un dels principals destins de pelegrinatge d'Europa durant l'edat mitjana mitjançant l'anomenat Camí de Sant Jaume, una ruta iniciàtica en què se seguia les petjades de la Via Làctia comunicant la península Ibèrica amb la resta del continent. Això va ser determinant perquè els regnes hispànics medievals participessin en els moviments culturals de l'època. Actualment continua sent un important destí de pelegrinatge. Un privilegi concedit el 1122 pel papa Calixt II va declarar que serien «Any Sant Jubilar» a Compostel·la, tots els anys en què el dia 25 de juliol, dia de sant Jaume, coincidís amb diumenge. Va ser confirmat pel papa Alexandre III a la seva butlla "Regis aeterni" datada el 1179.

El nucli antic de Santiago de Compostel·la és Patrimoni de la Humanitat per la UNESCO des de 1985.

La façana de Praterías és la façana meridional del creuer de la catedral de Santiago de Compostel·la i és l'única façana romànica que es conserva a la catedral. Es va edificar entre 1103 i 1117 i durant els segles següents se li han anat afegint elements procedents d'altres llocs de la catedral.

Consta de dues portes d'entrada en degradació amb arquivoltes i timpans. Les arquivoltes són sobre onze columnes adossades, tres són de marbre blanc (la central i les extremes) i la resta de granit. A la central apareixen les figures de dotze profetes i a les laterals els apòstols. Sobre els timpans s'hi troba un gran fris que se separa del cos superior per una franja sostinguda per permòdols grotescs, en aquest pis s'hi troben dues finestres que estan adornades per arquivoltes romàniques.

Al fris central, s'hi troba Crist, amb personatges i escenes vàries, a la seva dreta les sis figures que es veuen pertanyen al cor del "Maestro Mateo" que van ser col·locades allà a la fi del segle XIX. La disposició original dels elements iconogràfics va quedar desvirtuada des que en el segle XVIII van ser allotjades aquí nombroses imatges recuperades de la desmantellada façana d'"Azabacherías". En un medalló central apareix el Pare Etern (o la Transfiguració), amb les mans obertes i sobre els arcs a l'extradós quatre àngels amb trompetes que anuncien el Judici Final.

Al timpà de la porta esquerra apareix Crist temptat per un grup de dimonis. A la dreta apareix una dona a mig vestir amb una calavera a les mans, que pot ser Eva o la dona adúltera. Als brancals apareixen Sant Andreu i Moisès. Al contrafort esquerre, el bíblic rei David assegut en el seu tron amb una cama damunt l'altra, traslluïdes a través de la fina tela de la seva roba i tocant una viola, personifica el triomf sobre el mal sent una obra destacada del romànic esculpida pel "Maestro de las Platerías o Maestro Esteban"; la creació d'Adam i Crist beneint. Moltes d'aquestes figures procedeixen de la façana romànica nord o del Paradís (actual façana de l'"Azabachería") i van ser col·locades en aquesta façana al segle XVIII.

Al timpà de la porta dreta apareixen diverses escenes de la passió de Crist i de l'Adoració dels Mags. En un dels brancals apareix la inscripció que commemora la col·locació de la primera pedra:

ERA / IC / XVI / V IDUS / JULLII

(Inscripció que segueix el Calendari romà i, segons el còmput de l'anomenada Era Hispànica, correspon a l'11 de juliol de 1078.)

Una imatge, no identificada, sobre un guillot que engoleix una llebre i, enfront d'aquesta, una dona mal vestida amb un animal a la falda, procedeixen d'un altre lloc. Recolzades al mur de la "torre de la Berenguela" apareixen d'altres imatges que representen la creació d'Eva, Crist en un tron i el sacrifici d'Isaac.

Pàgina a la UNESCO World Heritage List.

A Google Maps.

Copyright PS

Aegean, Cyclades, Mykonos.

The Aegean forms a branch of the Mediterranean mother sea. It's studded with these islands that bear a rich history of developing civilisation and art celebrating the continuity of humankind. In ancient times their beauty was deified, and many towns and temples were built. People's lives were tied closely to the sea and in economic relationship to the island environment.

Nature was a paramount determinant in daily life and this reflects in the architecture. Sun, wind, and limestone or volcanic ground were key influences. Seasonal wind from the north, the meltemi, blows cold and gusty. In the villages, with their contorting alleys, flat-roof cubic forms, limited window openings, and universal whitewash, we can readily see the adaptation to climate. This explains similarities between such complexes throughout island Greece, whereas exact details are special to each locality.

Aegean architecture is a shared art showing originality and invention. A sensitivity to context and neighbourliness is always there; communities are visually sharply defined and of limited, comprehensible size. Further, we find great integrity, sculptural skill, and humanity. Often a varied unit repetition occurs, without monotony, allowing for growth while closely related to topography. Growth followed time-honoured custom. These settlements remain built expressions of a heritage transmitted from one generation to the next.

In the southern Aegean lie the Cyclades. These islands are so called because they were perceived to encircle Delos, birthplace of mythical Apollo. Kyklos in Greek means circle.

Cycladic architecture took shape with details special to each place but typically as white clustering. All is compact and unified, having consistent scale. It's built up with simple form elements -- the cylinder and cube, barrel and spherical vaulting. These combine in a chunky and flowing continuity, often with enchanting paradoxes. Whitewashed thick masonry cools the interiors in hot weather. The incandescence, the play with sunlight, and the geometry, recharge our sensory responses to the qualities of light. However, the immaculate brilliance of now-popular places is a relatively recent phenomenon -- inhabitants would not have set out to attract pirates in the Middle Ages.

Renowned, commercialised, and not for the tourist season, captivating Mykonos (above) has a richness of spaces and forms. This island was always exposed to the sun, sea, and wind -- primal generators for life and architecture. The intensely visual main town is the archetypal Cycladic image. From sun-drenched granitic landscape the luminescent built concentration converges on the port, an active trading harbour open to that vital ocean. Typically, other island capitals were raised at a defensible distance from the sea and its piracy, yet the water's-edge town of Mykonos shows little fortification.

On the edge of the oldest part of the town lies "Little Venice" (Enetia), so-called because its upper-floor balconies overhang the splashing sea. This visual delight shows in my photo above. The grander examples were captains' houses and have access doors onto the water.

Enlarge

Click the diagonal arrows upper-right; then press F11 Fullscreen.

wikimapia

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Some 80% of Scotland’s land mass is under agricultural production, making the industry the single biggest determinant of the landscape we see around us. Scotland’s farmers, crofters and growers produce output worth around £2.9 billion a year, and are responsible for much of Scotland’s £5 billion food and drink exports. The export target for 2017 is £7.1 billion.

Around 67,000 people are directly employed in agriculture in Scotland – this represents around 8% of the rural workforce and means that agriculture is the third largest employer in rural Scotland after the service and public sectors. It is estimated that a further 360,000 jobs (1 in 10 of all Scottish jobs) are dependent on agriculture.

The agri-food sector is now the UKs largest manufacturing sector.

Around 85% of Scotland is classified as Less Favoured Area. This is an EU classification which recognises natural and geographic disadvantage.

There are large numbers of farms in north west Scotland, but these are significantly smaller in terms of the numbers of livestock/area of crops grown than farms elsewhere. Sheep farming is the predominant type of farming in the north west and there are also many sheep farms in the south of the country. Larger cereal farms are concentrated in the east. Beef farming takes place throughout Scotland, but is particularly common in the south west. This area also has the bulk of the dairy industry.

Some 80% of Scotland’s land mass is under agricultural production, making the industry the single biggest determinant of the landscape we see around us. Scotland’s farmers, crofters and growers produce output worth around £2.9 billion a year, and are responsible for much of Scotland’s £5 billion food and drink exports. The export target for 2017 is £7.1 billion.

Around 67,000 people are directly employed in agriculture in Scotland – this represents around 8% of the rural workforce and means that agriculture is the third largest employer in rural Scotland after the service and public sectors. It is estimated that a further 360,000 jobs (1 in 10 of all Scottish jobs) are dependent on agriculture.

The agri-food sector is now the UKs largest manufacturing sector.

Around 85% of Scotland is classified as Less Favoured Area. This is an EU classification which recognises natural and geographic disadvantage.

There are large numbers of farms in north west Scotland, but these are significantly smaller in terms of the numbers of livestock/area of crops grown than farms elsewhere. Sheep farming is the predominant type of farming in the north west and there are also many sheep farms in the south of the country. Larger cereal farms are concentrated in the east. Beef farming takes place throughout Scotland, but is particularly common in the south west. This area also has the bulk of the dairy industry.

Classes and Castes. While the growing economy of Côte d'Ivoire has greatly improved the quality of life for some citizens, gross financial inequality exists. High population growth coupled with the economic stagnation of the 1980s and early 1990s resulted in a steady fall in living standards overall. Access to land, housing, secondary education, and jobs are the key determinants of social mobility in Ivoirian society, which allows for a wealthy, urban minority to receive most of society's benefits. The vast majority of the population is poor; 1998 statistics indicate that at least 60 percent of the country's active population is unemployed and most of those who have jobs earn wages that are not enough to cover their basic monthly expenses. When Gross Domestic Product declined by an average 2.7 percent between 1985 and 1990, the proportion of the population in poverty increased from 14 percent to 20 percent. The Ivoirian middle class is still a small minority—primarily traders, administrators, teachers, nurses, artisans, and successful farmers—whose opportunity for social mobility is fairly limited.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Urban housing is a measure of status, since most urban land concessions are granted to people in government and administration and to their relatives and clients. Secondary education is also an important urban resource and vehicle of social mobility. Although primary schools are found throughout the country, secondary schooling is an urban activity, channelling graduates into urban occupations in medical and legal fields. By the 1990s, employment had become the most significant indicator of social status. Like many other nations, consumer goods are another prominent symbol of social stratification, especially for the city population. Among the administrative and civil-servant class, imported cars and clothes, home furnishings, and broad cultural and recreational activities mark a high standard of living.

Read more: www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/C-te-d-Ivoire.html#ixzz3oeVuTxb1

Stanza Dei Sogni e Degli Angeli Messaggeri.

Era la camera da letto di Alessandro Farnese nel Palazzo di Caprarola, il suo rifugio notturno tra gli affreschi illustrati che evocano il legame con le forze celesti tramite gli angeli messaggeri in continuo contatto con le incertezze terrene.

Ed era proprio per la consapevolezza di queste incertezze che Alessandro sognava serenità e prosperità, ma sognava anche di proteggere il patrimonio di famiglia costruito in cinque secoli di servigi alla Chiesa. Del resto non aveva più le figure di riferimento della sua famiglia, il padre venne ucciso a Piacenza nel 1547 ed il nonno Paolo III morì due anni dopo.

Ecco quindi che nella Stanza dei Sogni è presente l'allusione alla richiesta di benedizione sulla famiglia rappresentata nell'ovale. L'immagine prende in prestito una scena del vecchio testamento in cui Dio invia gli angeli messaggeri a rassicurare Giacobbe dicendogli che veglierà su di lui e che le terre su cui egli giace rimarranno alla sua famiglia e ai suoi discendenti.

Nella Stanza dei Sogni vengono narrati fatti biblici in cui vanno letti messaggi ermetici come il sogno di Nabbucodonosor, sovrano di Babilonia, raffigurato in una lunetta della volta. Il re sogna una grande e possente statua con la testa d'oro, il busto e gli arti di metalli diversi ma i piedi di creta determinando la sua fragilità. Probabilmente il sogno è un desiderio non troppo celato del card. Alessandro Farnese, il quale comprende la precarietà degli equilibri del ducato di Castro e quello di Parma e Piacenza, ed allude alla benevolenza di Dio, nel nome del quale è stato eletto cardinale.

Room of Dreams and Messenger Angels.

It was Alessandro Farnese's bedroom in the Palazzo di Caprarola, his nocturnal refuge among the illustrated frescoes that evoke the link with the celestial forces through the messenger angels in continuous contact with earthly uncertainties.

And it was precisely because of the awareness of these uncertainties that Alexander dreamed of serenity and prosperity, but he also dreamed of protecting the family heritage built over five centuries of service to the Church. Moreover, he no longer had the reference figures of his family, his father was killed in Piacenza in 1547 and his grandfather Paolo III died two years later.

Hence, in the Room of Dreams there is an allusion to the request for a blessing on the family represented in the oval. The image borrows a scene from the Old Testament in which God sends messenger angels to reassure Jacob that he will watch over him and that the lands on which he lies will remain with his family and descendants.

In the Room of Dreams, biblical facts are narrated in which hermetic messages are read, such as the dream of Nebuchadnezzar, ruler of Babylon, depicted in a lunette of the vault. The king dreams of a large and mighty statue with a golden head, bust and limbs of different metals but feet of clay determining its fragility. Probably the dream is a not too hidden desire of card. Alessandro Farnese, who understands the precarious balance of the duchy of Castro and that of Parma and Piacenza, and alludes to the benevolence of God, in whose name he was elected cardinal.

Salle des rêves et des anges messagers.

C'était la chambre d'Alessandro Farnèse au Palazzo di Caprarola, son refuge nocturne parmi les fresques illustrées qui évoquent le lien avec les forces célestes à travers les anges messagers en contact permanent avec les incertitudes terrestres.

Et c'est justement en raison de la conscience de ces incertitudes qu'Alexandre rêvait de sérénité et de prospérité, mais il rêvait aussi de protéger l'héritage familial construit au cours de cinq siècles de service à l'Église. Après tout, il n'avait plus les chiffres de référence de sa famille, son père a été tué à Plaisance en 1547 et son grand-père Paolo III est décédé deux ans plus tard.

Par conséquent, dans la salle des rêves, il y a une allusion à la demande de bénédiction sur la famille représentée dans l'ovale. L'image emprunte une scène de l'Ancien Testament dans laquelle Dieu envoie des anges messagers pour rassurer Jacob en lui disant qu'il veillera sur lui et que les terres sur lesquelles il gît resteront avec sa famille et ses descendants.

Dans la salle des rêves, des faits bibliques sont racontés dans lesquels des messages hermétiques sont lus, comme le rêve de Nabuchodonosor, chef de Babylone, représenté dans une lunette de la voûte. Le roi rêve d'une grande et puissante statue avec une tête dorée, un buste et des membres de différents métaux mais des pieds d'argile, déterminant sa fragilité. Probablement le rêve est un désir de carte pas trop caché. Alessandro Farnèse, qui comprend l'équilibre précaire du duché de Castro et celui de Parme et de Plaisance, et fait allusion à la bienveillance de Dieu, au nom duquel il fut élu cardinal.

This dense starfield and nebular region came through in a surprising fashion for my suburban location. A moonless, transparent night helped. The cluster on the left is NGC 6834 and the red smear on the right is Sharpless 2/91. In the mid-1950's astronomer Stewart Sharpless catalogued the hydrogen nebula regions in the northern sky. The ones shown in this image are very faint and I struggled for several, less favorable nights to get any signal at all.

Tech Stuff: Borg 55FL astrograph/ ZWO ASI 1600MC; IDAS LPS V4 filter; iOptron CubePro unguided 8 second exposures collected in 8 minute stacks, 3 hours total integration time. Processed in PixInsight. Imaged from my yard 10 miles north of New York City. SQM-L reading 19.0 in this Bortle 7/Red Zone. During the Covid lockdown many believe the skies are cleaner than normal but I am finding the weather to be the key determinant of sky quality, and in fact this excellent night (May 21st am) did not reach the 19.1 reading I have experienced under the best "normal" conditions in the past 2 years.

The Flag of Portugal (Portuguese: Bandeira de Portugal) is the national flag of the Portuguese Republic. It is a rectangular bicolour with a field unevenly divided into green on the hoist, and red on the fly. The lesser version of the national coat of arms (i.e. armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) is centred over the colour boundary at equal distance from the upper and lower edges. On June 30, 1911, less than a year after the downfall of the constitutional monarchy, this design was officially adopted for the new national flag, after selection by a special commission whose members included Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro, João Chagas and Abel Botelho.

The conjugation of the new field colours, especially the use of green, was not traditional in the Portuguese national flag's composition and represented a radical republican-inspired change that broke the bond with the former monarchical flag. Since a failed republican insurrection on January 31, 1891, red and green had been established as the colours of the Portuguese Republican Party and its associated movements, whose political prominence kept growing until it reached a culmination period following the Republican revolution of October 5, 1910. In the ensuing decades, these colours were popularly propagandized as representing the hope of the nation (green) and the blood (red) of those who died defending it, as a means to endow them with a more patriotic and dignified, therefore less political, sentiment. Although the flag flown from the Oporto city hall in the morning of January 31, 1891, symbol of the republican uprising was red and green. Totally red with a green circle in the center, to which were added the inscriptions referring to the republican center to whom it belonged - the Centro Democrático Federal 15 de Novembro.'[1]

The current flag design represents a dramatic change in the evolution of the Portuguese standard, which had always been closely associated with the royal arms, blue and white. Since the country's foundation, the national flag developed from the blue cross-on-white armorial square banner of King Afonso I to the liberal monarchy's arms over a blue-and-white rectangle. In between, major changes associated with determinant political events contributed to its evolution into the current design.

Design

The decree that legally replaced the flag used under the constitutional monarchy with the new design was approved by the Constituent Assembly and published in government journal no. 141 (Portuguese: diário do Governo), on June 19, 1911. On June 30, this decree had its regulations officially published in government diary no. 150

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Lisbon Portuguese: Lisboa, is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the city's administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people, being the 11th-most populous urban area in the European Union. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (which represents approximately 27% of the country's population). It is continental Europe's westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean and the River Tagus. The westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe.

Lisbon is recognised as a global city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education and tourism. It is one of the major economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector and one of the largest container ports on Europe's Atlantic coast. Lisbon Portela Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network and the high-speed rail system of Alfa Pendular link the main cities of Portugal. The city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any other region in Portugal. It also ranks as the 10th highest GDP of metropolitan areas in the EU amounting to 110 billion euros and thus €39,375 per capita, 40% higher than the average European Union's GDP per capita. The city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area. It is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State.

Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, and the oldest in Western Europe, predating other modern European capitals such as London, Paris and Rome by centuries. Julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, it was captured by the Moors in the 8th century. In 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbon's status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal.

Lisbon enjoys a Mediterranean climate. Among all the metropoleis in Europe, it has the warmest winters, with average temperatures 15 °C (59 °F) during the day and 8 °C (46 °F) at night from December to February. The typical summer season lasts about six months, from May to October, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C (77.0 °F).

[order] Passeriformes | [family] Fringillidae | [latin] Carduelis spinus | [UK] Siskin | [FR] Tarin des aulnes | [DE] Erlenzeisig | [ES] Lúgano | [IT] Luchernino europeo | [NL] Sijs

Measurements

spanwidth min.: 20 cm

spanwidth max.: 23 cm

size min.: 11 cm

size max.: 12 cm

Breeding

incubation min.: 12 days

incubation max.: 13 days

fledging min.: 13 days

fledging max.: 15 days

broods 2

eggs min.: 3

eggs max.: 6

Physical characteristics

Small, quite tubby but elegant finch with short but noticeably forked tail, sharing with Redpoll arboreal, tit-like behaviour and with serins yellow-green and streaked plumages. At all ages, shows fine bill (like Goldfinch and unlike all serins except Citril Finch) and striking combination of yellow band on wing and yellow basal patches on tail (unlike any confusion species). Male strikingly yellow and green, with diagnostic black crown, much black in wings and tail, emphasizing yellow marks, and greenish-yellow rump. Female more greenish, distinctly streaked above and below, especially from sides of breast to rear flanks. Juvenile buff-brown above, even more heavily streaked above and below; lacks pale rump but shows characteristic wing and tail pattern.

Habitat

In west Palearctic, breeds in both lowland and mountain forest, coniferous or mixed, mainly in boreal and temperate zones, north to July isotherm of 13°C. Mainly occupies spruce but also fir and pine, especially where these are well-grown and well-spaced, and sometimes mixed with broad-leaved trees. Streamside locations are often preferred, especially outside breeding season where much foraging is in alders and birches along watercourses, often well away from conifers. Recently has begun to visit garden feeders in some areas. Has in recent years begun nesting more widely and frequently in fresh areas in England, apparently due to afforestation with conifers and to use of planted introduced conifers in parks and gardens, but in Switzerland in formerly neglected native stands, largely in montane regions at c. 1200-1800 m, but not infrequently in lowlands, with marked annual fluctuations.

Other details

Carduelis spinus is a widespread breeder across most of Europe, which constitutes >75% of its global range. Its European breeding population is extremely large (>10,000,000 pairs), and was stable between 1970-1990. The stronghold population in Russia fluctuated during 1990-2000, and most other European populations- including sizeable ones in Finland and Sweden-either increased or were stable. The species probably remained broadly stable overall.

Feeding

Seeds, especially of conifers, alder, birch, and herbs; some invertebrates in breeding season. Very dependent on spruce (or pine) on breeding grounds. Feeds principally in trees, moving to tall herbs or ground when cones empty and seed has dropped; many invertebrates apparently taken from ground and at water‘s edge; also has habit, mainly in winter, of feeding on seeds washed up on shoreline, where favourite alder trees are common. Invertebrates picked from leaves and needles of trees, herbs, bracken, etc., and insects can be caught in flight. Moves restlessly through trees examining cones, acrobatically clinging to cones and twigs, often starting at crown and moving towards base; hangs and perches on stems and seed-heads of herbs with equal agility. Tweezer-like bill used to extract or pry out (bill inserted then opened) seeds (etc.) from tight spaces (e.g. cones, closed seed-heads, buds, catkins), very like Goldfinch, though unable to probe as deeply. In recent years (in southern England since early 1960s and Ireland since 1980s) frequents bird-tables and garden feeders in winter much more regularly than in past, particularly after alder seed crop exhausted; perhaps first entered gardens to feed on seeds of ornamental cypress, soon regularly taking peanuts. Another habit apparently acquired recently is eating of beechmast, first recorded in central England in 1950s.

Conservation

This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 10,000,000 km². It has a large global population, including an estimated 20,000,000-36,000,000 individuals in Europe (BirdLife International in prep.). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. [conservation status from birdlife.org]

Breeding

Laying starts mostly late April to early june, the more south the later. Commonly 2 broods, at least in some areas. Nest is generally inaccessible, at considerable height and in outer hanging twigs of conifer, usually spruce; also recorded against trunk. Nest: small hemispherical construction of (mostly) conifer twigs, heather, grass, moss, bark fibres, and spider‘s web lined with hair, fur, rootlets, plant down, and sometimes feathers, often with external camouflaging of moss and lichen; occasionally woven into hanging twigs. Clutch size: 3-5(-6), 12-13 days and fledging period 13-15(-17) days.

Migration

Mostly migratory in northern breeding areas, but some southern populations may be resident. Many birds winter in different areas in different years but some are faithful to same areas even exactly the same site. Most are nomadic during winter, but minority becomes resident at same site for several months. Numbers migrating vary greatly from year to year, and more distant movements are recorded when large numbers of birds involved (eruption years). Availability of seed crops on favoured trees (alder, birch) seems to be major determinant of strength of movement away from breeding area. Recent habit of regular feeding in gardens noted particularly in March and early April when birds fattening for spring migration.

Autumn migration in northern areas may start as early as August, but generally peaks late September or October. Timing and strength vary from year to year, and significant numbers may move as late as December or even January. Spring departure from regular southern wintering areas is weak and may start in early February, but in most areas continues to mid-April. Passage in Switzerland from end of February to mid- or late April; peaks in April in northern Denmark. On south side of Gulf of Finland (where passage very conspicuous) and in Leningrad region, waves of migrants pass east or north-east until early or mid-May.

Fifth generation

International (GE; 1991–1997)

Overview:

Also calledMazda 626

Mazda Cronos (Japan)

ɛ̃fini MS-6

Ford Telstar

Autozam Clef

ProductionNovember 1991 – 1997

AssemblyJapan: Hofu

Colombia: Bogotá

United States: Flat Rock, Michigan (AAI)

DesignerYasuo Aoyagi (1989)

Body and chassis

Body style4-door sedan

5-door hatchback

LayoutTransverse front-engine, front-wheel drive

Transverse front-engine, four-wheel drive

PlatformMazda GE platform

RelatedMazda MX-6

Ford Probe

Powertrain

Engine

1.8 L FP I4

2.0 L FS-DE I4

2.0 L KF-ZE V6

2.5 L KL-DE V6

2.5 L KL-ZE V6

2.0 L RFT Comprex diesel I4

Transmission5-speed manual

4-speed automatic

Dimensions

Wheelbase2,610 mm (102.8 in)

Length4,670–4,695 mm (183.9–184.8 in) (sedan/hatchback)

Width1,750 mm (68.9 in)

Height1,400 mm (55.1 in)

Curb weight1,180–1,340 kg (2,601–2,954 lb) (sedan/hatchback)

For the fifth generation, GE series sedan and hatchback, the Capella name was dropped—although export markets retained the 626 title. Its nameplate replacements, the Mazda Cronos (sedan) and ɛ̃fini MS-6 (hatchback) that launched in November 1991 were pitched to Japanese customers instead. Built on the GE platform, the hatchback-only MS-6 was launched under the ɛ̃fini brand, as a separate car from the sedan-only Cronos, as Mazda was at the beginning of an ambitious five-brand expansion plan of doubling sales. Including the badge-engineered Ford Telstar (sold at Japanese Ford dealerships called Autorama), the Mazda MX-6 coupe, and the Autozam Clef, a total of five cars were spawned off the same platform, launched under four different brands in Japan over a two-year period.

All of these models ended their production run prematurely, most likely due to the difficulties involved in promoting so many new nameplates as the Japanese economy began to feel the effects of the recession as a result of the Japanese asset price bubble from 1985-1991. While the MS-6 shared the Cronos GE platform, it was marketed as the more sporty of the two. The Capella badge lived on with the wagon/van versions on the previous GV series until 1999. Until 1989, Japanese car taxation used a car's width as a key determinant. The Cronos and its siblings all exceed the critical 1,700 mm (66.9 in) level in width. The series GE platform shared the same width dimension as the luxury brand ɛ̃fini MS-8 and ɛ̃fini MS-6, sharing the 2.5 V6. Moving in accord with early-1990s zeitgeist, Mazda considered width a key factor in the Cronos' sales failure, and proceeded to create a narrower stopgap model from the CG platform. This car was introduced in 1994 as the new CG series Capella sedan.

Export

Nonetheless, the GE Cronos and MS-6 continued to be sold as the Mazda 626 in nearly all export markets. The 626 was again Wheels magazine's Car of the Year for a second time in 1992.

The European (E-spec) and Asian (JDM) models had many differences versus the North American (A-spec) models. These include: raised turn signal side markers vs the A-Spec flush mounted side markers, small fog lights with silver bezels vs the A-Spec full fitting fog lights, different interior cloth patterns, projector headlamps (glass lenses), a 1.8 L FP engine, and a hatchback model. Europe also received a diesel-engined version, using the "Comprex" pressure-wave supercharged RF engine seen in the previous generation JDM Capella. Power in Europe is 75 PS (55 kW) ECE at 4000 rpm, while the Japanese model claims 82 PS (60 kW) JIS at the same engine speed.[15]

For the first time for a Mazda, the 626 began overseas manufacture manufacture in the US at Flat Rock, Michigan on 1 September 1992 for the 1993 model year. The car was originally known as the "626 Cronos" in Canada, but dropped the Cronos for the 1996 model year. Mazda's 2.5 L V6 engine debuted to rave reviews. Though the 626's manual transmission was highly regarded, Four-cylinder 626s from 1994 onwards used the Ford CD4E automatic transmission (designated by Mazda as LA4A-EL), which was an attempt to solve some of the 1993 model's transmission related issues. The CD4E was manufactured by Ford at their Batavia, Ohio facility. The CD4E was manufactured in Batavia, Ohio under the partnership name of ZF Batavia; a joint venture between Ford and ZF Friedrichshafen AG. It wasn't until a few years after the fourth generation of the Mazda 626 was produced that it became known for its extremely high failure rate, thus making the change in 1994 to the CD4E an irrelevant one. It is widely known to transmission specialists that the CD4E overheats due to a poorly designed valve body and torque converter. Mazda issued a couple of Technical Service Bulletins (0400502, 01598, 003/97K, 006/95) regarding the transmission and torque converter. Dealerships were briefly instructed to install an external transmission cooler, but at cost to the owner and only if requested. The CD4E was produced until 2008 at Batavia. No recall was ever issued for a single year of the CD4E, causing a loss of confidence from the general public in years to come. In 1994, a passenger side airbag was added, whilst some models of the 1994 and 1995 Mazda 626 2.0L automatics were outfitted with Ford's EEC-IV diagnostic system. In North America, the V6 spread to the LX trim in addition to the leather ES trim. New for 1996 and 1997 models were a redesigned hood (raised center portion), chrome grille fairing (attached to the hood), and the introduction of the On Board Diagnostics II revision (OBD-II).

In Colombia the car was named 626 Matsuri to differentiate from the past version that was sold at the same time.

Mazda New Zealand assembled this generation for four years with few changes. Ford's variants (since 1987 all built in the same Ford-Mazda joint venture Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ) factory in Wiri, South Auckland) had minor styling and equipment differences (the top Telstar hatchback had an electric sunroof) and anti-lock brakes were now standard on some models, for which factory engineers had to build a special test rig at the end of the assembly line. These were also the first 626/Telstar models to have factory fitted air conditioning, though only on the top Limited (626) and TX-5 Ghia (Telstar) five-door hatchbacks.

[Text from Wikipedia]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_Capella

The version shown here is a International-Specification 626 Liftback.

This miniland-scale Lego Mazda 626 Capella Sedan (GE - 1991) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

Carrocería/Bodywork: Noge Touring Gold HD

Chassis: MAN 26.420 HOCLN-SD

Lote/Batch info: 1/5 - 5 total (1717-1726)

Matricula/Plate: 9057-KPL

Longitud/Length: 15m

Servicio/Service: 2018 - En curso/Ongoing

Info (SP): Para las rutas aeroportuarias siempre se han realizado compras excepcionales para cubrir dichas rutas. Sin embargo el tener que equipar vehiculos discrecionales para el transporte interurbano, asi como la falta de accesibilidad y longitud fueron determinantes a la hora de renovar esta parte de la flota. Por ello la empresa aposto (por primera vez) en la carrocera Noge, a quienes encargaron diez unidades de quince metros de los cuales seis han sido permanentemente asignados a cubrir las rutas aeroportuarias (de ahi la distintiva pintura exterior).

Info (EN): For all airport routes exceptional purchases were made for their coverage. However the intense modifications vehicles had to undergo, the difficulty of access and length of the vehicle required a makeover. As a result, Global decided to take a chance with coach builder Noge, whom they placed a first order of ten 15m long buses from which six were permanently assigned for airport routes (as indicated by their distinctive livery)

Heliconia, derived from the Greek word helikonios, is a genus of flowering plants in the Heliconiaceae. Most of the species are native to the tropical Americas, but a few are indigenous to certain islands of the western Pacific and Maluku. Many species of Heliconia are found in rainforests or tropical wet forests of these regions. Several species are widely cultivated as ornamentals, and a few are naturalized in Florida, Gambia and Thailand. Common names for the genus include lobster-claws, wild plantains or false bird-of-paradise. The last term refers to their close similarity to the bird-of-paradise flowers (Strelitzia). Collectively, these plants are also simply referred to as heliconias.

The Heliconia are a monophyletic genus in the family Heliconiaceae, but was formerly included in the family Musaceae, which includes the bananas (e.g., Musa, Ensete; Judd et al., 2007). However, the APG system of 1998, and its successor, the APG II system of 2003, confirm the Heliconiaceae as distinct and places them in the order Zingiberales, in the commelinid clade of monocots.

These herbaceous plants range from 0.5 to nearly 4.5 meters (1.5–15 feet) tall depending on the species (Berry and Kress, 1991). The simple leaves of these plants are 15–300 cm. They are characteristically long, oblong, alternate, or growing opposite one another on non-woody petioles often longer than the leaf, often forming large clumps with age. Their flowers are produced on long, erect or drooping panicles, and consist of brightly colored waxy bracts, with small true flowers peeping out from the bracts. The growth habit of heliconias is similar to Canna, Strelitzia, and bananas, to which they are related. The flowers can be hues of reds, oranges, yellows, and greens, and are subtended by brightly colored bracts. The plants typically flower during the wet season. These bracts protect the flowers; floral shape often limits pollination to a subset of the hummingbirds in the region (Gilman and Meerow, 2007).

USES AND ECOLOGY

Heliconias are grown for the florist's trade and as landscape plants. These plants do not grow well in cold, dry conditions. They are very drought intolerant, but can endure some soil flooding. Heliconias need an abundance of water, sunlight, and soils that are rich in humus in order to grow well. These flowers are grown in tropical regions all over the world as ornamental plants (Ong, 2007). The flower of H. psittacorum (Parrot Heliconia) is especially distinctive, its greenish-yellow flowers with black spots and red bracts reminding of the bright plumage of parrots.

Several cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden planting, including:

- H. psittacorum × H. spathocircinata, both species of South America, mainly Brazil

- H. × rauliniana = H. marginata (Venezuela) × H. bihai (Brazil)

- H. chartacea cv. 'Sexy Pink'

Most commonly grown landscape Heliconia species include Heliconia augusta, H. bihai, H. brasiliensis, H. caribaea, H. latispatha, H. pendula, H. psittacorum, H. rostrata, H. schiediana, and H. wagneriana.

Heliconias are an important food source for forest hummingbirds, especially the hermits (Phathornithinae), some of which – such as the rufous-breasted hermit (Glaucis hirsuta) – also use the plant for nesting. The Honduran white bat (Ectophylla alba) also lives in tents it makes from heliconia leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS

LEAF

Leaves in different positions on the plant have a different absorption potential of sunlight for photosynthesis when exposed to different degrees of sunlight (He et al. 2006).

FLOWER

Flowers produce ample nectar that attracts pollinators, most prevalent of which are hummingbirds (Bruna et al. 2004)

SEEDS

Fruits are blue-purple when ripe and primarily bird dispersed (Uriarte et al. 2011). Post dispersal seed survival was studied and had many results (Hoii and Lulow 2006). The study showed that seed size was not a determinant of post dispersal seed survival. The highest amount of seed predation came from mammals.

HELICONIA AND BATS

POLLINATION

Although Heliconia are almost exclusively pollinated by hummingbirds, some bat pollination has been found to occur. Heliconia solomonensis is pollinated by the macroglosine bat (Melonycteris woodfordi) in the Solomon Islands. Heliconia solomonensis has green inflorescences and flowers that open at night, which is typical of bat pollinated plants. The macroglosine bat is the only known nocturnal pollinator of Heliconia solomonensis (Kress 1985).

HABITAT

Many bats use Heliconia leaves for shelter. The Honduran white bat, Ectohylla alba, utilizes five species of Heliconia to make diurnal tent shaped roosts. The bat cuts the side veins of the leaf extending from the midrib causing the leaf to fold like a tent. This structure provides the bat with shelter from rain, sun, and predators. In addition, the stems of the Heliconia leaves are not strong enough to carry the weight of typical bat predators, so shaking of the leaf alerts roosting bats to presence of predators (Timm 1976). The bats Artibeus anderseni and A. phaeotis form tents from the leaves of Heliconia in the same manner as the Hondurian white bat (Timm 1987). The Neotropical disk-winged bat, Thyroptera tricolor, has suction disks on the wrists which allow it to cling to the smooth surfaces of the Heliconia leaves. This bat roosts head up in the rolled young leaves of Heliconia plants (Findley 1974).

INSECTS AND HELICONIA

Heliconias provide shelter for a diverse range of insects within their young rolled leaves and water-filled floral bracts. Insects that inhabit the rolled leaves often feed upon the inner surfaces of the leaf, such as beetles of the family Chrysomelidae. In bracts containing small amounts of water, fly larvae and beetles are the dominant inhabitants. In bracts with greater quantities of water the typical inhabitants are mosquito larva. Insects living in the bracts often feed on the bract tissue, nectar of the flower, flower parts, other insects, microorganisms, or detritus in the water contained in the bract (Siefert 1982). Almost all species of Hispinae beetles that use rolled leaves are obligate parasites of plants of the order of Zingiberales, which includes Heliconia. These beetles live in and feed from the rolled leaf, the stems, the inflorescences, or the unfurled mature leaves of the Heliconia plant. In addition, these beetles deposit their eggs on the leaf surface, petioles of immature leaves, or in the bracts of the Heliconia (Strong 1977). Furthermore, some wasp species such as Polistes erythrocephalus build their nest on the protected underside of large leaves.

HUMMINGBIRDS AND HELICONIA

Hummingbirds are the main pollinators of flowers in the genus Heliconia (order Zingiberales: family Heliconiaceae) in many locations. The concurrent diversification of hummingbird pollinated taxa in the order Zingiberales and the hummingbird family (Trochilidae: Phaethorninae) 18 mya supports that these radiations have significantly influenced one another through evolutionary time (Bleiweiss 1998; Kress and Specht 2005). At La Selva research station in Costa Rica it was found that specific species of Heliconia have specific hummingbird pollinators (Stiles 1975). These hummingbirds can be organized into two different groups: hermits and non-hermits. Hermits are a subfamily of Phaethornithinae, consisting of the genera Anopetia, Eutoxeres, Glaucis, Phaethornis, Raphodon, and Threnetes (McGuire et al. 2008). Non-hermits are a paraphyletic group within the Trochilidae, comprising several clades (McGuire 2008). Hermits are generally traplining foragers, where individuals visit a repeated circuit of high-reward flowers instead of holding fixed territories (Stiles 1975; Dobkin 1984). Non-hermits are territorial over their Heliconia clumps, causing greater self-pollination (Stiles 1975). Hermits tend to have long curved bills while non-hermits tend to possess short straight bills, a morphological difference that likely spurred the divergence of these groups in the Miocene era (Graham et al. 2009; Temeles et al. 2010). Characteristics of Heliconia flowers that select for either hermit or non-hermit pollinator specificity are degree of self-compatibility, flowering phenology, nectar production, color, and shape of flower (Kress and Specht 2005; Meléndez-Ackerman et al. 2005; Graham et al. 2009). The hummingbird itself will choose the plants its feeds from based on its beak shape, its perch on the plant, and its territory choice (Linhart 1973).

It was found that hummingbird visits to the Heliconia flower did not affect its production of nectar (Feinsinger 1983). This may account for the flowers not having a consistent amount of nectar produced from flower to flower.

Different Heliconia species have different flowering seasons. This suggests that the species compete for pollinators. It was found that many species of Heliconia, even the newly colonized species, all had many pollinators visit (Feinsinger 1978).

WIKIPEDIA

Nov 13, 2019 -- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Plum Island Animal Disease Center African Swine fever Research conducted by lead scientist Dr. Manuel Borca and Senior Scientist Dr. Douglas Gladue (seen) are patent holders of four promising platforms for live-attenuated African swine fever vaccines. They are working hard to find solutions to contain ASF and prevent its spread if it ever came to the USA, including understanding disease transmission, determinants of virulence and preventive vaccines. The scientists along with their research leader Dr. Luis Rodriguez, work at the Plum Island animal disease center, near Orient Point, NY, a high-security laboratory located off the coast of Long Island in NY operated by the Department of Homeland Security where high-consequence pathogens, not present in the US are studied. Dr. Borca and Dr. Gladue have studied the ASF virus and discovered several viral genes that are necessary for the virus to cause disease. Using advanced genetic engineering to remove these genes from the virus they have created viruses that when inoculated in animals do not cause disease but instead induce protection. Four of these viruses are excellent vaccine candidates that protect 100% of vaccinated animals with a single vaccine shot. Three of these vaccine candidates have been licensed from ARS to vaccine manufacturers for further development, and a fourth platform is currently undergoing licensing. The hope is that at least one of the vaccine candidates will be fully developed and ready to be used as part of a strategy to prevent and controls this devastating disease.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a devastating and deadly animal disease that is currently decimating the world’s population of pigs and threatening food security for billions of people worldwide. As its name indicates African swine fever originated in Africa but has affected other regions of the world over the years, including the Iberic peninsula and several countries in the Caribbean, where after decades of work and millions of animals destroyed, the disease was eradicated. Now the disease has escaped Africa again starting in 2007 with an outbreak in the Republic of Georgia that extended to the Caucasus region, parts of Europe, Russia and more recently to China and several countries in South East Asia. There is no vaccine available for ASF and disease outbreaks are currently controlled by on farm biosecurity measures, animal quarantine, and slaughter.

The USDA Plum Island Animal Disease Center, work to protect against foreign agricultural diseases that could impact the nation's farm economy and export markets... and your food supply. In Addition to ASFV, Plum Island studies foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). Plum Island is located off the northeastern tip of New York's Long Island. USDA activities at Plum Island are carried out by scientists and veterinarians with the department's Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). We're equally proud of our safety record. Not once in our nearly 50 years of operation has an animal pathogen escaped from the island. In 2003 the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) joined us on the island, taking responsibility for the safety and security of the facility. Staff commute to work on one of two contract ferries from NY and CT.

For more information please see:

ars.usda.gov/research/programs-projects/project/?accnNo=431897

usda.gov

USDA Photo by Lance Cheung.

The largest medieval market square in Europe

Main Market Square (Rynek Główny)

The lain in the middle of the Old Town Main Market is the heart of Krakow. It belongs without a doubt to the most beautiful places in the world. With its width and length of each 200 meters, it is considered the largest medieval market square (pl. Rynek) in Europe. It is the starting point for the international crowd of tourists and meeting point of Krakow people. Many major attractions of the city are located on or near the pedestrianized main market.

Medieval Market of 1257

King Bolesław Wstydliwy in 1257 the marketplace had staked under Magdeburg law. The adjoining St. Mary's Church and the located on the square St. Adalbert Church had yet been constructed previously, which is why they evade the accurate development of the main market. The name "Rynek", from the German for "ring", was first used in 1300. It changed several times, until the place in 1882 during the unification of road and place names became "Rynek Główny".

Originally the place was owned by the Polish rulers. King Casimir the Great renounced in 1358 on a large part of his rights on objects in the marketplace and he so allowed the public use. The squared space results from the checkerboard arrangement of streets in Krakow's Old Town. From each side of the square run three streets parallel to each other. The only exception is the ulica Grodzka, which opens in the western corner of the main market. The first bricked building on and around the square arose in the second half of the 13th century.

During the Renaissance and Baroque periods on the marketplace were held many ceremonies of the Polish monarchs, but also beyond this, the main market always has been the scene of many important events and festivals. Thus the Krakow citizens worshiped in 1320 the newly crowned King Ladislaus the Elbow-high. At that time, Krakow became the capital of Poland. From this time on, every king on his coronation day on horseback paraded to the main market. Centuries later, the Kraków Uprising of February 18, 1846 took place here. On the main market square of Krakow also many death sentences were carried out.

For centuries, home to the dealer

The dense development of the main market, to which in addition to several fountains, the main guard, a granary, many chaotically arranged wooden grocery stores and two municipal scales also the old Cracow City Hall belonged, today's so generous space at the beginning of the 19th century still reducing, from 1820 on was removed.

Until the mid-20th century, on market days on certain sections of the market still a brisk trade was carried on. So stretched the poultry market from the street ulica Floriańska to ulica świętego Jana. With flour and oil was traded between square plac Szczepański and ulica Szewska. At the confluence of ulica Sławkowska there was the salt market. Lead has been sold at the confluence of ulica Bracka and coal was handled at the beginning of ulica Wiślna. In addition, there was a market for bread, one for fish and crabs as well as stands for bakers, shoemakers, rope makers, carpenters and potters.

During the German occupation of Poland, the main market was renamed in Adolf Hitler market. After liberation of Cracow on 18 January 1945, the place, as all the other renamed squares and streets, got its name back.

Adorned of famous buildings

Divided is the main market for centuries by the perfectly shaped Cloth Halls, standing in the middle of the square. On the eastern side the main market flows seamlessly into the square Marienplatz (Plac Mariacki), on which with St. Mary's church the best-known house of God of Krakow is located. Right beside, a little hidden by the buildings around the town square, stands the church of St. Barbara. Immediately bordered by a Jesuit monastery.

On the east side of the square in front of the historic Cloth Halls stands the Adam Mickiewicz monument. At its site earlier Jewish traders have hawked their wares. In the southeastern corner there is the St. Adalbert's church, the oldest church of Krakow. In the southwest of the main market stands with the town hall tower a last remnant of the old Cracow City Hall. Immediately at the foot of the town hall tower tourists readily let photograph themselves with an oversized, lying head. This is the bronze statue "Eros bendato" by Polish sculptor Igor Mitoraj.

The more than 40 noble palaces and town houses around the main market combine impressive architecture dating back several centuries and they house many things they are well worth of seeing. It is hard to believe that the renovated houses and palaces are between 500 and 600 years old. Many facades are very narrow, some have only two windows. This is due to the fact that in the olden days the number of windows looking onto the square was determinant for the amount of taxes the homeowners had to pay.

"Salon of the city"

With the main market many legends are connected. One tells that Prince Probus borrowed gold from a witch and later this did not return as agreed. In revenge, she enchanted all his knights in pigeons that populate the main market today. The pigeons together with the cheerful flower women, the horse-drawn carriages waiting for tourists and the various street performers characterize the dear atmosphere of the square.

On the main market quite the whole town of Krakow is gathering, especially when one of the many festivals are being celebrated. For many Krakauer a day without at least a short visit at the "Salon of the city", as they call the main market, also is a lost day. There is nothing better than sitting in summer before one of the many cafes and restaurants and taking in the Mediterranean flair of the main market. But not only on the square life is humming. The surface of the entire old town hides numerous cellars, where bars, cafes, clubs, pubs and restaurants can be found.

Latest attraction is the Museum Podziemia Rynku (in German language, Unterirdischer Marktplatz/Underground Marketplace), since mid-2010 inviting in the medieval underground of the main market. Glazed paths lead visitors to graves of a former cemetery and foundations of old houses. Archaeologists have made ​​this sensational discovery when they took the renovation of the place in recent years as a reason to make archaeological explorations.

Größter mittelalterlicher Marktplatz Europas

Hauptmarkt (Rynek Główny)

Der inmitten der Altstadt gelegene Hauptmarkt ist das Herz Krakaus. Er gehört zweifelsfrei zu den schönsten Plätzen der Welt. Mit seiner Breite und Länge von jeweils 200 Metern gilt er als größter mittelalterlicher Marktplatz (pl. rynek) in Europa. Er ist Ausgangspunkt für das internationale Touristenpublikum und Treffpunkt der Krakauer. Viele bedeutende Sehenswürdigkeiten der Stadt befinden sich auf oder um den verkehrsberuhigten Hauptmarkt.

Mittelalterlicher Marktplatz von 1257

König Bolesław Wstydliwy ließ den Marktplatz 1257 nach Magdeburgischem Recht abstecken. Die angrenzende Marienkirche und die auf dem Platz gelegene St. Adalbertkirche wurden schon vorher errichtet, weshalb sie sich der akkuraten Bebauung des Hauptmarktes entziehen. Der Name "Rynek", aus dem Deutschen für "Ring", wurde erstmals um 1300 gebraucht. Er wechselte mehrfach, bis der Platz 1882 im Zuge der Vereinheitlichung der Straßen- und Platzbezeichnungen zum "Rynek Główny" wurde.

Ursprünglich war der Platz im Besitz der polnischen Herrscher. König Kasimir der Große verzichtete 1358 auf einen Großteil seiner Rechte auf Objekte am Marktplatz und ermöglichte so die öffentliche Nutzung. Der quadratische Platz resultiert aus der schachbrettartigen Anordnung der Straßen in der Krakauer Altstadt. Von jeder Seite des Platzes verlaufen parallel drei Straßen zueinander. Einzige Ausnahme bildet die ulica Grodzka, die in die westliche Ecke des Hauptmarktes mündet. Die ersten gemauerten Gebäude auf und um den Platz entstanden in der zweiten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts.

Während der Renaissance und des Barocks fanden auf dem Marktplatz viele Zeremonien der polnischen Monarchen statt. Auch darüber hinaus war der Hauptmarkt schon immer Schauplatz vieler wichtiger Ereignisse und Feste. So huldigten die Krakauer Bürger 1320 dem frisch gekrönten König Ladislaus Ellenlang. Damals wurde Krakau zur Hauptstadt Polens. Fortan zog jeder König am Tag seiner Krönung zu Pferde auf den Hauptmarkt. Jahrhunderte später fand hier der Krakauer Aufstand vom 18. Februar 1846 statt. Auf dem zentralen Marktplatz Krakaus wurden auch viele Todesurteile vollstreckt.

Jahrhundertelang Heimat der Händler

Die dichte Bebauung des Hauptmarktes, zu der neben mehreren Brunnen, der Hauptwache, einem Kornspeicher, vielen chaotisch angeordneten Krämerläden aus Holz und zwei städtischen Waagen auch das alte Krakauer Rathaus gehörte, das den heute so großzügigen Platz noch zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts verkleinerte, wurde ab 1820 entfernt.

Bis zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts wurde an Markttagen noch reger Handel auf gewissen Abschnitten des Marktes betrieben. So erstreckte sich von der ulica Floriańska bis zur ulica świętego Jana der Geflügelmarkt. Mit Mehl und Öl wurde zwischen plac Szczepański und ulica Szewska gehandelt. An der Einmündung der ulica Sławkowska befand sich der Salzmarkt. Blei wurde an der Einmündung der ulica Bracka verkauft und Kohle wurde zu Beginn der ulica Wiślna umgeschlagen. Außerdem gab es einen Markt für Brot, einen für Fisch und Krebse sowie Stände für Bäcker, Schuhmacher, Seilmacher, Tischler und Töpfer.

Während der deutschen Besatzung Polens wurde der Hauptmarkt in Adolf-Hitler-Markt umbenannt. Nach der Befreiung von Krakau am 18. Januar 1945 erhielt der Platz, wie allen anderen umbenannten Plätze und Straßen, seinen Namen zurück.

Geziert von bekannten Bauwerken

Geteilt wird der Hauptmarkt seit Jahrhunderten von den formvollendeten Tuchhallen, die in der Mitte des Platzes stehen. Auf der Ostseite geht der Hauptmarkt nahtlos in den Marienplatz über, auf dem sich mit der Marienkirche Krakaus bekanntestes Gotteshaus befindet. Gleich daneben, durch die Bebauung um den Marktplatz etwas versteckt, steht die St. Barbarakirche. Unmittelbar an sie grenzt ein Jesuitenkloster.

Auf der Ostseite des Platzes steht vor den historischen Tuchhallen das Adam-Mickiewicz-Denkmal. An seinem Standort haben früher die jüdischen Händler ihre Waren feilgeboten. In der südöstlichen Ecke befindet sich die St. Adalbertkirche, die älteste Kirche von Krakau. Im Südwesten des Hauptmarktes steht mit dem Rathausturm ein letzter Überrest des alten Krakauer Rathauses. Unmittelbar zu Fuße des Rathausturms lassen sich Touristen gerne mit einem überdimensionierten, liegenden Kopf fotografieren. Es handelt sich um die Bronzestatue "Eros Bendato" vom polnischen Bildhauer Igor Mitoraj.

Die mehr als 40 Adelspalästen und Bürgerhäuser rund um den Hauptmarkt vereinen eindrucksvolle Architektur aus mehreren Jahrhunderten und beherbergen viel Sehenswertes. Es ist kaum zu glauben, dass die renovierten Häuser und Palais zwischen 500 und 600 Jahre alt sind. Viele Fassaden sind sehr schmal, einige haben nur zwei Fenster. Das liegt daran, dass früher die Anzahl der zum Platz hinausgehenden Fenster die Höhe der Steuern bestimmte, die die Hausbesitzer zahlen mussten.

"Salon der Stadt"

Mit dem Hauptmarkt sind viele Legenden verbunden. Eine erzählt, dass sich Prinz Probus Gold von einer Hexe lieh und dieses später nicht wie vereinbart zurückgab. Aus Rache verzauberte sie alle seine Ritter in Tauben, die heute den Hauptmarkt bevölkern. Die Tauben prägen gemeinsam mit den fröhlichen Blumenfrauen, den auf Touristen wartenden Pferdekutschen und den verschiedenen Straßenkünstlern die geliebte Atmosphäre des Platzes.

Auf dem Hauptmarkt trift sich ganz Krakau, besonders, wenn eins der vielen Feste gefeiert wird. Für viele Krakauer ist ein Tag ohne wenigstens einen kurzen Besuch auf dem "Salon der Stadt", wie sie den Hauptmarkt auch nennen, ein verlorener Tag. Es gibt nichts schöneres, als im Sommer vor einem der vielen Cafés und Restaurants zu sitzen und das südländische Flair des Hauptmarktes auf sich wirken zu lassen. Doch nicht nur auf dem Platz tobt das Leben. Der Untergrund der gesamten Altstadt verbirgt zahlreiche Kellergewölbe, in denen Bars, Cafés, Clubs, Kneipen und Restaurants zu Hause sind.

Neuste Attraktion ist das Museum Podziemia Rynku (dt. Unterirdischer Marktplatz), das seit Mitte 2010 in den mittelalterlichen Untergrund des Hauptmarktes einlädt. Verglaste Wege führen die Besucher zu Gräbern eines ehemaligen Friedhofs und zu Fundamenten alter Handelshäuser. Archäologen haben diesen sensationellen Fund gemacht, als sie die Erneuerung des Platzes in den vergangenen Jahren zum Anlass archäologischer Erkundungen nahmen.

www.metropolen.de/krakau/sehenswuerdigkeiten/plaetze-stra...

Lorenzo Lotto, 1480-1556,

actif à Venise, Bergame et dans les Marches

Vierge et l'Enfant avec sainte Catherine et Jacques le Majeur, environ de 1527 à 1533

Le motif, si populaire à Venice, d'une réunion de saints autour de la Madone par la génération des étudiants de Bellini avait expérimenté une conversion: L'ordre strictement hiérarchique des saints est assoupli de plus en plus. Lotto a joué un rôle déterminant dans cette évolution; il a le premier la Madone, anciennement toujours trônant entièrement intégrée dans l'environnement et laissa ce rassemblement, étroitement lié entre figure et la nature par la lumière changeante et les ombres faire apparaître mysterieusement animé.

Lorenzo Lotto, 1480-1556,

tätig in Venedig, Bergamo und in den Marken

Maria mit Kind und Heiliger Katharina und Jakobus dem Älteren, um 1527/33

Das in Venedig so beliebte Motiv einer Versammlung von Heiligen um die Madonna erfuhr durch die Generation der Bellini-Schüler eine Wandlung: Die streng hierarchische Ordnung der Heiligen wird mehr und mehr gelockert. Lotto hatte an dieser Entwicklung maßgeblichen Anteil; er band als erster die früher stets thronende Madonna gänzlich in die Umgebung ein und ließ dieses eng verschränkte Miteinander von Figur und Natur durch wechselhaftes Licht und Schatten geheimnivoll belebt erscheinen.

Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum

Federal Museum

Logo KHM

Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture

Founded 17 October 1891

Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria

Management Sabine Haag

www.khm.at website

Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square

The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.

The museum

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.

History

Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery

The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building .

Architectural History

The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währingerstraße/ Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the grain market (Getreidemarkt).

From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience with of Joseph Semper at the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.

Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.

Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper moved to Vienna in the sequence. From the beginning, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, built in 1878, the first windows installed in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade from 1880 to 1881 and built the dome and the Tabernacle. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.

The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made ​​the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times .

Kuppelhalle

Entrance (by clicking the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)

Grand staircase

Hall

Empire

The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891 , the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol will need another two years.

189, the farm museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:

Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection

The Egyptian Collection

The Antique Collection

The coins and medals collection

Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects

Weapons collection

Collection of industrial art objects

Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)

Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.

Restoration Office

Library

Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.

1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his " Estonian Forensic Collection " passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d' Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.

The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The farm museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.

Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.

First Republic

The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.

It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.

On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House" , by the Republic. Of 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.

Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.

With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Collection of ancient coins

Collection of modern coins and medals

Weapons collection

Collection of sculptures and crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Picture Gallery

The Museum 1938-1945

Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.

With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the empire.

After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to perform certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.

The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. This was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.

The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.

The museum today

Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.

In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.

Management

1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials

1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director

1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director

1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director

1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief in 1941 as first director

1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation

1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation

1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director

1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation

1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director

1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director

1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director

1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director

1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director

1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director

1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director

1990: George Kugler as interim first director

1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director

Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director

Collections

To the Kunsthistorisches Museum are also belonging the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.

Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)

Picture Gallery

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Vienna Chamber of Art

Numismatic Collection

Library

New Castle

Ephesus Museum

Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Arms and Armour

Archive

Hofburg

The imperial crown in the Treasury

Imperial Treasury of Vienna

Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage

Insignia of imperial Austria

Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire

Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece

Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure

Ecclesiastical Treasury

Schönbrunn Palace

Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna

Armory in Ambras Castle

Ambras Castle

Collections of Ambras Castle

Major exhibits

Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:

Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438

Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80

Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16

Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526

Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24

Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07

Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)

Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75

Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68

Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06

Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508

Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32

The Little Fur, about 1638

Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66

Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559

Kids, 1560

Tower of Babel, 1563

Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564

Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565

Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565

Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565

Bauer and bird thief, 1568

Peasant Wedding, 1568/69

Peasant Dance, 1568/69

Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567

Cabinet of Curiosities:

Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543

Egyptian-Oriental Collection:

Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut

Collection of Classical Antiquities:

Gemma Augustea

Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós

Gallery: Major exhibits

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum

Bolea, Huesca (Spain).

View Large On White

ENGLISH

Bolea belongs to "the Sotonera" region, being its capital, about 700 inhabitants, an altitude of 627 mts. of height and 20 km. to Huesca; they are known as "boleanos" (from Bolea).

This villa is located to the Northwest of the city of Huesca, dominating the sides of the tip of Gratal and Caballera mountain range, to 656 ms. of altitude, on a promontory; from there the plains of the Hole of Huesca and the Sotonera watered by the Sotón river can be contemplated. Its economy is based on the culture of cereals, almonds tree, cherry trees and olive trees.

There is unamimity in the origin of Bolea, whose word is accepted that comes from Indo-European "bols" and the place was simply born like a castle; soon the Roman influence would come, but more determinant would be the Arab one until Sancho Ramírez (1081). It was here, where Alfonso I the Fighting, the 11 of January of 1125, prepared his famous expedition to Andalusia. The Muslim castle of the Pueyo, after Reconquest, became church and it still announces its origin from the summit, with the battered tower-bell to the winds.

Still it was Muslim when king of Aragón, Sancho Ramírez, in 1093, he names to the villa, priorato of the Abbey of Montearagón, privilege that would show until 1571. In 1577, when happening to depend on the Bishopric of Huesca, the temple becomes Colegiata, with a chapter formed by a Vicar and nine canons, who received the tithes of all the ample region that from its strategic position, dominated. In 1548, it's included Bolea between the cities and more important villas of the kingdom of Aragón. In 1890 it got to count on almost 2.500 inhabitants. As a result of the ecclesiastical confiscation (half-full of century XIX), the Colegiata is going to lose all its privileges and it will be converted in a parochial church, which it is at the present time. The building was declared Historical-Artistic Monument at 23 of February of 1983.

More info: articulos.altoaragon.org/i_osca80.htm

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CASTELLANO

Bolea pertenece a "La Sotonera", ostentando la capitalidad, con poco más de 700 habitantes, una altitud de 627 mts. de altura, dista 20 Km. a Huesca; su gentilicio es boleano.

Esta villa está situada al NorOeste de la ciudad de Huesca, dominando las faldas del pico de Gratal y sierra Caballera, a 656 ms. de altitud, sobre un promontorio; desde allí se pueden contemplar las llanuras de la Hoya de Huesca y la Sotonera regada por el río Sotón. Su economía está basada en el cultivo de cereales, almendros, cerezos y olivos.

Hay unanimidad en el origen de Bolea, cuyo vocablo se acepta que procede del indoeuropeo "bols" y el lugar nació como castillo simplemente; luego vendría la influencia romana, pero más determinante sería la árabe hasta Sancho Ramírez (1081). Fué aquí, donde Alfonso I "El Batallador", el 11 de Enero de 1125, preparó su famosa expedición a Andalucía. El castillo musulmán del Pueyo, tras la reconquista, se convirtió en iglesia y todavía pregona su origen desde la cumbre, con la maltrecha torre campanario a los vientos.

Bolea aún era musulmana cuando el rey de Aragón Sancho Ramírez, en el año 1093, nombra a la villa, priorato de la Abadía de Montearagón, privilegio que ostentaría hasta 1571. En el año 1577, al pasar a depender del Obispado de Huesca, el templo se convierte en Colegiata, con un capítulo formado por un Vicario y nueve canónigos-racioneros, que recibían los diezmos de toda la amplia comarca que desde su estratégica posición, dominaba. En 1548, se incluye a Bolea entre las ciudades y villas más importantes del reino de Aragón. En 1890 llegó a contar con casi 2.500 habitantes. A raiz de la desamortización eclesiástica (mediados del siglo XIX), la Colegiata va a perder todos sus privilegios y se convertirá en iglesia parroquial, lo que es en la actualidad. El edificio fué declarado Monumento Histórico-Artístico el 23 de Febrero de 1983.

Más info: articulos.altoaragon.org/osca80.htm

Botero

Celebrate Life!

Kunsthal

Rotterdam, 2016

Met trots brengt de Kunsthal Rotterdam deze zomer een groot retrospectief van de wereldberoemde Colombiaanse kunstenaar Fernando Botero (1932). Geselecteerd uit Botero’s eigen collectie laat de tentoonstelling een overzicht zien van de door hemzelf meest geliefde schilderijen uit zijn omvangrijke oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ brengt bijna honderd schilderijen, tekeningen en pastels en een enkel beeldhouwwerk bij elkaar, met als blikvanger een enorme ‘Caballo’, Botero’s bekende beeldhouwwerk van een paard.

Te zien zijn schilderijen van het op zijn jeugdherinneringen geïnspireerde leven in Latijns-Amerika en reproducties van klassieke meesters in de herkenbare Botero stijl. Ook stierenvechten en het circus zijn thema’s die in de werken aan bod komen. De kunst van Botero staat letterlijk bol van het Latijns Amerikaanse leven. De reusachtige, opgeblazen lichamen en voorwerpen lijken ondanks hun omvang gewichtloos en daardoor soms zelfs te zweven. Dit volume is een vast onderdeel van Botero’s werk en geeft zijn kunst iets overdadigs, met nu eens een komisch en dan weer een ontroerend effect. Bijzonder is de serie van vrouwelijke Santa’s, geïnspireerd op de iconische beelden van vrouwelijke heiligen. Botero verbeeldt hen als wereldse heldinnen, met betekenisvolle accessoires zoals een bijbel of kaars, waarbij hun aureool in verrassend contrast staat met de kledij en lichaamshouding.

Latijns Amerikaanse leven

‘Botero: Celebrate Life! laat zien hoe Fernando Botero een magische wereld schept vol personages en scenes uit het dagelijks leven, waar politiek en religie nadrukkelijk onderdeel van uitmaken. Hoewel zijn werk in eerste instantie licht en luchtig oogt, is ook de gewelddadige geschiedenis van zijn vaderland Colombia voelbaar. Zijn afkomst en achtergrond hebben Botero op een diepgaande manier beïnvloed, wat direct tot uiting komt in zijn werken van de president, executies en huilende weduwen en indirect in zijn schilderijen van feestende mensen, die met uitdrukkingsloze gezichten dansen onder het licht van kale peertjes.

Hommage aan oude meesters

Fernando Botero is een veelzijdig kunstenaar, die zowel put uit de Latijns-Amerikaanse traditie als uit de Europese kunstgeschiedenis. Zo brengt hij een hommage aan beroemde werken van oude meesters zoals Diego Velázquez, van Eyck en Piero della Francesca. De werken zijn een eerbetoon aan de kunstenaars die hij jarenlang bestudeerde en een ode aan de technieken, het vakmanschap en de esthetiek van de oude meesters. Religie is voor Botero een geliefd onderwerp. Op satirische wijze geeft hij commentaar in schilderijen van nonnen, kardinalen en pausen. Andere thema's in zijn werk proberen de magie van het dagelijks leven in Latijns Amerika te vangen. Zo tonen zijn werken van stierengevechten niet alleen de matador, maar ook zangers, musici, dansers en verschillende leden van de familie van de stierenvechter. Zijn stillevens tonen de vruchten en drankjes van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent, met hun briljante kleuren en populaire delicatessen. En in zijn schilderijen met het thema circus herkennen we de komische en absurde houdingen, waarbij naast het altijd terugkerende volume ook het kleurgebruik heel bepalend is.

This summer Kunsthal Rotterdam is proud to present a large-scale retrospective of the world-famous Colombian artist Fernando Botero (1932). This selection from Botero’s own collection provides a panorama of the artist’s personal favorites from his considerable oeuvre. ‘Botero: Celebrate Life!’ will exhibit almost a hundred paintings, sketches and pastels as well as a few sculptures, including the enormous eye-catcher ‘Caballo’, Botero’s famous sculpture of a horse.

Visitors will be able to see paintings of life in Latin America based on reminiscences from his youth, and reproductions of classical masters in the recognizable Botero style. The bull-fight and the circus are also featured in these works. Botero’s art is full of Latin American life. The gigantic, inflated bodies and objects appear weightless in spite of their volume, which sometimes even seems to make them look as if they are floating. This volume is a recurrent feature in Botero’s work and gives his art an exuberance that can be comical or moving. The series of female Santas, inspired by the iconic images of female saints, is remarkable. Botero represents them as worldly heroines with meaningful accessories such as a bible or candle, putting their halo in sharp contrast with their clothing and posture.

Latin American life

'Botero: Celebrate Life!' shows how Fernando Botero creates a magical world full of characters and scenes from daily life, of which politics and religion form an important part. Although his work appears at first sight to be airy and light-hearted, the violent history of his native country Colombia can be felt. His origin and background have influenced Botero profoundly, which finds expression directly in his works of the president, executions and weeping widows, and indirectly in his paintings of people partying, dancing with expressionless faces under the light of naked light bulbs.

Homage to the Old Masters

Fernando Botero is a multi-faceted artist who draws on both the Latin American tradition and the history of European art. He pays homage to famous works by such Old Masters as Diego Velázquez, Jan van Eyck and Piero della Francesca. The works are a tribute to the artists whom he studied for years and an ode to the techniques, craftsmanship and aesthetics of the Old Masters. Religion is one of Botero’s favorite themes. He comments on it satirically in paintings of nuns, cardinals and popes. Other themes in his work try to capture the magic of everyday life in Latin America. For example, his images of bull-fights include not only the matador, but also the singers, musicians, dancers and various members of the bull-fighter’s family. His still-lifes show the fruits and beverages of the South American continent with their brilliant colors and popular delicacies. And in his paintings of the circus we can recognize the comical and absurd postures in which not only the constantly recurring volume but also the use of color are highly determinant elements.