Black Pool, one of the largest and most consistently beautiful features in West Thumb Geyser Basin, is 35-40 feet deep. The gorgeous blue water was once so dark it looked black, but changes in the inflow of hot water from underground changed the "microbiome" resulting in wonderful clarity - if you can see past the continuous up-welling of steam.

 

As is the case around many of Yellowstone geothermal features, the runoff, which is much cooler than water in the pool itself, supports the prolific growth of cyanobacteria resulting in the almost glowing orange color.

Ford Madox Brown

This pursuit of ‘truth to nature’ was consistent with Pre-Raphaelite ideals, as was his careful workmanship. The picture’s subject, Geoffrey Chaucer, reflects the growing popularity with artists of English literature instead of more conventional classical myths and biblical tales. This oil, is a small version worked on in the 1850's , a larger more amitios piece is at Tate Britain.

  

Founded in 1683, The Ashmolean re-opened on Saturday 7th November 2009. Their new display approach is "crossing culture crossing time." It was my first glimpse today, the much loved older museum is still here, but now enormously extended and plenty more to enjoy.

Supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the Ashmolean is currently undergoing a £61 million redevelopment. Award-winning architect Rick Mather has designed a new building to replace all but the Grade I listed Cockerell building. His design will double the existing gallery space, allow environmental control, and create a dedicated Education Centre and conservation facilities.

 

I've tried to show something of the atmosphere and texture of the museum in many of the photos, I also wanted to convey the sense of movement and people's interaction with the art objects, therefore razor sharp clarity (were I to achieve that) was not my number one objective. This set will grow as I explore the new galleries, I hope you'll forgive me if I do not tag or describe everything right away as there is so much to take in!

The New Ashmolean

Martin Beek Oxford, November 2009

I have not been able to keep up with Flickr consistently this year (perhaps residual burnout from my 365 project last year), so I have a big backlog of photos to process and post from the past few months, not to mention the archived shots from last year I never got to. Here are some from about a month ago

 

Last fall, my wife had the brilliant idea to plant some firs on my family's land in central New Hampshire to raise for Christmas trees. After doing some research (reading "Christmas Trees for Pleasure and Profit" - yes, real book), we ordered 20 fir seedlings from the New Hampshire State Forest Nursey. About a month ago, we picked them up and planted them. Hopefully, in 6-8 years, some of them will have survived and prospered and we can cut them for Christmas. Two more in comments.

  

Taken Apr 27, 2013 in Alexandria, New Hampshire, United States

¹⁄₂₅₀ sec at f/4.0, ISO200.

Lens: EF50mm f/1.4 USM @ 50 mm

via Instagram ift.tt/1NaiWB4

8 Oral Sex Techniques That Every Guy Should Abide By!

  

There is no more surefire way to make a woman come than going down on her like a pro. Use these 8 oral sex techniques to get her there without fail!

 

According to most studies, only between 30 and 50 percent of women can achieve orgasm through penetration alone. Even of those who can, the ones who come consistently through sex might number a small percentage.

 

Chances are, the woman you’re with now, or will be with in the future, will need a little something more. Read on to find out how to give it to her.

 

Oral sex is more than just lip service

 

Some men won’t even give it at all, but even of those who do, it is often a quick formality before sex. This is the wrong way to approach going down on her. Get in there, get comfortable, and enjoy it.

 

You should take pleasure in feeling her body tense up, in hearing her moan, and even in her taste and smell. And why not? She’s getting hot, and it’s because of what you’re doing to her. That’s very sexy.

 

A woman’s vagina is extremely delicate. Countless nerve endings are packed into one area. Touch it the right way and you’ll give pleasure, touch it the wrong way and you’ll cause pain. Giving great oral sex is not easy, but if you follow these tips and techniques, you’ll find a very happy woman next to you in bed.

 

#1 Hygiene – His and hers. It’s no secret that there’s sometimes a smell down there. By design, the body has scent glands in the genitals just like in the armpits. Your balls have the same thing. But society has a lot more jokes about smelly pussy than about sweaty balls, so don’t be surprised if she feels somewhat self-conscious when you go down on her.

 

It’s fair for you to expect her to be clean, just as you should be if you want a blowjob. Take a shower together before sex to ensure you’re both spotlessly clean and smelling like roses. If it’s an ongoing problem in your relationship, it’s okay to nicely tell her she needs to focus more attention there. There should be no smell after washing.

 

For your part, keep a clean shave or soft, conditioned facial hair. A stubble can be extremely irritating to her soft skin.

 

#2 Be patient. Great oral sex starts well before your face find its way between her legs. Good foreplay, done right is key to getting her warmed up and ready. A guy is like a light switch, you’re either up *turned on* or down *turned off*. Women are more like a rocket launch, a complex set of systems activated in the right order, and eventually turned on.

 

Diving straight in, especially with dry fingers can be quite painful to a woman. Foreplay will bring some natural lubrication to her vagina, and establish a trusting mood. Work your way slowly down her body paying close attention to her breasts. Even once you’re there, kiss her inner thighs and slowly get closer to her lips. This teasing builds her anticipation and gets her ready for what’s next.

 

#3 Lips on lips on lips. This is the point where most guys *those who can find it, anyway* go straight for the clitoris, but it’s not time yet. After kissing her inner thighs, give soft kisses on her outer lips. Reach one arm under her leg and around over her stomach. Let it rest on her pubic hair.

 

Part her outer lips with your tongue to expose the inner lips, and kiss them softly. By now they should be wet, or at least, moist. Slide your tongue over them up one side and down the other a few times, and suck very gently on the sides of the lips.

 

#4 Still not time for the clitoris. Yes, there’s still work to be done before you get there. If you think of the lips as forming a long, vertical ellipse, the inside of this is what you should focus on next. As a reference, just above this ellipse, tucked into its hood is the clitoris. Just below it is the perineum, or what people often call the “taint” – that in-between-area that ain’t pussy and ain’t ass.

 

Push your tongue gently against the bottom of the ellipse, just above the perineum. Keeping light pressure against her, slowly run your tongue up to the top, making sure to stop before you reach the clitoris. Do the same from top to bottom, letting your tongue linger at the points, pushing against them with minimal pressure. Repeat, mixing in a few kisses, and a few more sucks on the sides of her lips.

 

In the bottom third of the ellipse is the vaginal entrance. Push the tip of your tongue slightly inside. The walls of the vaginal opening are extremely sensitive, always approach them slowly and gently. The tip of your tongue, being soft and wet, should give her a feeling of pleasure.

 

Listen for her cues, whether they’re moans, vocal, or her breathing. Sighing is good, short gasps or sudden muscle tightening are signs you’re doing something wrong. Mix the last few steps around for at least a minute or two.

 

#5 Under the hood. Give a few more slow licks from above the perineum to just under the clitoris. Finally, give another lick, but don’t stop at the top – keep it going up and it will lightly graze her clitoris. Do this six times, then again but on the seventh, pull your tongue back before it reaches the clitoris.

 

The clitoris is all about rhythm, but at the start, giving a steady rhythm like this, then breaking it is a great tease. You will feel her body push towards you trying to get the touch it was just becoming accustomed to. Repeat this for about a minute – six full licks followed by one lick that pulls away at the last second.

 

Clitorises can vary greatly between women. Some are quite big, others tiny. But they’ll always be in the same place so it’s just a matter of knowing where to look. As it becomes more stimulated, it will swell and become more prominent. With the hand you wrapped around her leg and placed on her stomach, pull back slightly on the skin just above the hood and the clitoris will become more exposed.

 

#7 Ride the rhythm. Some women like hard pressure applied with the tongue to the clitoris, while some need a lighter touch. With more experience with the same woman, you will understand her needs better, but if you’re not sure, listen to her cues.

 

Try different motions to see which ones she likes best. Up and down, and circles around the clitoris work best. Some women also like a side-to-side motion. It’s okay to switch things up, just be sure to keep the rhythm.

 

Your tongue and jaw will get tired, at least until you are giving oral sex on a regular basis. When you need a rest, take her clitoris between your lips and give it a mini-blowjob. This will drive her wild.

 

Don’t make her feel hurried. Tell her you love doing it. Communicate and ask her what she likes and doesn’t. Keep the rhythm, keep working her clitoris and she should be getting close to climax.

 

#8 Magic fingers. The above steps alone are often enough, but adding in fingers can help her, and enhance the orgasm. The clitoris is a bit like a small tree, with an immense underground root system. What you see is just a small part of it, the rest runs under the skin in a wishbone shape, down along both sides of the vagina, nearly to her anus.

 

It may be hidden, but that doesn’t mean you can’t stimulate it if you know what you’re doing. While still tonguing her clitoris, push one finger slowly into her vagina. Leave it until she seems comfortable. Add a second finger, but note that for some women this might be uncomfortable.

 

Your fingerprints should be facing up, and your fingers should be in as far as the second knuckle. Bend your fingers up until they touch the roof of her vagina. You should feel a soft, spongy area there – this is the G-spot. Start slowly, giving a repetitive “come here” motion with your fingers where you continually caress this area. Keep doing this while your tongue keeps its rhythm on her clitoris and you’ll drive her wild. And this should get her to climax.

  

theyouthexpress.com/8-oral-sex-techniques-that-every-guy-...

Singapore Zoo ranks consistently (after San Diego Zoo) as one of the best in the world.

 

Being primarily nocturnal creatures, sun bears (Helarctos Malayanus) look sweet and somnolent – but locals say they are the most dangerous animals in their forests, and that even tigers keep their distance. Looking at their sharp, sickle-shaped claws – which are more than ten centimetres (four inches) long – it is easy to see why.

 

For the story, please visit: www.ursulasweeklywanders.com/travel/teeth-claws-and-colou...

Singapore Zoo ranks consistently (after San Diego Zoo) as one of the best in the world.

 

The white Bengal tigers – this one originally from a zoo in Indonesia – are a popular attraction at the Singapore Zoo.

 

For the story, please visit: www.ursulasweeklywanders.com/travel/teeth-claws-and-colou...

Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential people in British history, consistently ranking well in opinion polls of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom

 

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, DL, FRS, RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer (as Winston S. Churchill), and an artist. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.

 

Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the Spencer family. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.

 

At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of Asquith's Liberal government. During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air. In 1921–1922 Churchill served as Secretary of State for the Colonies, then Chancellor of the Exchequer in Baldwin's Conservative government of 1924–1929, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy. Also controversial were his opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII.

 

Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. At the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender, or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the war when the British Commonwealth and Empire stood alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler. Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured.

 

After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition to the Labour Government. After winning the 1951 election, he again became Prime Minister, before retiring in 1955. Upon his death, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history.

In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith.[3] The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), divine simplicity, and as having an eternal and necessary existence. Many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent (perfectly good), and all loving.

 

God is most often held to be non-corporeal,[3] and to be without any human biological sex,[4][5] yet the concept of God actively creating the universe (as opposed to passively)[6] has caused many religions to describe God using masculine terminology, using such terms as "Him" or "Father". Furthermore, some religions (such as Judaism) attribute only a purely grammatical "gender" to God.[7]

 

In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, but not the sustainer, of the universe. In pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism. God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[3] Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.[8]

 

There are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about God's identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten,[9] premised on being the one "true" Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe.[10] In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, "He Who Is", "I Am that I Am", and the tetragrammaton YHWH (Hebrew: יהוה‎‎, which means: "I am who I am"; "He Who Exists") are used as names of God, while Yahweh and Jehovah are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, the latter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from the Egyptian Aten.[11][12][13][14][15] In Islam, the name Allah, "Al-El", or "Al-Elah" ("the God") is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic deity.[16] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bahá'í Faith,[17] Waheguru in Sikhism,[18] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[19]

 

The many different conceptions of God, and competing claims as to God's characteristics, aims, and actions, have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism, pandeism,[20][21] or a perennial philosophy, which postulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of which all religions express a partial understanding, and as to which "the devout in the various great world religions are in fact worshipping that one God, but through different, overlapping concepts or mental images of Him."[22]

 

Contents [hide]

1Etymology and usage

2General conceptions

2.1Oneness

2.2Theism, deism and pantheism

2.3Other concepts

3Non-theistic views

3.1Agnosticism and atheism

3.2Anthropomorphism

4Existence

5Specific attributes

5.1Names

5.2Gender

5.3Relationship with creation

6Depiction

6.1Zoroastrianism

6.2Islam

6.3Judaism

6.4Christianity

7Theological approaches

8Distribution of belief

9See also

9.1In specific religions

10References

11Further reading

12External links

Etymology and usage

 

The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh.

Main article: God (word)

The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[23]) comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau(ə)-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[24] The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—applying to both genders—but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.[25]

  

The word 'Allah' in Arabic calligraphy

In the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and "gods" in polytheism.[26][27] The English word God and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin possibly the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.[28]

 

Allāh (Arabic: الله‎‎) is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while "ʾilāh" (Arabic: إله‎‎) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[29][30][31] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[32]

 

Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. "Mazda", or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh (female). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning "placing (dʰeh1) one's mind (*mn̩-s)", hence "wise".[33]

 

Waheguru (Punjabi: vāhigurū) is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God. It means "Wonderful Teacher" in the Punjabi language. Vāhi (a Middle Persian borrowing) means "wonderful" and guru (Sanskrit: guru) is a term denoting "teacher". Waheguru is also described by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all descriptions. The most common usage of the word "Waheguru" is in the greeting Sikhs use with each other:

 

Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh

Wonderful Lord's Khalsa, Victory is to the Wonderful Lord.

Baha, the "greatest" name for God in the Baha'i faith, is Arabic for "All-Glorious".

 

General conceptions

Main article: Conceptions of God

There is no clear consensus on the nature or even the existence of God.[34] The Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God in Judaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic. Divinity was recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly Śakra and Brahma. However, other sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.[citation needed]

 

Oneness

Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism

 

The Trinity is the belief that God is composed of The Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically in the physical realm by Jesus), and The Holy Spirit.

Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[35] and Sikhism.[36] In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God as one God in three persons. The Trinity comprises The Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically by Jesus), and The Holy Spirit.[37] Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhid (meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described in the Quran as: "Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[38][39] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God.[40]

 

Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities.[41]

 

Theism, deism and pantheism

Main articles: Theism, Deism, and Pantheism

Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that God created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; and that God is personal and interacting with the universe through, for example, religious experience and the prayers of humans.[42] Theism holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[43] Not all theists subscribe to all of these propositions, but each usually subscribes to some of them (see, by way of comparison, family resemblance).[42] Catholic theology holds that God is infinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[44][45]

  

"God blessing the seventh day", a watercolor painting depicting God, by William Blake (1757 – 1827)

Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it.[43] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic, and neither answers prayers nor produces miracles. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs.[21][46][47] Pandeism is proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a universe and then abandon it,[48] and as to Pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe.[48][49]

 

Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.[50] It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic Church; Theosophy; some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism, which believes in panentheism; Sikhism; some divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God—which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov—but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.[citation needed]

 

Other concepts

Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[51]

 

In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach and definition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[52]

 

God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[3] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[53] Augustine of Hippo,[53] and Al-Ghazali,[8] respectively.

 

Non-theistic views

See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Evolutionary psychology of religion

Non-theist views about God also vary. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. The nineteenth-century English atheist Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say "There is no God", because "the word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation";[54] he said more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian god. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world.[55]

 

Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference."[56] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator (not necessarily a God) would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old.[57]

 

Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.[58] Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that questions of the existence of God are no different from questions of natural sciences. Following a biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]

 

Agnosticism and atheism

Agnosticism is the view that, the truth values of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable.[60][61][62]

 

Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities, or a God.[63][64] In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities.[65]

 

Anthropomorphism

Main article: Anthropomorphism

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[66] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.[67] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.[68]

 

Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[69]

 

Existence

Main article: Existence of God

 

St. Thomas Aquinas summed up five main arguments as proofs for God's existence.

 

Isaac Newton saw the existence of a Creator necessary in the movement of astronomical objects.

Arguments about the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Different views include that: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism[70]);"God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (de facto theism); and that "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism).[55]

 

Countless arguments have been proposed to prove the existence of God.[71] Some of the most notable arguments are the Five Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desire proposed by C.S. Lewis, and the Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm and René Descartes.[72]

 

St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". Famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this idea to its extreme: "By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infinite essence." For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[73] His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.[74]

 

Scientist Isaac Newton saw God as the masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.[75] Nevertheless, he rejected polymath Leibniz' thesis that God would necessarily make a perfect world which requires no intervention from the creator. In Query 31 of the Opticks, Newton simultaneously made an argument from design and for the necessity of intervention:

 

For while comets move in very eccentric orbs in all manner of positions, blind fate could never make all the planets move one and the same way in orbs concentric, some inconsiderable irregularities excepted which may have arisen from the mutual actions of comets and planets on one another, and which will be apt to increase, till this system wants a reformation.[76]

 

St. Thomas believed that the existence of God is self-evident in itself, but not to us. "Therefore I say that this proposition, "God exists", of itself is self-evident, for the predicate is the same as the subject.... Now because we do not know the essence of God, the proposition is not self-evident to us; but needs to be demonstrated by things that are more known to us, though less known in their nature—namely, by effects."[77] St. Thomas believed that the existence of God can be demonstrated. Briefly in the Summa theologiae and more extensively in the Summa contra Gentiles, he considered in great detail five arguments for the existence of God, widely known as the quinque viae (Five Ways).

 

For the original text of the five proofs, see quinque viae

Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though cannot cause their own motion. Since there can be no infinite chain of causes of motion, there must be a First Mover not moved by anything else, and this is what everyone understands by God.

Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can cause itself, and an infinite chain of causation is impossible, so there must be a First Cause, called God.

Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our experience includes things certainly existing but apparently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnecessary, for then once there was nothing and there would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled to suppose something that exists necessarily, having this necessity only from itself; in fact itself the cause for other things to exist.

Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things in the sense that some things are more hot, good, etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and noblest thing, and so most fully existing. This then, we call God (Note: Thomas does not ascribe actual qualities to God Himself).

Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal under the guidance of one who is aware. This we call God (Note that even when we guide objects, in Thomas's view, the source of all our knowledge comes from God as well).[78]

 

Alister McGrath, a formerly atheistic scientist and theologian who has been highly critical of Richard Dawkins' version of atheism

Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[79][80] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not overlap.[81]

 

Some findings in the fields of cosmology, evolutionary biology and neuroscience are interpreted by some atheists (including Lawrence M. Krauss and Sam Harris) as evidence that God is an imaginary entity only, with no basis in reality.[82][83][84] These atheists claim that a single, omniscient God who is imagined to have created the universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of humans has been imagined, embellished and promulgated in a trans-generational manner.[85] Richard Dawkins interprets such findings not only as a lack of evidence for the material existence of such a God, but as extensive evidence to the contrary.[55] However, his views are opposed by some theologians and scientists including Alister McGrath, who argues that existence of God is compatible with science.[86]

 

Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that questions of the existence of God are no different from questions of natural sciences. Following a biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]

 

Specific attributes

Different religious traditions assign differing (though often similar) attributes and characteristics to God, including expansive powers and abilities, psychological characteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomenclature. The assignment of these attributes often differs according to the conceptions of God in the culture from which they arise. For example, attributes of God in Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain similarities arising from their common roots.

 

Names

Main article: Names of God

 

99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini (script)

The word God is "one of the most complex and difficult in the English language." In the Judeo-Christian tradition, "the Bible has been the principal source of the conceptions of God". That the Bible "includes many different images, concepts, and ways of thinking about" God has resulted in perpetual "disagreements about how God is to be conceived and understood".[87]

 

Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another one is El Shaddai, meaning "God Almighty".[88] A third notable name is El Elyon, which means "The Most High God".[89]

 

God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[90]

  

Supreme soul

The Brahma Kumaris use the term "Supreme Soul" to refer to God. They see God as incorporeal and eternal, and regard him as a point of living light like human souls, but without a physical body, as he does not enter the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. God is seen as the perfect and constant embodiment of all virtues, powers and values and that He is the unconditionally loving Father of all souls, irrespective of their religion, gender, or culture.[91]

 

Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.

 

Gender

Main article: Gender of God

The gender of God may be viewed as either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a deity who, in classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[92][93] Polytheistic religions commonly attribute to each of the gods a gender, allowing each to interact with any of the others, and perhaps with humans, sexually. In most monotheistic religions, God has no counterpart with which to relate sexually. Thus, in classical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to the receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[6]

 

Biblical sources usually refer to God using male words, except Genesis 1:26-27,[94][95] Psalm 123:2-3, and Luke 15:8-10 (female); Hosea 11:3-4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2 (a mother); Deuteronomy 32:11-12 (a mother eagle); and Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34 (a mother hen).

 

Relationship with creation

See also: Creator deity, Prayer, and Worship

 

And Elohim Created Adam by William Blake, c.1795

Prayer plays a significant role among many believers. Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[96][97] He is viewed as a personal God and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[98] Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe."[99]

 

Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best worship God and what is God's plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.

 

Jews and Christians believe that humans are created in the likeness of God, and are the center, crown and key to God's creation, stewards for God, supreme over everything else God had made (Gen 1:26); for this reason, humans are in Christianity called the "Children of God".[100]

 

Depiction

God is defined as incorporeal,[3] and invisible from direct sight, and thus cannot be portrayed in a literal visual image.

 

The respective principles of religions may or may not permit them to use images (which are entirely symbolic) to represent God in art or in worship .

 

Zoroastrianism

 

Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE)

During the early Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was visually represented for worship. This practice ended during the beginning of the Sassanid empire. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda continued to be symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback which is found in Sassanian investiture.[101]

 

Islam

Further information: God in Islam

Muslims believe that God (Allah) is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of His creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, are not expected to visualize God.[40]

 

Judaism

At least some Jews do not use any image for God, since God is the unimageable Being who cannot be represented in material forms.[102] In some samples of Jewish Art, however, sometimes God, or at least His Intervention, is indicated by a Hand Of God symbol, which represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or Voice of God;[103] this use of the Hand Of God is carried over to Christian Art.

 

Christianity

 

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Early Christians believed that the words of the Gospel of John 1:18: "No man has seen God at any time" and numerous other statements were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts at the depiction of God.[104]

  

Use of the symbolic Hand of God in the Ascension from the Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850

However, later on the Hand of God symbol is found several times in the only ancient synagogue with a large surviving decorative scheme, the Dura Europos Synagogue of the mid-3rd century, and was probably adopted into Early Christian art from Jewish art. It was common in Late Antique art in both East and West, and remained the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of God the Father in the West until about the end of the Romanesque period. It also represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or voice of God,[103] just like in Jewish Art.

 

In situations, such as the Baptism of Christ, where a specific representation of God the Father was indicated, the Hand of God was used, with increasing freedom from the Carolingian period until the end of the Romanesque. This motif now, since the discovery of the 3rd century Dura Europos synagogue, seems to have been borrowed from Jewish art, and is found in Christian art almost from its beginnings.

 

The use of religious images in general continued to increase up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that in 695, upon assuming the throne, Byzantine emperor Justinian II put an image of Christ on the obverse side of his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of Byzantine coin types in the Islamic world.[105] However, the increase in religious imagery did not include depictions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty second canon of the Council of Trullo in 692 did not specifically condemn images of The Father, it suggested that icons of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.[106]

 

The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the period of Byzantine iconoclasm (literally image-breaking) started. Emperor Leo III (717–741), suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons.[107] The edict (which was issued without consulting the Church) forbade the veneration of religious images but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross.[108] Theological arguments against icons then began to appear with iconoclasts arguing that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no public depictions of God the Father were even attempted and such depictions only began to appear two centuries later.

 

The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.[109] However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as Saint John of Damascus, drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.

 

In his treatise On the Divine Images John of Damascus wrote: "In former times, God who is without form or body, could never be depicted. But now when God is seen in the flesh conversing with men, I make an image of the God whom I see".[110] The implication here is that insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become man, visible and tangible, images and portrait icons can not be depicted. So what was true for the whole Trinity before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit but not for the Word. John of Damascus wrote:[111]

 

"If we attempt to make an image of the invisible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is impossible to portray one who is without body:invisible, uncircumscribed and without form."

 

Around 790 Charlemagne ordered a set of four books that became known as the Libri Carolini (i.e. "Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine Second Council of Nicaea regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the Western Church, images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves. The Council of Constantinople (869) (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the Eastern Church) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm. Specifically, its third canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a Gospel book:[112]

 

We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive profit from them.

 

But images of God the Father were not directly addressed in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Father were not among them.[113] However, the general acceptance of icons and holy images began to create an atmosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.

 

Prior to the 10th century no attempt was made to use a human to symbolize God the Father in Western art.[104] Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century AD. A rationale for the use of a human is the belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of His own (thus allowing Human to transcend the other animals).

 

It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.[114]

 

By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French illuminated manuscripts, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in stained glass church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the Baptism of Christ on the famous baptismal font in Liège of Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in Giotto's fresco of c. 1305 in Padua.[115] In the 14th century the Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the Father in the Burning bush. By the early 15th century, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the Garden of Eden, which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The "Gates of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry by Lorenzo Ghiberti, begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of Hours of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis altarpiece by the Hamburg painter Meister Bertram, continued to use the old depiction of Christ as Logos in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ.

 

In an early Venetian school Coronation of the Virgin by Giovanni d'Alemagna and Antonio Vivarini, (c. 1443) The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the near-physical, but still figurative, description of the Ancient of Days.[116]

 

. ...the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. (Daniel 7:9)

  

Usage of two Hands of God"(relatively unusual) and the Holy Spirit as a dove in Baptism of Christ, by Verrocchio, 1472

In the Annunciation by Benvenuto di Giovanni in 1470, God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of the Father and the Holy Spirit as "hands and dove" continued, e.g. in Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ in 1472.[117]

  

God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing, with a triangular halo representing the Trinity, Girolamo dai Libri c. 1555

In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, God may be depicted in two ways, either with emphasis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with a triangular halo (as a reference to the Trinity), or with a papal crown, specially in Northern Renaissance painting. In these depictions The Father may hold a globe or book (to symbolize God's knowledge and as a reference to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and above Christ on the Cross in the Throne of Mercy iconography. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover above. Various people from different classes of society, e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture. In a Trinitarian Pietà, God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as floating in heaven with angels who carry the instruments of the Passion.[118]

 

Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by the Jansenist and Baianist movements as well as more orthodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic imagery, this had the effect both of reducing Church support for the less central depictions, and strengthening it for the core ones. In the Western Church, the pressure to restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly influential decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. The Council of Trent decrees confirmed the traditional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image.[119]

 

Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions of the Trinity were condemned. In 1745 Pope Benedict XIV explicitly supported the Throne of Mercy depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for Pope Pius VI to issue a papal bull condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches.[120]

  

The famous The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, c.1512

God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, most famously The Creation of Adam (whose image of near touching hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness of God (Gen 1:26)).God the Father is depicted as a powerful figure, floating in the clouds in Titian's Assumption of the Virgin in the Frari of Venice, long admired as a masterpiece of High Renaissance art.[121] The Church of the Gesù in Rome includes a number of 16th century depictions of God the Father. In some of these paintings the Trinity is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but Giovanni Battista Fiammeri also depicted God the Father as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.[122]

 

In both the Last Judgment and the Coronation of the Virgin paintings by Rubens he depicted God the Father using the image that by then had become widely accepted, a bearded patriarchal figure above the fray. In the 17th century, the two Spanish artists Velázquez (whose father-in-law Francisco Pacheco was in charge of the approval of new images for the Inquisition) and Murillo both depicted God the Father using a patriarchal figure with a white beard in a purple robe.

  

The Ancient of Days (1794) Watercolor etching by William Blake

While representations of God the Father were growing in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th century. In 1632 most members of the Star Chamber court in England (except the Archbishop of York) condemned the use of the images of the Trinity in church windows, and some considered them illegal.[123] Later in the 17th century Sir Thomas Browne wrote that he considered the representation of God the Father using an old man "a dangerous act" that might lead to Egyptian symbolism.[124] In 1847, Charles Winston was still critical of such images as a "Romish trend" (a term used to refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided in England.[125]

 

In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the Great Moscow Council specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,[126][127] mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as Logos, not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as Greece, Romania, and other Orthodox countries.

 

Theological approaches

Theologians and philosophers have attributed to God such characteristics as omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[3] These attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including Maimonides,[53] St Augustine,[53] and Al-Ghazali.[128]

 

Many philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God,[8] while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their ostensible free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does not imply predestination, and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.[129]

 

However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that will, combined with perfectly infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.

 

The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's existence raised by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument from morality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend, as does Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic", or to take, as does Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist position.[130] Some theists agree that only some of the arguments for God's existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by Pascal as "the heart has reasons of which reason does not know."[131] A recent theory using concepts from physics and neurophysiology proposes that God can be conceptualized within the theory of integrative level.[132]

 

Many religious believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings such as angels, saints, jinn, demons, and devas.[133][134][135][136][137]

The Renault Clio is a supermini car, produced by the French automobile manufacturer Renault. It was launched in 1990, and was in its fourth generation in 2012. The Clio has had substantial critical and commercial success, being consistently one of Europe's top-selling cars since its launch, and it is largely credited with restoring Renault's reputation and stature after a difficult second half of the 1980s. The Clio is one of only two cars, the other being the Volkswagen Golf, to have been voted European Car of the Year twice, in 1991 and 2006.

 

Clio Williams

 

In 1993, Renault launched the Clio Williams as a limited edition of 3,800 cars (1,300 more than they needed for homologation purposes) with each car bearing a numbered plaque on the dash. These sold out so quickly that Renault ended up building 1,600 more.

 

After the first series, due to the demand, Renault built the Williams 2 and 3. Altogether Renault made 12,100 Clio Williams. But because a lot of new road cars were directly converted to race cars and when damaged replaced with another converted road car, the actual number of road cars is significantly lower.

 

The car was named after the then Renault-powered Formula One team WilliamsF1, though Williams had nothing to do with the design or engineering of this Clio. The modifications to the Clio 16S on which it was based were the work of Renault Sport, Renault's motorsport division. Nevertheless, this car had a Formula One link by being the sport's Safety Car in 1996.

 

The 2.0 L 16-valve straight-4 engine rated at 147 PS (108 kW) and a top speed of 215 km/h (134 mph) with performance-tuned ride and handling. Renault later released the Williams 2 and Williams 3 special editions, much to the chagrin of those owners who had been assured of the exclusivity of the "original" Williams. One common mistake people can make is thinking that the 2.0 16V (F7R) used in the Williams is simply a bored out 1.8 16V (F7P), whereas, in reality the large engine had different size valves, cams, stroked crank and engine oil cooler. Other differences between the Williams and the Clio 16S it is based on include a wider front track with wishbones similar, but not the same as Renault 19, wider Speedline alloys, uprated (JC5) gearbox, bespoke four-to-one manifold, firmer suspension, and some cosmetic differences on the exterior and interior.[citation needed]

 

The differences between the three versions of the Williams were largely a reflection of phase changes across the Clio range, e.g. the gradual addition of enhanced safety features and cosmetic variations. Other than this, the Williams 1 and 2 had no sunroof and were painted in 449 Sports Blue. The final Williams 3 was painted in a slightly brighter shade of blue (432 Monaco Blue) and finally gained a sunroof which had long been standard on virtually all previous Clios. The original Williams was the lightest of the three, lacking the electrics necessary for the sunroof or the mirrors, and was the only one to sport a metal plaque stating the build number.

 

Respected motoring journalists consistently rate the Williams as one of the very best hot hatches ever made, regardless of era. One of its many accolades was 6th place in Evo's Car Of The Decade feature in 2004.

 

The Renault Clio Williams was and still is a very popular rally car. The basic racing version (Gr.N) had racing suspension, different engine management and a more free flowing exhaust. Power output was around 165 PS (121 kW). Roll cage was made by Matter France. Bucket seats were made by Sabelt.

 

The Next step up was the Gr.A car, which was fitted with 16″ Speedline 2012 rims (with optional extractors), further improvements on suspension and more tuned engine producing between 205-220 PS. Front brakes were also uprated with 323mm discs and 4 pot Alcon brake calipers.

 

The final evolution was the Renault Clio Williams Maxi kit-car with wider arches and 17″ Speedline 2012 rims and improved Proflex suspension. Sodemo engine was further tuned to 250-265 PS.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Clio#Clio_Williams

 

This miniland-scale Lego Renault Clio MkI Williams (1993) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

En vías de extinción, el encaje de bolillos es una técnica de encaje textil consistente en entretejer hilos que inicialmente están enrollados en bobinas, llamadas bolillos, para manejarlos mejor. A medida que progresa el trabajo, el tejido se sujeta mediante alfileres clavados en una almohadilla, que se llama "mundillo". El lugar de los alfileres normalmente viene determinado por un patrón de agujeritos en la almohadilla.

 

El encaje de bolillos se puede realizar con hilos finos o gruesos. Tradicionalmente, se hacía con lino, seda, lana y posteriormente con algodón. También con hilos de metales preciosos. Hoy en día también se realiza con una gran variedad de fibras sintéticas, con alambres u otros filamentos.

 

Entre los elementos de diseño que se pueden realizar hay tejidos (tela), redes , trenzas, puntillas, cuadros y rellenos, aunque no todos los tipos de encaje de bolillos incluyen todos esos elementos.

 

Muchos tipos de encaje se inventaron durante la época de apogeo del bordado (aproximadamente entre 1500 y 1700) antes de que las máquinas bordadoras automáticas estuvieran disponibles.

 

La aparición de la máquina bordadora diseñada por John Heathcoat en 1806 al principio sirvió de acicate a los artesanos para que inventaran diseños más complicados que las máquinas no podían realizar, aunque finalmente la mecanización dejó sin trabajo a los artesanos casi completamente. La reaparición del bordado es un fenómeno reciente y, en general, es considerado como un hobby, aunque sigue habiendo gremios de artesanos que se reunen periódicamente en lugares como Devonshire (Inglaterra y Orange County (California). En los pueblos europeos donde el encaje fue una vez una industria importante, en especial, Bélgica, Inglaterra y Francia, las encajeras todavía enseñan su arte y venden sus mercancías, aunque su clientela ya no es la misma, de la nobleza más rica se ha pasado al turista curioso.

  

Si quieres cualquier foto de las que ves, pidemela. Todas están a la venta desde sólo 5 Euros.

If you want any pictures of what you see, ask me. All are available from only 5 Euros.

 

Exif data auto added by theGOOD Uploadr

File Size : 0.4 mb

Camera Make : Canon

Camera Model : Canon EOS 60D

Software : Adobe Photoshop CS5 Windows

Exposure : 0.040 seconds

Aperture : f/7.1

ISO Speed : 250

Focal Length : 63 mm

Subject Distance : 0.4 meters

Presenting ‘Kheema Samosa’ from Azad Restaurant as 6th in the series of documenting the best & the most popular 100 food of my city 'Mumbai' be it from Restaurants, Stalls or Street | Humayunn Peerzaada for Humayunn FoodOgraphy

 

‘Kheema Samosa’ from Azad Restaurant are the most popular and the most delicious, the best of the best one can have in our city Mumbai, visit the restaurant to try out these above.

 

Samosa taste has been consistent over these years.

Absolutely delicious and mouth watering.

 

Decent inexpensive low budget eating, high on taste and quality. Do try it.

Carte de visite by an unidentified photographer. I recently added this Civil War era image to my collection because I was drawn to the uncommon subject matter: A man with thick sideburns leans into an easel as he touches his brush against an albumen print of a woman. The brushes, paints, and glass of liquid, spirits or water, indicate he is a colorist or retoucher adding highlights to the woman’s dress. Another print, of a gray-bearded man, leans against the wall, either drying or waiting for the artist’s touch. Below the desk upon which the easel sits is a large four-lens wet-plate camera used for making carte de visite portraits—those paper images about the size of a modern trading card that were the social media own the 1860s.

 

The print is mounted on card stock, consistent with cartes from this period. The square edges have been trimmed so that the images can be easily slid into the thick and unforgiving pages of a photo album without creasing the picture.

 

The back of the mount includes an inscription printed in modern pencil:

 

Clarence C. King

Gardner’s Studio

Wash, D.C.

Ex coll. Alfred R. Waud

 

So this is what we know from a physical examination of the image.

 

The previous owner of this image, or caretaker as I like to think, provided additional information. He is William L. Schaeffer, a man well known in 19th century photograph collecting circles. Over 700 extraordinary photographs from Willie’s collection are now part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

 

Willie shared the image’s provenance: From noted Civil War artist Alfred R. Waud, to collector and dealer George R. Rinhart, to New York City dealer of fine photographica Allen Weiner, and acquired by Willie about 1985. Willie had the image in his collection for 40 years before it came to me.

 

In my experience as a collector, it is rare to trace the history of a photograph from its creation to the present time.

 

Willie also included this descriptive information:

 

“An excellent and extremely rare vintage museum quality carte-de-visite of Clarence C. King, an employee in the Washington, D.C. studio of Alexander Gardner, at work coloring a huge photograph of the First Lady, Mary Todd Lincoln. There is a large four-tube wet-plate camera beneath the table at his feet. Unsigned but most likely photographed by Alexander Gardner or another operator in the studio. 1860s.”

 

Armed with Willie’s information, and what I had observed with my own eyes, I did what I always do with a new acquisition to my collection: I turned to research to validate it. I always go into these projects as a healthy skeptic. In this case, I went in with heightened skepticism because the identification was modern, not period. Modern identifications are the least trustworthy, based on a survey of researchers about IDs by my friend Dr. Kurt Luther at Virginia Tech. Kurt developed Civil War Photo Sleuth, a digital tool tat used face recognition, technology, and community to identify soldiers.

 

My skepticism was heightened a bit more because the photograph of the woman looked younger than images I’ve seen of Mary Todd Lincoln. It is not a pose that I recognize. Still, I did not discount it because the details of the face and clothing are hard to make out.

 

My first step was to find Clarence C. King. I immediately ran into trouble. Searches on Ancestry.com, Find A Grave and elsewhere turned up no leads. I did however find one man with a very similar name: Clarence Rivers King (1841-1901).

 

As I began to learn more about King, my confidence rose. A Yale graduate who associated with a group of artists, writers and architects who followed the intellectual British polymath James Ruskin, King became a geologist and explored the American West. Just after the Civil War, King persuaded the U.S. Congress to fund an 1867 survey that came to be known as the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, or the Fortieth Parallel Survey. King led the group as U.S. Geologist, and he hired photographer Timothy O’Sullivan, who had worked for Mathew Brady and Alexander Gardner during the late Civil War, to document the trip. The survey was extremely successful, leading to King’s 1872 book, “Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada.”

 

King’s history fits nicely with the inscription on the back of the mount. He hung out with artists, and Alfred Waud was an illustrator. The photographer he hired for the geological survey, Timothy O’Sullivan, had once worked for Gardner’s Studio. But two items gave me pause.

 

First, Why would King pose as a colorist? There was another important consideration:

 

Second, likenesses of the geologist Clarence Rivers King did not match the colorist believed to be Clarence C. King.

 

I had hit a dead end.

 

A few days later, I contacted Military Images Senior Editor Buck Zaidel about a project centered around wartime images of wounded soldiers and sailors. It will be the cover story of our Spring 2025 issue. As the conversation wrapped up, we swapped stories about our latest acquisitions—something we always do when we talk. When I mentioned this image, described it, and explained that my research had stalled, Buck surprised me by saying he had a copy of the same print and was quite sure that his version had a name on the back—and that the name was not King. Excited, I sent Buck a phone pic to make sure we were talking about the same image.

 

He responded with a phone pic of the front and back of his carte de visite. I was delighted to see it was in fact the same print, and thrilled to look upon the period signature in bold ink on the back: Clarence Eytinge—not Clarence C. King.

 

Thanks to Buck, I now had an airtight identification of our colorist! The uniqueness of his surname made researching his life relatively easy. Eytinge (1835-1900), one of a dozen children born in America to wealthy Dutch immigrants of the Jewish faith, hailed from an multitalented family that excelled in the arts.

 

Eytinge’s eldest brother, Henry St. Claire “Harry” Eytinge (1822-1902) acted on stage alongside the Booth family, Edward Forrest, Charlotte Cushman, and others. Another older brother, Charles Dennis Eytinge, became a Shakespearian scholar well known in New York City’s literary scene.

 

A cousin, Rosetta “Rose” Eytinge (1835-1911), one of the most popular American actors of the day, toured major cities. President Abraham Lincoln numbered among her legion of fans.

 

Eytinge followed another older brother, Sol Eytinge, Jr., in pursuit of a career as an artist. Sol became a staff artist at “Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper” and mentored a young up-and-coming artist named Thomas Nast. Sol also contributed to “Harper’s Weekly,” where be befriended the Waud brothers, Alfred and William. Sol illustrated books for prominent authors of the time, including Louisa May Alcott, Charles Dickens, Oliver Wendell Holmes, James Russell Lowell, John Greenleaf Whittier, and others.

 

Eytinge and Sol worked together as lithographers in the 1850s. One of Eytinge’s early works, created in 1853 at age 18, is a lithograph of New York City’s Park Row, is in the collection of the Museum of the City of New York:

collections.mcny.org/CS.aspx?VP3=DamView&VBID=&PN...

 

The Eytinge brothers were also gamblers, according to fellow illustrator Thomas Butler Gunn (1826-1904): “Clarence Eytinge has followed in the track of more than one of his brothers and gets his living at the gaming table.”

 

Eytinge’s career path changed after the Civil War began. In 1862, Eytinge relocated to Washington, D.C., and joined the administration of President Abraham Lincoln as a clerk in William Henry Seward’s Department of State. In this position, according to a news report, he became “well known and appreciated for his gentlemanly character and scholarly attainments.”

 

Eytinge was of military age, but was exempted from service due to a physical disability according to a Washington, D.C., newspaper. The report did not note the nature of the disability.

 

While Eytinge clerked as the State Department, Lincoln signed into law An Act to Encourage Immigration. The act, signed into law on On July 4, 1864, defended the rights of immigrants and sought to facilitate lawful immigration, especially by skilled European workers to fill the void left by Union soldiers in the army or those who had died in its service. It marked the first federal immigration law in the country. Eytinge transferred to the new Immigration Bureau before the end of 1864.

 

A year layer, Eytinge became Secretary of the United States Legation at Lima, Peru. He served in this capacity until March 1867, when he resigned and returned to Washington and continued to work in the State Department until the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant took office on March 4, 1869. Thus ended Eytinge’s career in the arts of diplomacy.

 

Eytinge returned to New York City and opened a design business, which included decorating event spaces, such as an 1881 ball to commemorate the centennial of the Revolutionary War victory at Yorktown.

 

In the late 1890s, Eytinge’s health began to fail, and Brig. Gen. William Henry Seward, Jr., the youngest son of the secretary, found him a less stressful job with the Adams Express Company. He died in 1900 of kidney issues and was survived by his wife, Catherine, whom he had married in 1856.

 

Still unknown is who owned the camera and created the photograph. The body of evidence points to Alexander Gardner, a friend of brother Sol. But we cannot say with certainty that it is Gardner’s studio.

 

I encourage you to use this image for educational purposes only. However, please ask for permission.

 

Consistently the best Pho in Vancouver

Lamborghini Veneno

 

In the year of its 50th anniversary Automobili Lamborghini is presenting an extremely exclusive model at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. Only three unique units of the Lamborghini Veneno will be built and sold. Its design is consistently focused on optimum aerodynamics and cornering stability, giving the Veneno the real dynamic experience of a racing prototype, yet it is fully homologated for the road. With a maximum output of 552 kW / 750 hp, the Lamborghini Veneno accelerates from 0-100 km/h in just 2.8 seconds and the top speed for this street-legal racing car stands at 355 km/h. It is priced at three million Euros plus tax - and all three units have already been sold to customers.

 

The Lamborghini Veneno features a twelve-cylinder power unit with a displacement of 6.5 liters, an extremely fast-shifting 7-speed ISR transmission with 5 driving modes and permanent all-wheel drive, as well as a racing chassis with pushrod suspension and horizontal spring/damper units. Above all, however, the Veneno benefits from the very special expertise that Automobili Lamborghini possesses in the development and execution of carbon-fiber materials - the complete chassis is produced as a CFRP monocoque, as is the outer skin of this extreme sports car. The inside, too, features innovative, Lamborghini-patented materials such as Forged Composite and CarbonSkin.

 

Fully in keeping with the tradition of the brand, the name of the Veneno originates from a legendary fighting bull. Veneno is the name of one of the strongest and most aggressive fighting bulls ever. He is also famous for being one of the fastest bulls in the history of bullfighting. His name became popular in 1914, when he fatally wounded the famous torero José Sánchez Rodríguez during the bullfight in the arena Sanlúcar de Barrameda's, Andalusia, Spain.

 

Lamborghini Veneno (2013)

2013 Lamborghini Veneno

  

The Design

 

The Lamborghini Veneno brings the aerodynamic efficiency of a racing prototype to the road. Every detail of its form pursues a clear function - exceptional dynamics, optimum downforce with minimal drag and perfect cooling of the high-performance engine. Yet the Veneno is unmistakably a Lamborghini; it sticks firmly to the consistent design philosophy of all the super sports cars from Sant'Agata Bolognese. That includes the extreme proportions, as well as the powerfully arrow-shaped front end and the interplay between razor-sharp lines and precise surfaces.

 

The entire front end of the Lamborghini Veneno has been laid out for perfect airflow and downforce. The front end works as a large aerodynamic wing. Large channels guide the air to the outlets in the front hood and in front of the windshield, as well as to the front wheels. Characteristic for Lamborghini is the Y shape of the angular headlamps that reach well into the fenders as well as the scissor doors.

 

The division of the fenders from the car body is a reference to the world of sport prototypes and optimizes at the same time the aerodynamic flow. The side line of the Veneno is therefore dominated by enormous sills and the mighty wheel arches front and rear. Here, too, sophisticated aerodynamics ensure perfect airflow to the large openings for engine cooling and intake air.

 

Just like the front end, the rear of the Lamborghini Veneno has also been optimized for underbody aerodynamics and high speed cornering stability. The smooth underbody transitions into a substantial diffuser framing the four sizable exhaust pipes divided by a splitter to increase the level of downforce peak. Large openings serve to ventilate the engine bay and manage the airflow to the rear wing, with the only sealed area at the rear being reserved for the license plate. The rear lights, including brake lights, indicator lights and fog lights, pick up the Y theme as well. The engine cover sports six wedge-shaped openings, with the focus here, too, on optimum dissipation of heat from the engine. The engine cover extends into a large central "shark" fin, which improves efficiency during braking and rear-end stability, by delivering additional downforce at high yaw angles and thus increasing the high-speed cornering performance.

 

The adjustable rear wing's design is the product of Motorsport experience and extensive aerodynamic simulation to ensure the best performance of rear wing interaction with rear diffuser air flow.

 

The exclusive alloy wheels measure 20 inches at the front and 21 inches at the rear and are equipped with center mountings. Their design is also determined by aerodynamic functionality - a carbon-fiber ring around the wheel rim works like a turbine to deliver additional cooling air to the carbon-ceramic brake discs.

 

The Lamborghini Veneno is painted in an all-new, grey metallic-look color with individual parts gleaming in the black of the visible carbon-fiber structure. The only car to display all three colors of the Italian flag as an accent is the car shown at Geneva, the unit which will remain property of Lamborghini. The three cars sold to customers each feature a single color of the Italian national flag, together a triology in green, white and red accents and thus representing each a unique piece.

 

The Technology

 

The Veneno is further proof of Automobili Lamborghini's unique competence in CFRP-based lightweight design. A monocoque made from carbon-fiber reinforced polymer forms the basis of the Veneno. It is largely similar to the Aventador monocoque - as are the aluminum sub-frames front and rear - although its form has been adapted to the new design. All exterior parts are made from CFRP. The Lamborghini Veneno meets all safety and registration requirements worldwide, and naturally also incorporates a full complement of safety systems from airbags through to the adapted ESP handling system.

 

Carbon fiber dominates the interior of the Lamborghini Veneno, too. The carbon fiber monocoque becomes visible inside the car in the area of the central tunnel and the sills. The two lightweight bucket seats are made from Lamborghini's patented Forged Composite. The woven carbon-fiber CarbonSkin® is used to clad the entire cockpit, part of the seats and the headliner. This unique material is soaked in a very special kind of resin that stabilizes the fiber structure, while allowing the material to remain supple. Like a hi-tech fabric, this extremely fine-looking carbon-fiber matting fits perfectly to any form, and it reduces weight.

 

The racing personality has been transferred also to the instrument panel. It has been completely redesigned and now, thanks to an aggressive graphics and to the introduction of some additional features like the G-meter, provides all necessary information to the driver for control of the car.

 

The systematic, carbon-fiber, lightweight design of the Lamborghini Veneno is not only visible, it is also evident on the scales: With a dry weight of just 1,450 kilograms (3,190 pounds), the Veneno is even 125 kilos (275 pounds) lighter than the already extremely lean Aventador. The highly beneficial power-to-weight ratio of 1.93 kg/hp (4,25 lbs/hp) guarantees a performance that is nothing short of mind-blowing. Even the stunning acceleration figure of 2,8 seconds cannot adequately describe it. Despite an aerodynamic setup configured for extreme downforce, the Veneno possesses exceptionally low wind resistance which allows it to reach a top speed of 355 km/h (221 mph).

 

The twelve-cylinder with a displacement of 6.5 liters is a thrilling combination of absolute high-revving frenzy and phenomenal pulling power. Its output has been raised to 552 kW / 750 hp, facilitated through enlarged intake paths, optimized thermodynamics, a slightly higher rated rpm and an exhaust system with even lower back pressure. The ISR manual gearbox, permanent all-wheel drive and pushrod suspension have all been specifically adjusted to meet the demands of the Lamborghini Veneno.

 

The Lamborghini Veneno celebrates its first public appearance at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. The vehicle on show is the number 0, the Lamborghini test vehicle. Its future has not been determined yet, but it will allow Lamborghini to continue its activity of testing and innovation, both on the road and on the race track. The trilogy made of three unique vehicles will be produced in the course of the year 2013 and handed over to their future owners.

 

Inspired by the consistently sold-out Writing for Film & Television Summer Intensive Program, the Two-Weekend Intensive was designed for aspiring film and television writers with busy weekday schedules. Over the course of two weekends, participants learn a variety of screenwriting tools, techniques, and exercises that closely represent what students learn in the one-year Writing for Film & Television program.

 

Find out more about VFS’s one-year Writing for Film & Television program at vfs.com/writing.

The white dove peace symbol is consistent through Christianity, Judaism, and Islam as a peace symbol.

 

The reason for its use as a symbol of peace is the story of Noah and the release of the white dove to find land after the Great Flood. When the dove returned with an olive branch, which is another peace symbol, it was clear that the world was ready to welcome back man. The dove peace symbol is one that is clearly recognized all over the world.

 

There are many symbolisms of peace such as the dove peace symbol and the peace symbol, but where did they come from and what do they actually mean? If you look at these symbols of peace, you will instantly recognize what they mean and understand the context that they are used in. When you see the dove peace symbol together with the olive branch, it is an obvious piece of symbolism that describes a noble goal. The peace symbol that is used is largely chosen for very specific reasons.

 

In Christian Iconography, a dove also symbolizes the Holy Spirit, where the Holy Spirit is compared to a dove at the Baptism of Jesus. The early Christians in Rome incorporated into their funerary art the image of a dove carrying an olive branch, often accompanied by the word "Peace". It seems that they derived this image from the simile in the Gospels, combining it with the symbol of the olive branch, which had been used to represent peace by the Greeks and Romans. The dove and olive branch also appeared in Christian images of Noah's ark.

Mangosuthu Buthelezi - Prince Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi (27 August 1928 – 9 September 2023) was a South African politician and Zulu prince who served as the traditional prime minister to the Zulu royal family from 1954 until his death in 2023. He was appointed to this post by King Bhekuzulu, the son of King Solomon kaDinuzulu (a brother to Buthelezi's mother Princess Magogo kaDinuzulu).

 

Buthelezi was chief minister of the KwaZulu bantustan during apartheid and founded the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) in 1975, leading it until 2019, and became its president emeritus soon after that. He was a political leader during Nelson Mandela's incarceration (1964–1990) and continued to be so in the post-apartheid era, when he was appointed by Mandela as Minister of Home Affairs, serving from 1994 to 2004.

 

Buthelezi was one of the most prominent black politicians of the apartheid era. He was the sole political leader of the KwaZulu government, entering when it was still the native reserve of Zululand in 1970 and remaining in office until it was abolished in 1994. Critics described his administration as a de facto one-party state, intolerant of political opposition and dominated by Inkatha (now the IFP), Buthelezi's political movement.

 

In parallel to his mainstream political career, Buthelezi held the Inkosiship of the Buthelezi clan, being the son of Inkosi Mathole Buthelezi, and was traditional prime minister to three successive Zulu kings, beginning with King Cyprian Bhekuzulu in 1954. He was himself born into the Zulu royal family; his maternal grandfather was King Dinuzulu who was a son of King Cetshwayo and whom Buthelezi played in the 1964 film called Zulu. While leader of KwaZulu, Buthelezi both strengthened and appropriated the public profile of the monarchy, reviving it as a symbol of Zulu nationalism. Bolstered by royal support, state resources, and Buthelezi's personal popularity, Inkatha became one of the largest political organizations in the country.

 

During the same period, Buthelezi publicly opposed apartheid and often took a patently obstructive stance toward the apartheid government. He lobbied consistently for the release of Nelson Mandela and staunchly refused to accept the nominal independence which the government offered to KwaZulu, correctly judging that it was a superficial independence. However, Buthelezi was derided in some quarters for participating in the bantustan system, a central pillar of apartheid, and for his moderate stance on such issues as free markets, armed struggle, and international sanctions. He became a bête noire of young activists in the Black Consciousness Movement and was repudiated by many in the African National Congress (ANC). A former ANC Youth League member, Buthelezi had aligned himself and Inkatha with the ANC in the 1970s, but in the 1980s their relationship became increasingly acrimonious. It emerged in the 1990s that Buthelezi had accepted money and military assistance from the apartheid regime for Inkatha, which stoked the political violence in KwaZulu and Natal in the 1980s and 1990s.

 

Buthelezi also played a complicated role during the negotiations to end apartheid, for which he helped set the framework as early as 1974 with the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith. During the Congress for a Democratic South Africa, the IFP under Buthelezi lobbied for a federal system in South Africa with strong guarantees for regional autonomy and the status of Zulu traditional leaders. This proposal did not take hold and Buthelezi became aggrieved by what he perceived as the growing marginalisation both of the IFP and of himself personally, as negotiations were increasingly dominated by the ANC, and the white National Party government. He established the Concerned South Africans Group with other conservatives, withdrew from the negotiations, and launched a boycott of the 1994 general election, South Africa's first under universal suffrage. However, despite fears that Buthelezi would upend the peaceful transition entirely, Buthelezi and the IFP relented soon before the election, and not only participated, but also joined the Government of National Unity formed afterwards by newly elected President Mandela. Buthelezi served as Minister of Home Affairs under Mandela and under his successor, Thabo Mbeki, despite near-continuous tensions between the IFP and the governing ANC.

 

In subsequent years, the IFP struggled to expand its popular base beyond the new province of KwaZulu-Natal, which had absorbed KwaZulu in 1994. As the party's electoral fortunes declined, Buthelezi survived attempts by rivals within the party to unseat him. He remained the IFP's president until the party's 35th National General Conference in August 2019, when he declined to seek re-election and was succeeded by Velenkosini Hlabisa. In the 2019 general election, he was elected to a sixth consecutive term as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the IFP. He was the oldest MP in his country at the time of his death in 2023.

 

Buthelezi's role during the final decades of apartheid is controversial, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the IFP under Buthelezi's leadership "was the primary non-state perpetrator" of violence during the apartheid era and named him as "a major perpetrator of violence and human rights abuses"

 

LINK to video - Watch | Documentary | Remembering Mangosuthu Buthelezi 1/3 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9DTNL7l9PA

 

LINK to video - Watch | Documentary | Remembering Mangosuthu Buthelezi 2/3 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDXv76-av5I

 

LINIK to video - Watch | Documentary | Remembering Mangosuthu Buthelezi 3/3 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXWUt9mDZSs&t=24s

Autumn is consistently a great time to visit, with the foliage adding so much in spectacular, rich colors. And even during the latter part of the season, there is something so special about the bareness of many trees and vegetation. The nice thing as an observer of nature’s critters is that the birds are so much more visible. Even if they are at a fair distance, at least, one can appreciate their features. Also, many fall berries and other fruits and nuts, often with bright colors and interesting shapes, accentuate the landscape as seen only at this time of year.

Art is also an integral part of Duke Farms (as you can see from our DUKE FARMS SET), and the Sphinx Guardian of the Orchid Range at Sunset is something special. This angle was chosen, for I wanted to capture a sense of what she’s taking in as she sits as sentinel.

The late, Doris Duke, had left a wonderful legacy in converting her magnificent estate into a Natural Wildlife Preserve for the public’s education and enjoyment. The paths throughout the estate offer such splendid scenery. One is forever exploring, always seeing something subtly beautiful. There are always pleasant surprises, from the general scenery to the world of the wildlife, even tiny insects and flowers are enjoyable to observe. The bucolic nature of the preserve is so relaxing—akin to meditating while experiencing the landscape. The beauty of visiting Duke Farms is that so many incredible views are there simply by observing all of the surroundings. Spotting new and fascinating wildlife—both animals and plants—always adds to the experience.

 

Although the consistent lake-effect driven snow reduced the resulting resolution, while also at the time making the determination of a proper exposure difficult, I managed to capture an image of totality during this week's total lunar eclipse. The varying intensity of the snowfall caused the moon to continuously change in brightness and hue. Although challenging from a photographic perspective, it made for a spectacular display visually that was simply awe-inspiring!

 

Image Details: Taken by Jay Edwards on January 21, 2019 at 05:23 UT (00:23 EST) using an 80mm f/6 Celestron 'short-tube' refractor in eye-piece projection mode with a 16mm e.p. on a Canon 700D (t5i) DSLR. This was driven by a Star Adventurer mount on a Quickset Hercules tripod. Given the below zero temperatures and -30 deg. F (-35 C) windchils, as well as the fact that our observatory was locked in a block of ice & snow from the foot of new powder we had just received that day, this potable imaging rig was placed on my front deck while I controlled it remotely from my living room via CamRanger. The attached is a 8 second exposure at ISO 3200. As presented here the bit depth has been lowered to 8 bits per channel and the entire file has been resized down to HD resolution. I hope other were fortunate to have witnessed this wonderful event.

An image of a partial phase can be found here:

www.flickr.com/photos/homcavobservatory/39856965413/

and an shot of the portable imaging rig used can be found here: www.flickr.com/photos/homcavobservatory/46778020412/

 

E.K.Yap, the MPA & MPAS multi-award winning photographer, has created many iconic masterpieces and photographed covers & campaigns for influential publications & luxury brands. His projects include Patek Philippe, Breguet, Chopard, Bvlgari, Cartier, Chanel & Franck Muller to name a few.

 

With his wide-ranging experience in art as a creative director in the advertising & publishing industry, he consistently achieves the best results with his precision skill, specialising in luxury projects particularly jewellery, timepiece, product, interior, portrait & fashion.

 

PHILOSOPHY

“I'm passionate in capturing more than just a beautiful image, I like to craft an inspiring masterpiece with soul & meaning”

 

AWARD

Advertising/Advertorial/ Editorial - MPA Far East

Architecture/ Cityscape/ Interior - MPA Far East

Illustrative & Creative - MPA Far East

Fashion - MPA Far East

Still Life - MPA Far East

Best Cover - MPAS

 

PROJECT

A. Lange & Söhne/ Audemars Piguet/ Azimuth/ Aston Martin/ ABN Ambro/ Arium Collection/ Arcatel/ Anlene/ Aqua Culture/ Adidas/ Aries Gold/ Bvlgari/ Breguet/ Bottega Veneta/ Boucheron/ Blancpain/ Breitling/ Baker Furniture/ BBDO/ Borobudur/ Bonhams/ Berggren Jewellery/ Cartier/ Chanel/ Chopard/ CitiGold/ Carat Club/ CapitaLand/ CLIO/ CEL Development/ Coty/ Confetti by Mui/ Canon/ Dolce & Gabbana/ Distillery/ D Editors/ Dell/ Franck Muller/ Flower Diamonds/ Fujitsu/ Fuchsia Lane/ Farm Best/ Ferrari/ Girard-Perregaux/ Genting/ Green Chapter/ Gucci/ Geyer/ Harry Winston/ Hassell Studio/ Hilton Hotel/ Heeton/ Hublot/ Hassell Studio/ HDB/ Hermès/ I.D.Department/ IWC/ Image Bank/ ICI Duluxe/ Inoue Japan/ Jobstreet/ Jaeger-LeCoultre/ Johnny Walker/ JOID/ Kwanpen/ Krieit Associate/ KrisShop/ KFC/ K-Suites/ Louis Moinet/ Levi’s/ Lalique/ Luminox/ Lloyd’s Asia/ Ladurée/ Lush Radio/ Louis Vuitton/ Leonard Drake/ Livita/ Lifelink/ Manolo Blahnik/ Montblanc/ Mediacorp/ MCL Land/ Mirinda/ Marc Anthony/ Maxis Mobile/ Novetel Hotel/ NTU/ National Geographic/ Omega/ Patek Philippe/ Piaget/ Philips/ Playboy/ Prada/ Pepsi/ Pure Earth/ Richard Mille/ Rolex/ Roger Dubuis/ Resort World Sentosa/ Richemont/ Reebonz/ SkysShop/ Singland/ Splendor/ Sarcar/ Sinn/ Shangri-La Hotel/ SIA/ Shelton/ Sally Hansen/ Skin Science/ StarAsia/ Skin79/ Sally Hansen/ Sports Toto/ Spritzer/ 7-Up/ The Mill/ Tag Heuer/ Tiffany/ Transware/ The Hour Glass/ Tudor/ TV3/ Universal Studio/ Ulysse Nardin/ UOI/ UOB/ Vihari Jewels/ Vacheron Constantin/ Van Cleef & Arpels/ Wild Rice/ Zenith

 

EDITORIAL

August Man/ Affluent/August Women/ Appetite/ Adore/ Awesome/ Business Time/ Baccarat/ Business Craft/ Crown/ CitaBella/ Esquire/ ELLE/ Fiori/ Golf Vacations/ Harper’s Bazaar/ Inspire Travel/ Jewels & Time/ Jewellery Craft/ L’Official/ Luxury Guide/ Luxury Insider/ Luxx Jewellery/ Legacy of Singapore/ Men’s Folio/ Man Stuff/ OASiS/ Prestige/ Prestige Lifestyle/ Pen Craft/ PC World/ PC Magazine/ Robb Report/ RWS Invites/ Solitaire/ Style/ Tatler/ Tatler Wedding/ Tatler Home/ Time Craft/ TiCTalk/ World of Watches

Prompt: Photorealistic full-length image, Wide-angle shot, pulled back shot of a well-lit young woman with stunning and sparkling and captivating blue eyes in an ornate and short show girl jade-colored mini-dress crossed legs sitting in a Las Vegas lounge, with appropriate depth of field with Rembrant Lighting and sun coming in through the window during the golden hour, Canon EOS-5D Mark IV, Canon 24mm f1.4 II L lens at f/2.8, --ar 3:2 --s 100 --c 0 --v 5.2

 

Used a reference image to approximate the look of the model, Kitty.

 

Then used face swap app with Kitty.

  

Went through several enlargements and enhancements in both Adobe Raw and PhotoShop and Portrait Professional.

 

Detailed in Adobe Camera Raw and Photoshop and Portrait Professional.

 

Blended in eyes and lips with the original model’s.

 

I highly appreciate your viewing and commenting on my work.

 

bauhaus building, dessau, germany, 1925-1926, architect: walter gropius

 

Gropius consistently separated the parts of the Bauhaus building according to their functions and designed each differently. He thereby arranged the different wings asymmetrically – in relation to what is today the Bauhausstraße and the Gropiusallee respectively. In order to appreciate the overall design of the complex, the observer must therefore move around the whole building. There is no central viewpoint.

 

The glazed, three-storey workshop wing, the block for the vocational school (also three storeys high) with its unostentatious rows of windows, and the five-storey studio building with its conspicuous, projecting balconies are the main elements of the complex. A two-storey bridge which housed, e.g., the administration department and, until 1928, Gropius’s architectural practice, connects the workshop wing with the vocational school. A single-storey building with a hall, stage and refectory, the so-called Festive Area, connects the workshop wing to the studio building. The latter originally featured 28 studio flats for students and junior masters, each measuring 20 m². The ingenious design of the portals between the foyer and the hall and a folding partition between the stage and the refectory, along with the ceiling design and colour design, impart a grandiose spatial coalescence to the sequence of foyer-hall-stage-refectory, shaping the so-called Festive Area. The façade of the students’ dormitory is distinguished in the east by individual balconies and in the south by long balconies that continue around the corner of the building.

 

The entire complex is rendered and painted mainly in light tones, creating an attractive contrast to the window frames, which are dark. For the interior, the junior master of the mural workshop, Hinnerk Scheper, designed a detailed colour plan that, by differentiating between supporting and masking elements through the use of colour, aimed to accentuate the construction of the building.

 

Illinois Central had a long history of running football specials to University of Illinois home football games in Champaign, IL. In the days before paved roads were common, IC was the way for Chicagoans to watch the Illini take on their opponents at Memorial Stadium – sometimes running as many as 15 football extra trains in addition to adding cars to the regular passenger service.

 

The fleet of football specials petered out with the construction of Interstate 57 and the coming of Amtrak, though occasional charters still travel down the Main Line of Mid-America.

 

The only fairly consistent remnant of the football specials in days past has been the business car special run by IC (and later CN) to the Illinois homecoming game and/or their match with Michigan State. The train usually hosts top railroad brass and their guests.

 

On a crisp autumn Saturday, October 10, 2009, CN three-car special is captured at 79 mph near MP 121 between Thomasboro and Leverett, IL. E9A 100 and 101 are doing the honors.

  

SHEENA: I love you,

 

I know that this may not seem consistent, but I never planned it to be. I’m not the person to make everything flow perfectly so that all can understand, that’s just who I am. As long as I get the message to you about how much I truly love you. And even more so, how grateful I am for you to truly give me the same love filled with respect, care; you name it, we have it. Especially with the games I like to play, you tolerate me, which I can never understand how this can be. but its true. And I thank you, I know im not the smartest guy out there, or the strongest, or the most popular, im just me. But you don’t care, you see something in myself that I cant find for myself. And in your own way you remind me to keep looking. When just as well, you could be like everyone else with their comments and disgust towards me. You don’t make fun of me, or make me feel horrible. You don’t remind me of how slow I am, and you know that it takes me longer to get things. But you look past that and remind me of how smart I am, not to listen to any one else and just be myself. Ive come to realize that I may not be like everyone else, but that’s what I guess is why you picked me when it could have been anyone else. We joke about me being color blind, I know you get a laugh about it, but you never really rubbed it in. and that is something that im embarrassed about. There so much wrong with me that you don’t focus on, or look down on. Instead you decide to look past it all knowing that my flaws are not who I am, but what everyone else uses to keep me from being me. You couldn’t of said it any better, we may not be perfect, but because of our flaws, we are able to be there for each other in the most dramatic or retarded of moments and in that way our flaws are what makes us perfect for one another. Im sure your probably going to look at this and point out all the times I miss spelled a word or made a grammer mistake, because we both know im not the best writer out there which is why you wont get to many notes from me. But I feel as if I had to write this to you, because I know you feel as I do, that you will understand and want to focus on what I have to say and not these petit mistakes of mine. Which is why I haven’t only survived because of you, but ive survived for you to stay with you for as long as I possibly can. I cant await the day where we can steal time itself and shape into something beautiful for us to share togather. There so much potential I see in you and us. And its nothing to waste. If you have the ability to see through my flaws and imperfections to find a part of me that I never thought existed, then I cant wait to see what you can do with this world. The things you can do with your life and I don’t think you understand the potential you have in yourself, but its there. And I can see it. Behind that smile of yours is something even greater. And it feeds off the love from your heart; it is what you will be able to share with the world to make it stronger. And I hope to be there all the way as we say I will. And yet, with as large of a heart as you contain, you still choose to make it so damn hard to buy you a gift. Which is why Il do so with out your permission anyways. That’s what you get for being so kind to me and for letting all my burdens that holding me back drift away. you give me life. You give me reason to live and to fight for what I believe in. Im able to face what is needed to be faced so that we can grow together in life. I have courage that didn’t exist before from you love alone take the steps necessary to make a future for us. I have reason, how many people can say that. Everyone I know either do what they do from boredom or as an excuse, but you’ve given me so much more than that. every day I wake wondering wehre im at in this world, I have to realize that im no longer of this world, that nothing from it can hold me down Because im with you. With you im above everything else where nothing can touch us. Where we can be in peace and shower in our love for each other. A place where we can be renewed and given another chance, more than a second or a third, but enough plus infinity to stay with each other. We are given every opportunity to stay with each other and grow with each other. This place exists and when your in my arms and im in yours I am there. Tell me, are you there with me? You must be for the sake that everytime I see you, I watch you begin to glow. I get to experience the change in you from what you were when you were alone into the most beautiful person alive. I don’t know why you tend to return to that place, you are worth so much more, and you deserve so much better. I cant stress that enough after the amount of times I must have said it. I haven’t lied to you before, especially not now. I don’t plan on it. And I never will. Everytime I ask you how you feel, your never up to par, and that worries me. I do worry a lot, but I do have reason to. I love you, and I don’t want you to hurt anymore than anyone should. I look into your eyes and I see the love and compassion that is hidden with in, the same feelings that you don’t receive enough of. And beyond that, I see the relief inside you to beable to be free for that one last moment, not realizing that I will never leave you. Even when im not, I will still be there and that’s how it will always be for as long as we live. I care for you to much. And to see that release of stress everytime I can hold onto you, means so much to know that I mean something to you. And even more so, that I can do something for you even though it took till the moment that I wrote this passage to realize this. Which is why I put myself down so much, I cant see everything, but I do try to pay attention, and I do notice these things that you try to hide. I want to be there every waking moment of you life. And sleep by your side when I know that you can finally relax knowing that il never leave you crawling. Anytime you down, just hold out your hand and call my name, il already be there waiting to pick you up until I can let you go again. I love you, and theres no reason for you to have to be on your own through life and all its troubles. The things I hear from everyone else, let me tell you they are still so haunting, but I wont believe in those things, because ive been there long enough to know you and understand who you are. What they say are lies, whispers made to settle one soul and to stir up the next. I don’t listen to them. I believe in you, and the things you say. And the things you do, I will trust that they are real. That nothing but love exists between us bathed in truth. Can there really be any more of an honest relationship? We have been through a lot, and a lot has happened, but we made it through. Here we are together, aren’t we? This is why I know that we are going to make through. For as far as we need to go until our lives become one, a life free to roam to travel and experience all that there is for us to gain. I’m ready for this to happen. I know I am. I had always thought that there was nothing in this world for me to lose. But now, with you in my heart, I come to realize that I only have everything to lose. With out you, nothing will truly exist in my eyes. I carry you every where with me. I move forward alone, but with out any choice, with you I can only move on. Theres nothing to hold me down or keep me back. The strength you’ve given me to give meaning to every action I make. Its clear that you love me like no one at all. I know that you wont let me fall. Youl be there when I need you. And like no one else youl be there to pick me up when I stumble. And I recognize these things because I will do the same for you. I love you so, so much. It becomes so difficult to grasp this feeling that I feel as if my heart is about to explode every time I think about it or you. I cant stop thinking about you, if anything, im fueled by the thought of your love and the emotions you have shown me. I never thought that this could be true, and now that its here, I know that this feeling will never be untrue with you. Il hold to you for ever, for as long as we are apart, you will always remain in my heart, by my side and in soul. You are right in my dreams, beside me every night. You are never to far from my heart even when I sleep. We wait for that moment of peace away from agony. Where nothing can pull us back, we keep pushing for the freedom and hope that awaits us. And best of all, this isn’t what I had in my head, but better. As I get to watch you grow up as I do to. Learn through experience knowing that we can never fail for as long as we are together. And you say you want to be eighteen so many times, that you have been restricted to what has been given to you. I say that I came at a great time. I can watch over you, and ensure that you don’t make the mistakes that I have made. Although they may not be as obvious as how some people may portray, what I was about to do, and what I was doing was not safe. It demining and destructive towards my self and others, and the best part was that no one will ever get the chance to notice, because I was able to keep under the radar. That is something that you can do as well, except you are so bad at lying, or at least to me you are which it is something I really love about you. But do know that I do think so much like you when I didn’t feel right, and I can predict how you will take things when all is started to grey. I wont let you go, I will be there for that. and I will be here for you now, as I always will be. you don’t have to be alone, and I don’t want you to, just know that I am here whenever you need me. the reality of it all is that Im scared for you. For everything that goes wrong, I feel it just as well. I go back to that place where I feel like I need to hide from the fear instead of facing it for my self and the hurt begins to take over till I become numb. And its not just from what you have to go through, but everything else I had to go through and everyone else I know or once knew. Ive been there, and every time it comes for you, I feel it to. I care about you. I care and I love you. Way to much to just sit back and watch your life be clouded. I know I never have the things to say when they are needed to be said. I apologize for that. I shouldn’t be this way especially when it comes to you. But, I am saying it now, and im going to keep saying it. Ive been there, and your there right now, I can help. Let me help you, more than I am. and I cant just jump up and make everything better, you have have to show me where it hurts, and I will do the rest. You have already shown me so much to look forward to in my life and yours, dont let it wasted. Let me give you in return the life you have shown me. the love and compassion that exists that I had to find with your help. I only knew how to reach for what I knew was goin to hurt me in the long run, but you gave me hope, and in that hope, a dream become a part of my reality. So now that we are together, lets stay together. Forever and always. Let us grow old together. Get married and have children. Watch them grow older. Give them what was so hard to find from the beginning. Not all is as lucky as we are going to make it for them. Lets make it happen. No matter what, they get what they want, and what they deserve, nothing less, only more. Im ready for this, I am ready to make our kids become prepared for what this world has for them, both good and bad. You are going to be pregnant as much as you say you don’t want to. Because I guarantee whether or not you want it to happen, its going to anyways. Might as well get use to the idea now. I don’t think you have much of a choice anyways because im making you eventually. They are going to be wonderful children, I can already tell. You always say they are going to be like me, but I don’t really mind. Just let me have the last name and we can call it even. As long as they are healthy, and grow up to honest and true to themselves, then theyl be everything because they are already going to be as beautiful as my baby girl; yes, that means you. Who else would it be. . They are going to be strong and have the greatest heart just like there mother and shine like her as well. I couldn’t ask for anything more from them but to turn out like you Sheena. What better way to raise kids but by the example of perfection. I may not be able to write five pages to express how I feel about you and my hopes for our future, but just know that I do love you, so much more than I can ever put into words. There are no words or number than can equate to the amount of love that I have for you, nor is there any flower or star that can be compared to your beauty, and in my eyes, it is only multiplied by that much more. Because I can see you for who you are, and it’s the most incredible I could ever lay my eyes on. I cant go on with out thinking about you. I watch my phone every minute of the day just to know that your stil there. Not a moment that im not with you dont I feel empty, and every moment that I have with you is a dream I never thought could exist. I worry about your health, and I worry even more about your home, but I know how strong you are. And no matter how much I can say it to any other person, I haven’t seen any one who had to deal with what you deal with every day and take it as well as you do. I know you may not feel the same way about that last topic, but just know that I will always be here for you, and wont turn away for any thing. I love you. I can not stop thinking about you. I don’t know how I could get through the day with the memory of you in my heart, mind, and soul. Compared to you, no other person can appear any more than ugly to me. both inside and out. You are irreplaceable. You are immeasurable, You are indescribable. You are mine, and I am yours. And that’s how its going to be for the rest of our lives. Sheena, I will always love, till the end of my life, where I will either wait for you, or meet up with you so that we can share the end of time with one another and beyond. Together we are immortal, and our love is what is going to keep us going strong. I give myself to you for what I believe in, for what is there, and what we have to share together. I am yours forever and always. My love to you. Kyle Nathaniel LaMarca.

 

I am proud to say that we fell in love with who we are, and not who we met, that is a rare ordeal indeed. For us to be each other in front of one an other and become friends and then more, and still our love continues to grow beyond all knowledge. What we have is special, one of a kind, and I am going to enjoy it to the best of my potential and I am proud to say that I get to share this feeling with non other than You.

 

Lost by Faith Hill

 

Couldn’t have said it any better way.

© yohanes.budiyanto, 2014

 

PRELUDE

The 1st of August, 2014 was such an historic day as the world finally welcomed the birth of the first in line to the Parisian throne after a painstaking and extraordinary "labor" process that took four years in creation, and almost a decade in the making. I was not talking about a French rival to baby George, but instead a newborn that has sent shivers down the spines of Paris' oldest and current Kings and Grand Dames from the day it was conceived. Yes, I was referring to The Peninsula Paris, the youngest sister to the legendary Peninsula Hong Kong (circa 1928).

 

Ever since the project was announced to the public four years ago, it has been on my top list of the most eagerly awaited hotel openings of the decade. So when the hotel announced 1st of August as an opening date back in March, I immediately issued my First Class return tickets to the City of Light, risking the usual opening delay. A man of his word, Peninsula Paris finally opened as scheduled.

 

HISTORY

The Peninsula brand needs no introduction, as it is synonymous with quality, technology, innovation, craftsmanship and sophistication, -much like a slogan for French top brands and their savoir faire. Despite having only 10 current properties worldwide in its portfolio (Paris is its tenth), each Peninsula hotel is a market leader in each respective cities, and consistently tops the chart in many bonafide travel publications and reigns supreme as the world's best, especially elder sisters in Hong Kong and Bangkok. The Peninsula model is different from other rival hotel groups, which usually expand aggressively through both franchise and managed models worldwide. Instead, the Peninsula focuses on acquiring majority to sole ownership on all its properties to ensure control on quality (Hong Kong, New York, Chicago and Tokyo are 100% owned; Bangkok, Beijing and Manila are over 75%; Shanghai is 50%, while Beverly Hills and Paris are the only two with only 20% ownership).

 

The history of the Peninsula Paris could be traced back to a modest villa aptly called Hotel Basilevski on the plot of land at 19 Avenue Kleber back in 1864, -named after its Russian diplomat owner, Alexander Petrovich Basilevski, which caught the attention of hotelier Leonard Tauber for his prospective hotel project. The Versailles-styled property was partly a museum housing Basilevski's vast and impressive collection of 19th century medieval and Renaissance art, which eventually was acquired by Alexander III, -a Russian Tsar, at the sums of six millions francs. These collections were later transported to the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, and formed the base collection for the newly established Department of Medieval and Renaissance Art. After Basilevski sold the villa and moved to a more palatial residence at Avenue du Trocadero, the property was then acquired and rebranded the Palais de Castille as the residence of the exiled Queen Isabella II of Spain in 1868, who seeked refuge and continued to live there until 1904. Upon her death, the property was later demolished in 1906 to make way for the Majestic hotel, which finally opened in 1908 with much satisfaction of Leonard Tauber, who has eyed the premise from the very beginning.

 

The Majestic Hotel was exquisitely designed in the Beaux-Art style as a grand hotel by prominent architect of that time, Armand Sibien. Together with The Ritz (circa 1898), the two became the most preferred places to stay and entertain in Paris of the time. The Majestic has attracted the well-heeled crowd, and hosted many high profile events, most notably for a particular dinner hosted by rich British couple Sydney and Violet Schiff on 18 May 1922 as the after party of Igor Stravinsky's 'Le Renard' ballet premiere, and the hotel becomes an instant legend. The guests list were impressive: Igor Stravinsky himself, Pablo Picasso, Sergei Diaghilev, and two of the 20th century most legendary writers: James Joyce and Marcel Proust, who met for the first and only time before Proust's death six months later. Since then, the Majestic continued to draw high profile guests, including George Gershwin on 25 March 1928, where he composed "An American in Paris" during the stay.

 

If the walls could talk, the Majestic has plenty of stories to tell. It was once converted into a hospital during the infamy in 1914, and the British took residency at the hotel during the Paris Peace Conference back in 1919. The hotel was then acquired by the French State in 1936 as the offices of the Ministry of Defence; and later had a stint as the German Military High Command in France between October 1940 to July 1944 during the World War II. Post war, it then became the temporary home for UNESCO from 16 September 1946 until 1958. More than a decade after, the Paris Peace talks was opened by Henry Kissinger in one of its spectacular Ballrooms in 1969 with the Northern Vietnamese. Four years later, the Paris Peace Accord was finally signed at the oak paneled-room next to the Ballroom on 27 January 1973, which ended the Vietnam War. This triumphant event has also led to another victorious event when Henry Kissinger won the Nobel Peace Prize that same year.

 

The hotel continued to serve as the International Conference Center of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs until it was up for sale by the government in 2008 as part of the cost cutting program to the Qatari Diar, -which later transferred its ownership to Katara Hospitality, for a staggering USD 460 million. An excess of USD 600 million was further spent on the massive rebuilding and refurbishment not only to restore the hotel to its former glory, but also to transform it into a Peninsula with the highest standard.

 

The epic restoration work was led by prominent French architect, Richard Martinet, who has also previously work with the restoration of Prince Roland Bonaparte's former mansion into the Shangri-La Paris and also the Four Seasons George V; and involved teams of France's leading craftsmen; heritage designers and organisations; stonemasons from historic monument specialist; master glass crafters; crystal manufacturer; wood, moulding and gilder restoration experts, -many of whom are third generation, and have carried out high profile projects such as the Palace of Versailles, Louvre Museum, the dome of Les Invalides, the Grand and Petit Palais, and even the flame of the Statue of Liberty in New York. The result is truly breathtaking, and it was certainly money well spent to revive and recreate one of the nation's most treasured landmark. One of my favorite places within the hotel is the Main Lobby at Avenue des Portugais where the grand hall is adorned with a spectacular chandelier installation comprising 800 pieces of glass leaves inspired by the plane trees along Avenue Kleber. The work of Spain's most influential artist since Gaudi, Xavier Corbero, could also be found nearby in the form of a beautiful sculpture called Moon River.

 

Katara Hospitality owns 80% of The Peninsula Paris, and already has a spectacular portfolio ownership consisting some of the world's finest hotels, including The Raffles Singapore, Le Royal Monceau-Raffles Paris, Ritz-Carlton Doha, Schweizerhof Bern, and most recently, 5 of the InterContinental Hotel's European flagships, including Amstel in Amsterdam, Carlton in Cannes, De la Ville in Rome, Madrid and Frankfurt. It is interesting to note that Adrian Zecha, founder of the extraordinary Amanresorts chain is a member of the Board of Directors at Katara since September 2011, lending his immense hospitality expertise to the group.

 

At over USD 1 billion cost, the Pen Paris project is easily the most expensive to ever being built, considering it has only 200 rooms over 6 storeys. As a comparison, the cost of building the 101 storey, 494m high Shanghai World Financial Center (where the Park Hyatt Shanghai resides) is USD 1.2 billion; whereas Burj Khalifa, the current tallest building on earth at 163 storey and 828m, costed a 'modest' USD 1.5 billion to build. The numbers are truly mind boggling, and The Peninsula Paris is truly an extraordinary project. It might took the Majestic Hotel two years to build; but it took four years just to restore and reincarnate it into a Peninsula.

 

HOTEL OPENING

On a pleasant afternoon of 1 August 2014, the hotel finally opened its door to a crowd of distinguished guests, international journalists, first hotel guests and local crowds who partake to witness the inauguration and rebirth of a Parisian legend and grande dame (Many A-list celebrities and even Head of State flocked to the hotel to witness its sheer beauty). It was an historic day not just for Paris, but also for the Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Group as it marks their arrival in Europe with its first ever Peninsula, while the second is already on the pipeline with the future opening of The Peninsula London, located just behind The Lanesborough at Knightsbridge.

 

The eagerly-awaited opening ceremony was attended by the Chairman of Katara Hospitality, His Excellency Sheikh Nawaf Bin Jassim Bin Jabor Al-Thani; CEO of Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Limited (HSH), Clement Kwok; Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development, Laurent Fabius; General Manager of the Peninsula Paris, Nicolas Béliard; and the event kicked off with an opening speech by the famous French Secretary of State for Foreign Trade, the Promotion of Tourism and French Nationals Abroad, Madame Fleur Pellerin, who clearly stole the show with her public persona. A ribbon cutting and spectacular lion dance show concluded the event, which drew quite a spectacle on Avenue des Portugais as it brought a unique display of Asian heritage to the heart of cosmopolitan Paris.

 

LOCATION

The Peninsula Paris stands majestically at the tree-lined Avenue Kléber, just off the Arc de Triomphe. Personally, this is an ideal location in Paris as it is a stone's throw away from all the happenings at the Champs-Élysées, but is set away from its hustle and bustle, which is constantly a tourist trap day and night. Once you walk pass the leafy Avenue Kléber, the atmosphere is very different: peaceful and safe. The Kléber Metro station is just a few steps away from the hotel, providing guests a convenient access to further parts of town.

 

Champs-Élysées is the center of Parisian universe, and it is just a short and pleasant stroll away from the hotel, where some of the city's most legendary commercial and cultural institutions reside. For a start, Drugstore Publicis at the corner by the roundabout has been a legendary hang-out since the 1960s, and is my ultimate favourite place in town. The Post Modern edifice by architect Michele Saee (renovated in 2004) houses almost everything: a Cinema; side walk Brasserie & Steak House; Newsagency; Bookshop (you can find Travel publications and even the Michelin Guide); upscale Gift shop and Beauty corner (even Acqua di Parma is on sale here); Pharmacy (whose pharmacist thankfully speaks English and gladly advises you on your symptoms); upscale deli (stocking pretty much everything from Foie gras burger on the counter, to fine wines & cigar cellar; to Pierre Herme & Pierre Marcolini chocolates; Dalloyau bakery; Marriage Freres tea; and even the Petrossian Caviar!). Best of all, it features a 2 Michelin star L'atelier de Joel Robuchon Etoile on its basement; and the store is even opened on Sunday until 2am. It is a one stop shopping, eating and entertainment, showcasing the best of France.

 

Further down the road, Maison Louis Vuitton stands majestically on its own entire 7 storey building, which was opened in 2005 as one of the biggest flagship stores in the world, covering a total area of 1,800m2. Designed by Eric Carlson and Peter Marino, the entire store is an architectural marvel and the temple of luxury, elegance and sophistication. This is one of the very few stores to open in Sunday as the French Labour Unions prohibits commercial stores to open on Sunday, unless if it involves cultural, recreational and sporting aspect. Initially, Maison LV was ordered by the court to close on Sunday, but LVMH finally wins an appeal in 2007 on the grounds of cultural experience; and the store has continued to draw endless queue on Sunday.

 

A block away from Maison LV is the legendary Parisian Tea Room of Ladurée, which was founded in 1862 by Louis Ernest Ladurée on its original store at 16 Rue Royal as a bakery. The Champs-Élysées store was opened in 1997 and has since attracted an endless queue of tourists and locals who wish to savour its legendary Macarons and pastries. The Ladurée phenomenon and popularity could only be rivaled by fellow Frenchmen Pierre Hermé, who has also attracted a cult of loyal fans worldwide. It may not have a flagship store at Champs-Élysées, but one could easily stop by Drugstore Publicis for a quick purchase to ease the craving.

 

For those looking for upscale boutiques, Avenue Montaigne located just nearby on a perpendicular, and features the flagship presence of the world's finest luxury fashion labels: Armani, Bottega Veneta, Valention, Prada, Dior, Versace, Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Gucci, Saint Laurent, Fendi and Salvatore Ferragamo to name a few. For the ultimate in shopping extravaganza, head down to Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré where all money will (hopefully) be well spent.

 

Champs-Élysées is the most famous and expensive boulevard in the world, yet it has everything for everyone; and myriad of crowds flocking its grand boulevards for a pleasant stroll. It has no shortage of luxury stores, but it also offers mainstream stores for the general public, from Levi's to Zara and Lacoste; to McDonalds and Starbucks; and FNAC store (French answer to HMV).

 

In terms of fine dining experience, the areas around Champs-Élysées has plenty to offer. I have mentioned about the 2 Michelin L'atelier de Joel Robuchon Etoile at the Drugstore Publicis, which was excellent. Robuchon never disappoints as it consistently serves amazing French cuisine amidst its signature red and black interior everywhere I visited, including Tokyo (3 Michelin), Hong Kong (3 Michelin), Paris (2 Michelin) and Taipei.

 

During my stay, I also managed to sample the finest cuisine from the kitchens of two, 3-Michelin Paris institutions: Pierre Gagnaire at Rue Balzac, just off Champs-Élysées; and Epicure at Le Bristol by Chef Eric Frechon on Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, which was undoubtedly the best and most memorable dining experiences I have ever had in Paris to date. It is certainly the gastronomic highlight of this trip.

 

Other 3 Michelin establishment, such as Ledoyen is also located nearby at an 18th century pavilion by the Gardens of Champs-Élysées by newly appointed famous French Chef Yannick Alléno, who previously also resided at the Le Meurice with 3 Michelin, until Alain Ducasse took over last year during the Plaza Athénée closure for expansion.

 

August is a time of misery for international visitors to Paris as most fine dining restaurants are closed for the summer holiday. When choices are limited, foodies could rely on Epicure and Robuchon, which are opened all year round; and also the 2 Michelin star Le Cinq at the Four Seasons George V. Although its food could not compete with Robuchon, Epicure and Gagnaire, guests could still enjoy the beautiful surroundings.

 

ROOMS:

On my visit to Paris last year, I was not too impressed with my stay at the Four Seasons George V, as everything seemed to be pretty basic: the room design; the in-room tech and amenities; and even the much lauded service. It simply does not justify the hefty price tag. The only thing stood out there were the ostentatious designer floral display at the lobby, which reportedly absorbed a six digit figure budget annually. When I saw them at the first time, this was what came to mind: guests are paying for these excessive flowers, whether you like it or not.

 

Fortunately, the Peninsula Paris skips all this expensive gimmick, and instead spends a fortune for guests to enjoy: advance room technology; a host of complimentary essential amenities, including internet access, non-alcoholic minibar, and even long distance phone calls. In fact, every single items inside the room has been well thought and designed for guest's ultimate comfort.

 

Ever since The Peninsula Bangkok opened in 1998 to much success, the group has used it as a template for its signature rooms for future sister hotels, which consists of an open plan, ultra-wide spacious room equivalent to a 2 bays suite, with 5-fixtures bathroom, and a separate Dressing Room, which soon becomes a Peninsula signature.

 

The Peninsula Tokyo followed this template when it opened in 2007 to rave reviews; and it was soon adopted as a model for Peninsula Shanghai, which later opened in 2009 as the flagship property in Mainland China. This layout is also being applied at The Peninsula Paris, albeit for its Suites categories, i.e. Junior Suite, which measure at an astonishing 50 - 60m2. The entry level Superior and Deluxe Rooms lack the signature layout with smaller size at 35 - 45m2, but they are already spacious for a Parisian standard; and each is equipped with Peninsula's signature technology.

 

Technology is indeed at the core of the Peninsula DNA, and no expense is spared in creating the world's most advance in-room technology. When other hotels try to cut costs and budgets on in-room technology with lame excuses, the Peninsula actually spends a fortune to innovate and set a new benchmark. In fact, it is probably the only hotel group to have its own Technology laboratory at a secret location deep inside Aberdeen, Hong Kong, where in-room tech is being developed and tested. It was here where innovative devices, such as the outside temperature indicator; my favourite Spa Button by the bathtub; or even the portable nail dryer for the ladies are invented. The Peninsula took the world by storm when it introduced the Samsung Galaxy tablet device at the Peninsula Hong Kong in 2012, which is programmed in 11 languages and virtually controls the entire room, including the lights, temperature, curtains, TV, radio, valet calls and Do Not Disturb sign. It even features touch screen Room Service Menu, hotel information, city guide, and a function to request room service and housekeeping items, thus creating an entirely paperless environment.

 

All these technological marvel are also being replicated at the Peninsula Paris, together with other 'standard' features, such as Nespresso Coffee Machine; flat-screen 3D LED television; LED touch screen wall panels; an iPod/iPad docking station; memory card reader; 4-in1 fax/scanner/printer/photocopier machine; DVD player; complimentary in-house HD movies; complimentary internet access and long distance calls through the VOIP platform. Even the room's exterior Parisian-styled canopy is electronically operated. All these technological offerings is so extremely complex, that it resulted in 2.5 km worth of cabling in each room alone.

 

Bathroom at the Junior Suite also features Peninsula's signature layout: a stand alone bathtub as the focal point, flanked by twin vanities and separate shower and WC compartments amidst acres of white marble. Probably the first in Paris, it features a Japanese Toilet complete with basic control panel, and a manual handheld bidet sprayer.

 

When all these add up to the stay, it actually brings a very good value to the otherwise high room rates. Better yet, the non-alcoholic Minibar is also complimentary, which is a first for a Peninsula hotel. The Four Seasons George V may choose to keep looking back to its antiquity past and annihilate most technological offerings to its most basic form, but the Pen always looks forward to the future and brings the utter convenience, all at your finger tip. The Peninsula rooms are undoubtedly the best designed, best equipped and most high-tech in the entire universe.

 

ROOM TO BOOK:

The 50 - 60m2 Junior Suite facing leafy Avenue Kléber is the best room type to book as it is an open-plan suite with Peninsula's signature bathroom and dressing room; and the ones located on the Premiere étage (first floor) have high ceilings and small balcony overlooking Kleber Terrace's iconic glass canopy. Personally, rooms facing the back street at Rue La Pérouse are the least preferred, but its top level rooms inside the Mansart Roof on level 5 have juliet windows that allow glimpse of the tip of Eiffel Tower despite being smaller in size due to its attic configuration. Superior Rooms also lack the signature Peninsula 5 fixtures bathroom configuration, so for the ultimate bathing experience, make sure to book at least from the Deluxe category.

 

If money is no object, book one of the five piece-de-resistance suites with their own private rooftop terrace and gardens on the top floor, which allow 360 degree panoramic views of Paris. Otherwise, the mid-tier Deluxe Suite is already a great choice with corner location, multiple windows and 85m2 of pure luxury.

 

DINING:

Looking back at the hotel's illustrious past, the Peninsula offers some of the most unique and memorable dining experiences in Paris, steep in history.

 

The area that once housed Igor Stravinksy's after party where James Joyce met Marcel Proust for the first time is now the hotel's Cantonese Restaurant, aptly called LiLi; and is led by Chef Chi Keung Tang, formerly of Peninsula Tokyo's One Michelin starred Hei Fung Terrace. Lili was actually modeled after Peninsula Shanghai's Yi Long Court, but the design here blends Chinese elements with Art Nouveau style that flourished in the late 1920s. It also boasts a world first: a spectacular 3x3.3m fiber optic installation at the entrance of the restaurant, depicting the imaginary portrait of LiLi herself. The Cantonese menu was surprisingly rather simple and basic, and features a selection of popular dim sum dishes. The best and most memorable Chinese restaurants I have ever experienced are actually those who masterfully fuse Chinese tradition with French ingredients: Jin Sha at the Four Seasons Hangzhou at Westlake; 2 Michelin Tin Lung Heen at Level 102 of the Ritz-Carlton Hong Kong; Jiang at Mandarin Oriental Guangzhou by Chef Fei; and Ya Ge at Mandarin Oriental Taipei. Ironically, the world's only 3 Michelin star Chinese restaurant, Lung King Heen at the Four Seasons Hong Kong failed to impress me.

 

The former Ballroom area where Henry Kissinger started the Paris Peace talks with the Vietnamese has now been transformed as The Lobby, which is a signature of every Peninsula hotels where the afternoon tea ritual takes place daily. The spectacular room with intricate details and crystal chandeliers has been meticulously restored, and is an ideal place to meet, see and be seen. Breakfast is served daily here, and guests could choose to have it either inside or outside at the adjoining al fresco La Terrasse Kléber, which connects all the F&B outlets on the ground floor, including Lili. Guests could choose from a Chinese set breakfast, which includes dim sum, fried vermicelli, and porridge with beef slices; or the Parisian set, which includes gourmet items such as Egg Benedict with generous slices of Jamon Iberico on top. The afternoon tea ritual is expected to be very popular as renowned Chef Pattissier Julien Alvarez, -who claimed the World Pastry Champion in 2009; and also the Spanish World Chocolate Master in 2007 at the tender age of 23, is at the helm; and the venue quickly booked out from the opening day.

 

Next to the Lobby is a small, intimate bar covered in exquisite oak panelling where Henry Kissinger signed the Paris Peace Accord back in 1973 that ended the Vietnam War. Kissinger politely declined the offer to have the Bar named after him, and instead it is simply called Le Bar Kléber.

 

On the top floor of the hotel lies the signature restaurant L'Oiseau Blanc, which is named after the French biplane that disappeared in 1927 in an attempt to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight between Paris and New York. A 75% replica of the plane has even been installed outside the main entrance of the restaurant with the Eiffel Tower on its background. The restaurant is divided into 3 distinct areas: a spectacular glass enclosed main dining room; a large outdoor terrace that runs the entire length of the hotel's roof; and an adjoining lively bar, all with breathtaking uninterrupted views of Paris' most identifiable landmarks, including the Eiffel Tower and the Sacré-Cœur at the highest point of the city at Montmartre.

 

L'Oiseau Blanc is led by Chef Sidney Redel, a former protégé of Pierre Gagnaire, and serves contemporary French cuisine focussing on 'terroir' menu of locally sourced seasonal ingredients from the region. During my stay, tomato was the seasonal ingredients, and Chef Redel created four courses incorporating tomato, even on dessert. While the food was of high quality, personally the menu still needs fine tuning, considering the sort of clientele the Pen is aiming for: the ultra rich (Chinese), who usually seek top establishments with luxury ingredients, such as caviar, black truffle, foie gras, blue lobster, Jamon Iberico, Wagyu beef, Kurobuta pork and Challans chicken.

 

LEISURE:

The Peninsula Paris features one of the best health and recreational facilities in the city, housed within the basement of the hotel, and covers an expansive area of 1,800m2. For a comparison, rival Mandarin Oriental Spa covers a total area of only 900m2 over two floors. The Peninsula Spa is undoubtedly one of the nicest urban spa that I have been to, it easily beats the Spa at the Four Seasons George V. The pool is also one of the city's largest at 22m long, -compared to both the Shangri-La and Mandarin Oriental at 15m; the George V at only 9m, which is more like a bigger jacuzzi. The only two other pools better than the Peninsula is the one designed by Phillippe Starck at the Le Royal Monceau at 28m; and the spectacular grand pool at the Ritz.

 

There is the usual 24 hours gym within two fitness spaces equipped with Technogym machines and free weights; and the locker rooms features steam, sauna, and experience shower room. There is a total of 8 treatment rooms within the Spa area, and the highlight is certainly the Relaxation Room, which is equipped with amazing day beds with specially placed deep cushions. The best part? the beds are electronically operated, much like a first class seat on a plane.

 

X-FACTOR:

The Peninsula signature technology; The Spa Button in the bathroom; VOIP technology for complimentary long distance calls; The top suites (Historic, Katara and Peninsula Suites); Xavier Corbero's Moon River sculpture at the Lobby; Lili; The Lobby and Bar where Henry Kissinger signed Paris Peace Accord; L'Oiseau Blanc Restaurant; The 1,800m2 Peninsula Spa; and the 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II.

 

SERVICE:

There are a total of 600 staffs for just 200 rooms, so the service level is expected to be high; but it is perhaps unfair to judge the service during the opening weeks when all staffs were not at their best due to the intense preparation leading to the opening event. Furthermore, teething problems are expected for a newly opened hotel as great hotels are not born overnight, but takes a good few years of refinement.

 

Nonetheless, I was actually quite impressed with the level of service during the whole stay, as the majority of the staffs showed great attitude and much enthusiasm, which is a testament of great intense training. As one of the first guests arriving on the opening day, check-in was truly delightful and memorable as a battalion of staffs of different ranks welcomed and wished the most pleasant stay. The mood could not have been more festive as moments later, the hotel was finally inaugurated.

 

I was also particularly impressed with the service at both LiLi and The Lobby where staffs performed at an exceptional level like a veteran. There are two distinct qualities that made a lot of difference during the stay: humility and friendliness, which is quite a challenge to find, not only in Paris and the entire Europe, but even in Asian cities, such as Hong Kong. It is like finding needles in a haystack. A genuine smile seems to be a rare commodity these days, so I was happy to see plenty of smiles at the Peninsula Paris during the stay, from the signature Peninsula Pageboys to waiters, Maître d, receptionists and even to Managers and Directors. In fact, there were more smiles in Paris than Hong Kong.

 

When I woken up too early for breakfast one day, the restaurant was just about to open; and there were hardly anyone. I realized that even the birds were probably still asleep, but I was extremely delighted to see how fresh looking and energetic the staffs were at the dining room. There was a lot of genuine smile that warmed the rather chilly morning; and it was a great start to the day. One of the staffs I met during the stay even candidly explained how they were happy just to be at work, and it does not feel like working at all, which was clearly shown in their passion and enthusiasm.

 

That said, the Shangri-La Paris by far is still my top pick for best service as it is more personalized and refined due to its more intimate scale. The Shangri-La Paris experience is also unique as guests are welcomed to a sit down registration by the historic lounge off the Lobby upon arrival, and choice of drinks are offered, before being escorted to the room for in-room check-in. Guests also receive a Pre-Arrival Form in advance, so the hotel could anticipate and best accommodate their needs. During the stay, I was also addressed by my last name everywhere within the hotel, so it was highly personalized. I did receive similar treatment at The Peninsula Paris, -albeit in a lesser extent due to its size; and even the housekeeping greeted me by my last name. Every requests, from room service to mineral water were all handled efficiently at a timely manner. At times, service could be rather slow at the restaurants (well, it happens almost everywhere in Paris), but this is part of the Parisian lifestyle where nothing is hurried; and bringing bills/checks upfront is considered rude. I did request the food servings to be expedited during a lunch at LiLi on the last day due to the time constraint; and the staffs managed to succeed the task not only ahead of the time limit, but also it never felt hurried all along. Everything ran as smooth as silk.

 

VERDICT:

It was a personal satisfaction to witness the history in the making during the opening day on 1 August 2014, as the Peninsula Paris is my most eagerly awaited hotel opening of the decade. It was also historic, as it was a first in my travel to dedicate a trip solely for a particular hotel in a particular city (in this case Paris, some 11,578km away from home), without staying at other fine hotels. It was money well spent, and a trip worth taking as it was an amazing stay; and certainly a lifetime experience.

 

The Peninsula Paris could not have arrived at a better time, as two of the most established Parisian grande dames (Ritz and de Crillon) are still closed for a complete renovation, and will only be revealed in 2015; so there is plenty of time to adapt, grow and hone its skills. But with such pedigree, quality and illustrious history, the Pen really has nothing to be worried about. The Four Seasons George V seems to have a cult of highly obsessed fans (esp. travel agents) worldwide, but personally (and objectively), it is no match to the Peninsula. Based on physical product alone, the Pen wins in every aspect as everything has been meticulously designed with the focus on guest comfort and convenience. In terms of technology, the Pen literally has no rival anywhere on the planet, except from the obvious sibling rivalry.

 

The only thing that the Pen still needs to work on is its signature restaurants as all its rival hotels have at least 2 Michelin star restaurants (L'abeille at the Shangri-La; Sur Mesure at the Mandarin Oriental; and 3 Michelin at Epicure, Le Bristol; Le Cinq at the Four Seasons George V and Alain Ducasse at Le Meurice). L'Oiseau Blanc design is truly breathtaking and would certainly be the most popular gastronomic destination in Paris, but at the moment, the food still needs some works.

 

There were the expected teething problems and some inconsistencies with the service; but with years of refinement, The Peninsula Paris will no doubt ascend the throne. Personally, the Shangri-La Paris is currently the real competitor, together with the upcoming Ritz and de Crillon when they open next year, especially when Rosewood has taken over Crillon management and Karl Lagerfeld is working on its top suites. The two, however, may still need to revisit the drawing boards and put more effort on the guestrooms if they ever want to compete; because at the moment, The Peninsula Paris is simply unrivaled.

 

UPDATE 2016:

*I have always been very spot-on with my predictions. After only two years since its opening, The Peninsula Paris has been awarded the much coveted Palace status. In fact, it is the only hotel in Paris to receive such distinction in 2016. Congratulations, it is very much deserving*

 

PERSONAL RATING:

1. Room: 100

2. Bathroom: 100

3. Bed: 100

4. Service: 90

5. In-room Tech: 100

6. In-room Amenities: 100

7. Architecture & Design: 100

8. Food: 80

9. View: 80

10. Pool: 95

11. Wellness: 95

12. Location: 95

13. Value: 100

 

Overall: 95.00

 

Compare with other Parisian hotels (all with Palace status) that I have stayed previously:

SHANGRI-LA HOTEL, PARIS: 95.00

PARK HYATT PARIS-VENDOME: 90.00

FOUR SEASONS GEORGE V: 85.38

 

My #1 ALL TIME FAVORITE HOTEL

LANDMARK MANDARIN ORIENTAL, HONG KONG: 95.38

 

THE PENINSULA, PARIS

19, Avenue Kléber, Paris

Awarded Palace Status in 2016

 

General Manager: Nicolas Béliard

Hotel Manager: Vincent Pimont

Executive Chef: Jean-Edern Hurstel

Head Chef (Lili): Chi Keung Tang

Head Chef (L'oiseau Blanc): Sidney Redel

Head Chef (The Lobby): Laurent Poitevin

Chef Patissier: Julien Alvarez

 

Architect (original Majestic Hotel, circa 1908): Armand Sibien

Architect (renovation & restoration, 2010-2014): Richard Martinet

Interior Designer: Henry Leung of Chhada Siembieda & Associates

Landscape Designer: D. Paysage

 

Art Curator: Sabrina Fung

Art Restorer: Cinzia Pasquali

Artist (Courtyard installation): Ben Jakober & Yannick Vu

Crystal work: Baccarat

Designer (Lili fiber optic installation): Clementine Chambon & Francoise Mamert

Designer (Chinaware): Catherine Bergen

Gilder Specialist & Restorer: Ateliers Gohard

Glass Crafter (Lobby Installation): Lasvit Glass Studio

Master Glass Crafters: Duchemin

Master Sculptor (Lobby): Xavier Corbero

Metalwork: Remy Garnier

Plaster & Moulding Expert: Stuc et Staff

Silverware: Christofle

Silk & Trimmings: Declercq Passementiers

Wood Restoration Expert: Atelier Fancelli

  

Hotel Opening Date: 01 August 2014

Notable owners: Katara Hospitality; Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Group (HSH)

Total Rooms & Suites: 200 (including 35m2 Superior, 45m2 Deluxe, 50m2 Grand Deluxe, 55m2 Premier and 60m2 Grand Premier Rooms)

Total Suites: 34 Suites (including 70m2 Superior, 85m2 Deluxe and 100m2 Premier

Top Suites: Historic Suite, Katara Suite, and The Peninsula Suite

Bathroom Amenities: Oscar de la Renta

 

Restaurants: The Lobby (All day dining & Afternoon tea), LiLi (Cantonese), L'Oiseau Blanc (French), La Terrasse Kléber

Bars and Lounges: Le Bar Kléber; Kléber Lounge; Cigar Lounge; and L'Oiseau Blanc Bar

Meeting & Banquets: Salon de l'Étoile for up to 100 guests, and 3 smaller Function Rooms

Health & Leisure: 24 hours gym & 1,800m2 Peninsula Spa with 22m indoor swimming pool and jacuzzis; Steam & Sauna, Relaxation Room, and 8 treatment rooms

Transport: chauffeur-driven Rolls Royce Extended Wheel Base Phantom; a 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II; 2 MINI Cooper S Clubman; and a fleet of 10 BMW 7 Series

 

Complimentary facilities: Non-alcoholic Minibar; Wired and Wireless Internet; VOIP long distance calls; HD Movies; Daily fruit Basket; International Newspaper; Chauffeured MINI Cooper S Clubman for Suites guests; and Chauffeured Rolls Royce for top Suites

 

paris.peninsula.com

© yohanes.budiyanto, 2014

 

PRELUDE

The 1st of August, 2014 was such an historic day as the world finally welcomed the birth of the first in line to the Parisian throne after a painstaking and extraordinary "labor" process that took four years in creation, and almost a decade in the making. I was not talking about a French rival to baby George, but instead a newborn that has sent shivers down the spines of Paris' oldest and current Kings and Grand Dames from the day it was conceived. Yes, I was referring to The Peninsula Paris, the youngest sister to the legendary Peninsula Hong Kong (circa 1928).

 

Ever since the project was announced to the public four years ago, it has been on my top list of the most eagerly awaited hotel openings of the decade. So when the hotel announced 1st of August as an opening date back in March, I immediately issued my First Class return tickets to the City of Light, risking the usual opening delay. A man of his word, Peninsula Paris finally opened as scheduled.

 

HISTORY

The Peninsula brand needs no introduction, as it is synonymous with quality, technology, innovation, craftsmanship and sophistication, -much like a slogan for French top brands and their savoir faire. Despite having only 10 current properties worldwide in its portfolio (Paris is its tenth), each Peninsula hotel is a market leader in each respective cities, and consistently tops the chart in many bonafide travel publications and reigns supreme as the world's best, especially elder sisters in Hong Kong and Bangkok. The Peninsula model is different from other rival hotel groups, which usually expand aggressively through both franchise and managed models worldwide. Instead, the Peninsula focuses on acquiring majority to sole ownership on all its properties to ensure control on quality (Hong Kong, New York, Chicago and Tokyo are 100% owned; Bangkok, Beijing and Manila are over 75%; Shanghai is 50%, while Beverly Hills and Paris are the only two with only 20% ownership).

 

The history of the Peninsula Paris could be traced back to a modest villa aptly called Hotel Basilevski on the plot of land at 19 Avenue Kleber back in 1864, -named after its Russian diplomat owner, Alexander Petrovich Basilevski, which caught the attention of hotelier Leonard Tauber for his prospective hotel project. The Versailles-styled property was partly a museum housing Basilevski's vast and impressive collection of 19th century medieval and Renaissance art, which eventually was acquired by Alexander III, -a Russian Tsar, at the sums of six millions francs. These collections were later transported to the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, and formed the base collection for the newly established Department of Medieval and Renaissance Art. After Basilevski sold the villa and moved to a more palatial residence at Avenue du Trocadero, the property was then acquired and rebranded the Palais de Castille as the residence of the exiled Queen Isabella II of Spain in 1868, who seeked refuge and continued to live there until 1904. Upon her death, the property was later demolished in 1906 to make way for the Majestic hotel, which finally opened in 1908 with much satisfaction of Leonard Tauber, who has eyed the premise from the very beginning.

 

The Majestic Hotel was exquisitely designed in the Beaux-Art style as a grand hotel by prominent architect of that time, Armand Sibien. Together with The Ritz (circa 1898), the two became the most preferred places to stay and entertain in Paris of the time. The Majestic has attracted the well-heeled crowd, and hosted many high profile events, most notably for a particular dinner hosted by rich British couple Sydney and Violet Schiff on 18 May 1922 as the after party of Igor Stravinsky's 'Le Renard' ballet premiere, and the hotel becomes an instant legend. The guests list were impressive: Igor Stravinsky himself, Pablo Picasso, Sergei Diaghilev, and two of the 20th century most legendary writers: James Joyce and Marcel Proust, who met for the first and only time before Proust's death six months later. Since then, the Majestic continued to draw high profile guests, including George Gershwin on 25 March 1928, where he composed "An American in Paris" during the stay.

 

If the walls could talk, the Majestic has plenty of stories to tell. It was once converted into a hospital during the infamy in 1914, and the British took residency at the hotel during the Paris Peace Conference back in 1919. The hotel was then acquired by the French State in 1936 as the offices of the Ministry of Defence; and later had a stint as the German Military High Command in France between October 1940 to July 1944 during the World War II. Post war, it then became the temporary home for UNESCO from 16 September 1946 until 1958. More than a decade after, the Paris Peace talks was opened by Henry Kissinger in one of its spectacular Ballrooms in 1969 with the Northern Vietnamese. Four years later, the Paris Peace Accord was finally signed at the oak paneled-room next to the Ballroom on 27 January 1973, which ended the Vietnam War. This triumphant event has also led to another victorious event when Henry Kissinger won the Nobel Peace Prize that same year.

 

The hotel continued to serve as the International Conference Center of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs until it was up for sale by the government in 2008 as part of the cost cutting program to the Qatari Diar, -which later transferred its ownership to Katara Hospitality, for a staggering USD 460 million. An excess of USD 600 million was further spent on the massive rebuilding and refurbishment not only to restore the hotel to its former glory, but also to transform it into a Peninsula with the highest standard.

 

The epic restoration work was led by prominent French architect, Richard Martinet, who has also previously work with the restoration of Prince Roland Bonaparte's former mansion into the Shangri-La Paris and also the Four Seasons George V; and involved teams of France's leading craftsmen; heritage designers and organisations; stonemasons from historic monument specialist; master glass crafters; crystal manufacturer; wood, moulding and gilder restoration experts, -many of whom are third generation, and have carried out high profile projects such as the Palace of Versailles, Louvre Museum, the dome of Les Invalides, the Grand and Petit Palais, and even the flame of the Statue of Liberty in New York. The result is truly breathtaking, and it was certainly money well spent to revive and recreate one of the nation's most treasured landmark. One of my favorite places within the hotel is the Main Lobby at Avenue des Portugais where the grand hall is adorned with a spectacular chandelier installation comprising 800 pieces of glass leaves inspired by the plane trees along Avenue Kleber. The work of Spain's most influential artist since Gaudi, Xavier Corbero, could also be found nearby in the form of a beautiful sculpture called Moon River.

 

Katara Hospitality owns 80% of The Peninsula Paris, and already has a spectacular portfolio ownership consisting some of the world's finest hotels, including The Raffles Singapore, Le Royal Monceau-Raffles Paris, Ritz-Carlton Doha, Schweizerhof Bern, and most recently, 5 of the InterContinental Hotel's European flagships, including Amstel in Amsterdam, Carlton in Cannes, De la Ville in Rome, Madrid and Frankfurt. It is interesting to note that Adrian Zecha, founder of the extraordinary Amanresorts chain is a member of the Board of Directors at Katara since September 2011, lending his immense hospitality expertise to the group.

 

At over USD 1 billion cost, the Pen Paris project is easily the most expensive to ever being built, considering it has only 200 rooms over 6 storeys. As a comparison, the cost of building the 101 storey, 494m high Shanghai World Financial Center (where the Park Hyatt Shanghai resides) is USD 1.2 billion; whereas Burj Khalifa, the current tallest building on earth at 163 storey and 828m, costed a 'modest' USD 1.5 billion to build. The numbers are truly mind boggling, and The Peninsula Paris is truly an extraordinary project. It might took the Majestic Hotel two years to build; but it took four years just to restore and reincarnate it into a Peninsula.

 

HOTEL OPENING

On a pleasant afternoon of 1 August 2014, the hotel finally opened its door to a crowd of distinguished guests, international journalists, first hotel guests and local crowds who partake to witness the inauguration and rebirth of a Parisian legend and grande dame (Many A-list celebrities and even Head of State flocked to the hotel to witness its sheer beauty). It was an historic day not just for Paris, but also for the Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Group as it marks their arrival in Europe with its first ever Peninsula, while the second is already on the pipeline with the future opening of The Peninsula London, located just behind The Lanesborough at Knightsbridge.

 

The eagerly-awaited opening ceremony was attended by the Chairman of Katara Hospitality, His Excellency Sheikh Nawaf Bin Jassim Bin Jabor Al-Thani; CEO of Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Limited (HSH), Clement Kwok; Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development, Laurent Fabius; General Manager of the Peninsula Paris, Nicolas Béliard; and the event kicked off with an opening speech by the famous French Secretary of State for Foreign Trade, the Promotion of Tourism and French Nationals Abroad, Madame Fleur Pellerin, who clearly stole the show with her public persona. A ribbon cutting and spectacular lion dance show concluded the event, which drew quite a spectacle on Avenue des Portugais as it brought a unique display of Asian heritage to the heart of cosmopolitan Paris.

 

LOCATION

The Peninsula Paris stands majestically at the tree-lined Avenue Kléber, just off the Arc de Triomphe. Personally, this is an ideal location in Paris as it is a stone's throw away from all the happenings at the Champs-Élysées, but is set away from its hustle and bustle, which is constantly a tourist trap day and night. Once you walk pass the leafy Avenue Kléber, the atmosphere is very different: peaceful and safe. The Kléber Metro station is just a few steps away from the hotel, providing guests a convenient access to further parts of town.

 

Champs-Élysées is the center of Parisian universe, and it is just a short and pleasant stroll away from the hotel, where some of the city's most legendary commercial and cultural institutions reside. For a start, Drugstore Publicis at the corner by the roundabout has been a legendary hang-out since the 1960s, and is my ultimate favourite place in town. The Post Modern edifice by architect Michele Saee (renovated in 2004) houses almost everything: a Cinema; side walk Brasserie & Steak House; Newsagency; Bookshop (you can find Travel publications and even the Michelin Guide); upscale Gift shop and Beauty corner (even Acqua di Parma is on sale here); Pharmacy (whose pharmacist thankfully speaks English and gladly advises you on your symptoms); upscale deli (stocking pretty much everything from Foie gras burger on the counter, to fine wines & cigar cellar; to Pierre Herme & Pierre Marcolini chocolates; Dalloyau bakery; Marriage Freres tea; and even the Petrossian Caviar!). Best of all, it features a 2 Michelin star L'atelier de Joel Robuchon Etoile on its basement; and the store is even opened on Sunday until 2am. It is a one stop shopping, eating and entertainment, showcasing the best of France.

 

Further down the road, Maison Louis Vuitton stands majestically on its own entire 7 storey building, which was opened in 2005 as one of the biggest flagship stores in the world, covering a total area of 1,800m2. Designed by Eric Carlson and Peter Marino, the entire store is an architectural marvel and the temple of luxury, elegance and sophistication. This is one of the very few stores to open in Sunday as the French Labour Unions prohibits commercial stores to open on Sunday, unless if it involves cultural, recreational and sporting aspect. Initially, Maison LV was ordered by the court to close on Sunday, but LVMH finally wins an appeal in 2007 on the grounds of cultural experience; and the store has continued to draw endless queue on Sunday.

 

A block away from Maison LV is the legendary Parisian Tea Room of Ladurée, which was founded in 1862 by Louis Ernest Ladurée on its original store at 16 Rue Royal as a bakery. The Champs-Élysées store was opened in 1997 and has since attracted an endless queue of tourists and locals who wish to savour its legendary Macarons and pastries. The Ladurée phenomenon and popularity could only be rivaled by fellow Frenchmen Pierre Hermé, who has also attracted a cult of loyal fans worldwide. It may not have a flagship store at Champs-Élysées, but one could easily stop by Drugstore Publicis for a quick purchase to ease the craving.

 

For those looking for upscale boutiques, Avenue Montaigne located just nearby on a perpendicular, and features the flagship presence of the world's finest luxury fashion labels: Armani, Bottega Veneta, Valention, Prada, Dior, Versace, Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Gucci, Saint Laurent, Fendi and Salvatore Ferragamo to name a few. For the ultimate in shopping extravaganza, head down to Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré where all money will (hopefully) be well spent.

 

Champs-Élysées is the most famous and expensive boulevard in the world, yet it has everything for everyone; and myriad of crowds flocking its grand boulevards for a pleasant stroll. It has no shortage of luxury stores, but it also offers mainstream stores for the general public, from Levi's to Zara and Lacoste; to McDonalds and Starbucks; and FNAC store (French answer to HMV).

 

In terms of fine dining experience, the areas around Champs-Élysées has plenty to offer. I have mentioned about the 2 Michelin L'atelier de Joel Robuchon Etoile at the Drugstore Publicis, which was excellent. Robuchon never disappoints as it consistently serves amazing French cuisine amidst its signature red and black interior everywhere I visited, including Tokyo (3 Michelin), Hong Kong (3 Michelin), Paris (2 Michelin) and Taipei.

 

During my stay, I also managed to sample the finest cuisine from the kitchens of two, 3-Michelin Paris institutions: Pierre Gagnaire at Rue Balzac, just off Champs-Élysées; and Epicure at Le Bristol by Chef Eric Frechon on Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, which was undoubtedly the best and most memorable dining experiences I have ever had in Paris to date. It is certainly the gastronomic highlight of this trip.

 

Other 3 Michelin establishment, such as Ledoyen is also located nearby at an 18th century pavilion by the Gardens of Champs-Élysées by newly appointed famous French Chef Yannick Alléno, who previously also resided at the Le Meurice with 3 Michelin, until Alain Ducasse took over last year during the Plaza Athénée closure for expansion.

 

August is a time of misery for international visitors to Paris as most fine dining restaurants are closed for the summer holiday. When choices are limited, foodies could rely on Epicure and Robuchon, which are opened all year round; and also the 2 Michelin star Le Cinq at the Four Seasons George V. Although its food could not compete with Robuchon, Epicure and Gagnaire, guests could still enjoy the beautiful surroundings.

 

ROOMS:

On my visit to Paris last year, I was not too impressed with my stay at the Four Seasons George V, as everything seemed to be pretty basic: the room design; the in-room tech and amenities; and even the much lauded service. It simply does not justify the hefty price tag. The only thing stood out there were the ostentatious designer floral display at the lobby, which reportedly absorbed a six digit figure budget annually. When I saw them at the first time, this was what came to mind: guests are paying for these excessive flowers, whether you like it or not.

 

Fortunately, the Peninsula Paris skips all this expensive gimmick, and instead spends a fortune for guests to enjoy: advance room technology; a host of complimentary essential amenities, including internet access, non-alcoholic minibar, and even long distance phone calls. In fact, every single items inside the room has been well thought and designed for guest's ultimate comfort.

 

Ever since The Peninsula Bangkok opened in 1998 to much success, the group has used it as a template for its signature rooms for future sister hotels, which consists of an open plan, ultra-wide spacious room equivalent to a 2 bays suite, with 5-fixtures bathroom, and a separate Dressing Room, which soon becomes a Peninsula signature.

 

The Peninsula Tokyo followed this template when it opened in 2007 to rave reviews; and it was soon adopted as a model for Peninsula Shanghai, which later opened in 2009 as the flagship property in Mainland China. This layout is also being applied at The Peninsula Paris, albeit for its Suites categories, i.e. Junior Suite, which measure at an astonishing 50 - 60m2. The entry level Superior and Deluxe Rooms lack the signature layout with smaller size at 35 - 45m2, but they are already spacious for a Parisian standard; and each is equipped with Peninsula's signature technology.

 

Technology is indeed at the core of the Peninsula DNA, and no expense is spared in creating the world's most advance in-room technology. When other hotels try to cut costs and budgets on in-room technology with lame excuses, the Peninsula actually spends a fortune to innovate and set a new benchmark. In fact, it is probably the only hotel group to have its own Technology laboratory at a secret location deep inside Aberdeen, Hong Kong, where in-room tech is being developed and tested. It was here where innovative devices, such as the outside temperature indicator; my favourite Spa Button by the bathtub; or even the portable nail dryer for the ladies are invented. The Peninsula took the world by storm when it introduced the Samsung Galaxy tablet device at the Peninsula Hong Kong in 2012, which is programmed in 11 languages and virtually controls the entire room, including the lights, temperature, curtains, TV, radio, valet calls and Do Not Disturb sign. It even features touch screen Room Service Menu, hotel information, city guide, and a function to request room service and housekeeping items, thus creating an entirely paperless environment.

 

All these technological marvel are also being replicated at the Peninsula Paris, together with other 'standard' features, such as Nespresso Coffee Machine; flat-screen 3D LED television; LED touch screen wall panels; an iPod/iPad docking station; memory card reader; 4-in1 fax/scanner/printer/photocopier machine; DVD player; complimentary in-house HD movies; complimentary internet access and long distance calls through the VOIP platform. Even the room's exterior Parisian-styled canopy is electronically operated. All these technological offerings is so extremely complex, that it resulted in 2.5 km worth of cabling in each room alone.

 

Bathroom at the Junior Suite also features Peninsula's signature layout: a stand alone bathtub as the focal point, flanked by twin vanities and separate shower and WC compartments amidst acres of white marble. Probably the first in Paris, it features a Japanese Toilet complete with basic control panel, and a manual handheld bidet sprayer.

 

When all these add up to the stay, it actually brings a very good value to the otherwise high room rates. Better yet, the non-alcoholic Minibar is also complimentary, which is a first for a Peninsula hotel. The Four Seasons George V may choose to keep looking back to its antiquity past and annihilate most technological offerings to its most basic form, but the Pen always looks forward to the future and brings the utter convenience, all at your finger tip. The Peninsula rooms are undoubtedly the best designed, best equipped and most high-tech in the entire universe.

 

ROOM TO BOOK:

The 50 - 60m2 Junior Suite facing leafy Avenue Kléber is the best room type to book as it is an open-plan suite with Peninsula's signature bathroom and dressing room; and the ones located on the Premiere étage (first floor) have high ceilings and small balcony overlooking Kleber Terrace's iconic glass canopy. Personally, rooms facing the back street at Rue La Pérouse are the least preferred, but its top level rooms inside the Mansart Roof on level 5 have juliet windows that allow glimpse of the tip of Eiffel Tower despite being smaller in size due to its attic configuration. Superior Rooms also lack the signature Peninsula 5 fixtures bathroom configuration, so for the ultimate bathing experience, make sure to book at least from the Deluxe category.

 

If money is no object, book one of the five piece-de-resistance suites with their own private rooftop terrace and gardens on the top floor, which allow 360 degree panoramic views of Paris. Otherwise, the mid-tier Deluxe Suite is already a great choice with corner location, multiple windows and 85m2 of pure luxury.

 

DINING:

Looking back at the hotel's illustrious past, the Peninsula offers some of the most unique and memorable dining experiences in Paris, steep in history.

 

The area that once housed Igor Stravinksy's after party where James Joyce met Marcel Proust for the first time is now the hotel's Cantonese Restaurant, aptly called LiLi; and is led by Chef Chi Keung Tang, formerly of Peninsula Tokyo's One Michelin starred Hei Fung Terrace. Lili was actually modeled after Peninsula Shanghai's Yi Long Court, but the design here blends Chinese elements with Art Nouveau style that flourished in the late 1920s. It also boasts a world first: a spectacular 3x3.3m fiber optic installation at the entrance of the restaurant, depicting the imaginary portrait of LiLi herself. The Cantonese menu was surprisingly rather simple and basic, and features a selection of popular dim sum dishes. The best and most memorable Chinese restaurants I have ever experienced are actually those who masterfully fuse Chinese tradition with French ingredients: Jin Sha at the Four Seasons Hangzhou at Westlake; 2 Michelin Tin Lung Heen at Level 102 of the Ritz-Carlton Hong Kong; Jiang at Mandarin Oriental Guangzhou by Chef Fei; and Ya Ge at Mandarin Oriental Taipei. Ironically, the world's only 3 Michelin star Chinese restaurant, Lung King Heen at the Four Seasons Hong Kong failed to impress me.

 

The former Ballroom area where Henry Kissinger started the Paris Peace talks with the Vietnamese has now been transformed as The Lobby, which is a signature of every Peninsula hotels where the afternoon tea ritual takes place daily. The spectacular room with intricate details and crystal chandeliers has been meticulously restored, and is an ideal place to meet, see and be seen. Breakfast is served daily here, and guests could choose to have it either inside or outside at the adjoining al fresco La Terrasse Kléber, which connects all the F&B outlets on the ground floor, including Lili. Guests could choose from a Chinese set breakfast, which includes dim sum, fried vermicelli, and porridge with beef slices; or the Parisian set, which includes gourmet items such as Egg Benedict with generous slices of Jamon Iberico on top. The afternoon tea ritual is expected to be very popular as renowned Chef Pattissier Julien Alvarez, -who claimed the World Pastry Champion in 2009; and also the Spanish World Chocolate Master in 2007 at the tender age of 23, is at the helm; and the venue quickly booked out from the opening day.

 

Next to the Lobby is a small, intimate bar covered in exquisite oak panelling where Henry Kissinger signed the Paris Peace Accord back in 1973 that ended the Vietnam War. Kissinger politely declined the offer to have the Bar named after him, and instead it is simply called Le Bar Kléber.

 

On the top floor of the hotel lies the signature restaurant L'Oiseau Blanc, which is named after the French biplane that disappeared in 1927 in an attempt to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight between Paris and New York. A 75% replica of the plane has even been installed outside the main entrance of the restaurant with the Eiffel Tower on its background. The restaurant is divided into 3 distinct areas: a spectacular glass enclosed main dining room; a large outdoor terrace that runs the entire length of the hotel's roof; and an adjoining lively bar, all with breathtaking uninterrupted views of Paris' most identifiable landmarks, including the Eiffel Tower and the Sacré-Cœur at the highest point of the city at Montmartre.

 

L'Oiseau Blanc is led by Chef Sidney Redel, a former protégé of Pierre Gagnaire, and serves contemporary French cuisine focussing on 'terroir' menu of locally sourced seasonal ingredients from the region. During my stay, tomato was the seasonal ingredients, and Chef Redel created four courses incorporating tomato, even on dessert. While the food was of high quality, personally the menu still needs fine tuning, considering the sort of clientele the Pen is aiming for: the ultra rich (Chinese), who usually seek top establishments with luxury ingredients, such as caviar, black truffle, foie gras, blue lobster, Jamon Iberico, Wagyu beef, Kurobuta pork and Challans chicken.

 

LEISURE:

The Peninsula Paris features one of the best health and recreational facilities in the city, housed within the basement of the hotel, and covers an expansive area of 1,800m2. For a comparison, rival Mandarin Oriental Spa covers a total area of only 900m2 over two floors. The Peninsula Spa is undoubtedly one of the nicest urban spa that I have been to, it easily beats the Spa at the Four Seasons George V. The pool is also one of the city's largest at 22m long, -compared to both the Shangri-La and Mandarin Oriental at 15m; the George V at only 9m, which is more like a bigger jacuzzi. The only two other pools better than the Peninsula is the one designed by Phillippe Starck at the Le Royal Monceau at 28m; and the spectacular grand pool at the Ritz.

 

There is the usual 24 hours gym within two fitness spaces equipped with Technogym machines and free weights; and the locker rooms features steam, sauna, and experience shower room. There is a total of 8 treatment rooms within the Spa area, and the highlight is certainly the Relaxation Room, which is equipped with amazing day beds with specially placed deep cushions. The best part? the beds are electronically operated, much like a first class seat on a plane.

 

X-FACTOR:

The Peninsula signature technology; The Spa Button in the bathroom; VOIP technology for complimentary long distance calls; The top suites (Historic, Katara and Peninsula Suites); Xavier Corbero's Moon River sculpture at the Lobby; Lili; The Lobby and Bar where Henry Kissinger signed Paris Peace Accord; L'Oiseau Blanc Restaurant; The 1,800m2 Peninsula Spa; and the 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II.

 

SERVICE:

There are a total of 600 staffs for just 200 rooms, so the service level is expected to be high; but it is perhaps unfair to judge the service during the opening weeks when all staffs were not at their best due to the intense preparation leading to the opening event. Furthermore, teething problems are expected for a newly opened hotel as great hotels are not born overnight, but takes a good few years of refinement.

 

Nonetheless, I was actually quite impressed with the level of service during the whole stay, as the majority of the staffs showed great attitude and much enthusiasm, which is a testament of great intense training. As one of the first guests arriving on the opening day, check-in was truly delightful and memorable as a battalion of staffs of different ranks welcomed and wished the most pleasant stay. The mood could not have been more festive as moments later, the hotel was finally inaugurated.

 

I was also particularly impressed with the service at both LiLi and The Lobby where staffs performed at an exceptional level like a veteran. There are two distinct qualities that made a lot of difference during the stay: humility and friendliness, which is quite a challenge to find, not only in Paris and the entire Europe, but even in Asian cities, such as Hong Kong. It is like finding needles in a haystack. A genuine smile seems to be a rare commodity these days, so I was happy to see plenty of smiles at the Peninsula Paris during the stay, from the signature Peninsula Pageboys to waiters, Maître d, receptionists and even to Managers and Directors. In fact, there were more smiles in Paris than Hong Kong.

 

When I woken up too early for breakfast one day, the restaurant was just about to open; and there were hardly anyone. I realized that even the birds were probably still asleep, but I was extremely delighted to see how fresh looking and energetic the staffs were at the dining room. There was a lot of genuine smile that warmed the rather chilly morning; and it was a great start to the day. One of the staffs I met during the stay even candidly explained how they were happy just to be at work, and it does not feel like working at all, which was clearly shown in their passion and enthusiasm.

 

That said, the Shangri-La Paris by far is still my top pick for best service as it is more personalized and refined due to its more intimate scale. The Shangri-La Paris experience is also unique as guests are welcomed to a sit down registration by the historic lounge off the Lobby upon arrival, and choice of drinks are offered, before being escorted to the room for in-room check-in. Guests also receive a Pre-Arrival Form in advance, so the hotel could anticipate and best accommodate their needs. During the stay, I was also addressed by my last name everywhere within the hotel, so it was highly personalized. I did receive similar treatment at The Peninsula Paris, -albeit in a lesser extent due to its size; and even the housekeeping greeted me by my last name. Every requests, from room service to mineral water were all handled efficiently at a timely manner. At times, service could be rather slow at the restaurants (well, it happens almost everywhere in Paris), but this is part of the Parisian lifestyle where nothing is hurried; and bringing bills/checks upfront is considered rude. I did request the food servings to be expedited during a lunch at LiLi on the last day due to the time constraint; and the staffs managed to succeed the task not only ahead of the time limit, but also it never felt hurried all along. Everything ran as smooth as silk.

 

VERDICT:

It was a personal satisfaction to witness the history in the making during the opening day on 1 August 2014, as the Peninsula Paris is my most eagerly awaited hotel opening of the decade. It was also historic, as it was a first in my travel to dedicate a trip solely for a particular hotel in a particular city (in this case Paris, some 11,578km away from home), without staying at other fine hotels. It was money well spent, and a trip worth taking as it was an amazing stay; and certainly a lifetime experience.

 

The Peninsula Paris could not have arrived at a better time, as two of the most established Parisian grande dames (Ritz and de Crillon) are still closed for a complete renovation, and will only be revealed in 2015; so there is plenty of time to adapt, grow and hone its skills. But with such pedigree, quality and illustrious history, the Pen really has nothing to be worried about. The Four Seasons George V seems to have a cult of highly obsessed fans (esp. travel agents) worldwide, but personally (and objectively), it is no match to the Peninsula. Based on physical product alone, the Pen wins in every aspect as everything has been meticulously designed with the focus on guest comfort and convenience. In terms of technology, the Pen literally has no rival anywhere on the planet, except from the obvious sibling rivalry.

 

The only thing that the Pen still needs to work on is its signature restaurants as all its rival hotels have at least 2 Michelin star restaurants (L'abeille at the Shangri-La; Sur Mesure at the Mandarin Oriental; and 3 Michelin at Epicure, Le Bristol; Le Cinq at the Four Seasons George V and Alain Ducasse at Le Meurice). L'Oiseau Blanc design is truly breathtaking and would certainly be the most popular gastronomic destination in Paris, but at the moment, the food still needs some works.

 

There were the expected teething problems and some inconsistencies with the service; but with years of refinement, The Peninsula Paris will no doubt ascend the throne. Personally, the Shangri-La Paris is currently the real competitor, together with the upcoming Ritz and de Crillon when they open next year, especially when Rosewood has taken over Crillon management and Karl Lagerfeld is working on its top suites. The two, however, may still need to revisit the drawing boards and put more effort on the guestrooms if they ever want to compete; because at the moment, The Peninsula Paris is simply unrivaled.

 

UPDATE 2016:

*I have always been very spot-on with my predictions. After only two years since its opening, The Peninsula Paris has been awarded the much coveted Palace status. In fact, it is the only hotel in Paris to receive such distinction in 2016. Congratulations, it is very much deserving*

 

PERSONAL RATING:

1. Room: 100

2. Bathroom: 100

3. Bed: 100

4. Service: 90

5. In-room Tech: 100

6. In-room Amenities: 100

7. Architecture & Design: 100

8. Food: 80

9. View: 80

10. Pool: 95

11. Wellness: 95

12. Location: 95

13. Value: 100

 

Overall: 95.00

 

Compare with other Parisian hotels (all with Palace status) that I have stayed previously:

SHANGRI-LA HOTEL, PARIS: 95.00

PARK HYATT PARIS-VENDOME: 90.00

FOUR SEASONS GEORGE V: 85.38

 

My #1 ALL TIME FAVORITE HOTEL

LANDMARK MANDARIN ORIENTAL, HONG KONG: 95.38

 

THE PENINSULA, PARIS

19, Avenue Kléber, Paris

Awarded Palace Status in 2016

 

General Manager: Nicolas Béliard

Hotel Manager: Vincent Pimont

Executive Chef: Jean-Edern Hurstel

Head Chef (Lili): Chi Keung Tang

Head Chef (L'oiseau Blanc): Sidney Redel

Head Chef (The Lobby): Laurent Poitevin

Chef Patissier: Julien Alvarez

 

Architect (original Majestic Hotel, circa 1908): Armand Sibien

Architect (renovation & restoration, 2010-2014): Richard Martinet

Interior Designer: Henry Leung of Chhada Siembieda & Associates

Landscape Designer: D. Paysage

 

Art Curator: Sabrina Fung

Art Restorer: Cinzia Pasquali

Artist (Courtyard installation): Ben Jakober & Yannick Vu

Crystal work: Baccarat

Designer (Lili fiber optic installation): Clementine Chambon & Francoise Mamert

Designer (Chinaware): Catherine Bergen

Gilder Specialist & Restorer: Ateliers Gohard

Glass Crafter (Lobby Installation): Lasvit Glass Studio

Master Glass Crafters: Duchemin

Master Sculptor (Lobby): Xavier Corbero

Metalwork: Remy Garnier

Plaster & Moulding Expert: Stuc et Staff

Silverware: Christofle

Silk & Trimmings: Declercq Passementiers

Wood Restoration Expert: Atelier Fancelli

  

Hotel Opening Date: 01 August 2014

Notable owners: Katara Hospitality; Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Group (HSH)

Total Rooms & Suites: 200 (including 35m2 Superior, 45m2 Deluxe, 50m2 Grand Deluxe, 55m2 Premier and 60m2 Grand Premier Rooms)

Total Suites: 34 Suites (including 70m2 Superior, 85m2 Deluxe and 100m2 Premier

Top Suites: Historic Suite, Katara Suite, and The Peninsula Suite

Bathroom Amenities: Oscar de la Renta

 

Restaurants: The Lobby (All day dining & Afternoon tea), LiLi (Cantonese), L'Oiseau Blanc (French), La Terrasse Kléber

Bars and Lounges: Le Bar Kléber; Kléber Lounge; Cigar Lounge; and L'Oiseau Blanc Bar

Meeting & Banquets: Salon de l'Étoile for up to 100 guests, and 3 smaller Function Rooms

Health & Leisure: 24 hours gym & 1,800m2 Peninsula Spa with 22m indoor swimming pool and jacuzzis; Steam & Sauna, Relaxation Room, and 8 treatment rooms

Transport: chauffeur-driven Rolls Royce Extended Wheel Base Phantom; a 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II; 2 MINI Cooper S Clubman; and a fleet of 10 BMW 7 Series

 

Complimentary facilities: Non-alcoholic Minibar; Wired and Wireless Internet; VOIP long distance calls; HD Movies; Daily fruit Basket; International Newspaper; Chauffeured MINI Cooper S Clubman for Suites guests; and Chauffeured Rolls Royce for top Suites

 

paris.peninsula.com

I have had long hair since 2014, and a beard consistently since autum of 2012, so I recently cut my hair short and shaved the beard off. Decided to keep the moustache for now, as mottumars is every year in march in Iceland. Photo by Anton Bjarni, hair by Kata.

for the second time in 3 days I got home less than 20 steps away from 10,000.

Popular culture depictions of zombies have evolved into a relatively consistent archetype generally consistent with the Romero zombie and characterized by the following traits:

 

• A body comprised of a deceased human body that has subsequently reanimated, usually because of a viral infection incurred in the brain while the body was still living.

• Reduced speed of movement relative to normal humans (however, some recent theatrical depictions of zombies portray them as moving as fast as a healthy human, or even faster). This is possibly due to their decaying muscles (leading to slow movement) or adrenaline (leading to quick movements).

• Increased endurance relative to normal humans; some sources attribute this to removal of normal neurological limits to muscle endurance (e.g., Golgi tendon reflex). This could also mean their inability to feel pain at times, as they are not affected by nerves.

• Profoundly reduced or absent cognitive function - Zombies may have impaired eyesight, hearing or smelling. However, they are known to be attracted by bright lights or loud noises, possibly meaning that they may instead be highly sensitive to them. Some even believe that zombies are attracted to the anything that make noise which is widely supported and seen in films and media like the Walking Dead and even in Night of the Living Dead.

• An insatiable and endless desire to consume living animal flesh, usually human, sometimes favoring brains. Some depicts zombies simply possessing the desire to kill.

• Lack of normal human biological functions such as sleep, digestion,

• Lack of normal human biological requirements such as conventional food, sleep, or even oxygen.

• Supernatural resistance or immunity to traumatic injury of any part of the body except for the brain. This is mainly due to the death of their nerves which makes them unable to experience pain or irritation.

• Vulnerable only to attacks that remove the head or destroy the brain. Some zombies are depicted to also be vulnerable to powerful attacks (crushing of the body, high-caliber shot) which also kills them outright, but the simplest way, still, is to remove the brain.

• Has high aggression and little intelligence and has the some of the traits of a rabid person.

• Ignores or is oblivious of fellow zombies.

• In some depictions zombies can be seen eating each other if there is a lack of humans, as was the case in the video game "Resident Evil Operation Racoon City", however it seems they favor humans as they will stop eating each other should a human get too close.

[zombipedia]

  

zombie.wikia.com/wiki/Zombie_Wiki

As shown in the photo, the backlight used in Apple's 24" iMac is not consistent across the display. (Photo is of the 3.06GHz model with 130 graphics, pure white background created in Photoshop full screen mode, brightness set to 100%.) More specifically, the left/right edges are slightly darker, especially the corners. From what my eyes see, this backlight problem appears as a subtle gradient extending out about 1.5 inches from each edge of the display. And from what I have read in online forums, this backlight inconsistency is nothing new to 2009 iMac, but different flavors of it have been seen in 2007 and 2008 models as well. Some have reported having Apple swap out their iMac more than 3 times, only to find the same backlighting inconsistency each time. Some have even visited Apple stores to compare iMac screens, and they have confirmed the problem exists on iMacs there as well. This is the main reason I've not yet contacted Apple to swap out my iMac, because the replacement might have the same or worse backlighting problem (and possibly dead pixels too, which this iMac does not have).

 

The left/right edge darkness is subtle, and is most noticeable on a white background (or when dragging a white window to the edges of the display). Please click the "ALL SIZES" icon above the photo too view a larger version of this photo, which makes the edge darkness even easier to see. It is subtle but it is there. It is especially problematic when trying to color-correct photos at the screen edges in Photoshop.

 

Here is an Apple Discussion Thread that mentions the matter. And here is a report and photo from an iMac owner who has seen the same problem. Also, here is my post (and the posts of others) about this on the Macintouch iMac Aluminum Reader Report.

 

I long used an Apple 20" ADC Cinema Display at home with a G4 Cube. The backlight on that 20" display shows 100% consistency from edge to edge. So it cannot be argued that this is something inherent to all LCD panels from Apple.

 

NOV.'09 UPDATE Folks it's been long in coming, but I purchased a new iMac for home use: the 2.8GHz quadcore i7. I am happy to confirm that the new 27" screen, with LED technology, does not exhibit any uneven backlighting at all. However, there are some 27" models that either flicker or have the bottom 1/3 of the screen slightly more yellow. I have posted a photo here.

 

For the first time on Feb.27 2010 I used these test bars and determined that the upper bar is every so slightly "cooler" than the lower bar. My eyes would deem the lower bar "warm" rather than yellow. But the fact is that, now that I scrutinize it, I do see a very slight color difference between the upper and lower part of my iMac 27" screen. I would say this may not be an issue for most people, but for those of us doing color-correction work in Photoshop, it is definitely an issue.

72. At this time there were two plans to attack Freetown, one made by Bockarie

with the Accused, and one made by breakaway AFRC commander Solomon Anthony

Joseph Musa (a.k.a. SAJ Musa), whose troops had started an advance towards Freetown

at the end of June/beginning of July 1998. Consistent with his discussions with the

Accused, Bockarie invited SAJ Musa after the Waterworks meeting to join his efforts to

attack Freetown but Musa refused. However, with SAJ Musa’s death in or around 23

December 1998, when Gullit took over the leadership of the troops at Benguema and

resumed contact with Bockarie, Bockarie and Gullit coordinated in their efforts to capture

Freetown. From that point onwards, SAJ Musa’s original plan was abandoned, and Gullit

followed the Bockarie/Taylor plan, as had been contemplated by Bockarie and the

Accused. During the operation, Bockarie exercised effective command and control over

Gullit, issuing a number of instructions to Gullit, including the order to use terror tactics

against the civilian population on the retreat from Freetown. The Trial Chamber did not

make a finding as to how SAJ Musa was killed, but noted that the possibility of his death

had been mentioned by Bockarie at the time of the Waterworks meeting.

73. The Accused gave advice to Bockarie and received updates in relation to the

progress of the operations in Kono and Freetown in the implementation of their plan.

Bockarie was in frequent contact via radio or satellite phone with the Accused in

December 1998 and January 1999, either directly or through Benjamin Yeaten. Yeaten

also travelled to Sierra Leone to meet with Bockarie in Buedu during this period.

However, it is not clear that the Accused had any level of control over the conduct of

these operations. Of the instructions allegedly given to Bockarie by the Accused during

this period, only one was proved beyond reasonable doubt, that being that the Accused

instructed Bockarie to transfer some of the Pademba Road prisoners to Buedu. This

finding is insufficient to establish, as the Prosecution has alleged, that the Accused

directed or had control over the Kono and Freetown operations in December 1998 and

January 1999.

74. In addition to planning and advising on the Kono-Freetown operation, the

Accused also provided military and other support. He facilitated the purchase and

transport of a large shipment of arms and ammunition from Burkina Faso in around

17

November 1998 which was used in the attacks on Kono and Kenema in December 1998,

where further arms and ammunition were captured. These arms and ammunition were in

turn sent to the troops in Freetown in January 1999 and also used by the RUF and AFRC

in joint attacks on the outskirts of Freetown. The Accused also sent personnel in the form

of at least four former Sierra Leone Army (SLA) fighters who participated in the attack

on Kono, as well as 20 former NPFL fighters who were part of the forces under the

command of Gullit that entered Freetown, and a group of 150 fighters with Abu Keita (a

former ULIMO member), known as the Scorpion Unit, who participated in the attack on

Kenema.

75. During the Freetown operation, the Accused’s subordinates in Liberia also

transmitted “448 messages” to RUF forces to warn them of impending ECOMOG jet

attacks. These messages originated in both Sierra Leone and Liberia.

Operational Support

76. In addition to support for specific military operations, the Accused provided to the

RUF, and the RUF/AFRC alliance, communications support, financial support, military

training, technical support and other operational support. Of these, communications

support, facilitation and transport of materiel and personnel and the provision of a

guesthouse to the RUF were sustained and significant.

77. Concerning communications assistance, following the invasion of Sierra Leone in

1991, the NPFL provided radio operators and equipment to the RUF with the knowledge

of the Accused. NPFL radio operators were sent to Sierra Leone and trained RUF fighters

in radio communication. Some of these radio operators stayed in Sierra Leone following

the break with the NPFL in Operation Top Final, and the RUF continued to benefit from

the training and equipment provided by the NPFL throughout the conflict in Sierra Leone

and during the Indictment period.

78. The Accused gave Sam Bockarie a satellite phone in October 1998. Bockarie also

received “top up cards” for phone credit from Benjamin Yeaten. The Accused also gave a

satellite phone to Issa Sesay in 2000, albeit with full knowledge of the ECOWAS leaders.

The supply of such satellite phones enhanced the communications capability of both

18

Bockarie and Sesay, which they used in furtherance of RUF and RUF/AFRC military

activities. Sesay, for example, used a satellite phone to report to Bockarie that Kono was

under RUF control. While Foday Sankoh was also given a satellite phone, the

Prosecution failed to prove that the phone came from the Accused.

79. In addition to providing communications training and equipment to the RUF, the

Accused and his subordinates facilitated communications for the RUF through their own

communications network. The RUF/AFRC was provided access to radio communications

equipment in Liberia by the Accused or his subordinates. This equipment was used by

RUF radio operators to communicate with the RUF, in one instance concerning supplies

of military equipment, and in another to update Bockarie on events in Sierra Leone when

he was in Liberia. A radio was provided by the Accused to Johnny Paul Koroma.

However, this radio was used specifically for the purpose of enabling Koroma to

communicate with the West Side Boys about the UN peacekeepers that they had taken

hostage. The evidence did not establish that the Accused and Yeaten received updates

during the Freetown invasion from an RUF operator stationed in Liberia.

80. Although the establishment of the infrastructure and the training of RUF radio

operators occurred prior to the Indictment period, the ongoing support from the Accused

and his subordinates through the provision of satellite phones, the use of the NPFL

communications infrastructure, and the transmission of “448” messages alerting the RUF

to imminent ECOMOG attack, collectively enhanced the communications capacity of the

RUF/AFRC during the Indictment period, and its capacity to carry out military operations

in which crimes were committed.

81. In relation to the guesthouse, the Trial Chamber finds that from 1998 to 2001 the

Accused provided a base for the RUF in Monrovia, equipped with a long-range radio and

telephone, RUF radio operators, SSS security supervised by Benjamin Yeaten, cooks and

a caretaker. Although the guesthouse was used by RUF members partly for matters

relevant to the peace process or for diplomatic purposes, it was also used to facilitate the

transfer of arms, ammunition and funds directly from the Accused to the RUF, and the

delivery of diamonds from the RUF directly to the Accused, belying his testimony that he

19

was entirely unaware of what occurred at the guesthouse. The RUF guesthouse provided

a base for the RUF in Monrovia, which facilitated the regular transfers of arms and

ammunition from the Accused to the RUF, as well as diamonds from the RUF to the

Accused, transactions which played a vital role in the military operations of the RUF in

which crimes were committed.

82. The Trial Chamber further finds that during the Indictment period, the Accused

provided much needed road and air transportation to the RUF of arms and ammunition

into RUF territory. Materiel was also escorted across military checkpoints by security

personnel working for the Accused, including Daniel Tamba (a.k.a. Jungle), Joseph

Marzah (a.k.a. Zigzag), and Sampson Weah. This facilitation of road and air

transportation of materiel, as well as security escorts, played a vital role in the operations

of the RUF/AFRC during a period when an international arms embargo was in force.

83. The Accused also provided financial support, military training, technical support

and other operational support to the RUF, including medical support. In most instances in

which the Accused provided financial support, the funds given by the Accused to various

individuals were for unspecified or personal use. The evidence failed to establish that the

10 million CFA francs given by the Accused to the RUF in Côte d’Ivoire, or the $USD

15,000 given by him to Sesay to support the RUF, were used to facilitate arms and

diamond deals. However, the Accused did give funds to Bockarie, in the tens of

thousands of dollars, to buy arms and ammunition from ULIMO. The RUF received

financial support for arms and ammunition from sources other than the Accused as well.

84. Similarly, while the Accused provided other forms of support to the RUF,

including medical support, and he acknowledged that he permitted injured RUF fighters

to get treatment in Liberia, it is not clear how continuous or substantial the provision of

medical care was throughout the Indictment period. In preparation for the Fitti-Fatta

mission in mid-1998, the Accused sent ‘herbalists’ who marked fighters in Buedu and in

Kono in order to bolster their confidence for the mission to recapture Kono. Other

support included the provision of goods such as food, clothing, cigarettes, alcohol and

other supplies to the RUF by the Accused. The evidence is insufficient to enable the Trial

20

Chamber to judge the quantity of supplies provided. Other supplies for the RUF came

from Liberia through other channels unrelated to the Accused.

85. With regard to military training and technical support, the Accused instructed

Bockarie in 1998 to open a training base in Bunumbu, Kailahun District, and told him

also in 1998 that the RUF should construct or re-prepare an airfield in Buedu. However,

the Prosecution failed to prove that the Accused sent Martina Johnson, a former NPFL

artillery commander, to Buedu to train RUF fighters to use a 40-barrel missile gun.

86. The Accused provided safe haven to RUF fighters, including Mike Lamin, when

they crossed into Liberia after the retreat from Zogoda in 1996, but the Accused was not

found to have ordered the RUF combatants to cross into Liberia. He had not yet taken

office as President at that time, however, and the Prosecution failed to prove that he

facilitated documentation to enable Lamin to travel to Côte d’Ivoire.

Arms and Ammunition

87. Turning to the allegations of the Prosecution relating to the role of the Accused in

providing military support to the RUF/AFRC, the Trial Chamber first considered two

preliminary issues raised by the Defence, one relating to the status of the border between

Sierra Leone and Liberia, and the other relating to disarmament in Liberia. The Trial

Chamber finds that at no relevant time in the Indictment period was the ECOMOG

presence on the Liberia/Sierra Leone border, or the official closure of the border by the

Liberian government, sufficient to prevent the cross-border movement of arms and

ammunition. With regard to the claim that as a result of disarmament and the destruction

of arms, as well as the arms embargo, Liberia had insufficient arms and ammunition to

supply Sierra Leone, the Trial Chamber finds that despite these measures, the Accused

was able to obtain arms and had the capacity to supply arms and ammunitions from

Liberia to the rebel groups in Sierra Leone. Moreover, he had the capacity to facilitate

larger arms shipments through third countries. Of the arms shipments to the RUF and

AFRC linked to the Accused during the Indictment period, the largest arrived not from

Liberia, but through Liberia from third party states, primarily Burkina Faso.

21

88. The Accused directly supplied arms and ammunition to the RUF/AFRC, as well

as facilitating the supply of arms and ammunition to the RUF/AFRC from outside

Liberia. During the Junta period, the Accused sent ammunition to Bockarie via Daniel

Tamba (a.k.a. Jungle) in 1997. The Accused was the source of the materiel delivered by

Tamba, Joseph (a.k.a Zizgag) Marzah and Sampson Weah, among others, to Sierra Leone

throughout 1998 and 1999, such supplies consisting of both arms and ammunition.

Bockarie himself made trips to Liberia in 1998 and 1999 during which he obtained arms

and ammunition from the Accused. During Issa Sesay’s leadership of the RUF, the

Accused continued to deliver arms and ammunition to the RUF in 2000 and 2001 via

Tamba, Marzah, Weah and others. Sesay himself made trips to Liberia, including a trip in

May 2000 and at least two trips in the second half of 2000 and early 2001, during which

he obtained arms and ammunition from the Accused.

89. Although the materiel delivered through, inter alia, Tamba, Weah and Marzah

was limited in quantity, certain shipments provided by the Accused on Bockarie’s trips to

Liberia in 1998 and 1999 did contain sizeable amounts of materiel.

90. After 14 February 1998, the Accused sent Varmuyan Sherif to open a corridor

between Lofa County and RUF-held territories to facilitate the trade of arms and

ammunition between the RUF/AFRC and ULIMO. As a result, members of ULIMO who

were supposed to disarm and surrender their arms to the UN, instead sold or bartered

them to the RUF. The Accused also provided financial support to the RUF/AFRC in

order to facilitate their purchases of arms and ammunition from ex-ULIMO combatants.

However, the evidence was insufficient to establish that the Accused attempted to help

the RUF purchase arms and ammunition from ECOMOG and ULIMO prior to the Junta

period.

91. The Accused facilitated two large shipments of ammunition. The first occurred in

late 1997. In around September 1997, the Accused sent Ibrahim Bah to Freetown to meet

with Sam Bockarie and Johnny Paul Koroma to make arrangements for the procurement

of arms and ammunition. Bah was given 90 carats of diamonds and $USD 90,000 to pay

for the shipment. This shipment of arms and ammunition was delivered by plane to

22

Magburaka in Sierra Leone sometime between September and December 1997 and was

distributed amongst members of the AFRC/RUF Junta. Materiel from this shipment was

used by the AFRC/RUF forces in fighting ECOMOG and SLPP forces in Freetown

before, during and after the Intervention, in the Junta mining operations at Tongo Fields

prior to the ECOMOG Intervention, in “Operation Pay Yourself” and subsequent

offensives on Kono, as well as in the commission of crimes during those operations.

92. The Accused also facilitated a shipment of materiel around November 1998 from

Burkina Faso. Ibrahim Bah and Musa Cissé, Charles Taylor’s Chief of Protocol,

accompanied a delegation led by Bockarie to Burkina Faso where a shipment of arms and

ammunition was arranged and brought back by plane to Liberia, and then transported by

trucks provided by the Accused to Sierra Leone. The Trial Chamber finds that the

Accused was instrumental in procuring and transporting this large quantity of arms and

ammunition for the RUF, that he was paid for it with diamonds, and that he kept some of

the shipment for his own purposes. The shipment from Burkina Faso was unprecedented

in volume and, as noted previously, was critical in the December 1998 and January 1999

offensives.

93. The Trial Chamber considered the Defence submission that other sources of

military equipment for the RUF and AFRC far outweighed supplies allegedly provided

by the Accused. In addition to receiving arms and ammunition from the Accused, the

RUF and the AFRC also obtained supplies from the existing stockpiles of the former

government when they took over power in May 1997, by capturing them from ECOMOG

and UN peacekeepers, and through trade with ULIMO, AFL and ECOMOG

commanders. However, these sources of materiel were of minor importance in

comparison to those supplied or facilitated by the Accused. Significantly, the RUF/AFRC

in fact heavily and frequently relied on the materiel supplied and facilitated by the

Accused; the Accused’s support often satisfied a need or request for materiel at a

particular time; and shipments of materiel supplied by or facilitated by the Accused often

contributed to and were causally linked to the capture of further supplies by the RUF and

AFRC. Although there were instances in which the materiel that the Accused gave to the

RUF/AFRC was more limited in quantity, on a number of occasions the arms and

23

ammunition which he supplied or facilitated were indispensable for the RUF/AFRC

military offensives. The materiel provided or facilitated by the Accused was critical in

enabling the operational strategy of the RUF and the AFRC during the Indictment period.

94. On the basis of its findings, more detailed in the written Judgement, the Trial

Chamber rejects the Defence argument that Benjamin Yeaten, the Director of the

Accused’s Special Security Service, to whom the arms couriers reported, was engaged in

the trade of arms and ammunition for the RUF independently and without the knowledge

of the Accused.

Military Personnel

95. As previously noted, approximately 20 former NPFL fighters who had been

integrated into the Armed Forces of Liberia formed part of a group of approximately 200

fighters led by O-Five who attacked and committed crimes in Karina and Kamalo in

Bombali District on or about August/September 1998. Subsequently, this group of 20

fighters was incorporated into the Red Lion Battalion, which was comprised of 200

fighters and was part of a larger group of up to approximately 1,000 fighters who

attacked and committed crimes in Waterloo, Fisher Lane, Hastings, Freetown Eastern

Police, Pademba Road Prison, Kingtom, Fourah Bay and Upgun in Freetown and the

Western Area, on or about December1998/January 1999. These 20 fighters were sent by

the Accused from Liberia to Sierra Leone where they joined the RUF/AFRC forces in

Sierra Leone and participated in attacks in which crimes were committed.

96. The Trial Chamber finds that Abu Keita and the reinforcements known as the

Scorpion Unit were sent by the Accused to Sierra Leone and participated in the attack on

Kenema, in which Abu Keita committed crimes. The Kenema attack was part of the

attack on Kono and Freetown. Although the evidence did not establish beyond reasonable

doubt that the Scorpion Unit was sent for the purpose of fighting in the Kono and

Freetown military operations, which included Kenema, Daniel Tamba, on behalf of the

Accused, approved Bockarie’s decision to integrate the Scorpion Unit under his

command.

24

97. The Accused sent former SLA soldiers to the Bunumbu training camp soon after

the Intervention, although their subsequent deployment was not established. The Accused

later sent a group of former SLA soldiers from Liberia back to Sierra Leone to support

the attack on Freetown. These men arrived in Kailahun in or around late November

1998, and they participated in the attack on Kono in December 1998, although they were

unable to reach Freetown and did not participate in the Freetown attack.

98. Liberian government authorities and RUF/AFRC members recruited and forced

Sierra Leonean refugees residing in Liberia to return to Sierra Leone to fight. However,

the evidence did not establish that these civilian refugees participated in attacks in Sierra

Leone.

99. The Trial Chamber considered the allegation by the Prosecution that the Accused

assisted the AFRC/RUF by capturing and returning AFRC/RUF deserters to Sierra

Leone. The Trial Chamber finds that the Liberian police authorities detained two

RUF/AFRC members Fonti Kanu, and Dauda Aruna Fornie, and handed them over to

RUF personnel in late 1998 and late 1999, respectively. In evidence about his own arrest

and torture in Sierra Leone, Mohammed Kabbah described as common knowledge the

cooperation of Liberian authorities and the RUF on the return of wanted Sierra Leoneans

who escaped to Liberia.

Diamonds

100. The Trial Chamber finds that there was a continuous supply by the AFRC/RUF of

diamonds mined from areas in Sierra Leone to the Accused, often in exchange for arms

and ammunition.

101. During the period May 1997 to February 1998 diamonds mined in Kono and

Tongo Fields were delivered from the AFRC/RUF to the Accused by Daniel Tamba

(a.k.a. Jungle) in exchange for arms and ammunition.

102. Following the ECOMOG Intervention, from February 1998 to July 1999, the

diamonds delivered to the Accused by Sam Bockarie directly, as well as indirectly

through intermediaries such as Eddie Kanneh and Daniel Tamba, were given to him in

25

order to get arms and ammunition from him, or sometimes for “safekeeping” on behalf of

the RUF.

103. From February 1998 to July 1999, diamonds were delivered to the Accused by

Sam Bockarie directly. These diamonds were delivered to the Accused for the purpose of

obtaining arms and ammunitions from him. During this period, diamonds were also

delivered through intermediaries such as Eddie Kanneh and Daniel Tamba.

104. The RUF also traded diamonds with entities and individuals other than the

Accused or his government. Testimonial evidence of specific involvement of the Accused

in the trade of diamonds supported the findings of a United Nations report of a panel of

experts that diamond smuggling from Sierra Leone to Liberia was “the bulk of the RUF

trade in diamonds” and while difficult to quantify was nevertheless the “primary source

of income to the RUF”. This report concluded that the trade of diamonds between Liberia

and Sierra Leone could not be conducted in Liberia “without the permission and the

involvement of government officials at the highest level.”

105. From July 1999 to May 2000, Foday Sankoh delivered diamonds to the Accused,

and diamonds were delivered to the Accused on his behalf in or before 1999 while he was

in detention. In March 2000, Foday Sankoh visited South Africa and travelled through

Monrovia on his way back to Sierra Leone, meeting with the Accused in Monrovia.

According to one witness, among the diamonds delivered to the Accused during this

meeting were a 45 carat diamond and two 25 carat diamonds.

106. From June 2000 until the end of hostilities in 2002, Issa Sesay delivered diamonds

to the Accused, including on one occasion a 36 carat diamond. Eddie Kanneh also

delivered diamonds to the Accused on Sesay’s behalf. Sometimes the diamonds were

delivered to the Accused supposedly for “safekeeping” until Sankoh’s release from

detention and, at other times, in exchange for supplies and/or arms and ammunition.

During this period, diamond trading between the RUF and persons other than the

Accused also took place.

26

107. As detailed in documentary evidence before the Trial Chamber, Liberian

diamonds are generally known to be of a significantly lower quality than diamonds from

Sierra Leone, refuting the claim made by the Accused that he would have had no reason

to trade in diamonds from Sierra Leone because Liberia had its own diamonds.

Moreover, the documentary evidence indicates that export of diamonds from Liberia was

far greater than Liberian diamond production, attributing the difference to diamonds from

Sierra Leone smuggled through Liberia.

108. The Trial Chamber finds that the Accused also facilitated a relationship between

the RUF and a Belgian known as Alpha Bravo for the purpose of diamond transactions.

However, there was insufficient evidence to establish that the Accused facilitated a

relationship between the RUF and other diamond dealers.

109. The Accused also provided diesel fuel for the Caterpillars at the diamond mining

sites in Sierra Leone, and equipment for use in mining diamonds to the RUF on at least

one occasion between 1998 and 2002. While there may have been multiple sources of

mining equipment and fuel entering Sierra Leone during the Indictment period, the

Accused was among them. The Trial Chamber has also found that men sent by the

Accused visited at least one mining site and assessed mining operations.

110. While there was evidence of occasional inquiries from Benjamin Yeaten and

reports to him about the activity at the mining sites in Sierra Leone, the evidence did not

establish that regular updates were sent to the Accused about mining activity.

The Peace Process

111. The Trial Chamber will now summarize its findings relating to the role of the

Accused in the peace process and the Defence contention that his involvement with the

RUF/AFRC was solely for the purpose of promoting peace.

112. During a radio conversation with Foday Sankoh, following the attack on Sierra

Rutile in 1994, the Accused advised the RUF leader to send an External Delegation to

Côte d’Ivoire. In Côte d’Ivoire, the delegates met Musa Cissé, an NPFL representative,

who allowed them to use his radio for communications with Sankoh. The Accused,

27

through contact with Musa Cissé, invited members of the External Delegation to Liberia,

where he met them twice in 1995. In December 1995 the Accused met members of the

External Delegation in Cote d’Ivoire on the occasion of the publication of “Footpaths to

Democracy”, at which time he gave them CFA 10 million francs for their maintenance.

113. The Accused instructed Foday Sankoh to participate in the Abidjan peace talks

from March to November 1996 in order to obtain ammunition and materiel for the RUF.

The evidence established that while in Abidjan, Sankoh obtained arms and ammunition

for the RUF using funds from Libya. However, the evidence was insufficient to establish

that Sankoh used contacts of the Accused to obtain arms and ammunition in Abidjan.

114. The Accused played an active role in the Lomé peace negotiations, which role the

Prosecution alleged to be subversive, suggesting that the Accused improperly assisted

and advised the RUF delegation before and during the negotiations so as to procure the

most favourable outcome for RUF/AFRC and himself. The Trial Chamber did not find

this to be the case, in the absence of evidence that the Accused controlled the RUF

delegation or dictated the outcome of the negotiations. However, the evidence established

that the Accused was engaged in arms transactions at the same time that he was involved

in the peace negotiations in Lomé, publicly promoting peace at the Lomé negotiations

while privately providing arms and ammunition to the RUF.

115. Following the Lomé Peace Accord, the so-called West Side Boys, discontent with

the apparent exclusion of the AFRC from the peace process, kidnapped UN peacekeepers

and others in Sierra Leone and demanded to talk to, and then see, Johnny Paul Koroma,

their leader. The Accused officially and publicly made arrangements to bring Koroma to

Monrovia, including negotiating a waiver of the UN travel ban, and facilitating several

meetings, thereby playing a central role in bringing Koroma and Sankoh together and

achieving a reduction in the tension between the RUF and the AFRC. The evidence

establishes, as the Accused contends, that the UN and ECOWAS Heads of State knew

about his public role in the negotiations. Taylor’s influence with both Koroma and

Sankoh evidently made him a significant actor in the process and helped to facilitate the

28

release of the UN peacekeepers and others who had been taken captive by the West Side

Boys.

116. The Trial Chamber accepts that as President of Liberia, as a member of the

ECOWAS Committee of Five (later Committee of Six), the Accused wielded

considerable influence over the warring factions in Sierra Leone and that the ECOWAS

heads of state played a substantial role in the Sierra Leone peace process. However, there

is strong evidence showing that while publicly participating in regional efforts to broker

peace in Sierra Leone, the Accused was secretly fuelling hostilities between the

AFRC/RUF and the democratically elected authorities in Sierra Leone. This clandestine

undermining of the peace process by the Accused occurred even when he knew that an

arms embargo by the UN and ECOWAS was in force in the region.

117. In late April or early May 2000, the RUF forcibly disarmed and detained a group

of approximately 500 UNAMSIL peacekeepers in Sierra Leone. The Accused was asked

by ECOWAS to become involved in negotiations for the release of these hostages, and

his mandate was endorsed by the United Nations. Thereafter, the Accused invited Issa

Sesay, RUF interim leader, to Monrovia to discuss the matter of their release. After this

meeting, from about the middle to the end of May 2000, the RUF released the captured

UNAMSIL peacekeepers into Liberian territory in stages. The Trial Chamber found that

the Accused had significant influence over the RUF decision to release the UN

peacekeepers, and that in his meeting with Issa Sesay, Taylor promised him assistance

“in the struggle”. While the Trial Chamber found that Issa Sesay made a trip to Liberia in

May 2000 in which he obtained arms and ammunition from the Accused, the evidence

was insufficient to establish that this materiel was provided in exchange for Issa Sesay

agreeing to release the UNAMSIL peacekeepers.

118. In July 2000, a meeting was convened in Monrovia to discuss the selection of new

leadership for the RUF following Sankoh’s imprisonment. The meeting was attended by

all of the ECOWAS heads of state and an RUF delegation led by Issa Sesay where it was

proposed that Sesay take over as Interim Leader of the RUF. In another meeting late that

night, the Accused privately advised Issa Sesay to say that he would disarm but “not do it

29

in reality”. At that time, the Accused was supplying Sesay with arms and ammunition,

and also calling on the RUF to send forces to help him fight his own enemies together

with the AFL in Liberia and in Guinea.

119. The Trial Chamber accordingly finds that while the Accused publicly played a

substantial role in the Sierra Leone peace process, including as a member of the

ECOWAS Committee of Five (later Committee of Six), secretly he was fuelling

hostilities between the AFRC/RUF and the democratically elected authorities in Sierra

Leone, by urging the former not to disarm and actively providing them with arms and

ammunition, acting, as the Prosecution described, as “a two-headed Janus”.

Leadership and Command Structure

120. The Trial Chamber has considered the leadership and command structure of the

RUF, and the role of the Accused, if any, in relation to that structure. The Trial Chamber

has found that Foday Sankoh and the Accused met in Libya in the early 1990s and

pursued parallel goals and aspirations, but not in a chain of command. Following

Operation Top Final in 1992 and the withdrawal of NPFL troops from Sierra Leone,

contacts and cooperation between the Accused and Sankoh continued, but to a lesser

extent. The Accused asked Sankoh to send troops in 1993 to help him fight ULIMO. He

advised Sankoh prior to and following the RUF attack on Sierra Rutile, and he advised

Sankoh to send an External Delegation to Cote d’Ivoire.

121. When Foday Sankoh was arrested in Nigeria in March 1997, he instructed Sam

Bockarie to take orders from the Accused. While much evidence was adduced relating to

the trade of arms and diamonds between Sam Bockarie and the Accused, the evidence did

not establish that Bockarie took orders from the Accused. The instructions given to

Bockarie by the Accused were given with the inherent authority the Accused had by

virtue of his position. Bockarie was deferential to the Accused and generally followed his

instruction. However, the Trial Chamber considers that the role Sankoh envisioned for

the Accused while he was in detention was that he would guide Bockarie, and that

Bockarie should look to his guidance, not that the Accused should take over Sankoh’s

role as the leader of the RUF with effective control over its actions.

30

122. Sometime around March 1998, Sam Bockarie was promoted. The Prosecution

alleged that this promotion was made by the Accused directly, or through a joint decision

between himself and Johnny Paul Koroma. Bockarie had just returned from Monrovia.

The Trial Chamber finds that the Accused may well have been consulted by Koroma, or

talked directly with Bockarie about the promotion while he was in Monrovia, but not that

Bockarie was promoted by the Accused. Like Sankoh, Koroma turned to the Accused for

advice and support, and the Trial Chamber accepts that he would have consulted the

Accused. Nevertheless, the Accused was not part of the command structure.

123. In December 1999, Sam Bockarie left Sierra Leone and went to Liberia, amidst

violent clashes between RUF fighters loyal to Foday Sankoh and RUF fighters loyal to

him. He was told to leave Sierra Leone by the Accused, but the Trial Chamber finds that

in summoning Bockarie to Liberia, the Accused relied on the authority of ECOWAS and

sought the help of President Obasanjo, organizing a meeting at Roberts International

Airport between Foday Sankoh, Sam Bockarie, President Obasanjo and himself, as a

result of which a decision was made that Bockarie would not return to Sierra Leone until

the disarmament process had been completed.

124. On 26 July 2000 a meeting took place at the Executive Mansion in Monrovia

between the heads of state of ECOWAS and an RUF delegation led by Issa Sesay, where

the suggestion was made that Issa Sesay should become the Interim Leader of the RUF.

Sesay would not accept the appointment without it first being approved by the RUF and

Foday Sankoh. A meeting of RUF commanders was held, and a letter was also delivered

to Foday Sankoh by President Obasanjo seeking Sankoh’s consent to the appointment.

At a follow up meeting in August 2000, Sesay was confirmed as the RUF Interim Leader.

Presidents Obasanjo and Konare both met with Sankoh in Freetown, without the Accused

present, and the Trial Chamber finds that this process was undertaken by ECOWAS

heads of state collectively, rather than the Accused unilaterally.

125. The Accused called on the AFRC/RUF to assist him in fighting outside Sierra

Leone. In 1999, the Accused ordered Bockarie to send AFRC/RUF forces to assist him in

his fight against Mosquito Spray and the LURD forces that had attacked his forces. In

31

2000 and 2001 the Accused instructed Issa Sesay to send RUF forces. The RUF forces

sent in response to these requests fought alongside AFL forces in Liberia and Guinea

under the command of the Accused’s subordinates. The evidence was insufficient to

establish that in 2001, Bockarie left Liberia to fight for Taylor’s allies in Cote d’Ivoire, as

alleged by the Prosecution.

Singapore Zoo ranks consistently (after San Diego Zoo) as one of the best in the world.

 

The white Bengal tigers – this one originally from a zoo in Indonesia – are a popular attraction at the Singapore Zoo.

 

For the story, please visit: www.ursulasweeklywanders.com/travel/teeth-claws-and-colou...

Is this consistent with your idea of automotive perfection? Robert’s gorgeous '69 Camaro was built by our friends at Detroit Speed! It's powered by a Mast Motorsports LS7 with a 6-speed Bowler Performance transmission and rides on DSE's Hydroformed Subframe, DSE minitubs, DSE QUADRALINK rear suspension, DSE/JRi double-adjustable coilovers, Baer brakes, 275/35ZR18 & 335/30ZR18 BFGoodrich Rival S tires, and 18x10/18x12 Forgeline CR3 wheels finished with Satin Gunmetal centers, Polished outers, & tall center caps! See more at: www.forgeline.com/customer_gallery_view.php?cvk=1807

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Dinner for 8 at Original Taste Northern Chinese Food came to a reasonable AUD105. We were able to try a few more dishes this time, and everyone agreed that the food was good and the familiar flavours were combined in new and different ways. The salads were crunchy and light, while the stews were rich and satisfying. Wheat is the staple cereal in the North and we had dumplings and 3 different types of pancakes. With glass noodles, there was one made from sweet potato flour and flat and round varieties made from green mung bean flour. The chilli chicken could have been more of a Sichuan dish but it was crisp and tasty. According to the waitress, it is marinated in Chinese black rice vinegar.

 

The only problem is that I don't remember the Chinese names because most of them were recommendations by the waitress.

 

Since I borrowed Hong's 6 y.o. Fujifilm Finepix S602Zoom, we decided to compare results with our 2 y.o. Casio Exilim EX-Z850.

 

As it turns out, the Finepix produced photos with better colours, but occasionally over-exposed photos, whereas the Exilim was more consistent. I wonder if the circuits inside the Finepix are getting a bit old? I remember using it for Cathy & Scott and Chris & James' weddings and it was fine.

 

In terms of shutter lag and general responsiveness, the newer Exilim definitely won out over the older Finepix.

 

It's probably not really fair to compare camera's made 4 years apart! :P

 

源味香 东北菜馆

Original Taste Northern China Cuisine

930 Whitehorse Rd, Box Hill

Tel: 03 9898 8787

 

Julia's photos (Casio Exilim Z850):

- Home-style Salad

- Jellyfish, Squid - 6 Taste Salad

- Belly Pork and Preserved Cabbage Stew - flash

- Belly Pork and Preserved Cabbage Stew

- Chicken and Mushroom Stew

- Chilli Fried Chicken

 

Alpha's photos (http://www.flickr.com/cameras/fujifilm/finepix_s602_zoom/):

- Home-style Salad

- Jellyfish, Squid - 6 Taste Salad

- Belly Pork and Preserved Cabbage Stew

- Chicken and Mushroom Stew

- Chilli Fried Chicken

- Stir-Fried French Bean, Pork Mince and Preserved Vegetable

- Stir-Fried French Bean, Pork Mince and Preserved Vegetable on pancake

- Spring Onion Pancake

- Lamb and Carrot Fried Dumplings

- Feng and JX hiding

 

Camera reviews:

- Fujifilm Finepix S602Zoom - Digital Photography Review

- www.flickr.com/cameras/fujifilm/finepix_s602_zoom/

- Casio Exilim EX-Z850 - Digital Photography Review

- Casio Exilim Z850 - flickr

My Dad left me and this world when was about to leave college and when i needed him the most.

 

Anyways with a lot of difficulties i faced the reality and like all adolescents, I passed out of college into a sea of societal demons, mothers expectations and my own dreams.

 

My dream was to enter into the field of media be it becoming an actor or an anchor.

 

When i was in college due to my presence in most of extra curricular activities i was a very popular student who was always in demand when it came to hosting college festivals and shows but once i was out of college i faced reality and faced confusion in terms of whether to keep anchoring as a hobby and work full time in Merchant Navy and follow my Dad’s footsteps.

 

Had even got admission for the training but my heart was not into it i and finally i decided against it and follow my dreams of getting into the entertainment business.

 

I became an assistant for a movie, acted in a couple of short films, started hosting with local orchestra group and through the journey of hosting i realised that hosting Sangeet Sandhya is my niche

 

I was good in hosting it and through Word of mouth praising within no time I became a household name in the Sangeet Sandhya i.e. pre wedding gigs.

 

My mom was still unsure about my profession but as the praise for my work began to trickle in through her well wishers and neighbours, she and my family developed a sense of ease, started developing faith in my talent and with my choice of career.

 

I have immense faith my talent and I work to express and not impress.

 

My mother has always taught me to be grounded and be consistent in whatever i do.

 

Her advise always comes handy and makes me more committed to my profession.

 

Lastly i m sure my dad somewhere up there is a very proud and very happy with my achievements, still long way to reach my goals and i m sure his duas are with me.

 

www.humansofmumbai.in

bauhaus building, dessau, germany, 1925-1926, architect: walter gropius

 

Gropius consistently separated the parts of the Bauhaus building according to their functions and designed each differently. He thereby arranged the different wings asymmetrically – in relation to what is today the Bauhausstraße and the Gropiusallee respectively. In order to appreciate the overall design of the complex, the observer must therefore move around the whole building. There is no central viewpoint.

 

The glazed, three-storey workshop wing, the block for the vocational school (also three storeys high) with its unostentatious rows of windows, and the five-storey studio building with its conspicuous, projecting balconies are the main elements of the complex. A two-storey bridge which housed, e.g., the administration department and, until 1928, Gropius’s architectural practice, connects the workshop wing with the vocational school. A single-storey building with a hall, stage and refectory, the so-called Festive Area, connects the workshop wing to the studio building. The latter originally featured 28 studio flats for students and junior masters, each measuring 20 m². The ingenious design of the portals between the foyer and the hall and a folding partition between the stage and the refectory, along with the ceiling design and colour design, impart a grandiose spatial coalescence to the sequence of foyer-hall-stage-refectory, shaping the so-called Festive Area. The façade of the students’ dormitory is distinguished in the east by individual balconies and in the south by long balconies that continue around the corner of the building.

 

The entire complex is rendered and painted mainly in light tones, creating an attractive contrast to the window frames, which are dark. For the interior, the junior master of the mural workshop, Hinnerk Scheper, designed a detailed colour plan that, by differentiating between supporting and masking elements through the use of colour, aimed to accentuate the construction of the building.

 

Who here likes consistency? You know, that warm, familiar feeling every time you go to Taco Bell (going down or out.. up to you)... very consistent? You've been there enough times and you've generally had all their menu items and your opinion is that "it's alright". Then there's that one time out of the blue, you decide to try something vegetarian off the Fresco menu, only to realize it was a horrible, horrible mistake? Well, that's kind of like what happened with this particular entry: Figma Megumin from Kono Sabarashii Sekai ni Shyukufuku wo!.. however you pronounce that.

 

As with 99% of the magical girl entries on my list, I know nothing about the actual character. Couple of Wiki pages presents a personality that, as expected, fits the way she looks. As taken from a Fandom page:

 

"Megumin is a straightforward girl, who speaks in an old-style Japanese dialect. She can be very hyper and lively at times and has chuunibyou tendencies like the rest of the Crimson Demon villagers. She is very intelligent, but has very little self-control, especially when it comes to using Explosion magic. She has no problem wasting her spell on empty plains or abandoned castles, as long as she can use Explosion once a day."

 

There seemed to be quite a bit of excitement when the figure was announced a while back, so as I always do, I found a decent deal on one that had a few issues while out and about, figuring "it's a Figma, it'll be alright" and away I went. The issues being that this was an Amazon Warehouse deal, so it wasn't complete, though the only thing that was missing was the instruction manual. The peg holding her cape in place had snapped off, and her head wasn't in place, of which the latter I figure I could just go home and pop that sucker right back in because, well, wouldn't be the first time a head came off a Figma after being jostled.

 

Well, jokes on me. After trying with no success, I took to the Internet, and read a crap ton of negative reviews on this figure, ranging from poor QC to horrible design. The head thing? Wasn't the only one; several complaints on Amazon said the same thing, with most not even bothering to try to attach the head. I had to grind the hole to widen it before the neck joint would actually fit, and now it's a bit loose and prone to falling off. I read stories of the staff showing up broken. Seems overall, these Konosuba girls (as they are called) have been plagued with QC issues.. I'm glad I didn't pay MSRP on this figure, let me tell you.

 

Megumin comes with a typical payload when it comes to Figma. There's the figure, three total face plates (slight smile, attacking, scared), her hat, her cape, alternate hair with eye patch, energy effect for eye, staff, purple orb for staff, spell effect with staff end for attaching said effect, her Familiar Chomosuke, six additional hands plus one dedicated spell casting hand, and the usual Figma stand.

 

Based on the screen caps I've seen, it appears that overall, Max Factory has captured the overall silhouette of Megumin herself, and her look when equipped with her gear. Of course, she's a lanky Japanese school girl, so not exactly hard for Figma to replicate. Chomosuke is freakin' adorable.. not quite Kirby adorable, but pretty damn close. Sculpting details are up to snuff, with clean fingers, good texture detailing on the outfit, and some minor muscle definition on her bare back. Face plates look spot on.

 

Articulation is pretty typical for a Figma.. when she doesn't have her cape on. You have full motion ankles, single jointed knees, full motion hips, waist, mid torso movement, full motion shoulders combined with bicep swivel, standard elbows, wrists, and head articulation. Mid torso movement is limited due to the joint being embedded inside her outfit, which is a soft rubber material. I'm not sure if it's like this for all the recent Figma (I'm kind of behind schedule), but Megumin features this hinged joint which allows for a deeper range of motion when it comes to head tilt, while at the same time offering the same ball jointed base base of head joint that permits the standard range of motion there. The cape itself has two points of articulation, allowing for a simulated flow look which is great, but putting the cape on also limits the range of motion when it comes to raise the arms up into an overhead position. Her skirt also limits the movement of the upper legs, which in turn limits the number of stances you can have her in. Because of this, I found it very difficult to balance Megumin on her tiny feet, and as such a stand is pretty much needed for everything.

 

Paint work is, as expected, solid across the board. Even the yellows appear to be well applied, with no significant overspray or lumpy paint residue. The only ugly paint spot are the silver on her buckle and her necklace, which are relatively ugly, but not "gouge my eyes out" level. Decal work is at its usual level of excellence.

 

Building quality and design is where things kind of went South. I've already talked about my problems out the box above, but there's more to discuss. First and foremost, that stupid, stupid hat. So, someone, in their infinite wisdom, decided that rather than have the hat attach via a peg or something like that, decided the best way to have the hat sit on her head is the put a really thin piece of plastic on the inside of the hat, and have that clip between the two hair pieces.. sounds alright in theory until you realize actually getting the thing to fit in their is a nightmare because there really isn't enough clearance to slide the front hair piece in place should you try to get the hat in place first. So instead you end up leaving a slight gap, and cramming the hat on her head, hoping for the best. The eye effect is a separate piece, and it is up to the owner to use their hamburger finger to squeeze this tiny plastic piece, probably the size of a syringe needle, into place so it doesn't fall out of the hair. I found that the joints on the figure, while fine by themselves, aren't really meant to carry the weight of the staff, particularly if it has the energy effect attached on the end of it. The body itself is pretty typical build, so no too many complaints here.

 

So in the end, we had the potential for an outstanding Figma, one having vibrant colour and personality., only to have a multitude of QC issues and crappy design choices knock it down a few pegs. Without her hat and cape, Megumin is honestly average at best, as she really can't do much other than sligh variations of standing up. I guess if the cape wasn't broken on mine, at least I would keep the cape on constantly as it does add to the character. But that hat.. it's such a hassle to put it on you either never take it off or you just give up. The best parts of this set are the scared face and of course, Chomosuke.

 

Better luck next time, I suppose.

Sant Julia city, Sant Julia de Loria, Gran Valira, Andorra, Pyrenees - (c) Lutz Meyer

 

More Sant Julia city & Sant Julia parroquia, Andorra: Follow the group links at right side.

.......

 

About this image:

* Full fame format 3x2 quality image

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* "Andorra camis & rutes" active collection

* Advanced metadata functionality on dynamic websites or apps

* for large metadata-controlled business collections: photo-archives, travel agencies, tourism editiorials

 

We offer 200.000+ photos of Andorra and North of Spain. 20.000+ visable here at Flickr. Its the largest professional image catalog of Andorra: all regions, all cities and villages, all times, all seasons, all weather(s). Consistent for additional advanced programming. For smartphones and web-db. REAL TIME!

 

It's based on GeoCoded stock-photo images and metadata with 4-5 languages. Prepared for easy systematic organising of very large image portfolios with advanced online / print-publishing as "Culture-GIS" (Geographic Info System).

 

More information about usage, tips, how-to, conditions: www.flickr.com/people/lutzmeyer/. Get quality, data consistency, stable organisation and PR environments: Professional stockphotos for exciting stories - docu, tales, mystic.

 

Ask for licence! lutz(at)lutz-meyer.com

 

(c) Lutz Meyer, all rights reserved. Do not use this photo without license.

Niagara Falls is a city in Niagara County, New York, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 48,671. It is adjacent to the Niagara River, across from the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and named after the famed Niagara Falls which they share. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and the Western New York region.

 

While the city was formerly inhabited by Native Americans, Europeans who migrated to the Niagara Falls in the mid-17th century began to open businesses and develop infrastructure. Later in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists and businessmen began harnessing the power of the Niagara River for electricity and the city began to attract manufacturers and other businesses drawn by the promise of inexpensive hydroelectric power. After the 1960s, however, the city and region witnessed an economic decline, following an attempt at urban renewal under then Mayor Lackey. Consistent with the rest of the Rust Belt as industries left the city, old line affluent families relocated to nearby suburbs and out of town.

 

Despite the decline in heavy industry, Niagara Falls State Park and the downtown area closest to the falls continue to thrive as a result of tourism. The population, however, has continued to decline from a peak of 102,394 in the 1960s due to the loss of manufacturing jobs in the area.

 

Before Europeans entered the area, it was dominated by the Neutral Nation of Native Americans. European migration into the area began in the 17th century. The first recorded European to visit the area was Frenchman Robert de la Salle, who built Fort Conti at the mouth of the Niagara River early in 1679, with permission from the Iroquois, as a base for boatbuilding; his ship Le Griffon was built on the upper Niagara River at or near Cayuga Creek in the same year. He was accompanied by Belgian priest Louis Hennepin, who was the first known European to see the falls. The influx of newcomers may have been a catalyst for already hostile native tribes to turn to open warfare in competition for the fur trade.

 

The City of Niagara Falls was incorporated on March 17, 1892, from the villages of Manchester and Suspension Bridge, which were parts of the Town of Niagara. Thomas Vincent Welch, a member of the charter committee and a New York state assemblyman and a second-generation Irish American, persuaded Governor Roswell P. Flower to sign the bill on St. Patrick's Day. George W. Wright was elected the first mayor of Niagara Falls.

 

By the end of the 19th century, the city was heavily industrialized, due in part to the power potential offered by the Niagara River. Tourism was considered a secondary niche, while manufacturing of petrochemicals, abrasives, metallurgical products and other materials was the main producer of jobs and attracted a large number of workers, many of whom were immigrants.

 

Industry and tourism grew steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century due to a high demand for industrial products and the increased mobility of people to travel. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators and abrasives were among the city's major industries. This prosperity would end by the late 1960s as aging industrial plants moved to less expensive locations. In addition, the falls were incompatible with modern shipping technology.[further explanation needed]

 

In 1956, the Schoellkopf Power Plant on the lower river just downstream of the American Falls was critically damaged by the collapse of the Niagara Gorge wall above it. This prompted the planning and construction of one of the largest hydroelectric plants to be built in North America to that time, generating a large influx of workers and families to the area. New York City urban planner Robert Moses built the new power plant in nearby Lewiston, New York. Much of the power generated there fueled growing demands for power in downstate New York and New York City.

 

The neighborhood of Love Canal gained national media attention in 1978 when toxic waste contamination from a chemical landfill beneath it forced United States President Jimmy Carter to declare a state of emergency, the first such presidential declaration made for a non-natural disaster. Hundreds of residents were evacuated from the area, many of whom were ill because of exposure to chemical waste.

 

After the Love Canal disaster, the city—which had already been declining in population for nearly two decades—experienced accelerated economic and political difficulties. The costs of manufacturing elsewhere had become less expensive, which led to the closure of several factories. The city's population eventually dropped by more than half of its peak, as workers fled the city in search of jobs elsewhere. Then, much like the nearby city of Buffalo, the city's economy plummeted when a failed urban renewal project destroyed Falls Street and the tourist district.

 

In 2001, the leadership of Laborers Local 91 was found guilty of extortion, racketeering and other crimes following an exposé by Mike Hudson of the Niagara Falls Reporter. Union boss Michael "Butch" Quarcini died before trial, while the rest of the union leadership was sentenced to prison.

 

In early 2010, former Niagara Falls Mayor Vincenzo Anello was indicted on federal charges of corruption, alleging the mayor accepted $40,000 in loans from a businessman who was later awarded a no-bid lease on city property. The charges were dropped as part of a plea deal after Anello pleaded guilty to unrelated charges of pension fraud, regarding a pension from the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, of which he is a member. He was sentenced to 10 to 16 months in prison.

 

The city's decline received national exposure from Bloomberg Businessweek in 2010.

 

On November 30, 2010, the New York State Attorney General entered into an agreement with the city and its police department to create new policies to govern police practices in response to claims of excessive force and police misconduct. The city committed to create policies and procedures to prevent and respond to allegations of excessive force, and to ensure police are properly trained and complaints are properly investigated. Prior claims filed by residents will be evaluated by an independent panel.

 

In 2020, a public square named Cataract Commons opened on Old Falls Street. It is a public space for outdoor events and activities.

 

The city has multiple properties on the National Register of Historic Places. It also has three national historic districts, including Chilton Avenue-Orchard Parkway Historic District, Deveaux School Historic District and the Park Place Historic District.

 

Niagara Falls is at the international boundary between the United States and Canada. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and is approximately 16 miles (26 km) from Buffalo, New York.

 

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 16.8 square miles (44 km2), of which 14.1 square miles (37 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2) (16.37%) is water. The city is built along the Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge, which is next to the Niagara River.

 

Niagara Falls has a humid continental climate (Dfa). The city experiences cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers. Precipitation is moderate and consistent in all seasons, falling equally or more as snow during the winter. The city has snowier than average winters compared to most cities in the US, however less than many other cities in Upstate New York including nearby Buffalo and Rochester. Thaw cycles with temperatures above 32 °F (0 °C) are a common occurrence. The hottest and coldest temperatures recorded in the decade through 2015 were 97 °F (36 °C) in 2005 and −13 °F (−25 °C) in 2003, respectively. 38% of warm season precipitation falls in the form of a thunderstorm.

 

Buffalo Avenue – runs along the south end along the Niagara River once home to a vast number of old families with architecturally significant mansions; further east (past John Daly Boulevard) the street is surrounded by a number of industrial sites to 56th Street before returning to a residential area and ending at the Love Canal area at 102nd Street.

Central District

Deveaux – Located in the northwestern corner (west of the North End) along the Niagara River is residential area built in the 1920s to 1940s. Named for Judge Samuel DeVeaux who left his estate to be established as the Deveaux College for Orphans and Destitute Children in 1853 (closed 1971), now the site of DeVeaux Woods State Park and DeVeaux School Historical District.

Downtown – Area around the Falls and home to hotels including Seneca Niagara Resort Casino, Niagara Falls State Park, Niagara Falls Culinary Institute (formerly Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet)

East Side – the area bounded by the gorge on the west, Niagara Street on the south, Ontario Avenue on the North and Main Street (NY Rt 104) on the east.

Hyde Park – Located near the namesake Hyde Park next to Little Italy as well as home to Hyde Park Municipal Golf Course.

LaSalle – Bounded by 80th Street, Niagara Falls Boulevard, Cayuga Drive and LaSalle Expressway was built up in the 1940s to 1960s. Cayuga Island is linked to neighborhood. The actual neighborhood where the Love Canal was to be built.

Little Italy – home to a once predominately Italian community that runs along Pine Avenue from Main Street to Hyde Park Boulevard

Love Canal – Established in the 1950s on land acquired from Hooker Chemical Company. Most of the neighborhood was evacuated in the 1980s after toxic waste was discovered underground. Resettlement began in 1990.[24]

Niagara Street – residential area east of Downtown along Niagara Street (distinct from Niagara Ave.) once home to a predominately German and Polish community.

North End – runs along Highland Avenue in the north end of the city before it merges with Hyde Park Boulevard.

 

As of the census of 2010, there were 50,193 people, 22,603 households, and 12,495 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,987.7 people per square mile (1,153.5 per square km). There were 26,220 housing units at an average density of 1,560.7 per square mile (602.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 70.5% White, 21.6% African American, 1.9% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of the population.

 

There were 22,603 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.8% were married couples living together, 19.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 4.02.

 

In the city, 22% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.1% aged from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.

 

The median income for a household in the city was $26,800, and the median income for a family was $34,377. Males had a median income of $31,672 versus $22,124 for females. 23% of the population was below the poverty line.

 

Niagara Falls has a number of places of worship, including the Salvation Army, First Assembly of God Church, First Unitarian Universalist Church of Niagara, St. Peter's Episcopal Church, First Presbyterian Church, St. Theresa Roman Catholic Church in Deveaux, and the Reform Jewish Temple Beth El. The Conservative Jewish Temple Beth Israel closed in 2012.

 

Niagara Falls has struggled with high rates of violent and property crime; FBI crime data indicate that the city has among the highest crime rates in New York state. In response to gun violence, volunteer groups such as Operation SNUG mobilized to promote positive community involvement in the troubled areas of the city.

 

Comptroller reported that Niagara Falls has "struggled through decades of population losses, rising crime and repeated attempts to reinvent itself from a manufacturing town with some tourism to a major tourist destination." The city became a boomtown with the opening of the New York State Power Authority's hydroelectric Niagara Power Plant in the 1960s; the cheap electricity produced by the plant generated power for a burgeoning manufacturing industry. Along with the rest of Western New York, Niagara Falls suffered a significant economic decline from a decline in industry by the 1970s. Today, the city struggles to compete with Niagara Falls, Ontario; the Canadian side has a greater average annual income, a higher average home price, and lower levels of vacant buildings and blight, as well as a more vibrant economy and better tourism infrastructure. The population of Niagara Falls, New York fell by half from the 1960s to 2012. In contrast, the population of Niagara Falls, Ontario more than tripled. In 2000, the city's median household income was 36% below the national average. In 2012, the city's unemployment rate was significantly higher than the statewide unemployment rate.

 

Significant sources of economic activity in the region includes the Niagara Falls International Airport, which was renovated in 2009; the Seneca Gaming Corporation's Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel, which opened in the 2000s respectively; and the nearby Niagara Falls Air Reserve Station.

 

In late 2001, the State of New York established the USA Niagara Development Corporation, a subsidiary to the State's economic development agency, to focus specifically on facilitating development in the downtown area. However, the organization has been criticized for making little progress and doing little to improve the city's economy.

 

From 1973 to 2002, the city had a Convention and Civic Center on 4th street. In 2002 the venue was converted into the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel. In 2004, a new Niagara Falls Convention Center (NFCC) opened on Old Falls Street. The Old Falls Street venue has 116,000 square feet for exhibitions and meetings, and a 32,200-square-foot event/exhibit hall.

 

The city is home to the Niagara Falls State Park. The park has several attractions, including Cave of the Winds behind the Bridal Veil Falls, Maid of the Mist, a popular boat tour which operates at the foot of the Rainbow Bridge, Prospect Point and its observation tower, Niagara Discovery Center, Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center, and the Aquarium of Niagara.

 

Several other attractions also near the river, including Whirlpool State Park, De Veaux Woods State Park, Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park in nearby Lewiston (town), New York, and Fort Niagara State Park in Youngstown, New York.

 

Attractions in the downtown include the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel and Pine Avenue which was historically home to a large Italian American population and is now known as Little Italy for its abundance of shops and quality restaurants.

 

The Niagara Power of the New York Collegiate Baseball League play at Sal Maglie Stadium. The team is owned by Niagara University. The Cataract City Wolverines of the Gridiron Developmental Football League are a minor league football team based in Niagara Falls. The team played their inaugural season in 2021.

 

In 2017, the Tier III junior North American 3 Hockey League team, the Lockport Express, relocated to Niagara Falls as the Niagara Falls PowerHawks.

 

Former sports teams based in Niagara Falls include the Class-A Niagara Falls Sox, the Class-A Niagara Falls Rapids, the Niagara Falls Lancers of the Midwest Football League, and the Western New York Thundersnow of the Premier Basketball League and American Basketball Association.

 

The City of Niagara Falls functions under a strong mayor-council form of government. The government consists of a mayor, a professional city administrator, and a city council. The current mayor is Robert Restaino.

 

The city council serves four-year, staggered terms, except in the case of a special election. It is headed by a chairperson, who votes in all items for council action.

 

On a state level, Niagara Falls is part of the 145th Assembly District of New York State, represented by Republican Angelo Morinello. Niagara Falls is also part of the 62nd Senate District of New York State, represented by Republican Robert Ortt.

 

On a national level, the city is part of New York's 26th congressional district and is represented by Congressman Brian Higgins. In the United States Senate, the city and the state are represented by senators Charles Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand.

 

Founded in 1892 Niagara Falls Police Department provide local law enforcement in the city with 155 sworn officers. This force is not to be mistaken for the Town of Niagara, New York which has a smaller force founded in 1954.

 

Residents are zoned to the Niagara Falls City School District. Niagara University and Niagara County Community College are the two colleges in Niagara County.

 

Since Niagara Falls is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area, the city's media is predominantly served by the city of Buffalo.

 

The city has two local newspapers, the Niagara Gazette, which is published daily except Tuesday and The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY which is published quarterly. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY, which is officially Niagara Falls, New York's, first black-owned and operated news publication, founded October 2018. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY published its inaugural issue April 2019. The Buffalo News is the closest major newspaper in the area. The city also is the home to a weekly tabloid known as the Niagara Falls Reporter.

 

Three radio stations are licensed to the city of Niagara Falls, including WHLD AM 1270, WEBR AM 1440, and WTOR AM 770.

 

Niagara Falls is primarily served by the Buffalo Niagara International Airport for regional and domestic flights within the United States. The recently expanded Niagara Falls International Airport serves the city, and many cross border travellers with flights to Myrtle Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Orlando and Punta Gorda. Toronto's Pearson International Airport on the Canadian side is the closest airport offering long-haul international flights for the Niagara region.

 

The city is served by Amtrak's Maple Leaf and Empire train services, with regular stops at the Niagara Falls Station and Customhouse Interpretive Center at 825 Depot Ave West.

 

Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority is the public transit provider in the Buffalo metro area, with hubs at the Portage Road and Niagara Falls transportation centers.

 

Six New York State highways, one three-digit Interstate Highway, one expressway, one U.S. Highway, and one parkways pass through the city of Niagara Falls. New York State Route 31, New York State Route 104, and New York State Route 182 are east–west state roadways within the city, while New York State Route 61, New York State Route 265, and New York State Route 384 are north–south state roadways within the city. The LaSalle Expressway is an east–west highway which terminates near the eastern edge of Niagara Falls and begins in the nearby town of Wheatfield, New York. The Niagara Scenic Parkway is a north–south parkway that formerly ran through the city along the northern edge of the Niagara River. It remains in sections and terminates in Youngstown, New York.

 

Interstate 190, also referred to as the Niagara Expressway, is a north–south highway and a spur of Interstate 90 which borders the eastern end of the city. The highway enters the city from the town of Niagara and exits at the North Grand Island Bridge. U.S. Route 62, known as Niagara Falls Boulevard, Walnut Avenue, and Ferry Avenue, is signed as a north–south highway. U.S. Route 62 has an east–west orientation, and is partially split between two one-way streets within Niagara Falls. Walnut Avenue carries U.S. Route 62 west to its northern terminus at NY 104, and Ferry Avenue carries U.S. Route 62 east from downtown Niagara Falls. U.S. Route 62 Business, locally known as Pine Avenue, is an east–west route which parallels U.S. Route 62 to the south. Its western terminus is at NY 104, and its eastern terminus is at U.S. Route 62.

 

Two international bridges connect the city to Niagara Falls, Ontario. The Rainbow Bridge connects the two cities with passenger and pedestrian traffic and overlooks the Niagara Falls, while the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, which formerly carried the Canadian National Railway, now serves local traffic and Amtrak's Maple Leaf service.

 

New York, sometimes called New York State, is a state in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It borders New Jersey and Pennsylvania to its south, New England and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec to its north, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. With almost 19.6 million residents, it is the fourth-most populous state in the United States and eighth-most densely populated as of 2023. New York is the 27th-largest U.S. state by area, with a total area of 54,556 square miles (141,300 km2).

 

New York has a varied geography. The southeastern part of the state, known as Downstate, encompasses New York City, the most populous city in the United States, Long Island, the most populous island in the United States, and the lower Hudson Valley. These areas are the center of the New York metropolitan area, a sprawling urban landmass, and account for approximately two-thirds of the state's population. The much larger Upstate area spreads from the Great Lakes to Lake Champlain, and includes the Adirondack Mountains and the Catskill Mountains (part of the wider Appalachian Mountains). The east–west Mohawk River Valley bisects the more mountainous regions of Upstate, and flows into the north–south Hudson River valley near the state capital of Albany. Western New York, home to the cities of Buffalo and Rochester, is part of the Great Lakes region and borders Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Central New York is anchored by the city of Syracuse; between the central and western parts of the state, New York is dominated by the Finger Lakes, a popular tourist destination. To the south, along the state border with Pennsylvania, the Southern Tier sits atop the Allegheny Plateau, representing the northernmost reaches of Appalachia.

 

New York was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that went on to form the United States. The area of present-day New York had been inhabited by tribes of the Algonquians and the Iroquois Confederacy Native Americans for several thousand years by the time the earliest Europeans arrived. Stemming from Henry Hudson's expedition in 1609, the Dutch established the multiethnic colony of New Netherland in 1621. England seized the colony from the Dutch in 1664, renaming it the Province of New York. During the American Revolutionary War, a group of colonists eventually succeeded in establishing independence, and the former colony was officially admitted into the United States in 1788. From the early 19th century, New York's development of its interior, beginning with the construction of the Erie Canal, gave it incomparable advantages over other regions of the United States. The state built its political, cultural, and economic ascendancy over the next century, earning it the nickname of the "Empire State." Although deindustrialization eroded a significant portion of the state's economy in the second half of the 20th century, New York in the 21st century continues to be considered as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance, and environmental sustainability.

 

The state attracts visitors from all over the globe, with the highest count of any U.S. state in 2022. Many of its landmarks are well known, including four of the world's ten most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, Niagara Falls and Grand Central Terminal. New York is home to approximately 200 colleges and universities, including two Ivy League universities, Columbia University and Cornell University, and the expansive State University of New York, which is among the largest university systems in the nation. New York City is home to the headquarters of the United Nations, and it is sometimes described as the world's most important city, the cultural, financial, and media epicenter, and the capital of the world.

 

The history of New York begins around 10,000 B.C. when the first people arrived. By 1100 A.D. two main cultures had become dominant as the Iroquoian and Algonquian developed. European discovery of New York was led by the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 followed by the first land claim in 1609 by the Dutch. As part of New Netherland, the colony was important in the fur trade and eventually became an agricultural resource thanks to the patroon system. In 1626, the Dutch thought they had bought the island of Manhattan from Native Americans.[1] In 1664, England renamed the colony New York, after the Duke of York and Albany, brother of King Charles II. New York City gained prominence in the 18th century as a major trading port in the Thirteen Colonies.

 

New York played a pivotal role during the American Revolution and subsequent war. The Stamp Act Congress in 1765 brought together representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies to form a unified response to British policies. The Sons of Liberty were active in New York City to challenge British authority. After a major loss at the Battle of Long Island, the Continental Army suffered a series of additional defeats that forced a retreat from the New York City area, leaving the strategic port and harbor to the British army and navy as their North American base of operations for the rest of the war. The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war in favor of the Americans, convincing France to formally ally with them. New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced the United States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1788 and 1790, where the Bill of Rights was drafted. Albany became the permanent state capital in 1797. In 1787, New York became the eleventh state to ratify the United States Constitution.

 

New York hosted significant transportation advancements in the 19th century, including the first steamboat line in 1807, the Erie Canal in 1825, and America's first regularly scheduled rail service in 1831. These advancements led to the expanded settlement of western New York and trade ties to the Midwest settlements around the Great Lakes.

 

Due to New York City's trade ties to the South, there were numerous southern sympathizers in the early days of the American Civil War and the mayor proposed secession. Far from any of the battles, New York ultimately sent the most soldiers and money to support the Union cause. Thereafter, the state helped create the industrial age and consequently was home to some of the first labor unions.

 

During the 19th century, New York City became the main entry point for European immigrants to the United States, beginning with a wave of Irish during their Great Famine. Millions came through Castle Clinton in Battery Park before Ellis Island opened in 1892 to welcome millions more, increasingly from eastern and southern Europe. The Statue of Liberty opened in 1886 and became a symbol of hope. New York boomed during the Roaring Twenties, before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and skyscrapers expressed the energy of the city. New York City was the site of successive tallest buildings in the world from 1913 to 1974.

 

The buildup of defense industries for World War II turned around the state's economy from the Great Depression, as hundreds of thousands worked to defeat the Axis powers. Following the war, the state experienced significant suburbanization around all the major cities, and most central cities shrank. The Thruway system opened in 1956, signaling another era of transportation advances.

 

Following a period of near-bankruptcy in the late 1970s, New York City renewed its stature as a cultural center, attracted more immigration, and hosted the development of new music styles. The city developed from publishing to become a media capital over the second half of the 20th century, hosting most national news channels and broadcasts. Some of its newspapers became nationally and globally renowned. The state's manufacturing base eroded with the restructuring of industry, and the state transitioned into service industries.

 

The first peoples of New York are estimated to have arrived around 10,000 BC. Around AD 800, Iroquois ancestors moved into the area from the Appalachian region. The people of the Point Peninsula complex were the predecessors of the Algonquian peoples of New York. By around 1100, the distinct Iroquoian-speaking and Algonquian-speaking cultures that would eventually be encountered by Europeans had developed. The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania around the Great Lakes. For centuries, the Mohawk cultivated maize fields in the lowlands of the Mohawk River, which were later taken over by Dutch settlers at Schenectady, New York when they bought this territory. The Iroquois nations to the west also had well-cultivated areas and orchards.

 

The Iroquois established dominance over the fur trade throughout their territory, bargaining with European colonists. Other New York tribes were more subject to either European destruction or assimilation within the Iroquoian confederacy. Situated at major Native trade routes in the Northeast and positioned between French and English zones of settlement, the Iroquois were intensely caught up with the onrush of Europeans, which is also to say that the settlers, whether Dutch, French or English, were caught up with the Iroquois as well. Algonquian tribes were less united among their tribes; they typically lived along rivers, streams, or the Atlantic Coast. But, both groups of natives were well-established peoples with highly sophisticated cultural systems; these were little understood or appreciated by the European colonists who encountered them. The natives had "a complex and elaborate native economy that included hunting, gathering, manufacturing, and farming...[and were] a mosaic of Native American tribes, nations, languages, and political associations." The Iroquois usually met at an Onondaga in Northern New York, which changed every century or so, where they would coordinate policies on how to deal with Europeans and strengthen the bond between the Five Nations.

 

Tribes who have managed to call New York home have been the Iroquois, Mohawk, Mohican, Susquehannock, Petun, Chonnonton, Ontario and Nanticoke.

 

In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer in the service of the French crown, explored the Atlantic coast of North America between the Carolinas and Newfoundland, including New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. On April 17, 1524, Verrazzano entered New York Bay, by way of the Strait now called the Narrows. He described "a vast coastline with a deep delta in which every kind of ship could pass" and he adds: "that it extends inland for a league and opens up to form a beautiful lake. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats". He landed on the tip of Manhattan and perhaps on the furthest point of Long Island.

 

In 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, became the first European to describe and map the Saint Lawrence River from the Atlantic Ocean, sailing as far upriver as the site of Montreal.

 

On April 4, 1609, Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, departed Amsterdam in command of the ship Halve Maen (Half Moon). On September 3 he reached the estuary of the Hudson River. He sailed up the Hudson River to about Albany near the confluence of the Mohawk River and the Hudson. His voyage was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there after a trading post was established at Albany in 1614.

 

In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Christiaensen, built Fort Nassau (now Albany) the first Dutch settlement in North America and the first European settlement in what would become New York. It was replaced by nearby Fort Orange in 1623. In 1625, Fort Amsterdam was built on the southern tip of Manhattan Island to defend the Hudson River. This settlement grew to become the city New Amsterdam.

 

The British conquered New Netherland in 1664; Lenient terms of surrender most likely kept local resistance to a minimum. The colony and New Amsterdam were both renamed New York (and "Beverwijck" was renamed Albany) after its new proprietor, James II later King of England, Ireland and Scotland, who was at the time Duke of York and Duke of Albany The population of New Netherland at the time of English takeover was 7,000–8,000.

 

Thousands of poor German farmers, chiefly from the Palatine region of Germany, migrated to upstate districts after 1700. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities. They ignored the Indians and tolerated slavery (although few were rich enough to own a slave).

 

Large manors were developed along the Hudson River by elite colonists during the 18th century, including Livingston, Cortlandt, Philipsburg, and Rensselaerswyck. The manors represented more than half of the colony's undeveloped land. The Province of New York thrived during this time, its economy strengthened by Long Island and Hudson Valley agriculture, in conjunction with trade and artisanal activity at the Port of New York; the colony was a breadbasket and lumberyard for the British sugar colonies in the Caribbean. New York's population grew substantially during this century: from the first colonial census (1698) to the last (1771), the province grew ninefold, from 18,067 to 168,007.

 

New York in the American Revolution

Further information: John Peter Zenger, Stamp Act Congress, Invasion of Canada (1775), New York and New Jersey campaign, Prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War, and Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War

 

New York played a pivotal role in the Revolutionary War. The colony verged on revolt following the Stamp Act of 1765, advancing the New York City–based Sons of Liberty to the forefront of New York politics. The Act exacerbated the depression the province experienced after unsuccessfully invading Canada in 1760. Even though New York City merchants lost out on lucrative military contracts, the group sought common ground between the King and the people; however, compromise became impossible as of April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. In that aftermath the New York Provincial Congress on June 9, 1775, for five pounds sterling for each hundredweight of gunpowder delivered to each county's committee.

 

Two powerful families had for decades assembled colony-wide coalitions of supporters. With few exceptions, members long associated with the DeLancey faction went along when its leadership decided to support the crown, while members of the Livingston faction became Patriots.

 

New York's strategic central location and port made it key to controlling the colonies. The British assembled the century's largest fleet: at one point 30,000 British sailors and soldiers anchored off Staten Island. General George Washington barely escaped New York City with his army in November 1776; General Sir William Howe was successful in driving Washington out, but erred by expanding into New Jersey. By January 1777, he retained only a few outposts near New York City. The British held the city for the duration, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.

 

In October 1777, American General Horatio Gates won the Battle of Saratoga, later regarded as the war's turning point. Had Gates not held, the rebellion might well have broken down: losing Saratoga would have cost the entire Hudson–Champlain corridor, which would have separated New England from the rest of the colonies and split the future union.

 

Upon war's end, New York's borders became well–defined: the counties east of Lake Champlain became Vermont and the state's western borders were settled by 1786.

 

Many Iroquois supported the British (typically fearing future American ambitions). Many were killed during the war; others went into exile with the British. Those remaining lived on twelve reservations; by 1826 only eight reservations remained, all of which survived into the 21st century.

 

The state adopted its constitution in April 1777, creating a strong executive and strict separation of powers. It strongly influenced the federal constitution a decade later. Debate over the federal constitution in 1787 led to formation of the groups known as Federalists—mainly "downstaters" (those who lived in or near New York City) who supported a strong national government—and Antifederalists—mainly upstaters (those who lived to the city's north and west) who opposed large national institutions. In 1787, Alexander Hamilton, a leading Federalist from New York and signatory to the Constitution, wrote the first essay of the Federalist Papers. He published and wrote most of the series in New York City newspapers in support of the proposed United States Constitution. Antifederalists were not swayed by the arguments, but the state ratified it in 1788.

 

In 1785, New York City became the national capital and continued as such on and off until 1790; George Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States in front of Federal Hall in 1789. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted there, and the United States Supreme Court sat for the first time. From statehood to 1797, the Legislature frequently moved the state capital between Albany, Kingston, Poughkeepsie, and New York City. Thereafter, Albany retained that role.

 

In the early 19th century, New York became a center for advancement in transportation. In 1807, Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind. By 1815, Albany was the state's turnpike center, which established the city as the hub for pioneers migrating west to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory.

 

In 1825 the Erie Canal opened, securing the state's economic dominance. Its impact was enormous: one source stated, "Linking the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, the canal was an act of political will that joined the regions of the state, created a vast economic hinterland for New York City, and established a ready market for agricultural products from the state's interior." In that year western New York transitioned from "frontier" to settled area. By this time, all counties and most municipalities had incorporated, approximately matching the state's is organized today. In 1831, the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad started the country's first successful regularly–scheduled steam railroad service.

 

Advancing transportation quickly led to settlement of the fertile Mohawk and Gennessee valleys and the Niagara Frontier. Buffalo and Rochester became boomtowns. Significant migration of New England "Yankees" (mainly of English descent) to the central and western parts of the state led to minor conflicts with the more settled "Yorkers" (mainly of German, Dutch, and Scottish descent). More than 15% of the state's 1850 population had been born in New England[citation needed]. The western part of the state grew fastest at this time. By 1840, New York was home to seven of the nation's thirty largest cities.

 

During this period, towns established academies for education, including for girls. The western area of the state was a center of progressive causes, including support of abolitionism, temperance, and women's rights. Religious enthusiasms flourished and the Latter Day Saint movement was founded in the area by Joseph Smith and his vision. Some supporters of abolition participated in the Underground Railroad, helping fugitive slaves reach freedom in Canada or in New York.

 

In addition, in the early 1840s the state legislature and Governor William H. Seward expanded rights for free blacks and fugitive slaves in New York: in 1840 the legislature passed laws protecting the rights of African Americans against Southern slave-catchers. One guaranteed alleged fugitive slaves the right of a jury trial in New York to establish whether they were slaves, and another pledged the aid of the state to recover free blacks kidnapped into slavery, (as happened to Solomon Northup of Saratoga Springs in 1841, who did not regain freedom until 1853.) In 1841 Seward signed legislation to repeal a "nine-month law" that allowed slaveholders to bring their slaves into the state for a period of nine months before they were considered free. After this, slaves brought to the state were immediately considered freed, as was the case in some other free states. Seward also signed legislation to establish public education for all children, leaving it up to local jurisdictions as to how that would be supplied (some had segregated schools).

 

New York culture bloomed in the first half of the 19th century: in 1809 Washington Irving wrote the satirical A History of New York under the pen name Diedrich Knickerbocker, and in 1819 he based Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow in Hudson Valley towns. Thomas Cole's Hudson River School was established in the 1830s by showcasing dramatic landscapes of the Hudson Valley. The first baseball teams formed in New York City in the 1840s, including the New York Knickerbockers. Professional baseball later located its Hall of Fame in Cooperstown. Saratoga Race Course, an annual summer attraction in Saratoga Springs, opened in 1847.

 

A civil war was not in the best interest of business, because New York had strong ties to the Deep South, both through the port of New York and manufacture of cotton goods in upstate textile mills. Half of New York City's exports were related to cotton before the war. Southern businessmen so frequently traveled to the city that they established favorite hotels and restaurants. Trade was based on moving Southern goods. The city's large Democrat community feared the impact of Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 and the mayor urged secession of New York.

 

By the time of the 1861 Battle of Fort Sumter, such political differences decreased and the state quickly met Lincoln's request for soldiers and supplies. More soldiers fought from New York than any other Northern state. While no battles were waged in New York, the state was not immune to Confederate conspiracies, including one to burn various New York cities and another to invade the state via Canada.

 

In January 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in states that were still in rebellion against the union. In March 1863, the federal draft law was changed so that male citizens between 20 and 35 and unmarried citizens to age 45 were subject to conscription. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay $300 were exempt. Antiwar newspaper editors attacked the law, and many immigrants and their descendants resented being drafted in place of people who could buy their way out. Democratic Party leaders raised the specter of a deluge of freed southern blacks competing with the white working class, then dominated by ethnic Irish and immigrants. On the lottery's first day, July 11, 1863, the first lottery draw was held. On Monday, July 13, 1863, five days of large-scale riots began, which were dominated by ethnic Irish, who targeted blacks in the city, their neighborhoods, and known abolitionist sympathizers. As a result, many blacks left Manhattan permanently, moving to Brooklyn or other areas.

 

In the following decades, New York strengthened its dominance of the financial and banking industries. Manufacturing continued to rise: Eastman Kodak founded in 1888 in Rochester, General Electric in Schenectady, and Endicott-Johnson Shoe Company in the Triple Cities are some of the well-known companies founded during this period. Buffalo and Niagara Falls attracted numerous factories following the advent of hydroelectric power in the area. With industry blooming, workers began to unite in New York as early as the 1820s. By 1882, the Knights of Labor in New York City had 60,000 members. Trade unions used political influence to limit working hours as early as 1867. At the same time, New York's agricultural output peaked. Focus changed from crop-based to dairy-based agriculture. The cheese industry became established in the Mohawk Valley. By 1881, the state had more than 241,000 farms. In the same period, the area around New York harbor became the world's oyster capital, retaining that title into the early twentieth century.

 

Immigration increased throughout the latter half of the 19th century. Starting with refugees from the Great Famine of Ireland in the 1840s, New York became a prominent entry point for those seeking a new life in the United States. Between 1855 and 1890, an estimated 8 million immigrants passed through Castle Clinton at Battery Park in Manhattan. Early in this period, most immigrants came from Ireland and Germany. Ellis Island opened in 1892, and between 1880 and 1920, most immigrants were German and Eastern European Jews, Poles, and other Eastern and Southern Europeans, including many Italians. By 1925, New York City's population outnumbered that of London, making it the most populous city in the world. Arguably New York's most identifiable symbol, Liberty Enlightening the World (the Statue of Liberty), a gift from France for the American centennial, was completed in 1886. By the early 20th century, the statue was regarded as the "Mother of Exiles"—a symbol of hope to immigrants.

 

New York's political pattern changed little after the mid–19th century. New York City and its metropolitan area was already heavily Democrat; Upstate was aligned with the Republican Party and was a center of abolitionist activists. In the 1850s, Democratic Tammany Hall became one of the most powerful and durable political machines in United States history. Boss William Tweed brought the organization to the forefront of city and then state politics in the 1860s. Based on its command of a large population, Tammany maintained influence until at least the 1930s. Outside the city, Republicans were able to influence the redistricting process enough to constrain New York City and capture control of the Legislature in 1894. Both parties have seen national political success: in the 39 presidential elections between 1856 and 2010, Republicans won 19 times and Democrats 20 times.

 

By 1901, New York was the richest and most populous state. Two years prior, the five boroughs of New York City became one city. Within decades, the city's emblem had become the skyscraper: the Woolworth Building was the tallest building in the world from 1913, surpassed by 40 Wall Street in April 1930, the Chrysler Building in 1930, the Empire State Building in 1931, and the World Trade Center in 1972 before losing the title in 1974.

 

The state was serviced by over a dozen major railroads and at the start of the 20th century and electric Interurban rail networks began to spring up around Syracuse, Rochester and other cities in New York during this period.

 

In the late 1890s governor Theodore Roosevelt and fellow Republicans such as Charles Evans Hughes worked with many Democrats such as Al Smith to promote Progressivism. They battled trusts and monopolies (especially in the insurance industry), promoted efficiency, fought waste, and called for more democracy in politics. Democrats focused more on the benefits of progressivism for their own ethnic working class base and for labor unions.

 

Democratic political machines, especially Tammany Hall in Manhattan, opposed woman suffrage because they feared that the addition of female voters would dilute the control they had established over groups of male voters. By the time of the New York State referendum on women's suffrage in 1917, however, some wives and daughters of Tammany Hall leaders were working for suffrage, leading it to take a neutral position that was crucial to the referendum's passage.

 

Following a sharp but short-lived Depression at the beginning of the decade, New York enjoyed a booming economy during the Roaring Twenties. New York suffered during the Great Depression, which began with the Wall Street crash on Black Tuesday in 1929. The Securities and Exchange Commission opened in 1934 to regulate the stock market. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected governor in 1928, and the state faced upwards of 25% unemployment. His Temporary Emergency Relief Agency, established in 1931, was the first work relief program in the nation and influenced the national Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Roosevelt was elected President in 1932 in part because of his promises to extend New York–style relief programs across the country via his New Deal. In 1932, Lake Placid was host to the III Olympic Winter Games.

 

As the largest state, New York again supplied the most resources during World War II. New York manufactured 11 percent of total United States military armaments produced during the war and suffered 31,215 casualties. The war affected the state both socially and economically. For example, to overcome discriminatory labor practices, Governor Herbert H. Lehman created the Committee on Discrimination in Employment in 1941 and Governor Thomas E. Dewey signed the Ives-Quinn Act in 1945, banning employment discrimination. The G.I. Bill of 1944, which offered returning soldiers the opportunity of affordable higher education, forced New York to create a public university system since its private universities could not handle the influx; the State University of New York was created by Governor Dewey in 1948.

 

World War II constituted New York's last great industrial era. At its conclusion, the defense industry shrank and the economy shifted towards producing services rather than goods. Returning soldiers disproportionately displaced female and minority workers who had entered the industrial workforce only when the war left employers no other choice. Companies moved to the south and west, seeking lower taxes and a less costly, non–union workforce. Many workers followed the jobs. The middle class expanded and created suburbs such as the one on Long Island. The automobile accelerated this decentralization; planned communities like Levittown offered affordable middle-class housing.

 

Larger cities stopped growing around 1950. Growth resumed only in New York City, in the 1980s. Buffalo's population fell by half between 1950 and 2000. Reduced immigration and worker migration led New York State's population to decline for the first time between 1970 and 1980. California and Texas both surpassed it in population.

 

New York entered its third era of massive transportation projects by building highways, notably the New York State Thruway. The project was unpopular with New York City Democrats, who referred to it as "Dewey's ditch" and the "enemy of schools", because the Thruway disproportionately benefited upstate. The highway was based on the German Autobahn and was unlike anything seen at that point in the United States. It was within 30 miles (50 km) of 90% of the population at its conception. Costing $600 million, the full 427-mile (687 km) project opened in 1956.

 

Nelson Rockefeller was governor from 1959 to 1973 and changed New York politics. He began as a liberal, but grew more conservative: he limited SUNY's growth, responded aggressively to the Attica Prison riot, and promulgated the uniquely severe Rockefeller Drug Laws. The World Trade Center and other profligate projects nearly drove New York City into bankruptcy in 1975. The state took substantial budgetary control, which eventually led to improved fiscal prudence.

 

The Executive Mansion was retaken by Democrats in 1974 and remained under Democratic control for 20 years under Hugh Carey and Mario Cuomo. Late–century Democrats became more centrist, including US Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1977–2001) and New York City Mayor Ed Koch (1978–1989), while state Republicans began to align themselves with the more conservative national party. They gained power through the elections of Senator Alfonse D'Amato in 1980, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani in 1993, and Governor George Pataki in 1994. New York remained one of the most liberal states. In 1984, Ronald Reagan was the last Republican to carry the state, although Republican Michael Bloomberg served as New York City mayor in the early 21st century.

 

In the late 20th century, telecommunication and high technology industries employed many New Yorkers. New York City was especially successful at this transition. Entrepreneurs created many small companies, as industrial firms such as Polaroid withered. This success drew many young professionals into the still–dwindling cities. New York City was the exception and has continued to draw new residents. The energy of the city created attractions and new businesses. Some people believe that changes in policing created a less threatening environment; crime rates dropped, and urban development reduced urban decay.

 

This in turn led to a surge in culture. New York City became, once again, "the center for all things chic and trendy". Hip-hop and rap music, led by New York City, became the most popular pop genre. Immigration to both the city and state rose. New York City, with a large gay and lesbian community, suffered many deaths from AIDS beginning in the 1980s.

 

New York City increased its already large share of television programming, home to the network news broadcasts, as well as two of the three major cable news networks. The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times became two of the three "national" newspapers, read throughout the country. New York also increased its dominance of the financial services industry centered on Wall Street, led by banking expansion, a rising stock market, innovations in investment banking, including junk bond trading and accelerated by the savings and loan crisis that decimated competitors elsewhere in New York.

 

Upstate did not fare as well as downstate; the major industries that began to reinvigorate New York City did not typically spread to other regions. The number of farms in the state had fallen to 30,000 by 1997. City populations continued to decline while suburbs grew in area, but did not increase proportionately in population. High-tech industry grew in cities such as Corning and Rochester. Overall New York entered the new millennium "in a position of economic strength and optimism".

 

In 2001, New York entered a new era following the 9/11 attacks, the worst terrorist attack ever to take place on American soil. Two of the four hijacked passenger jets crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them, and killing almost 3,000 people. One flew into the Pentagon demolishing the walls. The final one was almost taken back over by the passengers aboard and crashed into an open grassland with 296 out of the 500 people dead. Thousands of New Yorkers volunteered their time to search the ruin for survivors and remains in the following weeks.

 

Following the attacks, plans were announced to rebuild the World Trade Center site. 7 World Trade Center became the first World Trade Center skyscraper to be rebuilt in five years after the attacks. One World Trade Center, four more office towers, and a memorial to the casualties of the September 11 attacks are under construction as of 2011. One World Trade Center opened on November 3, 2014.

 

On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction of the state's shorelines, ravaging portions of New York City, Long Island, and southern Westchester with record-high storm surge, with severe flooding and high winds causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers, and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems. The storm and its profound effects have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of New York City and Long Island to minimize the risk from another such future event. Such risk is considered highly probable due to global warming and rising sea levels.

The Japanese spent the 1970s and 80 consistently improving quality and features in the cars they produced. This led Toyota to introduce a new marque to sit above their mainstream cars, named Lexus. Nissan did the same with Infinti, Mazda with Amati, and Honda with Acura.

 

The first model to wear the Acura badge was the Legend - also sold globally under the Honda badge. The Legend was laucned in 1985, with a Coupe model following in 1987. The Legend was the first Honda to feature on V6 engines, initially of 2.5L , then 2.7L capacity, producing 165 PS and 180 PS respectively. The powertrain was mounted longitudinally, and drove the front wheels only - Honda had not yet marketed a rear-drive saloon car.

 

Though the US was considered the primary market for the car, and this showed strongly in the styling of the Coupe model.

 

The second generation Honda / Acura Legend was launched in 1990, again featuring both Saloon and Coupe models.

The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family).

 

It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which, botanically, is a drupe, not a nut. The spelling cocoanut is an archaic form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning "head" or "skull", from the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features.

 

The coconut is known for its great versatility as seen in the many uses of its different parts and found throughout the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are part of the daily diets of many people. Coconuts are different from any other fruits because they contain a large quantity of "water" and when immature they are known as tender-nuts or jelly-nuts and may be harvested for drinking. When mature, they still contain some water and can be used as seednuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell and coir from the fibrous husk. The endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, becoming the edible coconut "flesh". When dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and frying; coconut oil is also widely used in soaps and cosmetics. The clear liquid coconut water within is potable. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating. The coconut also has cultural and religious significance in many societies that use it.

 

DESCRIPTION

PLANT

Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. Coconuts are generally classified into two general types: tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year, but more often yields less than 30, mainly due to poor cultural practices. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 – 20 years to reach peak production.

 

FRUIT

Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconut. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp (outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores (stoma) or "eyes" that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.

 

A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg. It takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra.

 

ROOTS

Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither a tap root nor root hairs, but has a fibrous root system.

 

The coconut palm root system consists of an abundance of thin roots that grow outward from the plant near the surface. Only a few of the roots penetrate deep into the soil for stability. The type of root system is known as fibrous or adventitious, and is a characteristic of grass species. Other types of large trees produce a single downward-growing tap root with a number of feeder roots growing from it.

 

Coconut palms continue to produce roots from the base of the stem throughout its life. The number of roots produced depends on the age of the tree and the environment, with more than 3,600 roots possible on a tree that's 60 to 70 years old.

 

Roots are usually less than about 3 inches in diameter and uniformly thick from the tree trunk to the root tip.

Inflorescence

 

The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the same inflorescence; thus, the palm is monoecious. Other sources use the term polygamomonoecious. The female flower is much larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.

 

ETYMOLOGY

One of the earliest mentions of the coconut dates back to the One Thousand and One Nights story of Sinbad the Sailor; he is known to have bought and sold coconuts during his fifth voyage. Tenga, its Malayalam and Tamil name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found in Itinerario by Ludovico di Varthema published in 1510 and also in the later Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. Even earlier, it was called nux indica, a name used by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra, taken from the Arabs who called it جوز هندي jawz hindī. Both names translate to "Indian nut". In the earliest description of the coconut palm known, given by Cosmos of Alexandria in his Topographia Christiana written about 545 AD, there is a reference to the argell tree and its drupe.

 

Historical evidence favors the European origin of the name "coconut", for no name is similar in any of the languages of India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit; and indeed Barbosa, Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Tamil/Malayalam name tenga, and Canarese narle, expressly say, "we call these fruits quoquos", "our people have given it the name of coco", and "that which we call coco, and the Malabars temga".

 

The OED states: "Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c. agree in identifying the word with Portuguese and Spanish coco "grinning face, grin, grimace", also "bugbear, scarecrow", cognate with cocar "to grin, make a grimace"; the name being said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell, with its three holes. According to Losada, the name came from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco da Gama in India, who first brought them to Europe. The coconut shell reminded them of a ghost or witch in Portuguese folklore called coco (also côca). The first known recorded usage of the term is 1555.

 

The specific name nucifera is Latin for "nut-bearing".

Origin, domestication, and dispersal

 

ORIGIN

The origin of the plant is the subject of debate. O.F. Cook was one of the earliest modern researchers to draw conclusions about the location of origin of Cocos nucifera based on its current-day worldwide distribution. He hypothesized that the coconut originated in the Americas, based on his belief that American coconut populations predated European contact and because he considered pan-tropical distribution by ocean currents improbable. Thor Heyerdahl later used this hypothesis of the American origin of the coconut to support his theory that the Pacific Islanders originated in South America. However, more evidence exists for an Indo-Pacific origin either around Melanesia and Malesia or the Indian Ocean. The oldest fossils known of the modern coconut dating from the Eocene period from around 37 to 55 million years ago were found in Australia and India. However, older palm fossils such as some of nipa fruit have been found in the Americas. Since 1978, the work on tracing the probable origin and dispersal of Cocos nucifera has only recently been augmented by a publication on the germination rate of the coconut seednut and another on the importance of the coral atoll ecosystem. Briefly, the coconut originated in the coral atoll ecosystem — without human intervention — and required a thick husk and slow germination to survive and disperse.

 

DOMESTICATION

Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention (to carry seednuts, plant seedlings, etc.) and it was early germination on the palm (vivipary) that was important, rather than increasing the number or size of the edible parts of a fruit that was already large enough. Human cultivation of the coconut selected, not for larger size, but for thinner husks and increased volume of endosperm, the solid “meat” or liquid “water” that provides the fruit its food value. Although these modifications for domestication would reduce the fruit’s ability to float, this ability would be irrelevant to a cultivated population.

 

Among modern C. nucifera, two major types or variants: a thick-husked, angular fruit and a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of endosperm reflect a trend of cultivation in C. nucifera: the first coconuts were of the niu kafa type, with thick husks to protect the seed, an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal, and a pointed base that allowed fruits to dig into the sand, preventing them from being washed away during germination on a new island. As early human communities began to harvest coconuts for eating and planting, they (perhaps unintentionally) selected for a larger endosperm to husk ratio and a broader, spherical base, which rendered the fruit useful as a cup or bowl, thus creating the niu vai type. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit would not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations. Harries’ adoption of the Polynesian terms niu kafa and niu vai has now passed into general scientific discourse, and his hypothesis is generally accepted.

 

Variants of C. nucifera are also categorized as Tall (var. typica) or Dwarf (var. nana). The two groups are genetically distinct, with the Dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting. The Tall variety is outcrossing while Dwarf palms are incrossing, which has led to a much greater degree of genetic diversity within the Tall group. It is believed that the Dwarf subgroup mutated from the Tall group under human selection pressure.

 

DISPERSAL

It is often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or 4,800 km, by sea and still be able to germinate. This figure has been questioned based on the extremely small sample size that forms the basis of the paper that makes this claim. Thor Heyerdahl provides an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based on his first-hand experience crossing the Pacific Ocean on the raft Kon-Tiki: "The nuts we had in baskets on deck remained edible and capable of germinating the whole way to Polynesia. But we had laid about half among the special provisions below deck, with the waves washing around them. Every single one of these was ruined by the sea water. And no coconut can float over the sea faster than a balsa raft moves with the wind behind it." He also notes that several of the nuts began to germinate by the time they had been ten weeks at sea, precluding an unassisted journey of 100 days or more. However, it is more than likely that the coconut variety Heyerdahl chose for his long sea voyage was of the large, fleshy, spherical niu vai type, which Harries observed to have a significantly shorter germination type and worse buoyancy than the uncultivated niu kafa type. Therefore, Heyerdahl’s observations cannot be considered conclusive when it comes to determining the independent dispersal ability of the uncultivated coconut.

 

Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided. This provides some circumstantial evidence that Austronesian peoples carried coconuts across the ocean and that they could not have dispersed worldwide without human agency. More recently, genomic analysis of cultivated coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples. By examining 10 microsatellite loci, researchers found two genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut - one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, admixture, the transfer of genetic material, evidently occurred between the two populations. Given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, individuals from one population possibly could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the admixture events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa, and exclude the Seychelles. This pattern coincides with the known trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct subpopulation of coconut on the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic bottleneck resulting from a founder effect; however, its ancestral population is the Pacific coconut. This, together with their use of the South American sweet potato, suggests that Austronesian peoples may have sailed as far east as the Americas.

 

DISTRIBUTION

The coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by seafaring people. Coconut fruit in the wild are light, buoyant and highly water resistant, and evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents. Specimens have been collected from the sea as far north as Norway. In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in Oceania. They have been found in the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years, but evidence of their presence on the Pacific coast of South America predates Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. They are now almost ubiquitous between 26°N and 26°S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.

  

NATURAL HABITAT

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1500 mm to 2500 mm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward. Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity. However, they can be found in humid areas with low annual precipitation such as in Karachi, Pakistan, which receives only about 250 mm of rainfall per year, but is consistently warm and humid.

 

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28 and 37 °C, and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C; they will survive brief drops to 0 °C. Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C. They may grow but not fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth, such as Bermuda.

 

The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:

 

- Mean daily temperature above 12–13 °C every day of the year

- Mean annual rainfall above 1000 mm

- No or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require direct sun

 

The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy the rainfall and temperature requirements is canopy growth, except those locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees.

 

DISEASES

Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease lethal yellowing. One recently selected cultivar, the Maypan, has been bred for resistance to this disease.

 

PESTS

The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species which feed on it, including Batrachedra spp.: B. arenosella, B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), and B. nuciferae.

 

Brontispa longissima (coconut leaf beetle) feeds on young leaves, and damages both seedlings and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a quarantine in Metro Manila and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the pest and protect the $800 million Philippine coconut industry.

 

The fruit may also be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis). This mite infests coconut plantations, and is devastating: it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature seeds are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the perianth of the immature seed; the seeds then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable sulfur 0.4% or with neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor-intensive.

 

In Kerala (India), the main coconut pests are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red palm weevil and the coconut leaf caterpillar. Research into countermeasures to these pests has as of 2009 yielded no results; researchers from the Kerala Agricultural University and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode continue to work on countermeasures. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an innovative extension approach called the compact area group approach (CAGA) to combat coconut mites.

 

PRODUCTION AND CULTIVATION

Coconut palms are grown in more than 90 countries of the world, with a total production of 62 million tonnes per year (table). Most of the world production is in tropical Asia, with Indonesia, the Philippines and India accounting collectively for 73% of the world total (table).

 

CULTIVATION

Coconut trees are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.

 

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatán.

 

HARVESTING

In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained pig-tailed macaques are used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern Thailand and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan. Competitions are held each year to find the fastest harvester.

 

INDIA

Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar. As per 2013-14 statistics from Coconut Development Board of Government of India, four southern states combined account for almost 92% of the total production in the country: Tamil Nadu (31.93%), Kerala (27.54%), Karnataka (23.26%), and Andhra Pradesh (8.43%). Other states, such as Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and those in the northeast (Tripura and Assam) account for the remaining productions. Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, in terms of production per hectare, Tamil Nadu leads all other states. In Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore and Tirupur regions top the production list.

 

Various terms, such as copra and coir, are derived from the native Malayalam language. In Kerala, the coconut tree is called "Thengu" also termed as kalpa vriksham, which essentially means all parts of a coconut tree is useful some way or other. In Tamil Nadu, a coconut tree is called as "Thennai maram" and tender coconut is called as "Ilaneer" in the native language.

 

MALDIVES

The coconut is the national tree of the Maldives and is considered the most important plant in the country. A coconut tree is also included in the country's national emblem or coat of arms. Coconut trees are grown on all the islands. Before modern construction methods were introduced, coconut leaves were used as roofing material for many houses in the islands, while coconut timber was used to build houses and boats.

 

MIDDLE EAST

The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman, but they can be grown all along the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea and Red Sea coasts, because these seas are tropical and provide enough humidity (through seawater evaporation) for coconut trees to grow. The young coconut plants need to be nursed and irrigated with drip pipes until they are old enough (stem bulb development) to be irrigated with brackish water or seawater alone, after which they can be replanted on the beaches. In particular, the area around Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian Sea in Kerala. The reasons why coconut are cultivated only in Yemen's Al Mahrah and Hadramaut governorates and in the Sultanate of Oman, but not in other suitable areas in the Arabian Peninsula, may originate from the fact that Oman and Hadramaut had long dhow trade relations with Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Africa and Zanzibar, as well as southern India and China. Omani people needed the coir rope from the coconut fiber to stitch together their traditional high seas-going dhow vessels in which nails were never used. The 'know how' of coconut cultivation and necessary soil fixation and irrigation may have found its way into Omani, Hadrami and Al-Mahra culture by people who returned from those overseas areas.

 

The coconut cultivars grown in Oman are generally of the drought-resistant Indian "West Coast tall" (WC Tall) variety. Unlike the UAE, which grows mostly non-native dwarf or hybrid coconut cultivars imported from Florida for ornamental purposes, the slender, tall Omani coconut cultivars are relatively well-adapted to the Middle East's hot dry seasons, but need longer to reach maturity. The Middle East's hot, dry climate favors the development of coconut mites, which cause immature seed dropping and may cause brownish-gray discoloration on the coconut's outer green fiber.

 

The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al Rihla.[52] The annual rainy season known locally as Khareef or monsoon makes coconut cultivation easy on the Arabian east coast.

 

Coconut trees also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the UAE and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE has, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of pests to other native palm trees, as the mixing of date and coconut trees poses a risk of cross-species palm pests, such as rhinoceros beetles and red palm weevils. The artificial landscaping adopted in Florida may have been the cause for lethal yellowing, a viral coconut palm disease that leads to the death of the tree. It is spread by host insects, that thrive on heavy turf grasses. Therefore, heavy turf grass environments (beach resorts and golf courses) also pose a major threat to local coconut trees. Traditionally, dessert banana plants and local wild beach flora such as Scaevola taccada and Ipomoea pes-caprae were used as humidity-supplying green undergrowth for coconut trees, mixed with sea almond and sea hibiscus. Due to growing sedentary life styles and heavy-handed landscaping, there has been a decline in these traditional farming and soil-fixing techniques.

 

SRI LANKA

An early mention of the planting of coconuts is found in the Mahavamsa during the reign of Agrabodhi II around 589 AD. Coconuts are common in the Sri Lankan diet and the main source of dietary fat.

 

UNITED STATES

In the United States coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation in Hawaii, southern and central Florida, and the territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.

 

In Florida, Coconut palms will grow from coastal Pinellas County and St. Petersburg southwards on Florida's west coast, and Melbourne southwards on Florida's east coast. The occasional coconut palm is seen north of these areas in favoured microclimates in Tampa and Clearwater, as well as around Cape Canaveral and Daytona Beach on the east coast. They reach fruiting maturity, but can be damaged or killed by the occasional winter freezes in these areas. In South Texas they may also be grown in favoured microclimates around the Rio Grande Valley near Brownsville, and as far north as Corpus Christi , however more severe cold snaps keep them from producing viable fruit.

 

AUSTRALIA

Coconuts are commonly grown around the northern coast of Australia, and in some warmer parts of New South Wales.

 

BERMUDA

Most of the tall mature coconut trees found in Bermuda were shipped to the island as seedlings on the decks of ships. In more recent years, the importation of coconuts was prohibited, therefore, a large proportion of the younger trees have been propagated from locally grown coconuts.

 

In the winter months, the growth rate of coconut trees declines due to cooler temperatures and people have commonly attributed this to the reduced yield of coconuts in comparison to tropical regions. However, whilst cooler winter temperatures may be a factor in reducing fruit production, the primary reason for the reduced yield is a lack of water. Bermuda's soil is generally very shallow (1.5 to 3 feet) and much of a coconut tree's root mass is found in the porous limestone underneath the soil. Due to the porosity of the limestone, Bermuda's coconut trees do not generally have a sufficient supply of water with which they are able to support a large number of fruit as rain water quickly drains down through the limestone layer to the water table which is far too deep for a coconut's roots to reach. This typically leads to a reduction in fruit yield (sometimes as little as one or two mature fruits) as well as a reduced milk content inside the coconut that often causes the fruit to be infertile.

 

Conversely, trees growing in close proximity to the sea almost universally yield a much greater volume of fruit as they are able to tap directly into the sea water which permeates the limestone in such areas. Not only do these trees produce a significantly higher yield, but also the fruit itself tends to be far more fertile due to the higher milk content. Trees found growing in Bermuda's marshy inland areas enjoy a similar degree of success as they are also able to tap directly into a constant supply of water.

 

EUROPE

As a tropical plant, coconut is not native to Europe, but grows in tropical territories of European countries, such as Martinique and Guadeloupe (France), the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal).

 

COOLER CLIMATES

In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its fruits are very similar to the coconut, but much smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be grown in temperatures above 18 °C and need a daily temperature above 22 °C to produce fruit.

 

USES

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be used by humans in some manner and has significant economic value. Coconuts' versatility is sometimes noted in its naming. In Sanskrit, it is kalpa vriksha ("the tree which provides all the necessities of life"). In the Malay language, it is pokok seribu guna ("the tree of a thousand uses"). In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly called the "tree of life".

 

COOKING

The various parts of the coconut have a number of culinary uses. The seed provides oil for frying, cooking, and making margarine. The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is used fresh or dried in cooking, especially in confections and desserts such as macaroons. Desiccated coconut or coconut milk made from it is frequently added to curries and other savory dishes. Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition. Coconut chips have been sold in the tourist regions of Hawaii and the Caribbean. Coconut butter is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as a name by certain specialty products made of coconut milk solids or puréed coconut meat and oil. Dried coconut is also used as the filling for many chocolate bars. Some dried coconut is purely coconut but others are manufactured with other ingredients, such as sugar, propylene glycol, salt, and sodium metabisulfite. Some countries in South East Asia use special coconut mutant called Kopyor (in Indonesian) or macapuno (in Philippines) as a dessert drinks.

 

NUTRITION

Per 100 gram serving with 354 calories, raw coconut meat supplies a high amount of total fat (33 grams), especially saturated fat (89% of total fat) and carbohydrates (24 grams) (table). Micronutrients in significant content include the dietary minerals, manganese, iron, phosphorus and zinc (table).

 

COCONUT WATER

Coconut water serves as a suspension for the endosperm of the coconut during its nuclear phase of development. Later, the endosperm matures and deposits onto the coconut rind during the cellular phase. It is consumed throughout the humid tropics, and has been introduced into the retail market as a processed sports drink. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young, immature coconuts, barring spoilage. Coconut water can be fermented to produce coconut vinegar.

 

Per 100 gram (100 ml) serving, coconut water contains 19 calories and no significant content of essential nutrients.

 

COCONUT MILK

Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained primarily by extracting juice by pressing the grated coconut white kernel or by passing hot water or milk through grated coconut, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. It has a total fat content of 24%, most of which (89%) is saturated fat, with lauric acid as a major fatty acid. When refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will rise to the top and separate from the milk. The milk can be used to produce virgin coconut oil by controlled heating and removal of the oil fraction.

 

A protein-rich powder can be processed from coconut milk following centrifugation, separation and spray drying.

 

COCONUT OIL

Another byproduct of the coconut is coconut oil. It is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form as would other vegetable oils, or in solid form as would butter or lard.

 

TODDY AND NECTAR

The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera, also known as toddy or tuba (Philippines), tuak (Indonesia and Malaysia) or karewe (fresh and not fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner) in Kiribati. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce arrack. In the Philippines, this alcoholic drink is called lambanog or "coconut vodka".

 

The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy such as te kamamai in Kiribati or dhiyaa hakuru and addu bondi in the Maldives. It can be reduced further to yield coconut sugar also referred to as palm sugar or jaggery. A young, well-maintained tree can produce around 300 liters of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around 400 liters.

 

HEART OF PALM AND COCONUT SPROUT

Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as "palm cabbage" or heart of palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad". Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes the developing embryo.

 

INDONESIA

Coconut is an indispensable ingredient in Indonesian cooking. Coconut meat, coconut milk and coconut water are often used in main courses, desserts and soups throughout the archipelago. In the island of Sumatra, the famous Rendang, the traditional beef stew from West Sumatra, chunks of beef are cooked in coconut milk along with other spices for hours until thickened. In Jakarta, "Soto Babat" or beef tripe soup also uses coconut milk. In the island of Java, the sweet and savoury "Tempe Bacem" is made by cooking tempeh with coconut water, coconut sugar and other spices until thickened. "Klapertart" is the famous Dutch-influenced dessert from Manado, North Celebes, that uses young coconut meat and coconut milk. In 2010, Indonesia increased its coconut production. It is now the world's second largest producer of coconuts. The gross production was 15 million tonnes. A sprouting coconut seed is the logo for Gerakan Pramuka Indonesia, the Indonesian Scouting organization. It can be seen on all the scouting paraphernalia that elementary (SMA) school children wear as well as on the scouting pins and flags.

 

PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is the world's largest producer of coconuts; the production of coconuts plays an important role in the economy. Coconuts in the Philippines are usually used in making main dishes, refreshments and desserts. Coconut juice is also a popular drink in the country. In the Philippines, particularly Cebu, rice is wrapped in coconut leaves for cooking and subsequent storage; these packets are called puso. Coconut milk, known as gata, and grated coconut flakes are used in the preparation of dishes such as laing, ginataan, bibingka, ube halaya, pitsi-pitsi, palitaw, buko and coconut pie. Coconut jam is made by mixing muscovado sugar with coconut milk. Coconut sport fruits are also harvested. One such variety of coconut is known as macapuno. Its meat is sweetened, cut into strands and sold in glass jars as coconut strings, sometimes labeled as "gelatinous mutant coconut". Coconut water can be fermented to make a different product - nata de coco (coconut gel).

 

VIETNAM

In Vietnam, coconut is grown abundantly across Central and Southern Vietnam, and especially in Bến Tre Province, often called the "land of the coconut". It is used to make coconut candy, caramel, and jelly. Coconut juice and coconut milk are used, especially in Vietnam's southern style of cooking, including kho, chè and curry (cà ri).

 

INDIA

In southern India, most common way of cooking vegetables is to add grated coconut and then steam them with spices fried in oil. People from southern India also make chutney, which involves grinding the coconut with salt, chillies, and whole spices. Uruttu chammanthi (granulated chutney) is eaten with rice or kanji (rice gruel). It is also invariably the main side dish served with idli, vadai, and dosai. Coconut ground with spices is also mixed in sambar and other various lunch dishes for extra taste. Dishes garnished with grated coconut are generally referred to as poduthol in North Malabar and thoran in rest of Kerala. Puttu is a culinary delicacy of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, in which layers of coconut alternate with layers of powdered rice, all of which fit into a bamboo stalk. Recently, this has been replaced with a steel or aluminium tube, which is then steamed over a pot. Coconut (Tamil: தேங்காய்) is regularly broken in the middle-class families in Tamil Nadu for food. Coconut meat can be eaten as a snack sweetened with jaggery or molasses. In Karnataka sweets are prepared using coconut and dry coconut "copra"., Like Kaie Obattu, Kobri mitai etc.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Michelangelo Buonarroti

Il secondo e terzo progetto per la tomba di Giulio II (1513-1516)

 

Nel febbraio 1513, con la morte del papa, gli eredi decisero di riprendere il progetto della tomba monumentale, con un nuovo disegno e un nuovo contratto nel maggio di quell'anno. Si può immaginare Michelangelo desideroso di riprendere lo scalpello, dopo quattro anni di estenuante lavoro in un'arte che non era la sua prediletta. La modifica più sostanziale del nuovo monumento era l'addossamento a una parete e l'eliminazione della camera mortuaria, caratteristiche che vennero mantenute fino al progetto finale. L'abbandono del monumento isolato, troppo grandioso e dispendioso per gli eredi, comportò un maggiore affollamento di statue sulle facce visibili. Ad esempio le quattro figure sedute, invece che disporsi sulle due facciate, erano adesso previste in prossimità dei due angoli sporgenti sulla fronte. La zona inferiore aveva una partitura analoga, ma senza il portale centrale, sostituito da una fascia liscia che evidenziava l'andamento ascensionale. Lo sviluppo laterale era ancora consistente, poiché era ancora previsto il catafalco in posizione perpendicolare alla parete, sul quale la statua del papa giacente era retta, da due figure alate. Nel registro inferiore invece, su ciascun lato, restava ancora spazio per due nicchie che riprendevano lo schema del prospetto anteriore. Più in alto, sotto una corta volta a tutto sesto retta da pilastri, si trovava una Madonna col Bambino entro una mandorla e altre cinque figure[50].

 

Tra le clausole contrattuali c'era anche quella che legava l'artista, almeno sulla carta, a lavorare esclusivamente alla sepoltura papale, con un termine massimo di sette anni per il completamento.

 

Lo scultore si mise al lavoro di buona lena e sebbene non rispettò la clausola esclusiva per non precludesi ulteriori guadagni extra (come scolpendo il primo Cristo della Minerva, nel 1514), realizzò i due Prigioni oggi al Louvre (Schiavo morente e Schiavo ribelle) e il Mosè, che poi venne riutilizzato nella versione definitiva della tomba[55]. I lavori vennero spesso interrotti per viaggi alle cave di Carrara.

 

Nel luglio 1516 si giunse a un nuovo contratto per un terzo progetto, che riduceva il numero delle statue. I lati vennero accorciati e il monumento andava assumendo così l'aspetto di una monumentale facciata, mossa da decorazioni scultoree. Al posto della partitura liscia al centro della facciata (dove si trovava la porta) viene forse previsto un rilievo bronzeo e, nel registro superiore, il catafalco viene sostituito da una figura del papa sorretto come in una Pietà da due figure sedute, coronate da una Madonna col Bambino sotto una nicchia[50]. I lavori alla sepoltura vengono bruscamente interrotti dalla commissione da parte di Leone X dei lavori alla basilica di San Lorenzo[43].

Michelangelo e Sebastiano del Piombo

 

In quegli stessi anni, una competizione sempre più accesa con l'artista dominante della corte papale, Raffaello, lo portò a stringere un sodalizio con un altro talentuoso pittore, il veneziano Sebastiano del Piombo. Occupato da altri incarichi, Michelangelo spesso forniva disegni e cartoni al collega, che li trasformava in pittura. Tra questi ci fu ad esempio la Pietà di Viterbo[56].

 

Nel 1516 nacque una competizione tra Sebastiano e Raffaello, scatenata da una doppia commissione del cardinale Giulio de' Medici per due pale destinata alla sua sede di Narbona, in Francia. Michelangelo offrì un cospicuo aiuto a Sebastiano, disegnando la figura del Salvatore e del miracolato nella tela della Resurrezione di Lazzaro (oggi alla National Gallery di Londra). L'opera di Raffaello invece, la Trasfigurazione non venne completata per la scomparsa dell'artista nel 152

A Firenze per i papi medicei (1516-1534)

La facciata di San Lorenzo (1516-1519)

 

Nel frattempo infatti il figlio di Lorenzo il Magnifico, Giovanni, era salito al soglio pontificio col nome di Leone X e la città di Firenze era tornata ai Medici nel 1511, comportando la fine del governo repubblicano con alcune apprensioni in particolare per i parenti di Michelangelo, che avevano perso incarichi d'ordine politico e i relativi compensi[58]. Michelangelo lavorò per il nuovo papa fin dal 1514, quando rifece la facciata della sua cappella a Castel Sant'Angelo (dal novembre, opera perduta); nel 1515 la famiglia Buonarroti ottenne dal papa il titolo di conti palatini[59].

 

In occasione di un viaggio del papa a Firenze nel 1516, la facciata della chiesa "di famiglia" dei Medici, San Lorenzo, era stata ricoperta di apparati effimeri realizzati da Jacopo Sansovino e Andrea del Sarto. Il pontefice decise allora di indire un concorso per realizzare una vera facciata, a cui parteciparono Giuliano da Sangallo, Raffaello, Andrea e Jacopo Sansovino, nonché Michelangelo stesso, su invito del papa. La vittoria andò a quest'ultimo, all'epoca impegnato a Carrara e Pietrasanta per scegliere i marmi per il sepolcro di Giulio II[58]. Il contratto è datato 19 gennaio 1518[59].

 

Il progetto di Michelangelo, per il quale vennero eseguiti numerosi disegni e ben due modelli lignei (uno è a oggi a Casa Buonarroti) prevedeva una struttura a nartece con un prospetto rettangolare, forse ispirato a modelli di architettura classica, scandito da potenti membrature animate da statue in marmo, bronzo e da rilievi. Si sarebbe trattato di un passo fondamentale in architettura verso una concezione nuova di facciata, non più basata sulla mera aggregazione di elementi singoli, ma articolata in modo unitario, dinamico e fortemente plastico[60].

 

Il lavoro procedette però a rilento, a causa della scelta del papa di servirsi dei più economici marmi di Seravezza, la cui cava era mal collegata col mare, rendendo difficile il loro trasporto per via fluviale fino a Firenze. Nel settembre 1518 Michelangelo sfiorò anche la morte per una colonna di marmo che, durante il trasporto su un carro, si staccò colpendo micidialmente un operaio accanto a lui, un evento che lo sconvolse profondamente, come raccontò in una lettera a Berto da Filicaia datata 14 settembre 1518[61]. In Versilia Michelangelo creò la strada per il trasporto dei marmi, ancora oggi esistente (anche se ampliata nel 1567 da Cosimo I). I blocchi venivano calati dalla cava di Trambiserra ad Azzano, davanti al Monte Altissimo, fino al Forte dei Marmi (insediamento sorto proprio in quell'occasione) e da lì imbarcate in mare e spedite a Firenze tramite l'Arno.

 

Nel marzo 1520 il contratto fu rescisso, per la difficoltà dell'impresa e i costi elevati. In quel periodo Michelangelo lavorò ai Prigioni per la tomba di Giulio II, in particolare ai quattro incompiuti oggi alla Galleria dell'Accademia. Scolpì probabilmente anche la statua del Genio della Vittoria di Palazzo Vecchio e alla nuova versione del Cristo risorto per Metello Vari (opera portata a Roma nel 1521), rifinita da suoi assistenti e posta nella basilica di Santa Maria sopra Minerva[58]. Tra le commissioni ricevute e non portate a termine c'è una consulenza per Pier Soderini, per una cappella nella chiesa romana di San Silvestro in Capite (1518)[62].

La Sagrestia Nuova (1520-1534)

 

Il mutamento dei desideri papali venne causato dai tragici eventi familiari legati alla morte degli ultimi eredi diretti della dinastia medicea: Giuliano Duca di Nemours nel 1516 e, soprattutto, Lorenzo Duca d'Urbino nel 1519. Per ospitare degnamente i resti dei due cugini, nonché quelli dei fratelli Magnifici Lorenzo e Giuliano, rispettivamente padre e zio di Leone X, il papa maturò l'idea di creare una monumentale cappella funebre, la Sagrestia Nuova, da ospitare nel complesso di San Lorenzo. L'opera venne affidata a Michelangelo prima ancora del definitivo annullamento della commissione della facciata; dopotutto l'artista poco tempo prima, il 20 ottobre 1519, si era offerto al pontefice per realizzare una sepoltura monumentale per Dante in Santa Croce, manifestando quindi la sua disponibilità a nuovi incarichi[58]. La morte di Leone sospese il progetto solo per breve tempo, poiché già nel 1523 venne eletto suo cugino Giulio, che prese il nome di Clemente VII e confermò a Michelangelo tutti gli incarichi[58].

 

Il primo progetto michelangiolesco era quello di un monumento isolato al centro della sala ma, in seguito a discussioni con i committenti, lo cambiò prevedendo di collocare le tombe dei Capitani addossate al centro delle pareti laterali, mentre quelle dei Magnifici, addossate entrambe alla parete di fondo davanti all'altare.

 

L'opera venne iniziata nel 1525 circa: la struttura in pianta si rifaceva alla Sagrestia Vecchia, sempre nella chiesa di San Lorenzo, del Brunelleschi: a pianta quadrata e con piccolo sacello anch'esso quadrato. Grazie alle membrature, in pietra serena e a ordine gigante, l'ambiente acquista un ritmo più serrato e unitario; inserendo tra le pareti e le lunette un mezzanino e aprendo tra queste ultime delle finestre architravate, dà alla sala un potente senso ascensionale concluso nella volta a cassettoni di ispirazione antica.

 

Le tombe che sembrano far parte della parete, riprendono nella parte alta le edicole, che sono inserite sopra le otto porte dell'ambiente, quattro vere e quattro finte. Le tombe dei due capitani si compongono di un sarcofago curvilineo sormontato da due statue distese con le Allegorie del Tempo: in quella di Lorenzo il Crepuscolo e l'Aurora, mentre in quella di Giuliano la Notte e il Giorno. Si tratta di figure massicce e dalle membra poderose che sembrano gravare sui sarcofagi quasi a spezzarli e a liberare le anime dei defunti, ritratti nelle statue inserite sopra di essi. Inserite in una nicchia della parete, le statue non sono riprese dal vero ma idealizzate mentre contemplano: Lorenzo in una posa pensierosa e Giuliano con uno scatto repentino della testa. La statua posta sull'altare con la Madonna Medici è simbolo di vita eterna ed è fiancheggiata dalle statue dei Santi Cosma e Damiano (protettori dei Medici) eseguite su disegno del Buonarroti, rispettivamente da Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli e Raffaello da Montelupo.

 

All'opera, anche se non continuativamente, Michelangelo lavorò fino al 1534, lasciandola incompiuta: senza i monumenti funebri dei Magnifici, le sculture dei Fiumi alla base delle tombe dei Capitani e, forse, di affreschi nelle lunette. Si tratta comunque di uno straordinario esempio di simbiosi perfetta tra scultura e architettura[63].

 

Nel frattempo Michelangelo continuava a ricevere altre commissioni che solo in piccola parte eseguiva: nell'agosto 1521 inviò a Roma il Cristo della Minerva, nel 1522 un certo Frizzi gli commissionò una tomba a Bologna e il cardinale Fieschi gli chiese una Madonna scolpita, entrambi progetti mai eseguiti[62]; nel 1523 ricevette nuove sollecitazioni da parte degli eredi di Giulio II, in particolare Francesco Maria Della Rovere, e lo stesso anno gli venne commissionata, senza successo, una statua di Andrea Doria da parte del Senato genovese, mentre il cardinal Grimani, patriarca di Aquileia, gli chiese un dipinto o una scultura mai eseguiti[62]. Nel 1524 papa Clemente gli commissionò la biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, i cui lavori avviarono a rilento, e un ciborio (1525) per l'altare maggiore di San Lorenzo, sostituito poi dalla Tribuna delle reliquie; nel 1526 si arrivò a una drammatica rottura coi Della Rovere per un nuovo progetto, più semplice, per la tomba di Giulio II, che venne rifiutato[58]. Altre richieste inevase di progetti di tombe gli pervengono dal duca di Suessa e da Barbazzi canonico di San Petronio a BolognaL'insurrezione e l'assedio (1527-1530)

 

Un motivo comune nella vicenda biografica di Michelangelo è l'ambiguo rapporto con i propri committenti, che più volte ha fatto parlare di ingratitudine dell'artista verso i suoi patrocinatori. Anche con i Medici il suo rapporto fu estremamente ambiguo: nonostante siano stati loro a spingerlo verso la carriera artistica e a procurargli commissioni di altissimo rilievo, la sua convinta fede repubblicana lo portò a covare sentimenti di odio contro di essi, vedendoli come la principale minaccia contro la libertas fiorentina[63].

 

Fu così che nel 1527, arrivata in città la notizia del Sacco di Roma e del durissimo smacco inferto a papa Clemente, la città di Firenze insorse contro il suo delegato, l'odiato Alessandro de' Medici, cacciandolo e instaurando un nuovo governo repubblicano. Michelangelo aderì pienamente al nuovo regime, con un appoggio ben oltre il piano simbolico. Il 22 agosto 1528 si mise al servizio del governo repubblicano, riprendendo la vecchia commissione dell'Ercole e Caco (ferma dal 1508), che propose di mutare in un Sansone con due filistei[58]. Il 10 gennaio 1529 venne nominato membro dei "Nove di milizia", occupandosi di nuovi piani difensivi, specie per il colle di San Miniato al Monte[58]. Il 6 aprile di quell'anno riceve l'incarico di "Governatore generale sopra le fortificazioni", in previsione dell'assedio che le forze imperiali si apprestavano a cingere[63]. Visitò appositamente Pisa e Livorno nell'esercizio del proprio ufficio, e si recò anche a Ferrara per studiarne le fortificazioni (qui Alfonso I d'Este gli commissionò una Leda con il cigno, poi andata perduta[62]), rientrando a Firenze il 9 settembre[58]. Preoccupato per l'aggravarsi della situazione, il 21 settembre fuggì a Venezia, in previsione di trasferirsi in Francia alla corte di Francesco I, che però non gli aveva ancora fatto offerte concrete. Qui venne però raggiunto prima dal bando del governo fiorentino che lo dichiarò ribelle, il 30 settembre. Tornò allora nella sua città il 15 novembre, riprendendo la direzione delle fortezze[58].

 

Di questo periodo rimangono disegni di fortificazione, realizzate attraverso una complicata dialettica di forme concave e convesse che sembrano macchine dinamiche atte all'offesa e alla difesa. Con l'arrivo degli Imperiali a minacciare la città, a lui è attribuita l'idea di usare la platea di San Miniato al Monte come avamposto con cui cannoneggiare sul nemico, proteggendo il campanile dai pallettoni nemici con un'armatura fatta di materassi imbottiti.

 

Le forze in campo per gli assedianti erano però soverchianti e con la sua disperata difesa la città non poté altro che negoziare un trattato, in parte poi disatteso, che evitasse la distruzione e il saccheggio che pochi anni prima avevano colpito Roma. All'indomani del ritorno dei Medici in città (12 agosto 1530) Michelangelo, che sapeva di essersi fortemente compromesso e temendo quindi una vendetta, si nasconde rocambolescamente e riuscì a fuggire dalla città (settembre 1530), riparando a Venezia[63]. Qui restò brevemente, assalito da dubbi sul da farsi. In questo breve periodo soggiornò all'isola della Giudecca per mantenersi lontano dalla vita sfarzosa dell'ambiente cittadino e leggenda vuole che avesse presentato un modello per il ponte di Rialto al doge Andrea Gritti.

La Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (1530-1534)

 

Il perdono di Clemente VII non si fece però attendere, a patto che l'artista riprendesse immediatamente i lavori a San Lorenzo dove, oltre alla Sagrestia, si era aggiunto cinque anni prima il progetto di una monumentale libreria. È chiaro come il papa fosse mosso, più che dalla pietà verso l'uomo, dalla consapevolezza di non poter rinunciare all'unico artista capace di dare forma ai sogni di gloria della sua dinastia, nonostante la sua indole contrastata[63]. All'inizio degli anni trenta scolpì anche un Apollino per Baccio Valori, il feroce governatore di Firenze imposto dal papa[58].

 

La biblioteca pubblica, annessa alla chiesa di San Lorenzo, venne interamente progettata dal Buonarroti: nella sala di lettura si rifece al modello della biblioteca di Michelozzo in San Marco, eliminando la divisione in navate e realizzando un ambiente con le mura scandite da finestre sormontate da mezzanini tra pilastrini, tutti con modanature in pietra serena. Disegnò anche i banchi in legno e forse lo schema di soffitto intagliato e pavimento con decorazioni in cotto, organizzati in medesime partiture. Il capolavoro del progetto è il vestibolo, con un forte slancio verticale dato dalle colonne binate che cingono il portale timpanato e dalle edicole sulle pareti.

 

Solo nel 1558 Michelangelo fornì il modello in argilla per lo scalone, da lui progettato in legno, ma realizzato per volere di Cosimo I de' Medici, in pietra serena: le ardite forme rettilinee e ellittiche, concave e convesse, vengono indicate come una precoce anticipazione dello stile barocco.

 

Il 1531 fu un anno intenso: eseguì il cartone del Noli me tangere, proseguì i lavori alla Sagrestia e alla Liberia di San Lorenzo e per la stessa chiesa progettò la Tribuna delle reliquie; Inoltre gli vennero chiesti, senza esito, un progetto dal duca di Mantova, il disegno di una casa da Baccio Valori, e un tomba per il cardinale Cybo; le fatiche lo condussero anche a una grave malattia[58].

 

Nell'aprile 1532 si ebbe il quarto contratto per la tomba di Giulio II, con solo sei statue. In quello stesso anno Michelangelo conobbe a Roma l'intelligente e bellissimo Tommaso de' Cavalieri, con il quale si legò appassionatamente, dedicandogli disegni e composizioni poetiche[58]. Per lui approntò, tra l'altro, i disegni col Ratto di Ganimede e la Caduta di Fetonte, che sembrano precorrere, nella potente composizione e nel tema del compiersi fatale del destino, il Giudizio Universale[64]. Rapporti molto tesi ebbe, invece, con il guardarobiere pontificio e Maestro di Camera Pietro Giovanni Aliotti, futuro vescovo di Forlì, che Michelangelo, considerandolo troppo impiccione, chiamava il Tantecose.

 

Il 22 settembre 1533 incontrò a San Miniato al Tedesco Clemente VII e, secondo la tradizione, in quell'occasione si parlò per la prima volta della pittura di un Giudizio universale nella Sistina[58]. Lo stesso anno morì il padre Ludovico[58].

 

Nel 1534 gli incarichi fiorentini procedevano ormai sempre più stancamente, con un ricorso sempre maggiore di aiuti

L'epoca di Paolo III (1534-1545)

Il Giudizio Universale (1534-1541)

 

L'artista non approvava il regime politico tiranneggiante del Duca Alessandro, per cui con l'occasione di nuovi incarichi a Roma, tra cui il lavoro per gli eredi di Giulio II, lasciò Firenze dove non mise mai più piede, nonostante gli accattivanti inviti di Cosimo I negli anni della vecchiaia[65].

 

Clemente VII gli aveva commissionato la decorazione della parete di fondo della Cappella Sistina con il Giudizio Universale, ma non fece in tempo a vedere nemmeno l'inizio dei lavori, perché morì pochi giorni dopo l'arrivo dell'artista a Roma. Mentre l'artista riprendeva la Sepoltura di papa Giulio, venne eletto al soglio pontificio Paolo III, che non solo confermò l'incarico del Giudizio, ma nominò anche Michelangelo pittore, scultore e architetto del Palazzo Vaticano[58].

 

I lavori alla Sistina poterono essere avviati alla fine del 1536, per proseguire fino all'autunno del 1541. Per liberare l'artista dagli incarichi verso gli eredi Della Rovere Paolo III arrivò ad emettere un motu proprio il 17 novembre 1536[58]. Se fino ad allora i vari interventi alla cappella papale erano stati coordinati e complementari, con il Giudizio si assistette al primo intervento distruttivo, che sacrificò la pala dell'Assunta di Perugino, le prime due storie quattrocentesche di Gesù e di Mosè e due lunette dipinte dallo stesso Michelangelo più di vent'anni prima[65].

 

Al centro dell'affresco vi è il Cristo giudice con vicino la Madonna che rivolge lo sguardo verso gli eletti; questi ultimi formano un'ellissi che segue i movimenti del Cristo in un turbine di santi, patriarchi e profeti. A differenza delle rappresentazioni tradizionale, tutto è caos e movimento, e nemmeno i santi sono esentati dal clima di inquietudine, attesa, se non paura e sgomento che coinvolge espressivamente i partecipanti.

 

Le licenze iconografiche, come i santi senza aureola, gli angeli apteri e il Cristo giovane e senza barba, possono essere allusioni al fatto che davanti al giudizio ogni singolo uomo è uguale. Questo fatto, che poteva essere letto come un generico richiamo ai circoli della Riforma Cattolica, unitamente alla nudità e alla posa sconveniente di alcune figure (santa Caterina d'Alessandria prona con alle spalle san Biagio), scatenarono contro l'affresco i severi giudizi di buona parte della curia. Dopo la morte dell'artista, e col mutato clima culturale dovuto anche al Concilio di Trento, si arrivò al punto di provvedere al rivestimento dei nudi e alla modifica delle parti più sconvenienti.

Una statua equestre

 

Nel 1537, verso febbraio, il duca d'Urbino Francesco Maria I Della Rovere gli chiese un abbozzo per un cavallo destinato forse a un monumento equestre, che risulta completato il 12 ottobre. L'artista però si rifiutò di inviare il progetto al duca, poiché insoddisfatto. Dalla corrispondenza si apprende anche che entro i primi di luglio Michelangelo gli aveva progettato anche una saliera: la precedenza del duca rispetto a tante commissioni inevase di Michelangelo è sicuramente legata alla pendenza dei lavori alla tomba di Giulio II, di cui Francesco Maria era erede[62].

 

Quello stesso anno a Roma riceve la cittadinanza onoraria in Campidoglio[

Piazza del Campidoglio

 

Paolo III, al pari dei suoi predecessori, fu un entusiasta committente di Michelangelo[65].

 

Con il trasferimento sul Campidoglio della statua equestre di Marc'Aurelio, simbolo dell'autorità imperiale e per estensione della continuità tra la Roma imperiale e quella papale, il papa incaricò Michelangelo, nel 1538, di studiare la ristrutturazione della piazza, centro dell'amministrazione civile romana fin dal Medioevo e in stato di degrado[62].

 

Tenendo conto delle preesistenze vennero mantenuti e trasformati i due edifici esistenti, già ristrutturati nel XV secolo da Rossellino, realizzando di conseguenza la piazza a pianta trapezoidale con sullo sfondo il palazzo dei Senatori, dotato di scala a doppia rampa, e delimitata ai lati da due palazzi: il Palazzo dei Conservatori e il cosiddetto Palazzo Nuovo costruito ex novo, entrambi convergenti verso la scalinata di accesso al Campidoglio. Gli edifici vennero caratterizzati da un ordine gigante a pilastri corinzi in facciata, con massicce cornici e architravi. Al piano terra degli edifici laterali i pilastri dell'ordine gigante sono affiancati da colonne che formano un insolito portico architravato, in un disegno complessivo molto innovativo che rifugge programmaticamente dall'uso dell'arco. il lato interno del portico presenta invece colonne alveolate che in seguito ebbero una gran diffusione[66], I lavori furono compiuti molto dopo la morte del maestro, mentre la pavimentazione della piazza fu realizzata solo ai primi del Novecento, utilizzando una stampa di Étienne Dupérac che riporta quello che doveva essere il progetto complessivo previsto da Michelangelo, secondo un reticolo curvilineo inscritto in un'ellisse con al centro il basamento ad angoli smussati per la statua del Marc'Aurelio, anch'esso disegnato da Michelangelo.

 

Verso il 1539 iniziò forse il Bruto per il cardinale Niccolò Ridolfi, opera dai significati politici legata ai fuorusciti fiorentini[5

La Crocifissione per Vittoria Colonna (1541).

Dal 1537 circa Michelangelo aveva iniziato la vivida amicizia con la marchesa di Pescara Vittoria Colonna: essa lo introdusse al circolo viterbese del cardinale Reginald Pole, frequentato, tra gli altri, da Vittore Soranzo, Apollonio Merenda, Pietro Carnesecchi, Pietro Antonio Di Capua, Alvise Priuli e la contessa Giulia Gonzaga.

 

In quel circolo culturale si aspirava a una riforma della Chiesa Cattolica, sia interna sia nei confronti del resto della Cristianità, alla quale avrebbe dovuto riconciliarsi. Queste teorie influenzarono Michelangelo e altri artisti. Risale a quel periodo la Crocifissione realizzata per Vittoria, databile al 1541 e forse dispersa, oppure mai dipinta. Di quest'opera ci restano solamente alcuni disegni preparatori di incerta attribuzione, il più famoso è senz'altro quello conservato al British Museum, mentre buone copie si trovano nella concattedrale di Santa Maria de La Redonda e alla Casa Buonarroti. Inoltre esiste un'opera attribuita a Michelangelo, sulla base di un testamento di un conte viterbese datato al 1725, esposta nel Museo del Colle del Duomo di Viterbo.

 

Secondo i progetti raffigurava un giovane e sensuale Cristo, simboleggiante un'allusione alle teorie riformiste cattoliche che vedevano nel sacrificio del sangue di Cristo l'unica via di salvezza individuale, senza intermediazioni della Chiesa e dei suoi rappresentanti.

 

Uno schema analogo presentava anche la Pietà per Vittoria Colonna, dello stesso periodo, nota da un disegno a Boston e da alcune copie di allievi.

 

In quegli anni a Roma Michelangelo poteva quindi contare su una sua cerchia di amici ed estimatori, tra cui oltre alla Colonna, Tommaso de' Cavalieri e artisti quali Tiberio Calcagni e Daniele da Volterra

Cappella Paolina (1542-1550)

 

Dal 1542 il papa gli commissionò quella che rappresenta la sua ultima opera pittorica, dove ormai anziano lavorò per quasi dieci anni, in contemporanea ad altri impegni[65]. Il papa Farnese, geloso e seccato del fatto che il luogo ove la celebrazione di Michelangelo pittore raggiungesse i suoi massimi livelli fosse dedicato ai papi Della Rovere, gli affidò la decorazione della sua cappella privata in Vaticano che prese il suo nome (Cappella Paolina). Michelangelo realizzò due affreschi, lavorando da solo con faticosa pazienza, procedendo con piccole "giornate", fitte di interruzioni e pentimenti.

 

Il primo a essere realizzato, la Conversione di Saulo (1542-1545), presenta una scena inserita in un paesaggio spoglio e irreale, con compatti grovigli di figure alternati a spazi vuoti e, al centro, la luce accecante che da Dio scende su Saulo a terra; il secondo, il Martirio di San Pietro (1545-1550), ha una croce disposta in diagonale in modo da costituire l'asse di un ipotetico spazio circolare con al centro il volto del martire.

 

L'opera nel suo complesso è caratterizzata da una drammatica tensione e improntata a un sentimento di mestizia, generalmente interpretata come espressione della religiosità tormentata di Michelangelo e del sentimento di profondo pessimismo che caratterizza l'ultimo periodo della sua vita.

La conclusione dei lavori alla tomba di Giulio II (1544-1545)

La Tomba di Giulio II

 

Dopo gli ultimi accordi del 1542, la tomba di Giulio II venne posta in essere nella chiesa di San Pietro in Vincoli tra il 1544 e il 1545 con le statue del Mosè, di Lia (Vita attiva) e di Rachele (Vita contemplativa) nel primo ordine.

 

Nel secondo ordine, al fianco del pontefice disteso con sopra la Vergine col Bambino si trovano una Sibilla e un Profeta. Anche questo progetto risente dell'influsso del circolo di Viterbo; Mosè uomo illuminato e sconvolto dalla visione di Dio è affiancato da due modi di essere, ma anche da due modi di salvezza non necessariamente in conflitto tra di loro: la vita contemplativa viene rappresentata da Rachele che prega come se per salvarsi usasse unicamente la Fede, mentre la vita attiva, rappresentata da Lia, trova la sua salvezza nell'operare. L'interpretazione comune dell'opera d'arte è che si tratti di una specie di posizione di mediazione tra Riforma e Cattolicesimo dovuta sostanzialmente alla sua intensa frequentazione con Vittoria Colonna e il suo entourage.

 

Nel 1544 disegnò anche la tomba di Francesco Bracci, nipote di Luigi del Riccio nella cui casa aveva ricevuto assistenza durante una grave malattia che l'aveva colpito in giugno[58]. Per tale indisposizione, nel marzo aveva rifiutato a Cosimo I de' Medici l'esecuzione di un busto[62]. Lo stesso anno avviarono i lavori al Campidoglio, progettati nel 1538

Vecchiaia (1546-1564)

 

Gli ultimi decenni di vita di Michelangelo sono caratterizzati da un progressivo abbandono della pittura e anche della scultura, esercitata ormai solo in occasione di opere di carattere privato. Prendono consistenza invece numerosi progetti architettonici e urbanistici, che proseguono sulla strada della rottura del canone classico, anche se molti di essi vennero portati a termine in periodi seguenti da altri architetti, che non sempre rispettarono il suo disegno originale[

Palazzo Farnese (1546-1550)

 

A gennaio 1546 Michelangelo si ammalò, venendo curato in casa di Luigi del Riccio. Il 29 aprile, ripresosi, promise una statua in bronzo, una in marmo e un dipinto a Francesco I di Francia, che però non riuscì a fare[62].

 

Con la morte di Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane nell'ottobre 1546, a Michelangelo vennero affidate le fabbriche di Palazzo Farnese e della basilica di San Pietro, entrambe lasciate incompiute dal primo[58].

 

Tra il 1547 e il 1550 l'artista progettò dunque il completamento della facciata e del cortile di Palazzo Farnese: nella facciata variò, rispetto al progetto del Sangallo, alcuni elementi che danno all'insieme una forte connotazione plastica e monumentale ma al tempo stesso dinamica ed espressiva. Per ottenere questo risultato accrebbe in altezza il secondo piano, inserì un massiccio cornicione e sormontò il finestrone centrale con uno stemma colossale (i due ai lati sono successivi).

Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano (1546-1564)

Per quanto riguarda la basilica vaticana, la storia del progetto michelangiolesco è ricostruibile da una serie di documenti di cantiere, lettere, disegni, affreschi e testimonianze dei contemporanei, ma diverse informazioni sono in contrasto tra loro. Infatti, Michelangelo non redasse mai un progetto definitivo per la basilica, preferendo procedere per parti[67]. In ogni caso, subito dopo la morte dell'artista toscano furono pubblicate diverse stampe nel tentativo di restituire una visione complessiva del disegno originario; le incisioni di Étienne Dupérac si imposero subito come le più diffuse e accettate[68].Michelangelo pare che aspirasse al ritorno alla pianta centrale del Bramante, con un quadrato inscritto nella croce greca, rifiutando sia la pianta a croce latina introdotta da Raffaello Sanzio, sia i disegni del Sangallo, che prevedevano la costruzione di un edificio a pianta centrale preceduto da un imponente avancorpo

 

Demolì parti realizzate dai suoi predecessori e, rispetto alla perfetta simmetria del progetto bramantesco, introdusse un asse preferenziale nella costruzione, ipotizzando una facciata principale schermata da un portico composto da colonne d'ordine gigante (non realizzato). Per la massiccia struttura muraria, che doveva correre lungo tutto il perimetro della fabbrica, ideò un unico ordine gigante a paraste corinzie con attico, mentre al centro della costruzione costruì un tamburo, con colonne binate (sicuramente realizzato dall'artista), sul quale fu innalzata la cupola emisferica a costoloni conclusa da lanterna (la cupola fu completata, con alcune differenze rispetto al presunto modello originario, da Giacomo Della Porta).

 

Tuttavia, la concezione michelangiolesca fu in gran parte stravolta da Carlo Maderno, che all'inizio del XVII secolo completò la basilica con l'aggiunta di una navata longitudinale e di una imponente facciata sulla base delle spinte della Controriforma.

 

Nel 1547 morì Vittoria Colonna, poco dopo la scomparsa dell'altro amico Luigi del Riccio: si tratta di perdite molto amare per l'artista[58]. L'anno successivo, il 9 gennaio 1548 muore suo fratello Giovansimone Buonarroti. Il 27 agosto il Consiglio municipale di Roma propose di affidare all'artista il restauro del ponte di Santa Maria. Nel 1549 Benedetto Varchi pubblicò a Firenze "Due lezzioni", tenute su un sonetto di Michelangelo[58]. Nel gennaio del 1551 alcuni documenti della cattedrale di Padova accennano a un modello di Michelangelo per il coro[62].

La serie delle Pietà (1550-1555 circa)

 

Dal 1550 circa iniziò a realizzare la cosiddetta Pietà dell'Opera del Duomo (dalla collocazione attuale nel Museo dell'Opera del Duomo di Firenze), opera destinata alla sua tomba e abbandonata dopo che l'artista frantumò, in un accesso d'ira due o tre anni più tardi, il braccio e la gamba sinistra del Cristo, spezzando anche la mano della Vergine. Fu in seguito Tiberio Calcagni a ricostruire il braccio e rifinire la Maddalena lasciata dal Buonarroti allo stato di non-finito: il gruppo costituito dal Cristo sorretto dalla Vergine, dalla Maddalena e da Nicodemo è disposto in modo piramidale con al vertice quest'ultimo; la scultura viene lasciata a diversi gradi di finitura con la figura del Cristo allo stadio più avanzato. Nicodemo sarebbe un autoritratto del Buonarroti, dal cui corpo sembra uscire la figura del Cristo: forse un riferimento alla sofferenza psicologica che lui, profondamente religioso, portava dentro di sé in quegli anni.

 

La Pietà Rondanini venne definita, nell'inventario di tutte le opere rinvenute nel suo studio dopo la morte, come: "Un'altra statua principiata per un Cristo et un'altra figura di sopra, attaccate insieme, sbozzate e non finite".

 

Michelangelo nel 1561 donò la scultura al suo servitore Antonio del Francese continuando però ad apportarvi modifiche sino alla morte; il gruppo è costituito da parti condotte a termine, come il braccio destro di Cristo, e da parti non finite, come il torso del Salvatore schiacciato contro il corpo della Vergine quasi a formare un tutt'uno. Successivamente alla scomparsa di Michelangelo, in un periodo imprecisato, questa scultura fu trasferita nel palazzo Rondanini di Roma e da questi ha mutuato il nome. Attualmente si trova nel Castello Sforzesco, acquistata nel 1952 dalla città di Milano da una proprietà privata[

Le biografie

 

Nel 1550 uscì la prima edizione delle Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori di Giorgio Vasari che conteneva una biografia di Michelangelo, la prima scritta di un artista vivente, in posizione conclusiva dell'opera che celebrava l'artista come vertice di quella catena di grandi artefici che partiva da Cimabue e Giotto, raggiungendo nella sua persona la sintesi di perfetta padronanza delle arti (pittura, scultura e architettura) in grado non solo di rivaleggiare ma anche di superare i mitici maestri dell'antichità[70].

 

Nonostante le premesse celebrative ed encomiastiche, Michelangelo non gradì l'operazione, per le numerose scorrettezze e soprattutto per una versione a lui non congeniale della tormentata vicenda della tomba di Giulio II. L'artista allora in quegli anni lavorò con un suo fedele collaboratore, Ascanio Condivi, facendo pubblicare una nuova biografia che riportava la sua versione dei fatti (1553). A questa attinse Vasari, oltre che in seguito a una sua diretta frequentazione dell'artista negli ultimi anni di vita, per la seconda edizione delle Vite, pubblicata nel 1568[70].

 

Queste opere alimentarono la leggenda dell'artista, quale genio tormentato e incompreso, spinto oltre i propri limiti dalle condizioni avverse e dalle mutevoli richieste dei committenti, ma capace di creare opere titaniche e insuperabili[65]. Mai avvenuto fino ad allora era poi che questa leggenda si formasse quando ancora l'interessato era in vita[65]. Nonostante questa invidiabile posizione raggiunta dal Buonarroti in vecchiaia, gli ultimi anni della sua esistenza sono tutt'altro che tranquilli, animati da una grande tribolazione interiore e da riflessioni tormentate sulla fede, la morte e la salvezza, che si trovano anche nelle sue opere (come le Pietà) e nei suoi scritti[

Altri avvenimenti degli anni cinquanta

 

Nel 1550 Michelangelo aveva terminato gli affreschi alla Cappella Paolina e nel 1552 era stato completato il Campidoglio. In quell'anno l'artista fornì anche il disegno per la scala nel cortile del Belvedere in Vaticano. In scultura lavorò alla Pietà e in letteratura si occupa delle proprie biografie[58].

 

Nel 1554 Ignazio di Loyola dichiarò che Michelangelo aveva accettato di progettare la nuova chiesa del Gesù a Roma, ma il proposito non ebbe seguito[62]. Nel 1555 l'elezione al soglio pontificio di Marcello II compromise la presenza dell'artista a capo del cantiere di San Pietro, ma subito dopo venne eletto Paolo IV, che lo confermò nell'incarico, indirizzandolo soprattutto ai lavori alla cupola. Sempre nel '55 morirono suo fratello Gismondo e Francesco Amadori detto l'Urbino che lo aveva servito per ventisei anni[58]; una lettera a Vasari di quell'anno gli dà istruzioni per il compimento del ricetto della Libreria Laurenziana[62].

 

Nel settembre 1556 l'avvicinarsi dell'esercito spagnolo indusse l'artista ad abbandonare Roma per riparare a Loreto. Mentre faceva sosta a Spoleto venne raggiunto da un appello pontificio che lo obbligò a tornare indietro[58]. Al 1557 risale il modello ligneo per la cupola di San Pietro e nel 1559 fece disegni per la basilica di San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, nonché per la cappella Sforza in Santa Maria Maggiore e per la scalinata della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana. Forse quell'anno avviò anche la Pietà Rondanini[58].

Porta Pia a Roma (1560)

 

el 1560 fece un disegno per Caterina de' Medici con un disegno per la tomba di Enrico II. Inoltre lo stesso anno progetto la tomba di Giangiacomo de' Medici per il Duomo di Milano, eseguita poi da Leone Leoni[58].

 

Verso il 1560 progettò anche la monumentale Porta Pia, vera e propria scenografia urbana con la fronte principale verso l'interno della città. Il portale con frontone curvilineo interrotto e inserito in un altro triangolare è fiancheggiata da paraste scanalate, mentre sul setto murario ai lati si aprono due finestre timpanate, con al di sopra altrettanti mezzanini ciechi. Dal punto di vista del linguaggio architettonico, Michelangelo manifestò uno spirito sperimentale ed anticonvenzionale tanto che si è parlato di "anticlassicismo

Santa Maria degli Angeli (1561)

 

Ormai vecchio, Michelangelo progettò nel 1561 una ristrutturazione della chiesa di Santa Maria degli Angeli all'interno delle Terme di Diocleziano e dell'adiacente convento dei padri certosini, avviati a partire dal 1562. Lo spazio della chiesa fu ottenuto con un intervento che, dal punto di vista murario, oggi si potrebbe definire minimale[72], con pochi setti di muro nuovi entro il grande spazio voltato del tepidarium delle terme, aggiungendo solo un profondo presbiterio e dimostrando un atteggiamento moderno e non distruttivo nei confronti dei resti archeologici.

 

La chiesa ha un insolito sviluppo trasversale, sfruttando tre campate contigue coperte a crociera, a cui sono aggiunte due cappelle laterali quadrate.

Console dell'Accademia delle Arti del Disegno

 

Il 31 gennaio 1563 Cosimo I de' Medici fondò, su consiglio dell'architetto aretino Giorgio Vasari, l'Accademia e Compagnia dell'Arte del Disegno di cui viene subito eletto console proprio il Buonarroti. Mentre la Compagnia era una sorta di corporazione cui dovevano aderire tutti gli artisti operanti in Toscana, l'Accademia, costituita solo dalle più eminenti personalità culturali della corte di Cosimo, aveva finalità di tutela e supervisione sull'intera produzione artistica del principato mediceo. Si trattava dell'ultimo, accattivante invito rivolto a Michelangelo da parte di Cosimo per farlo tornare a Firenze, ma ancora una volta l'artista declinò: la sua radicata fede repubblicana doveva probabilmente renderlo incompatibile col servizio al nuovo duca fiorentino

La morte

 

A un solo anno dalla nomina, il 18 febbraio 1564, quasi ottantanovenne, Michelangelo morì a Roma, nella sua residenza di piazza Macel de' Corvi (distrutta quando venne creato il monumento a Vittorio Emanuele II), assistito da Tommaso de' Cavalieri. Si dice che fino a tre giorni prima avesse lavorato alla Pietà Rondanini[65]. Pochi giorni prima, il 21 gennaio, la Congregazione del Concilio di Trento aveva deciso di far coprire le parti "oscene" del Giudizio Universale.

 

Nell'inventario redatto qualche giorno dopo il decesso (19 febbraio) sono registrati pochi beni, tra cui la Pietà, due piccole sculture di cui si ignorano le sorti (un San Pietro e un piccolo Cristo portacroce), dieci cartoni, mentre i disegni e gli schizzi pare che fossero stati bruciati poco prima di morire dal maestro stesso. In una cassa viene poi ritrovato un cospicuo "tesoretto", degno di un principe, che nessuno si sarebbe immaginato in un'abitazione tanto povera[

Le solenni esequie a Firenze

 

La morte del maestro venne particolarmente sentita a Firenze, poiché la città non era riuscita a onorare il suo più grande artista prima della morte, nonostante i tentativi di Cosimo. Il recupero dei suoi resti mortali e la celebrazione di esequie solenni divenne quindi un'assoluta priorità cittadina[73]. A pochi giorni dalla morte, suo nipote Lionardo Buonarroti, arrivò a Roma col preciso compito di recuperare la salma e organizzarne il trasporto, un'impresa forse ingigantita dal resoconto del Vasari nella seconda edizione delle Vite: secondo lo storico aretino i romani si sarebbero opposti alle sue richieste, desiderando inumare l'artista nella basilica di San Pietro, al che Lionardo avrebbe trafugato il corpo di notte e in gran segreto prima di riprendere la strada per Firenze[74].

 

Appena arrivata nella città toscana (11 marzo 1564), la bara venne portata in Santa Croce e ispezionata secondo un complesso cerimoniale, stabilito dal luogotenente dell'Accademia delle Arti del Disegno, Vincenzo Borghini. Si trattò del primo atto funebre (12 marzo) che, per quanto solenne, venne presto superato da quello del 14 luglio 1564 in San Lorenzo, patrocinato dalla casata ducale e degno più di un principe che di un artista. L'intera basilica venne addobbata riccamente con drappi neri e di tavole dipinte con episodi della sua vita; al centro venne predisposto un catafalco monumentale, ornato di pitture e sculture effimere, dalla complessa iconografia. L'orazione funebre venne scritta e letta da Benedetto Varchi, che esaltò "le lodi, i meriti, la vita e l'opere del divino Michelangelo Buonarroti"[74].

 

L'inumazione avvenne infine in Santa Croce, in un sepolcro monumentale disegnato da Giorgio Vasari, composto da tre figure piangenti che rappresentano la pittura, la scultura e l'architettura[74].

 

I funerali di stato suggellarono lo status raggiunto dall'artista e furono la consacrazione definitiva del suo mito, come artefice insuperabile, capace di raggiungere vertici creativi in qualunque campo artistico e, più di quelli di qualunque altro, capaci di emulare l'atto della creazione divina.

Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.

Foto d'anonimo anni '60;

Michelangelo BuonarrotiRaccolta Foto de Alvariis;

I just recently aquired a really nice, vintage Besson Cornet - Details as follows:

 

Bell marked:

 

CLASS A

50 Medals of Honour

FB

Besson & Co.

"Prototype"

198 EUSTON ROAD

LONDON

(with Single star symbol below)

 

On receipt I gave it a really good CLA (I managed to get the seized 3rd valve bottom cap off). It is now playing fairly well with good tuning.

 

If I am feeling wealthy later in the year I might get it professionally serviced to get it playing the best it can and sort out that dent in the bell.

 

Description & History:

--------------------------------

An authentic Besson & Co. Brevet cornet, manufactured around 1911 (serial number 85515). Renowned for their craftsmanship and rich tonal quality, Besson Class A instruments of this era were designed for professional use and have become highly sought after by collectors and players alike.

 

The last owner purchased it from a lady in Yorkshire whose grandfather played this instrument, she said initially in the Halifax Fire Brigade band then after the war Mexborough Fire Brigade band. The last owner bought it to play the Last Post at Newcastle Emlyn Remembrance service on 10 November 2024. That was its most recent outing.

 

The instrument is in good condition, with all components functional. The bell has a couple of dents (does not affect playability).

 

Included Accessories:

 

1. Original Hard Case (Poor Condition): Structurally intact but shows significant wear, consistent with its age.

 

2. Set of 7 vintage mouthpieces:

 

“Salvation Army No. 1”

“Hawkes & Son. 1 Model” (marked with a 5)

“Hawkes & Son. 2 Model”

"Selmer Range-finder Air-cooled - 16D" (Modified shank)

"Selmer Range-finder Air-cooled - 17D" (Boxed)

"Kilchen & Co Leeds - KOOLKUP 3"

Unmarked Trumpet mouthpiece

 

3. Silver Transitional Adapter (“512” Marked) - facilitates compatibility with different mouthpiece designs, enhancing the instrument’s versatility.

 

4. Brass Transitional Adapter (Unmarked): - A second brass adapter designed for additional configurations.

 

5. S.B.I. Co Lyre: -A genuine Salvationist Brass Instrument Company lyre, used for holding sheet music during performances.

 

Condition Summary:

-----------------------------

Instrument: Good condition, with couple of small dents in the bell and minor wear from age.

 

Case: Structurally intact but in poor cosmetic condition. Retains original clasp and internal compartments.

 

Accessories: All items are vintage, functional, and rare, significantly enhancing the set’s value.

 

Notes:

---------

 

The big air-cooled mouthpieces are bonkers and too much for the horn but they work nicely on my flugel horn!

Out of all the mouthpieces I think the beaten up Hawkes 1 model (5) and Sally Army No. 1 play the best... I guess that is why they are the most beaten up!

 

The Japanese spent the 1970s and 80 consistently improving quality and features in the cars they produced. This led Toyota to introduce a new marque to sit above their mainstream cars, named Lexus. Nissan did the same with Infinti, Mazda with Amati, and Honda with Acura.

 

The first model to wear the Acura badge was the Legend - also sold globally under the Honda badge. The Legend was laucned in 1985, with a Coupe model following in 1987. The Legend was the first Honda to feature on V6 engines, initially of 2.5L , then 2.7L capacity, producing 165 PS and 180 PS respectively. The powertrain was mounted longitudinally, and drove the front wheels only - Honda had not yet marketed a rear-drive saloon car.

 

Though the US was considered the primary market for the car, and this showed strongly in the styling of the Coupe model.

 

The second generation Honda / Acura Legend was launched in 1990, again featuring both Saloon and Coupe models.

Prezzo: 30,00€

 

Un olio detergente con la consistenza di un gel.

 

Quando viene a contatto con l’acqua si trasforma in un delicatissimo latte, in grado di rimuovere a fondo sia il make up sia le impurità prodotte dalla pelle e derivanti dall’ambiente sempre in modo delicato e rispettando il nostro film idrolipidico.

 

Dalla preziosa consistenza, nutre, deterge e strucca la pelle del viso in profondità senza seccare. È ricco di principi attivi preziosi per una detergenza accurata e per il benessere globale della pelle. L’Olio di Mandorle Dolci di Sicilia e l’Olio Extra vergine di Oliva assicurano l’elasticità cutanea, gli estratti di Camomilla e Calendula svolgono un’azione lenitiva e antinfiammatoria favorendo la cicatrizzazione dei tessuti, i meristemi di Quercia tolgono le infiammazioni e Tè verde e Acido gallico sono antiossidanti e prevengono i radicali liberi.

   

Bisogna applicarlo con un leggero massaggio sul viso asciutto, bagnare il viso con acqua tiepida, continuare a massaggiarlo fino ad eliminare tutti i residui.

 

3 minuti mattino e sera per far splendere la pelle:

 

Prelevate una piccola quantità di Olio Ricco Detergente,

Massaggiate sul viso asciutto, insistendo sulle zone con più make-up e sulla zona T

Bagnate il viso con dell’acqua tiepida e create un latte, massaggiate delicatamente e rimuovete l’eccesso di prodotto con acqua oppure con l’ausilio di un pannetto umido.

  

125ml