Wikipedia,

Sintra

Municipality

UNESCO

 

Clockwise: Pena National Palace; Azenhas do Mar; Quinta da Regaleira; Seteais Palace; Praia da Ursa; Monserrate Palace.

Flag of Sintra

Flag

Coat of arms of Sintra

Coat of arms

 

Coordinates: 38°47′57″N 9°23′18″W

Country Portugal

RegionLisbon

Metropolitan areaLisbon

DistrictLisbon

Parishes11 (list)

Government

• PresidentBasílio Horta (PS)

Area

• Total

319.23 km2 (123.26 sq mi)

Elevation175 m (574 ft)

Lowest elevation0 m (0 ft)

Population (2011)

• Total

377,835

• Density1,200/km2 (3,100/sq mi)

Time zoneUTC+00:00 (WET)

• Summer (DST)UTC+01:00 (WEST)

Postal code

2714

Area code219

PatronSão Pedro

Websitehttp://www.cm-sintra.pt

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official nameCultural Landscape of Sintra

CriteriaCultural: ii, iv, v

Reference723

Inscription1995 (19th Session)

Area946 ha

Sintra (/ˈsɪntrə, ˈsiːntrə/,[1][2][3] Portuguese: [ˈsĩtɾɐ] ⓘ) is a town and municipality in the Greater Lisbon region of Portugal, located on the Portuguese Riviera. The population of the municipality in 2021 was 385,654,[4] in an area of 319.23 square kilometres (123.26 sq mi).[5] Sintra is one of the most urbanized and densely populated municipalities of Portugal. A major tourist destination famed for its picturesqueness, the municipality has several historic palaces, castles, scenic beaches, parks and gardens.

 

The area includes the Sintra-Cascais Nature Park through which the Sintra Mountains run. The historic center of the Vila de Sintra is famous for its 19th-century Romanticist architecture, historic estates and villas, gardens, and royal palaces and castles, which resulted in the classification of the town as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sintra's landmarks include the medieval Castle of the Moors, the romanticist Pena National Palace and the Portuguese Renaissance Sintra National Palace.

 

Sintra is one of the wealthiest municipalities in both Portugal and the Iberian Peninsula as a whole.[6][7][8][9] It is home to one of the largest foreign expatriate communities along the Portuguese Riviera,[10][11][12][13][14] and consistently ranks as one of the best places to live in Portugal.[15][16] The ECB Forum on Central Banking, an annual event organised by the European Central Bank, is held in Sintra.[17]

 

History

Prehistory to Moorish era

 

Anta de Adrenunes.

 

Anta do Monte Abraão.

The earliest remnants of human occupation were discovered in Penha Verde: these vestiges testify to an occupation dating to the early Paleolithic.[18] Comparable remnants were discovered in an open-air site in São Pedro de Canaferrim, alongside the chapel of the Castelo dos Mouros (Moorish Castle), dating back to the Neolithic, and include decorated ceramics and microlithic flint utensils from the 5th millennium BC.[19]

 

Ceramic fragments found locally including many late Chalcolithic vases from the Sintra mountains suggest that between the fourth and third millennia B.C. the region (adjacent to the present village of Sintra) was occupied by a Neolithic/Chalcolithic settlement, with characteristics comparable to fortified settlements in Lisbon and Setúbal.[18] The evidence discovered in Quinta das Sequoias and São Pedro de Canaferrim contrasts dramatically with those remnants discovered in the walled town of Penha Verde and the funerary monument of Bella Vista.[18] Traces of several Bronze Age remains were also discovered in many places in the Sintra Mountains, including alongside the town, in the Monte do Sereno area, and a late Bronze Age settlement within the Moorish Castle dating to the 9th–6th centuries B.C.

 

The most famous object from this period is the so-called Sintra Collar, a middle Bronze Age gold neck-ring found near the city at the end of the 19th century, which since 1900 has been part of the British Museum's collection. Relatively close by, in Santa Eufémia da Serra, is an Iron Age settlement where artifacts from indigenous tribes and peoples of Mediterranean origins (principally from the Punic period) were also discovered.[18]

 

These date from the early 4th century B.C., prior to the Romanization of the peninsula, which in the area of Foz do Tejo took place in the middle of the 2nd century B.C.[18] Close proximity to a large commercial centre (Olisipo) founded by the Turduli Oppidani people in the first half of the first millennium B.C., meant that the region of Sintra was influenced by human settlement throughout various epochs, cultures that have left remains in the area to this day. The toponym Sintra derives from the medieval Suntria, and points to an association with radical Indo-European cultures; the word translates as 'bright star' or 'sun', commonly significant in those cultures.[18] Marcus Terentius Varro and Cadizian Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella designated the place "the sacred mountain" and Ptolemy referred to it as the "mountains of the moon".[18]

  

Part of the Roman Dam of Belas complex, showing the ventilation structures (foreground) and the remaining dam segment (background).

During the Roman occupation of the peninsula, the region of Sintra was part of the vast Civitas Olisiponense which Caesar (around 49 B.C.) or more likely Octavius (around 30 B.C.) granted the status of Municipium Civium Romanorum. The various residents of the region were considered part of the Roman Galeria and in the present village of Sintra there are Roman remains testifying to a Roman presence from the 1st–2nd centuries B.C. to the 5th century A.D. A roadway along the southeast part of the Sintra Mountains and connected to the main road to Olisipo dates from this period.[18]

  

Roman Bridge of Catribana.

This via followed the route of the current Rua da Ferraria, the Calçada dos Clérigos and the Calçada da Trindade.[18] Following the Roman custom of siting tombs along their roads and near their homes, there is also evidence of inscriptions pertaining to Roman funeral monuments, dating mainly to the 2nd century. The area around the modern town of Sintra, due to its proximity to Olisipo, the ancient name of Lisbon, was always profoundly interconnected with the major settlement, to the point that the Fountain of Armés, a 1st-century fountain in the village of Armés, Terrugem, in Sintra, has been built by Lucius Iulius Maelo Caudicus, an Olisipo flamen, to honour the Roman Emperor Augustus.

  

The Castle of the Moors, on the hilltops of Sintra

It was during the Moorish occupation of Sintra (Arabic: Xintara) that Greco-Latin writers wrote of the explicit occupation of the area of the town centre. A description by the geographer Al-Bacr, described Sintra as "one of the towns that [are] dependent on Lisbon in Al-Andalus, in proximity to the sea", characterizing it as "permanently submersed in a fog that never dissipates".[18]

 

During the Reconquista (around the 9th century), its principal centre and castle were isolated by Christian armies. Following the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba, the King of León, Alfonso VI received in the spring of 1093, the cities of Santarém, Lisbon and the Castle of Sintra.[18] This followed a period of internal instability within the Muslim taifas of the peninsula, and in particular the decision by the ruler of Taifa of Badajoz, Umar ibn Muhammad al-Mutawakkil who, after hesitating from 1090 to 1091, placed his territory under the suzerainty of Alfonso VI when faced with the threat of the Almoravids. Afonso took the cities and the castle of Sintra between 30 April and 8 May 1093, but shortly after their transfer Sintra and Lisbon were conquered by the Almoravids.[18] Santarém was saved by Henry, who Alfonso had nominated Count of Portugal in 1096, to replace Raymond of Burgundy.[18]

 

Kingdom

 

The remnants of the chapel of São Pedro de Canaferrim, constructed by Afonso Henriques following the surrender of Moors in Sintra

In July 1109, Count Henry reconquered the Castle of Sintra.[18] This was preceded a year before by an attempt by Prince Sigurd the Crusader, son of Magnus III of Norway, to capture the castle from the Moors in the course of his trek to the Holy Land. Sigurd's forces disembarked at the mouth of the Colares River but failed to take the castle. But it was only after the conquest of Lisbon, in October 1147, by Afonso Henriques (supported by Crusaders), that the castle surrendered definitively to the Christians, in November.[18] It was integrated into Christian dominions along with Almada and Palmela after their surrender. Afonso Henriques established the Church of São Pedro de Canaferrim within the walls of the Moorish Castle to mark his success.[18]

  

The municipal building of Sintra, constructed after 1154 to house the local administration

On 9 January 1154, Afonso Henriques signed a foral ("charter") for the town of Sintra, with all its respective regalia. The charter established the municipality of Sintra, whose territory encompassed a large area, eventually divided into four great parishes: São Pedro de Canaferrim (in the castle), São Martinho (in the town of Sintra), Santa Maria and São Miguel (in the ecclesiastical seat of Arrabalde).[18] The early municipal seat, the town of Sintra, was the centre of a significant Sephardic community, with a synagogue and quarter. This community was not limited to Sintra town: enclaves are mentioned during the reign of King Denis in Colares, but were heavily pressured by the influx of Christian serfs.[18] Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, owing to the fertility of the land, various convents, monasteries and military orders constructed residences, estates, water-mills and vineyards. There are municipal records from this period of a number of donations and grants; between 1157 and 1158, Afonso Henriques donated to the master of the Knights Templar, Gualdim Pais, various houses and estates in the centre of Sintra.[18]

 

In 1210, the Monastery of Santa Cruz in Coimbra acquired four houses in Pocilgais, releasing them in 1230, while in 1264 it controlled homes and vineyards in Almargem.[18] In 1216 the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora (Lisbon) also held a vineyard in Colares and, in 1218, estates in Queluz and Barota. At some time between 1223 and 1245, the Monastery of Santa Maria de Alcobaça held various privileges in the territory. The military Order of Santiago owned an estate in Arrifana in 1260.[18] Many of Afonso Henriques' donations in the 12th century, including privileges assigned to these institutions, were confirmed in 1189 by his son, Sancho I (1185–1211), corresponding to a social, political and economic strategy during the post-Reconquista era.[18] Consequently, after 1261, Sintra had a local administration consisting of an alcalde representing the Crown, and two local judges elected by the public. During the political conflict between King Sancho II (1223–1248) and the Church, the churches of São Pedro and São Martinho, which belonged to the King, were ceded to the Bishop of Lisbon and Sé.[18] Yet the Crown's patrimony was defined early: in 1287, King Denis donated to Queen Elizabeth of Portugal the town, the signeurial holdings and all their associated benefits. Later, these lands were transferred to the young Infante Afonso (later King Afonso IV), and remained in his possession until 1334, before reverting to the ownership of the queen (Portuguese: Casa da Rainha).[18]

 

The Black Death arrived in Sintra in the 14th century; in 1350, the disease is known to have caused the death of five municipal scribes. Far greater numbers of deaths probably resulted, perhaps owing to the cool climate and humidity, conditions that favoured the rapid spread of the disease.[18]

  

The Palace of Sintra, for a long time the residence of royal family during the summer

During the reign of King Ferdinand (1367–1383), Sintra played a part in the controversial marriage of the monarch to Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes. In 1374, the King donated Sintra to the Lady Telles, whom he eventually married in secret in the north of the country.[18] Along with Sintra the King conceded the municipalities of Vila Viçosa, Abrantes and Almada, to the consternation of his private council; following a confrontation the King abandoned his duties and travelled to Sintra, where he remained for a month on the pretext of hunting.[18] As Sintra was located relatively close to Lisbon, many of its people were called to work on projects for the Crown in the capital: in 1373, King Ferdinand decided to wall the city, and requested funds or workers from coastal lands in Almada, Sesimbra, Palmela, Setúbal, Coina, Benavente and Samora Correia, as well as all of Ribatejo, and from the inland areas of Sintra, Cascais, Torres Vedras, Alenquer, Arruda, Atouguia, Lourinhã, Telheiros and Mafra. During the Dynastic Crisis between 1383 and 1385, Sintra joined Leonor Telles in supporting the proclamation of her daughter, Beatrice, who married John I of Castile, as Queen of Portugal and Castile. After the defeat of the Castilian army at Aljubarrota (August 1385) by Portuguese and English troops, commanded by Nuno Álvares Pereira, Sintra became one of the last places to surrender to the Master of Aviz, later King of Portugal (after 1383).

 

Joanine and Philippine era

John I (1385–1433), first King of the second dynasty, broke the tradition of transferring Sintra to the Casa da Rainha (Queen's property). Probably around 1383, John I granted the lands of Sintra to Count Henrique Manuel de Vilhena, quickly revoking the decision after Henrique took the Infanta's side during the dynastic quarrel. Sintra, therefore, continued as a possession of the King, who expanded the local estate. Until the end of the 17th century, the royal palace constituted one of the principal residences and summer estates of the court: it was from here that John decided to conquer Ceuta (1415); King Afonso V was born and died at the palace (1433–1481); and here King John II (1481–1495) was acclaimed sovereign.[18]

 

In a document issued in 1435 by King Edward (1433–1438), the region was described as: "A land of good air and water and of the Comarcas with an abundance in the sea and land [...] our most loyal city of Lisbon being so near, and being in it sufficient diversions, and the distractions of the mountains and hunting...".[18]

 

During the Portuguese Age of Discovery, several people born in Sintra were written into history. In 1443 Gonçalo de Sintra, squire in the House of the Infante Henry, was sent by the prince as captain of a caravel to the coast of Africa. He explored the region near the Ouro River and eventually died there in 1444.[18] Pedro de Sintra and Soeiro da Costa later mapped most of the Atlantic coast of Africa, around the time of Henry's death in 1460.[18]

 

At the end of the 15th century the importance of Sintra on official itineraries led Queen Eleanor of Viseu (wife of King John II), then principal benefactor of the Portuguese Misericóridas, to expand her principal institutions in Sintra.[18] The Hospital e Gafaria do Espírito Santo, the only remnant of which left standing is a chapel to São Lázaro, was constructed to provide assistance and support to lepers in the region (the chapel still includes the signets of King John, the pelican, and Queen Leonor, the shrimp). In 1545, the hospital was transferred to the administration of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia of Sintra which was set up by Queen Catherine of Austria, wife of John III.

 

King Manuel I (1495–1521) enjoyed spending his summers in Sintra, due to its cool climate and abundance of game; as Damião de Góis, his chronicler noted: "because it is one of the places in Europe that is cooler, and cheerful for whichever King, Prince or Master to pass their time, because, in addition to its good airs, that cross its mountains, called by the older peoples the promontory of the moon, there is here much hunting of deer and other animals, and overall many and many good trout of many type, and in which in all of Hispania there can be found, and many springs of water...".[18] Between the 15th and 16th century, after travelling to the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon when being considered as heir to the Kingdoms in 1498, the King transformed and enriched the town and its region with several public works. These included the reconstruction of the old Gothic Church of São Martinho and in 1511 the construction of the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena on the highest peak of the Sintra Mountains, which he then transferred to the Order of Saint Jerome. In the second half of the 16th century, Sintra was a centre for courtesans and members of the aristocracy began building estates and farms within the region.[18] In this rural environment, from 1542, the Viceroy of India, D. João de Castro (1500–1548) began residing at Quinta da Penha Verde, where he collected examples of Portuguese culture of the time, including works by celebrated artist Francisco de Holanda.[18] It was during this cultural Renaissance that the marble chancel sculpted between 1529 and 1532 by Nicolau Chanterene for the chapel of the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena was completed, as was the portico of the Church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição da Ulgueira (1560).[18]

  

The Convent of the Capuchos, the monastic retreat established during the primordial history of the municipality (16th century)

Luís de Camões (1524–1580) referred to the mountains of Sintra in his Os Lusíadas chronicle, as a mythic land ruled by water nymphs. The Renaissance poet Luisa Sigea—Syntrae Aloisiae Sygeae in Paris (1566) and Madrid (1781) referred to Sintra as a "pleasant valley, between cliffs that rise into the heavens...curved in graceful hills among which one can feel the murmur of the waters...[where] everything, in fact, will enchant and perfume the environment with its fragrance and fruit."[18]

 

With the death of the Cardinal-King Henry (1578–1580), Philip II of Spain inherited the Kingdom of Portugal, initiating a personal union of the crowns that would last until 1640. During this period, Portuguese political power moved from Sintra to Vila Viçosa, principal centre of the House of Braganza, whose dukes, descendants of John of Portugal, were heirs to the throne of Portugal. Following the decision of the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Phillip as King of Portugal accepted an administration composed of the Portuguese aristocracy. He passed through Sintra around October 1581, visiting the monasteries and churches.[18] It was during this period that cult of Sebastianism, the hope for the return of King Sebastian, came to an end, when several fake "Sebastians" were denounced.[18] In 1585 Mateus Alvares, born on the island of Terceira in the Azores and guardian of the hermitage of São Julio, passed himself off as King Sebastian and created conflict in Sintra, Madra, Rio de Mouro and Ericeira. The Sebastian adventure ended with the hanging of thirty people and the suffering of many more. It was not surprising, therefore, that the visit in 1619 by King Philip IV of Spain (Philip III of Portugal) resulted in many families escaping to the hills. During this union (1580–1640), Sintra was a privileged place for Portuguese "exiles" from the Castilian court; nobles who wished to distance themselves from Spanish nobility would purchase lands in the region, away from court intrigue.[18] At the time of the Restoration, in 1640, the municipality had approximately 4000 residents.

 

Brigantine era

 

Royal Palace of Queluz.

The war with Spain (1640–1668), the affirmation of Mafra during the reign of John V of Portugal (1706–1750) through the construction of the Palace-Convent, and later the construction of Royal Palace of Queluz in 1747 during the reigns of Joseph I (1750–1777) and Maria I (1777–1816), helped diminish royal visits to the region.[18] During this time there were only two documented visits: in 1652 and 1654, respectively the visit of Queen Luísa de Gusmão and King John IV (1640–1656), and the final burial of King Afonso VI.[18]

  

Ill-fated king Afonso VI imprisoned in the Palace of Sintra, by painter Alfredo Roque Gameiro.

Alleging the insanity of the King and the incapacity of the heir, the Duke of Cadaval and the Infante Peter led a coup d'état in 1667 which resulted in the resignation of the Count of Castelo Melhor, Minister of King Afonso VI (1656–1683) and the imprisonment of the monarch.[18] In 1668 the Cortes of Lisbon confirmed the Infante Peter, the king's brother, as regent and heir. Afonso VI lived the rest of his life imprisoned, in the Paço da Ribeira (1667–1669), in the Fortress of Saint John the Baptist in Angra, in the Azores (1669–1674) and in the end, with the discovery of a conspiracy to kill the regent, in the Paço da Vila in Sintra (1674–1683).[18]

 

From the 17th to the 18th centuries, the region was centre of contemplative religious orders who established convents in Sintra. But it remained a place of myths, with a large, mysterious forest and macabre, gloomy spaces. Father Baião, in his Portugal Cuidadoso (1724) noted: "Next to the Palace of Sintra was a forest, so thick, that during the day, it cast fear in him who entered it. And [King] D. Sebastian was free from these fears, that he would walk at night, through it, many times for two or three hours."[18] Starting in the second half of the 18th century and lasting through the 19th century Sintra became known as a nostalgic and mysterious location described by many foreigners.

  

Lord Byron (1788–1824) particularly enjoyed his stay in Sintra that is described in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage as "glorious Eden".

It was the Romantic Lord Byron's "glorious Eden"; Almeida Garrett's "pleasant resort"; Eça de Queirós's "nest of lovers [where, in] the romantic foliage, the nobles abandoned themselves in the hands of the poets"; or the place where Richard Strauss saw a garden "comparable to Italy, Sicily, Greece or Egypt, a true garden of Klingsor, and there in the heights, a castle of the Holy Grail".[18]

 

The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, meanwhile, caused the destruction of the centre of Sintra as well as a number of deaths, resulting in building and restoration in the second half of the 18th century. Also in the 18th century, the first industrial building was established in the town: the Fábrica de Estamparia de Rio de Mouro (Mouro River Stamping Factory) in 1778.

  

The front façade of Seteais Palace, expanded for the visits of the royal family, by the Marquess of Marialva

The visit of Queen Maria I in 1787 brought about the restoration and redecoration of a few salons and chambers in the municipal buildings. The great festivities of 1795 to celebrate the baptism of the Infante António, son of John VI, resulted in grand balls at the Palace of Queluz. In 1838 the King-Consort, Ferdinand II bought the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena and a vast adjacent area, commissioning the architect José de Costa e Silva to construct an arch joining the two quarters of the Seteais Palace (owned by the Marquis of Marialva), to commemorate the 1802 visit of the Prince and Princess of Brazil, John and Carlota Joaquina, and the subsequent visit of their son, the absolutist King Miguel, in 1830.[18]

  

The arabesque Monserrate Estate on another hilltop near the town of Sintra

During the third quarter of the 18th century and practically all of the 19th century, foreign travellers and Portuguese aristocrats, fired by Romanticism, rediscovered the magic of Sintra, especially in its exotic landscapes and climate. Their visits led to the establishment of several hotels, one of which, Lawrence's, opened in 1764, was still functioning in 2018. In the summer of 1787, William Beckford stayed with the Marquis of Marialva, master of the horse for the kingdom, at his residence of Seteais. At the beginning of the 19th century Princess Carlota Joaquina, wife of Prince Regent John, bought the estate and Ramalhão Palace. Between 1791 and 1793, Gerard Devisme constructed a Neo-Gothic mansion on his extensive estate in the Quinta de Monserrate (later known as the Monserrate Palace). Beckford, who remained in Sintra, rented the property from Devisme in 1794. The landscape, covered in fog, also attracted another Englishman, Sir Francis Cook, who occupied the estate, constructing an oriental pavilion.[18]

  

The Pena National Palace: summer residence of the monarchs of Portugal during the 19th century

 

Quinta da Regaleira, an integral landmark of Sintra's UNESCO Cultural Landscape

The Palace of Pena, Sintra's exemplary Portuguese Romantic symbol, was initiated by the King-Consort Ferdinand, husband of Queen Maria II (1834–1853), a German-born member of the House of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha. The palace was built over the remains of the 16th-century monastery of the Order of Saint Jerome, conserving many fundamental aspects, including the church, cloister and a few dependencies. The architecture is eclectic, influenced by many architectural styles, evidence of an era of Romanticism.

 

The intentional mixture of eclectic styles includes the Neo-Gothic, Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic, Neo-Renaissance neo-Islamic, and neo-Manueline styles. Much of this has been evident since a major restoration that was completed prior to 1900.[20]

 

The design was a project of the Baron von Eschwege and Ferdinand II, to substitute the Sintra National Palace as an alternative to the summer residence in Cascais. After Sintra, the monarchs Louis of Portugal (1861–1889) and Carlos of Portugal (1863–1908) ended their summers with visits to Cascais in the months of September and October.

 

In 1854, the first contract was signed to construct a rail link between Sintra and Lisbon. A decree signed on 26 June 1855 regulated the contract between the government and Count Claranges Lucotte but was later rescinded in 1861. The connection was finally inaugurated on 2 April 1887.

 

By the beginning of the 20th century, Sintra was recognized as a summer resort visited by aristocrats and millionaires. Among these, Carvalho Monteiro, owner of a considerable fortune (known as "Monteiro dos Milhões") constructed near the main town, on an estate he bought from the Baroness of Regaleira, a luxurious revivalist palacette, based on a Neo-Manueline architecture.

 

From the second half of the 19th century into the first decades of the 20th century, Sintra also became a privileged place for artists: musicians such as Viana da Mota; composers such as Alfredo Keil, painters like João Cristino da Silva (author of one of the most celebrated canvases of Portuguese Romantic art, "Five Artists in Sintra [pt]"), writers such as Eça de Queirós or Ramalho Ortigão, all these people lived, worked or got inspiration from Sintra's landscapes.[18]

 

Republic

 

Part of the historic centre

The proclamation of a Portuguese Republic in 1910 transformed the bohemian climate of Sintra. Economic development was now promoted; the potential benefits to the region of growth in agriculture, industry and commerce were promoted to foster development. In 1908 a wine growing zone had been demarcated in Colares. Now a commission was established to monitor the quality of wines and promote their exportation, and in 1914 a commercial association (Portuguese: Associação Comercial e Industrial de Sintra) was set up to manage their concession. Meanwhile, in the name of secular and popular progress, parts of the cultural heritage were destroyed, including the annexes of the medieval village bordering the palace in 1911, while the nave of the Church of the Misericórdia was reduced to the presbytery to allow the road to be widened. The first decades of the 20th century were the time of the fastest urbanization of the town, supported by its rail link to Lisbon and the influx of summer travellers.

 

During the 1920s damage to culturally important sites led to the creation of institutions to study and protect the vast artistic heritage. The Instituto Histórico de Sintra (Historic Institute of Sintra), under the direction of Afonso de Ornelas, played an important part in this period.[18] Archaeological studies resulted in considerable development: in 1927, Félix Alves Pereira rediscovered the Neolithic settlements of Santa Eufémia, and the first publication of the discoveries at the prehistoric monuments of Praia das Maçãs were completed in 1929.[18] From this time until the 1970s, coastal Sintra was becoming a summer destination, resulting in the building of Portuguese summer residences.[18] Many important Portuguese architects developed projects in the area in the first half of the 20th century, including Raul Lino, Norte Júnior and Tertuliano de Lacerda Marques.

 

These projects benefited town and region, increased tourism and attracted as residents many notable Portuguese: historian Francisco Costa; writer Ferreira de Castro; sculptor Anjos Teixeira; architects Norte Júnior and Raul Lino; painters Eduardo Viana, Mily Possoz and Vieira da Silva; poet Oliva Guerra; composer and maestro Frederico de Freitas; historians Felix Alves Pereira and João Martins da Silva Marques.[18]

 

In 1944, prior to his arrest, Vichy France Prime Minister Pierre Laval had planned to move to an estate in Sintra, where a house had been leased for him.[21]

 

The 1949 municipal plan by De Groer was devised to protect the town and its neighbourhood from uncontrolled urbanization, and resulted in the maintenance of an environment comparable to 19th century Sintra.[18] Urban anarchy predominated until the middle of the 1980s in the areas adjacent to the main town of Sintra, resulting in the development of new neighbourhoods.[18]

 

Geography

Physical geography

 

The town of Sintra sitting atop the Sintra Mountains, the exposed granite formation of igneous rock extending to the Atlantic Ocean

The Sintra Mountains, a granite massif ten kilometres long – considered the Monte da Lua (Mountain of the Moon), or Promontorium Lunae by the strong local tradition of astral cults – emerge abruptly between a vast plain to the north and the northern margin of the Tagus River estuary, winding in a serpentine cordillera towards the Atlantic Ocean and Cabo da Roca, the most westerly point of continental Europe.

  

The imposing cliffs which delimit the Sintra range and the Atlantic

The São João platform, along the northern flank of the Sintra Mountains, has altitudes between 100 metres (110 yd) and 150 metres (160 yd), while the southern part of the mountains, the Cascais platform, is lower: sloping from 150 metres (160 yd) to the sea, terminating along the coast, around 30 metres (33 yd) above sea level.[22][23] The spectacular relief results from the east–west orientation of the massif's axis, its terminus at the coast, and the nature of igneous rocks, which are resistant to erosion.[23] The Eruptive Massif of Sintra (MES) is a dome structure, formed by layers of sedimentary rocks (limestones and sandstones) from the Upper Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods.[23] A metamorphosed igneous intrusion resulted in a narrow halo of metamorphic rocks, but also strongly deformed these sedimentary layers causing a vertical exposure.[23] While in the south there are enclosed sedimentary layers, to the north (around Praia Grande) the massif is steep. The sedimentary formations, until the beginning of the Upper Cretaceous, are deformed by the intrusion which limits the MES to the end the Cretaceous.[23] Radiometric aging of different rocks from the massif has indicated an age between 80 and 75 million years (confirming the installation of the massive Upper Cretaceous).[23]

  

Beach in Azenhas do Mar, Sintra

The geodynamic conditions that controlled the formation of the MES (correlated with the development of the Sines and Monchique Eruptive Massifs) are associated with the progressive northern expansion of the Atlantic Ocean and the consequent opening of the Bay of Biscay.[23] The Bay of Biscay's expansion resulted in complex tensions responsible for profound fractures in the Earth's crust that were conduits for the ascension of magma.[23] Around 80 million years ago this magma spread across the surface as a superficial crust with a depth of 5 kilometres between sedimentary layers (160 to 9 million years old) that were chemically metamorphosed.[23] Over time the magma chamber cooled and crystallized, resulting in conditions that caused the granular textures that characterize the MES.[23] The weaker sedimentary layers were susceptible to erosion, and their products were deposited around their base. Consequently, the massif likely became exposed during the Paleogenic epoch (30 million years ago), known as the Benfica Complex.[23]

 

Climate and biome

 

High humidity and cooler temperatures are rather frequent in the mountains of Sintra

The Mediterranean climate, influenced by the Atlantic and characterized by moderate temperatures and wet winters, is typical of mainland Portugal. Although the climate in the area of Cabo da Roca is close to semi-arid, the Sintra Mountains are considered moderately humid: precipitation in the mountains is higher than in the surrounding areas. The position of the town in the natural landscape of the Sintra Mountains (consisting of an exuberant natural patrimony), is influenced by the existence of a micro-climate.[22][24] For different reasons (the climate here has been moderated by the Sintra Mountains; the fertility of the soils; and its relative proximity to the Tagus estuary) the region attracted considerable early settlement. Due to its micro-climate, a huge park has developed full of dense foliage with a rich botanical diversity.

 

The temperate climate and humidity resulting from proximity to the coast favour the growth of a rich mat of forest including Atlantic and Mediterranean species, marking the transition in Portugal from northern to southern vegetation. The Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) predominates over great expanses of the rocky heights and sheltered slopes. On moist shady slopes, normally facing north, or in sheltered places, the common oak (Quercus robur) is widespread. In lowland areas and warm places the cork oak (Quercus suber) is common and in limestone areas the Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea) is found. Other species scattered throughout the mountains of Sintra include: maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), common hazel (Corylus avellana), common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), European holly (Ilex aquifolium), Portuguese laurel (Prunus lusitanica), Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), laurestine (Viburnum tinus), Kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), and Italian buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus). In the valleys, near watercourses, grow narrow-leaf ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), Grey willow (Salix atrocinerea), European alder (Alnus glutinosa), alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus) and black elderberry (Sambucus nigra).

 

Since 1966, the Sintra Mountains have been affected by fires that have destroyed a major part of the original forest, which has been substituted by acacia and other fast-growing exotic species. The forested area of the Sintra mountains is about 5,000 hectares (50 km2), of which 26% (1,300 hectares (13 km2)) is maintained by the State through the Direcção Geral de Florestas – Núcleo Florestal de Sintra (General Directorate of Forests – Sintra Forestry Service).

 

Climate data for Sintra (Sintra Air Base) 1971–2000

MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear

Record high °C (°F)21.6

(70.9)23.4

(74.1)27.2

(81.0)28.0

(82.4)33.6

(92.5)41.4

(106.5)39.8

(103.6)38.5

(101.3)37.8

(100.0)31.8

(89.2)27.0

(80.6)22.5

(72.5)41.4

(106.5)

Mean daily maximum °C (°F)14.3

(57.7)14.9

(58.8)16.8

(62.2)17.4

(63.3)19.2

(66.6)22.3

(72.1)24.7

(76.5)25.3

(77.5)24.5

(76.1)21.1

(70.0)17.5

(63.5)15.1

(59.2)19.4

(66.9)

Daily mean °C (°F)9.7

(49.5)10.6

(51.1)12.0

(53.6)13.0

(55.4)14.9

(58.8)17.8

(64.0)20.0

(68.0)20.4

(68.7)19.4

(66.9)16.4

(61.5)13.0

(55.4)10.9

(51.6)14.9

(58.8)

Mean daily minimum °C (°F)5.2

(41.4)6.2

(43.2)7.3

(45.1)8.5

(47.3)10.6

(51.1)13.3

(55.9)15.2

(59.4)15.6

(60.1)14.3

(57.7)11.6

(52.9)8.6

(47.5)6.8

(44.2)10.3

(50.5)

Record low °C (°F)−3.5

(25.7)−3.5

(25.7)−2.0

(28.4)−0.1

(31.8)3.2

(37.8)6.0

(42.8)8.6

(47.5)8.4

(47.1)4.8

(40.6)−1.0

(30.2)−3.5

(25.7)−4.0

(24.8)−4.0

(24.8)

Average precipitation mm (inches)100.7

(3.96)90.7

(3.57)57.2

(2.25)72.3

(2.85)56.8

(2.24)18.2

(0.72)6.2

(0.24)6.9

(0.27)28.4

(1.12)91.0

(3.58)111.5

(4.39)127.8

(5.03)767.7

(30.22)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)14.314.511.213.110.56.13.63.16.811.913.916.0125.0

Average relative humidity (%)87858077757574747782848680

Mean monthly sunshine hours152.2149.5205.0224.0255.4269.7309.0307.3244.2203.5158.7128.52,607

Source: Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera[25][26]

Climate data for Sintra (Granja), altitude: 134 m (440 ft), 1961–1984 normals, 1953–2003 sun hours

Human geography

Historical population

YearPop.±%

186420,766—

187821,990+5.9%

189022,918+4.2%

190026,074+13.8%

191130,694+17.7%

192029,762−3.0%

193037,986+27.6%

194045,171+18.9%

195060,423+33.8%

196079,964+32.3%

1970124,893+56.2%

1981226,428+81.3%

1991260,951+15.2%

2001363,749+39.4%

2011377,835+3.9%

2021385,606+2.1%

Source: INE[27]

The municipality is administered by 11 civil parish (Portuguese: freguesias) councils, with local authority to administer services and provide local governance, which are:[28]

 

Agualva e Mira-Sintra

Algueirão–Mem Martins

Almargem do Bispo, Pêro Pinheiro e Montelavar

Cacém e São Marcos

Casal de Cambra

Colares

Massamá e Monte Abraão

Queluz e Belas

Rio de Mouro

São João das Lampas e Terrugem

Sintra (Santa Maria e São Miguel, São Martinho e São Pedro de Penaferrim)

Sintra also has numerous hamlets and villages, including the affluent village of Linhó, Sintra.

 

Sintra's population grew considerably in the late 20th century, rising from about 14% of the Lisbon region to 19%, with the main concentration of resident population found in the important Queluz-Portela corridor, along the southeast corner of the municipality.[29] In this area were concentrated approximately 82% of the municipality's population, the most attractive parishes to live in being São Pedro de Penaferrim, Rio de Mouro, Belas and Algueirão-Mem Martins.[29][30]

  

The buildings in the central square of São Martinho, across from the Sintra National Palace

With the decrease in mortality rates, the region has undergone a general increase in infant births, primarily associated with late births, but also an increase in seniors in the community (56.5% in 2001).[29] Yet Sintra is still considered to have a structurally young population, the youngest in the Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon.[29] Young adults (30- to 39-year-olds) dominate Sintra's communities, with the parishes of Pêro Pinheiro, Terrugem, São Martinho, São João das Lampas, Santa Maria e São Miguel, Montelavar, Colares, Queluz and Almargem do Bispo all having higher rates of seniors in the population.[29] Approximately 80% of the population are born outside the town, 21% of these being foreign born residents. While the resident population in Lisbon has seen a gentle decrease since the mid-1960s, Sintra has grown comparably.[29]

 

Urban areas represent 55.4 square kilometres (5,540 ha) of the municipality, or approximately 17.4% of Sintra's territory; 35% of the population reside in places of between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants.[29] Many of these areas are anchored to lines of access, in particular, the Sintra Line and the IC19 motorway which connects the principal towns of Queluz, Agualva-Cacém, Algueirão/Mem Martins, Rio de Mouro and Belas).[29] Many of these urban areas are composed of a fabric of building projects that have historically resulted in dense buildings of concrete, normally seven or more floors in height.[29] The greatest growth in residential homes has occurred in the south of the municipality, in the triangle of São Pedro de Penaferrim, Santa Maria e São Miguel and Casal de Cambra.[29] In addition, there is a major concentration and growth in family dwellings of a seasonal nature, or second homes, in this region, and a proliferation of illegal construction in the parishes of São João das Lampas, São Pedro de Penaferrim, Belas, Agualva-Cacém and Casal de Cambra.[29]

 

Economy

 

The iconic Pena National Palace originally built on the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Pena, and renovated extensively through the initiative of Ferdinand II of Portugal

The growth in tertiary activities has played an important part in the pattern of employment in the region, with commercial, retail and support services predominating.[29] This has been to the detriment of industry, although continuing industrial activities include the transport of materials, mineral processing, the manufacture of machinery and equipment, food-processing, beverage and tobacco companies as well as publishing and printing services.[29] There has also been a dramatic growth in the civil construction industry.[29]

 

EuroAtlantic Airways has its head office in Sintra.[31]

 

Tourism is also significant, with the parks and monuments operated by the Parques de Sintra accounting for 3.2 million visitors in 2017, for example.[32]

 

Transport

 

Sintra commuter railway station

Lisbon's commuter railway network (CP Urban Services) provides direct services to Sintra Station. The journey to Lisbon takes 35–45 minutes.[33] There is alternative transport, taxis, car-sharing services and buses, covering a large area of the district.

 

The Sintra tramway links Sintra with the Atlantic coast at Praia das Maçãs, providing a beautiful scenic ride along the way and covering a distance of some 11.5 kilometres (7.1 mi). As of 2016, the heritage line runs Wednesday to Sunday in summer months.

 

Tourist bus 434 takes visitors between attractions in Sintra. The bus follows a one-way route and stops at Sintra Station, São Pedro de Sintra, the Castle of the Moors, Pena National Palace, Sintra Old Town and returns to Sintra Station.[34]

 

Landmarks

Cultural Landscape of Sintra

UNESCO World Heritage Site

CriteriaCultural: ii, iv, v

Reference723

Inscription1995 (19th Session)

Area946 ha

Sintra has a great number of preserved or classified architectural buildings:

 

Prehistoric

Barreira Megalithic Complex

Dolmen of Adrenunes (Portuguese: Anta de Adrenunes)

Dolmen of Agualva (Portuguese: Anta de Agualva/Anta do Carrascal)

Dolmen of Estria (Portuguese: Anta da Estria)

Dolmen of Monte Abraão (Portuguese: Anta do Monte Abraão)

Praia das Maçãs Prehistoric Monument (Portuguese: Monumento Pré-Histórico de Praia das Maçãs)

Tholos tomb of Monge (Portuguese: Tholos do Monge)

Still working on old stuff. This was from back in June, a little north of San Francisco in the Sonoma Coast area. I am determined to finish working on ALL old photos by next week, because, next week could be the start of some major shooting around here. Every year, Arizona gets some rain. Every spring, some flowers bloom in the desert. About once a decade, there is enough rain that the desert erupts with color. This could be that year. We have had record rainfall over the past couple of months. It's been really consistent too. Every single week, a storm comes through and it rains for a day or two. Just a month ago, the desert was still solid brown. Now the ground is completely covered in a carpet of green. This could be an amazing spring down here.

 

The desert is nice, but I really do miss the ocean.

With Amtrak consistently running about 4 hours late, the CP-BN Transfer has been getting delayed enough so that it has good light on its way up to the Minnesota Commercial.

 

This spot looks over UP's former C&NW Western Avenue yard and is just a few carlengths east of the signal for Fordson Junction where the now out of service Ford Line took of for the now gone Ford assembly plant.

 

A smaller train than the previous day only requires 3 units for the pull.

Sueño corto o descanso después de la comida del mediodía.

 

La siesta es una costumbre consistente en descansar algunos minutos (entre veinte y treinta, por lo general, pero puede llegar a durar un par de horas) después de haber tomado el almuerzo, entablando un corto sueño con el propósito de reunir energías para el resto de la jornada.

Railfans in Michigan will often speak of the glory days of CP run-through trains across the Pere Marquette. Back in 2014, an all-CP consist on Q335 helped me understand the days I never knew.

 

This location, Godfrey, has changed significantly in the last six years. The Pere Marquette cantilever signal was removed in August of 2014. The area to the right of the frame was cleared out and is now a rail-served scrap yard. The train schedule on the east end has changed a dozen times. The only thing consistent, surprisingly, is the power. SD40-2 no. 5936 is still active on the CP roster.

I know i haven't been consistent, I was busy taking photos for my twin sisters engagement...I will do my best with what I have...

 

This picture is definitely explains how I'm feeling...Oh I have another one now..that I'm writing...Looking for a job, even a part-time job or temp work is the most restless thing I have ever experienced. I never even thought that after college life would be this hard, and thats not even about me..that goes for everybody else.

 

the two chairs represent loneliness, and me in the middle surrounded by emptiness...Oh how much I want to scream..but will anybody hear me....

 

Patience, patience, patience...that all that im hearing in a world of emptiness, I want to enroll for school..but I know if I get the job, I would have to do school and the Academy...so Im waiting...

 

Awkward Silence..................

 

Strobist: sb80 snooted on my left, set @ 1/4

  

Dogwood Blossoms, Dark Forest. © Copyright 2018 G Dan Mitchell - all rights reserved.

 

Blossoming dogwoods in dark, dense forest, Yosemite Valley

 

On one morning during my recent sojourn to photograph spring subjects in Yosemite Valley I had extraordinary lighting and atmospheric conditions. The morning produced a number of photographs that have been and will be shared here. They make me think of "channeling Bierstadt" — with effects of clouds and haze and light combined with dramatic ridges and cliffs. This is not one of those photographs. In fact, this image is inserted here to break up the flow of those others...

 

The timing and nature of some spring events in Yosemite Valley is variable — the amount of snow in the high country and when it melts out, for example, determine the timing and character of river and waterfall flows. Other events hold to a pretty consistent schedule from year to year, though climate change is edging some of these in new directions. One of the fairly consistent events is the arrival of dogwood blooms in the Valley and then in higher locations nearby. When I visited two weeks ago I saw the first buds on these trees and only a few tiny, green blooms. A week later there were many more blooms, and some trees were nearly full of them. I photographed this forest scene, with a primary tree full of blooms and other more distant blooms seen less vividly in the darker forest, one evening after the direct sun had left this spot.

  

G Dan Mitchell is a California photographer and visual opportunist. His book, "California's Fall Color: A Photographer's Guide to Autumn in the Sierra" is available from Heyday Books and Amazon.

Blog | About | Flickr | Twitter | Facebook | Google+ | LinkedIn | Email

  

All media © Copyright G Dan Mitchell and others as indicated. Any use requires advance permission from G Dan Mitchell.

Consistent sunshine all day

Thameslink services were consistently awry yesterday with both cancellations and very late running. This for instance was on time but only 5 minutes behind the very late 12.40 Bedford - Brighton. This shot is very difficult to record thanks to a fence added to the top of the bridge parapet - I had to lean at full stretch using liveview standing on my 13 inch step - and even then it was a bit of a lottery!

Prints and licensing found here www.jeffsmallwood.com/index.cfm/s/p68

 

This week has not been very good for early morning cherry blossom photos in DC. The peak blooming period and a few days beforehand have been consistently cloudy and foggy. The sunrises have been completely obscured and we haven't been able to capture the colors, at least the ones I was going for.

 

Went up on Wed morning, the exact peak of blossoms according to the NPS. Got up there before 6am hoping to capture a colorful morning illuminating the trees, instead we got a foggy, dreary start to the day w/o any color whatsoever. Well, almost no color. Right at the first light of the day the sky finally took on just a tiny hint of blue. That was accentuated by the glow of the city in the fog. The one interesting thing was that I'd never seen the Washington Monument disappear into the fog like it did that morning (I think you can only see a little more than half of it here). A slight breeze blurred the blossoms because I had to take a long exposure to capture what available light there was.

 

Tried to make the best of what Mother Nature presented. It wasn't what I arrived at 0-dark-thirty for, but I'll take it!

  

Blog | Google+ | Twitter

Kalart-Victor 75-25 16mm projector. Kalart art, maybe?

 

One of the benefits of newer tools and techniques is taking a simple shot, layer-masked in Photoshop to non-destructively clear out the original background, and replace the background with something more consistent. Of course, by hiding the boring layers and adding wildly different ones, I can go nuts in true Sliders Sunday style, all in the same parent file.

 

Projector is a duplicate layer, with applied mask, given the Topaz Studio 2 treatment. All other elements were created and/or modified within Photoshop.

 

Explored August 21, 2023

Olympus OM-1n, Zuiko 50mm f1.8

Ilford FP4 Plus 125

 

This is my c. 1907 Waltham model 1908 pocket watch. It does work, but consistently loses several minutes per day. It needs a complete overhaul to be reliable, but it's definitely cool on my shelf with my camera collection! I would love to get it fixed up some time, but it would be too expensive at the moment.

 

Follow me on Twitter!

twitter.com/mgestewitz

 

Thank you all for helping me to get into Explore for the 6th time! I seriously appreciate all of your comments and support.

I am consistently amazed each visit to Nebraska by the cloudscapes! They sure pay for it with some epic thunderstorms and brutal humidity when it's hot, but oh my what skies. It's a desktop wallpaper factory in this state. ;-)))

So I've officially hit my photographer block or whatever its called... I've been shooting consistently since August of this year and I keep on getting super critical of my images and not posting anything... actually I think this is the 3rd picture I post since then!! I've been posting pics from my world cup trip just to keep me busy since they were more of a "I was there" type of pics so I don't care too much about their quality.

 

I just need to get back to posting more often so I can learn from my mistakes... we are all bound to post lousy images that only we think are great but I need to get back to this point to improve.

 

This was taken back on August 21, 2010... I decided to post it today out of frustration with the 120 images that I took this afternoon!!! Maybe I'll post those in a few months when I stop being so critical.

 

Until the next post.....

 

6 RAW images processed through Photomatix and then CS3 with various filters & adjustments. Honestly I don't remember what I did otherwise I would've shared more info!

  

Meugliano, (To), Piemonte, Italia

 

Shot with the camera's automatic sweep panorama feature, in vertical/portrait orientation.

 

Il lago di Meugliano costituisce un residuo intramorenico dell'Era Glaciale e occupa una conca del Monte Pianure, a quota 750 m, attorniata da boschi di conifere (per lo più larici, abeti rossi e pini silvestri). Nei dintorni vi è un consistente gruppo di betulle introdotto negli anni '30, mentre nella parte settentrionale del lago si ravvisa un accenno di giuncheto.

Il lungolago misura 690 metri, la profondità delle acque non supera invece gli 11 metri: tale caratteristica favorisce il congelamento nella stagione invernale.

Consistently noted as one of the Most Beautiful Small Towns in America, Best Romantic Getaways, and Best Fall Foliage in America, Jim Thorpe is a destination everyone needs to visit.

Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.

All rights reserved, no use without license

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Hong kong)

 

Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.

 

Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]

 

Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.

 

Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]

 

Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]

Contents

 

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Prehistory

2.2 Imperial China

2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941

2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45

2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97

2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status

3 Governance

3.1 Structure of government

3.2 Electoral and political reforms

3.3 Legal system and judiciary

3.4 Foreign relations

3.5 Human rights

3.6 Regions and districts

3.7 Military

4 Geography and climate

5 Economy

5.1 Financial centre

5.2 International trading

5.3 Tourism and expatriation

5.4 Policy

5.5 Infrastructure

6 Demographics

6.1 Languages

6.2 Religion

6.3 Personal income

6.4 Education

6.5 Health

7 Culture

7.1 Sports

7.2 Architecture

7.3 Cityscape

7.4 Symbols

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

10.1 Citations

10.2 Sources

11 Further reading

12 External links

 

Etymology

 

Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]

 

The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]

 

Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]

 

Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]

 

The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.

 

As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.

 

Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".

History

Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong

 

Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]

 

Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]

Imperial China

Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China

 

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]

 

After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]

 

From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.

 

From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.

European discovery

 

The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.

 

Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]

British Crown Colony: 1842–1941

A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London

Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)

 

In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]

 

The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]

 

Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.

 

In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]

 

Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.

File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media

Hong Kong filmed in 1937

 

In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).

 

Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]

 

In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.

Japanese occupation: 1941–45

Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]

 

As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]

 

During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]

Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97

Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong

Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997

 

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.

Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953

 

In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.

 

Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.

A sky view of Hong Kong Island

An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986

 

To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]

 

In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]

The Hong Kong question

 

In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.

 

The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.

 

It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.

Handover and Special Administrative Region status

Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong

Transfer of sovereignty

Golden Bauhinia Square

 

On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.

 

Structure of government

 

Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]

 

Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.

 

Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]

 

The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]

 

In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.

 

Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]

I don't get down to the DREI often enough. Consistent standard cabs in 2024 really isn't something to sneer at. Maybe I'll have to give it another go before years end. Last time I actually went in for a proper long photoshoot of this still relatively young shortline was a year ago when GP59 #5909 was brand new to the railroad. It and former SD45s 4236 and 4240 have the days 101 job well under control as they approach Garret. This little village doesn't have much going on, certainly no rail served industries, but a tall pile of gravel gave me a little height advantage I wouldn't usually have much any of out in central Illinois which was nice.

 

I've come to feel like Watco's yellow and black isn't too bad when paired with the end of summer, as the crops start to golden up. Has a nice feel to it, even if the scheme is a bit bland. The random equipment strewn around in Garret aren't far off of a match with the yellow there, either you know... noticing a theme here. From here, the Atwood grain elevator can still be seen over the top of the train off in the distance, too.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_wryneck

  

The Eurasian wryneck (Jynx torquilla) is a species of wryneck in the woodpecker family. This species mainly breeds in temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Most populations are migratory, wintering in tropical Africa and in southern Asia from Iran to the Indian Subcontinent, but some are resident in northwestern Africa. It is a bird of open countryside, woodland and orchards.

 

Eurasian wrynecks measure about 16.5 cm (6.5 in) in length and have bills shorter and less dagger-like than those of other woodpeckers. Their upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks. Their underparts are cream speckled and spotted with brown. Their chief prey is ants and other insects, which they find in decaying wood or on the ground. The eggs are white as is the case with many birds that nest in holes and a clutch of seven to ten eggs is laid during May and June.

 

These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads through almost 180 degrees. When disturbed at the nest, they use this snake-like head twisting and hissing as a threat display. This odd behaviour led to their use in witchcraft, hence to put a "jinx" on someone.

  

Taxonomy and etymology

  

The Eurasian wryneck was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758. The type species came from Sweden.[2]

 

The genus name Jynx is from the Ancient Greek name for this bird, iunx. The specific torquilla is Medieval Latin derived from torquere, to twist, referring to the strange snake-head movements.[3] The bird was used as a charm to bring back an errant lover, the bird being tied to a piece of string and whirled around.[3] The English "wryneck" refers to the same twisting movement and was first recorded in 1585.[4]

 

The family Picidae has four subfamilies, the Picinae (woodpeckers), the Picumninae (piculets), the Jynginae (wrynecks) and the monotypic Nesoctitinae (Antillean piculet).[5] Based on morphology and behaviour, the Picumninae was considered to be the sister clade of the Picinae. This has now been confirmed by phylogenetic analysis and the Jynginae are placed basal to the Picinae, Nesoctitinae and Picumninae.[5]

 

Jynginae includes one genus (Jynx) and two species, the Eurasian wryneck and the red-throated wryneck (Jynx ruficollis), resident in sub-Saharan Africa.[6] There are six subspecies of Jynx torquilla: [7]

 

Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse, 1911

Jynx torquilla himalayana Vaurie, 1959

Jynx torquilla mauretanica Rothschild, 1909

Jynx torquilla sarudnyi Loudon, 1912

Jynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus, 1758

Jynx torquilla tschusii O. Kleinschmidt,1907

  

Description

  

The Eurasian wryneck grows to about 17 cm (6.7 in) in length.[2] The subspecies Jynx torquilla tschusii weighs 26 to 50 g (0.92 to 1.76 oz).[8] It is a slim, elongated-looking bird with a body shape more like a thrush than a woodpecker. The upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks. The rump and upper tail coverts are grey with speckles and irregular bands of brown. The rounded tail is grey, speckled with brown, with faint bands of greyish-brown and a few more clearly defined bands of brownish-black. The cheeks and throat are buff barred with brown. The underparts are creamy white with brown markings shaped like arrow-heads which are reduced to spots on the lower breast and belly. The flanks are buff with similar markings and the under-tail coverts are buff with narrow brown bars. The primaries and secondaries are brown with rufous-buff markings. The beak is brown, long and slender with a broad base and sharp tip. The irises are hazel and the slender legs and feet are pale brown. The first and second toes are shorter than the others. The first and fourth toes point backwards and the second and third point forwards, a good arrangement for clinging to vertical surfaces.[2]

 

The call of the Eurasian wryneck is a series of repeated harsh, shrill notes quee-quee-quee-quee lasting for several seconds and is reminiscent of the voice of the lesser spotted woodpecker. Its alarm call is a short series of staccato "tuck"s and when disturbed on the nest it hisses.[

  

Distribution and habitat

  

The Eurasian wryneck has a palearctic distribution. The breeding range of the nominate subspecies includes all of Europe from Britain to the Urals. In the north it reaches the Arctic Circle and the range includes Spain in the southwest. In the south and east it intergrades with J. t. tschusii (smaller and more reddish brown) which is found in Corsica, Italy, Dalmatia and parts of the Balkans. J. t. mauretanica (also smaller than the nominate form, light, with whitish throat and breast) is resident in Algeria and Morocco and possibly also the Balearic Islands, Sardinia and parts of Sicily. J. t. sarudnyi (considerably paler than the nominate with fainter markings) occurs in the Urals and then in a wide strip of Asia through southern Siberia, Central Asia, including the north-western Himalayas to the Pacific coast. J. t. chinensis breeds in eastern Siberia and northeastern and central China while J. t. himalayana breeds in Pakistan and the northwestern Himalayas.[9] Eurasian wrynecks also inhabit the island of Sakhalin,[10] Japan and the coastal areas of southern China.[11][12]

 

The Eurasian wryneck is the only European woodpecker to undertake long distance migrations. The wintering area of European species is located south of the Sahara, in a wide strip across Africa extending from Senegal, Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east. Its southern limit extends to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon. The populations from West Asia use the same wintering areas. The Central and East Asian breeding birds winter in the Indian subcontinent or southern East Asia including southern Japan.[2]

 

During the summer the bird is found in open countryside, parkland, gardens, orchards, heaths and hedgerows, especially where there are some old trees. It may also inhabit deciduous woodland and in Scandinavia it also occurs in coniferous forests.

  

Behaviour

  

The Eurasian wryneck sometimes forms small groups during migration and in its winter quarters but in the summer is usually found in pairs. It characteristically holds its head high with its beak pointing slightly upwards. A mutual display that occurs at any time of year involves two birds perched facing each other with their heads far back and beaks wide open, bobbing their heads up and down. Sometimes the head is allowed to slump sideways and hang limply. On other occasions, when excited, the head is shaken and twisted about violently. When disturbed on the nest or held in the hand, the neck contorts and twists in all directions. The bird sometimes feigns death and hangs limply with eyes closed.[2]

  

On returning to the breeding area after migration, the birds set up territories. On farmland in Switzerland it has been found that old pear orchards with large numbers of ant nests are preferentially selected over other habitats. Areas used for vegetable cultivation provided useful habitat when they include areas of bare ground on which the birds can forage.[13] Territories are not chosen at random as arriving birds favoured certain areas over others with the same territories being colonised first year after year. The presence of other Eurasian wrynecks in the vicinity is also a positive influence. Orchards in general, and older ones in particular, provide favoured territories, probably because the dense foliage is more likely to support high numbers of aphids and the ground beneath has scant vegetation cover, both of which factors increase the availability of ants, the birds' main prey. Despite some territories being consistently chosen over others, reproductive success in these territories was no higher than in others.[14] Limiting factors for such crevice-nesting species as Eurasian wrynecks are both the availability of nesting sites and the number of ants and their ease of discovery. Modern farming practices such as the removal of hedges, forest patches and isolated trees and the increasing use of fertilisers and pesticides are disadvantageous to such birds.[15]

 

The diet of the Eurasian wryneck consists chiefly of ants but beetles and their larvae, moths, spiders and woodlice are also eaten. Although much time is spent in the upper branches of trees, the bird sometimes perches in low bushes and mostly forages on the ground, moving around with short hops with its tail held in a raised position. It can cling to tree trunks, often moving obliquely, and sometimes pressing its tail against the surface as a prop. It does not make holes in bark with its beak but picks up prey with a rapid extension and retraction of its tongue and it sometimes catches insects while on the wing. Its flight is rather slow and undulating.

  

Breeding

  

The nesting site is variable and may be in a pre-existing hole in a tree trunk, a crevice in a wall, a hole in a bank, a sand martin's burrow or a nesting box.[2] In its search for a safe, protected site out of reach of predators, it sometimes evicts a previous occupant, its eggs and nestlings.[16] It uses no nesting material and a clutch of normally seven to ten eggs is laid (occasionally five, six, eleven or twelve). The eggs average 20.8 by 15.4 millimetres (0.82 in × 0.61 in) and weigh about 0.2 g (0.007 oz). They are a dull white colour and partially opaque. Both sexes are involved in incubation which takes twelve days, but the female plays the greater part. Both parents feed the chicks for about twenty days before they fledge. There is usually a single brood.

  

Status

  

The IUCN lists the Eurasian wryneck as being of "Least Concern" in its Red List of Threatened Species. This is because it has a world population estimated at up to fifteen million individual birds and a very wide geographical range. The population may be decreasing to a certain extent but not at such a rate as to make the bird reach the threshold for a more threatened category.[1] In continental Europe, the largest populations are in Spain, Italy, Germany, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Belarus and Ukraine, and only in Romania is the population trend believed to be upward. In Russia, where there are believed to be 300,000 to 800,000 individuals, the population trend is unknown.[17] In the United Kingdom the numbers of bird are on the decrease and it is protected under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is protected as a migratory species under the Birds Directive in the European Union.[18] In Switzerland, the population has also been decreasing, but the species has reacted positively to conservation measures such as the addition of nestboxes in suitable habitats.

Four adults and their nine goslings are hanging out consistently. Avila Beach, CA, USA

Earth Day - 22nd April 2009! my contribution

 

The Himba are an ethnic group of about 20,000 to 50,000 people living in northern Namibia, in the Kunene region (formerly Kaokoland). They are a nomadic, pastoral people, closely related to the Herero, and speak the same language.

The Himba wear little clothing, but the women are famous for covering themselves with a mixture of butter fat, ochre, and herbs to protect themselves from the sun. The mixture gives their skins a reddish tinge. The mixture symbolizes earth's rich red color and the blood that symbolizes life, and is consistent with the Himba ideal of beauty. Women braid each other's hair and cover it in their ochre mixture (called otjize in their langauge).

 

texture thanks to: www.flickr.com/photos/borealnz/

   

submit your picture wherever you are today, go to: earthmosaic.org/

 

EXPLORE # 278

  

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Alt de Juclar, Incles, Canillo, Vall d'Orient, Andorra, Pyrenees - (c) Lutz Meyer

 

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A consistent soul believes in destiny, a capricious one in chance.

~Benjamin Disraeli~

 

O Sudário de Turim, ou o Santo Sudário (na foto) é uma peça de linho que mostra a imagem de um homem que aparentemente sofreu traumatismos físicos de maneira consistente com a crucificação. O Sudário está guardado na Capela della Sacra Sindone do Palácio Real de Turim, desde 1578. Em 1983, passou a ser pertença do Vaticano, depois de uma doação dos proprietários da casa de Sabóia.

 

Muitos católicos acreditam que seja o tecido que cobriu o corpo de Jesus Cristo no momento da sua morte. A imagem no manto é na realidade muito mais nítida na impressão branca e negra do negativo fotográfico que na sua coloração natural. A imagem do negativo fotográfico do manto foi vista pela primeira vez na noite de 28 de Maio de 1898 através do negativo feito pelo fotógrafo amador Secondo Pia que recebeu a permissão para fotografá-lo durante a sua exibição na Catedral de Turim. De acordo com Pia, ele quase deixou cair a chapa fotográfica devido ao choque de nela ter visto claramente a imagem de uma pessoa.

 

A origem da peça conhecida como Santo Sudário tem sido objecto de grande polémica. Para descrever o seu estudo geral, os historiadres cunharam o termo "sindonologia", a palavra usada no evangelho de Marcos para descrever o tipo de tecido comprado por José de Arimateia para usar como mortalha em Jesus. O tecido mostra as imagens frontal e dorsal de um homem nu, com as mãos pousadas sobre as partes baixas, consistentes com a projecção octogonal, sem a projecção referente à parte lateral do corpo humano. As duas imagens apontam em sentidos opostos e unem-se na zona central do pano. O homem representado no sudário tem barba e cabelo comprido a altura dos ombros. Tem um corpo bem proporcionado e musculado, com cerca de 1,75 de altura. O sudário apresenta ainda diversas nódoas encarnadas que, interpretadas como sangue, sugerem a presença de várias feridas. As primeiras referências a um possível sudário surgem na própria Bíblia. O Evangelho de Mateus 27:59 refere que José de Arimateia envolveu o corpo de Jesus Cristo com "um pano de linho limpo". João 19:38-40 também descreve o evento, e relata que os apóstolos Pedro e João, ao visitar o túmulo de Jesus após a ressurreição, encontraram os lençóis dobrados Jó 20:6-7. Embora depois desta descrição evangélica o sudário só tenha feito a sua aparição definitiva no século XIV, para não mais ser perdido de vista, existem alguns relatos anteriores que contêm indicações consistentes sobre a existência de um tal tecido em tempos mais antigos.

 

A primeira menção não-evangélica a ele data de 544, quando um pedaço de tecido mostrando uma face que se acreditou ser a de Jesus foi encontrado escondido sob uma ponte em Edessa. As suas primeiras descrições mencionam um pedaço de pano quadrado, mostrando apenas a face, mas São João Damasceno, na sua obra anti-iconoclasta "Sobre as imagens sagradas", falando sobre a mesma relíquia, descreve-a como uma faixa comprida de tecido, embora afirmasse que se tratava de uma imagem transferida para o pano quando Jesus ainda estava vivo. Em 944, quando esta peça foi transferida para Constantinopla, Gregorius Referendarius, arquidiácono de Hagia Sophia pregou um sermão sobre o artefacto, sermão esse que foi dado como perdido até ser redescoberto em 2004 num manuscrito dos arquivos do Vaticano. Neste sermão é feita uma descrição do sudário de Edessa como contendo não só a face, mas uma imagem de corpo inteiro, e cita a presença de manchas de sangue. Outra fonte é o Códex Vossianus Latinus, também no Vaticano, que se refere ao sudário de Edessa como sendo uma impressão de corpo inteiro.

 

Outra evidência é uma gravura incluída no chamado Manuscrito Húngaro de Preces, datado de 1192, onde a figura mostra o corpo de Jesus a ser preparado para ser sepultado, numa posição consistente com a imagem impressa no sudário de Turim. Em 1203, o cruzado Robert de Clari afirmou ter visto o sudário em Constantinopla nos seguintes termos: "Lá estava o sudário em que nosso Senhor foi envolto, e que a cada quinta-feira é exposto de modo que todos possam ver a imagem de nosso Senhor nele". Seguindo-se ao saque de Constantinopla, em 1205 Theodoros Angelos, sobrinho de um dos três imperadores bizantinos, escreveu uma carta de protesto ao papa Inocêncio III, onde menciona o roubo de riquezas e relíquias sagradas da capital pelos cruzados, e dizendo que as jóias ficaram com os venezianos e relíquias tinham sido divididas entre os franceses, citando explicitamente o sudário, que segundo ele havia sido levado para Atenas nessa época. Dali, a partir de testemunhos da época o sudário teria sido tomado por Otto de la Roche, que se tornou Duque de Atenas.

 

Segundo a pesquisadora italiana Barbara Frale, os templários teriam mantido o sudário por um século na sua posse e transportando-o para França. Ainda há controvérsia se o sudário de Edessa chamado Mandylion seria o mesmo de Turim, tendo em vista referências que indicariam a sua presença em Constantinopla até 1362, cinco anos após a sua aparição no Ocidente. Aqui começa então a parte da história do sudário que está bem documentada. O sudário reapareceu em 1357 em poder da viúva de Jean de Charney, neto do templário Geoffroy de Charney, que o exibiu na igreja de Lirey. Não foi dada nenhuma explicação para a sua súbita aparição, nem a sua veneração como relíquia, que foi imediatamente aceite. Henrique de Poitiers, arcebispo de Troyes, apoiado mais tarde pelo rei Carlos VI de França, declarou o sudário como uma impostura e proibiu a sua adoração. A peça conseguiu, no entanto, recolher um número considerável de admiradores que lutaram para manter a sua exibição nas igrejas. Em 1389, o bispo Pierre d’Arcis (sucessor de Henrique) denunciou a suposta relíquia como uma fraude fabricada por um pintor talentoso, numa carta a Clemente VII (em Avinhão). D’Arcis menciona: Até então tenho sido bem sucedido a esconder o pano, e revela ainda que a verdade lhe fora confessada pelo próprio artista, que não é identificado. A carta descreve ainda o sudário com grande precisão. Aparentemente, os conselhos do bispo de Troyes não foram ouvidos visto que Clemente VII declarou a relíquia sagrada e ofereceu indulgências a quem peregrinasse para ver o sudário.

 

Em 1453, o sudário foi trocado por um castelo (não vendido porque a transacção comercial de relíquias é proibida) com o duque Luís de Sabóia. A nova aquisição do duque tornou-se na atracção principal da recém construída catedral de Chambéry, capital do Ducado de Sabóia, de acordo com cronistas contemporâneos, envolvida em veludo carmim e guardada num relicário com pregos de prata e chave de ouro. O sudário foi mais uma vez declarado como relíquia verdadeira pelo Papa Júlio II em 1506. Em 4 de Dezembro de 1532, o sudário foi danificado por um incêndio que atingiu a sua capela e pela água usada para o apagar.

 

As primeiras análises ao sudário foram realizadas em 1977 por uma equipa de cientistas da Universidade de Turim que usou métodos de microscopia. Os resultados demonstraram que a imagem do sudário é composta por inúmeras gotículas de tinta fabricada a partir de ocre. Em 1978, a equipa americana do STURP (Shroud of Turin Research Project) teve acesso ao sudário durante 120 horas. A equipa era composta por 40 cientistas, dos quais apenas 7 católicos e um ateu, Walter C. McCrone, que se retirou logo no início das investigações. Foram realizados muitos exames que envolveram diversas áreas da ciência, como fotografias com diferentes tipos de filme, radiografia de raio X com fluorescência, espectroscopia, infravermelhos e retirada de amostras, mas não foi autorizado fazer o teste por datação de carbono -14. Em 1988, a Santa Sé autorizou os primeiros testes de datação radiométrica do sudário, segundo o método do carbono -14. Foram colhidas três amostras que foram entregues a três laboratórios independentes: Universidade de Oxford (UK), Universidade do Arizona (EUA) e o ETH Zürich (Suíça). Todas as análises revelaram idades entre os séculos XIII e XIV, mais concretamente no intervalo 1260-1390. Apesar de os resultados serem claramente posteriores ao século I, a variação que apresentam é demasiado longínqua no tempo e não parece deixar dúvidas quanto a falsa veracidade que a igreja preconiza. Mesmo assim a mesma equipa pediu autorização ao Vaticano para efectuar mais testes mas, até à data, esta pretensão tem vindo a ser recusada com o argumento de que a colheita de mais amostras poderia danificar a peça.

  

*===****===* Todos os direitos reservados ==***== Todos los derechos reservados ==***== All rights reserved ==**== Tutti i diritti riservati ==**== Alle Rechte vorbehalten ==**== Tous droits réservés =**=

 

 

Another shot of the nuthatch in my garden, Taken 9 January 2016 at 13:20. Never cease to be in wonder at the beauty of this bird,

 

For Photographers:

Camera: Nikon D600

Lens: 80-600 zoom at 380 mm focal length.

Exposure settings: ƒ/6.3; 1/259 sec; ISO 250

File ref: 20160109-DSC_2719©ELN

A rose.

 

This is the closest my little point and shoot can get to a macro shot. Pretty hard to get that auto focus to behave...hence my consistent edit manipulations of tight flower shots to hide the lack of sharpness/precision with assorted razzle dazzle. :) In this case, some selective orton effect, some glowing edges filter laid on w/ soft light layering, and lot's of value adjustments.

Immateriale consistenza.

Indefinita spiegazione.

Ragionevole irrazionalità.

Paradosso, ossimoro, contraddizione.

Tutti lo siamo stati, in molti faremo ritorno. E sarà come una beatitudine, ne son sicuro.

Ritorneremo a meravigliarci, a non domandarci il perché delle cose, perché accadono e basta; a credere a babbo natale, a credere in dio per chi nel frattempo ha perso la fede o a chi non l'ha mai avuta.

Ma questi sono pensieri da grandi, tu non te ne fregare, succhia fino al midollo la grazia dell'innocenza ché l'unica raccomandazione che saprei darti è che se qualcuno ti chiede di fare in fretta tu digli di aspettare.

One of the consistent class 60 diagrams in this area are the oil trains running between Lindsey & Kingsbury.

 

About to pass under the footbridge at North Stafford Jcn. is 60092 with 6M57 07:02 Lindsey Oil Refinery - Kingsbury Oil Sidings.

 

This location has recently opened up again thanks to the removal of some lineside shrubbery!

 

Taken on Tuesday 8th March 2022.

 

Copyright Ken Davies. All rights reserved.

Pal, Andorra Vall nord & Pallars Sobira mountains. View from Encamp, Vall d'Orient, Andorra, Pyrenees - (c) Lutz Meyer

 

More Els Cortals, Encamp, Vall d'Orient, Andorra, Pyrenees: Follow the group links at right side.

.......

 

About this image:

* Full frame format 3x2 quality image

* Usage: Large format prints optional

* Motive is suitable as symbol pic

* "Andorra authentic" edition (20 years 2004-2024)

* "Andorra camis & rutes" active collection

* Advanced metadata functionality on dynamic websites or apps

* for large metadata-controlled business collections: photo-archives, travel agencies, tourism editiorials

 

We offer 200.000+ photos of Andorra and North of Spain. 20.000+ visable here at Flickr. Its the largest professional image catalog of Andorra: all regions, all cities and villages, all times, all seasons, all weather(s). Consistent for additional advanced programming. For smartphones and web-db. REAL TIME!

 

It's based on GeoCoded stock-photo images and metadata with 4-5 languages. Prepared for easy systematic organising of very large image portfolios with advanced online / print-publishing as "Culture-GIS" (Geographic Info System).

 

More information about usage, tips, how-to, conditions: www.flickr.com/people/lutzmeyer/. Get quality, data consistency, stable organisation and PR environments: Professional stockphotos for exciting stories - docu, tales, mystic.

 

Ask for licence! lutz(at)lutz-meyer.com

 

(c) Lutz Meyer, all rights reserved. Do not use this photo without license.

TEC Singen - Chiasso - Brescia Scalo fotografato grazie ad un consistente ritardo, con in testa una pulita E652.091 ed una bella composizione variopinta.

Una joyita de las arenas de playa.

Flora del litoral granadino.

Una de las razones para proteger zonas en las playas

 

Es una planta herbácea de ciclo anual de 5-15 cm de altura, compacta, densamente pubescente-glandulosa. Posee unos tallos erectos o ascendentes, simples o ramificados desde la base, con un indumento mixto más abundante en la parte superior, consistente en pelos glandulíferos patentes y no glandulíferos adpresos. Hojas por lo común apelmazadamente dispuestas en la base. Hojas inferiores oblanceoladas o anchamente elípticas de 4-15 mm de ancho. Hojas superiores linear-lanceoladas, dispersamente pubescentes.

 

Florece de Febrero a Abril. Vive en arenales o dunas del litoral, entre el nivel del mar y 120 m de altitud.

If a person is consistent and persistent with a camera, sooner or later you will be faced with a shot you are pretty pleased with in comparison to thousands of others you have taken.

 

Yesterday morning after a couple of hours on gravel roads in our area scouring ditches and fields for wildlife to observe, on our way back home, my wife and I decided to check on the osprey nest a mile outside of our town to see how things were progressing with the two who are currently seeking to hatch a youngster or two. If you were out and about during the day, you are well aware there was a pretty stiff breeze.

 

My wife spotted the male osprey sitting on an iron post about 8 feet off the ground as his mate was high above on a light pole keeping the eggs warm in their nest. He was having a tough time hanging on to his perch as the wind was threatening to dislodge him. He was sitting pretty close to the road, probably about a dozen yards away, so close that I had to back off my lens to get him fully in view.

 

He got ready to give up and take off when I shot this photo. After he left, he circled around toward our car just overhead allowing me a couple of other good photo opportunities and then he landed about 25 yards away in a field as the wind made it just too hard for him to fight this morning.

 

(Photographed near Cambridge, MN)

 

Stone lion, temple guardian.

 

Testing the simulated Bokeh from the iPhone 15 Pro Max (iP15PM).

 

This was originally a 24mp HEIF file. Replaced the upload on 4 March 2024 with a file post-processed with 3rd-party software with my usual selective adjustments and then exported as a JPEG file for upload to Flickr to avoid inconsistencies due to incompatibility with HEIF or ProRAW formats. Tried one more time 6 March 2024, this time it’s slightly better, slowing getting a handle on these iPhone files.

 

I’m still new to post-processing iPhone images externally, the source photo edited within the iPhone’s Photos App still has a lot more pop when viewed from my iPhone’s screen, something seemed to be lost in the HEIF conversion to JPEG, perhaps it’s due to HEIF being 16-bit colors vs 8-bit for JPEG. More likely it’s due to iPhone’s HDR capable display that is able to show off the HDR enabled 24mp photos at their best and the other image upload and display media have not caught up or adopted it yet.

 

What I learnt from this session about the Portrait mode on iP15PM;

 

1) ProRAW is not possible in this mode, highest resolution possible is 24mp JPEG/HEIF with the 1x camera, any other option will of course produce 12mp outputs. 1.2x and 1.5x are not available in this mode.

 

2) The power of Portrait mode are; ability to change both extent of f-stop bokeh simulation as well as focal point post shot. If we turn on “Portraits in Photo Mode” in Camera settings, the camera will default to “Portrait mode” and capture depth information whenever a face or cat/dog is prominent in the frame, except when we are in 1x camera with ProRAW Max activated. Ability to change amount of background blur (f-stop) post shot is not new, I could do this in my older iP11PM but the faux-keh (simulated bokeh) in the new iP15PM is so much better and more precise, while not always perfect it is now certainly good enough.

 

3) In Portrait mode under backlit conditions, the face is automatically brightened, we would need to use a camera fill flash to achieve a similar effect traditionally.

 

I took this shot both in Portrait mode (24mp HEIF) as well as with Portrait mode deactivated (48mp ProRAW Max), I liked the 24mp shot in Portrait mode better and the subject area within the plane of focus has just as much details as the one taken in 48mp ProRAW Max, to my eyes.

 

I’m seeing a lot of “photographers” still talking down on the latest smartphones in camera gear forums. I’m personally not at all held back by form factor, ultimately it’s only the end result that matters to me. Just as there are wine snobs, there are also camera snobs but all the more insufferable, such people absolutely infest the camera gear forums etc.

 

I could almost hear the condescending whispers from afar of Nikon fanbois shills opining that the iPhone’s ergonomics are too poor or that its mount is too small or if Nikon make phones it would have Nikon’s secret special sauce that only the shills themselves can ever see, in their wet dreams! These people have no idea what the latest premium smartphones are capable of.

 

With post-processing, these smartphone photos can be enhanced further just like camera RAW files but most of the smartphone photos we see are straight out of phone unedited JPEGs leaving much of the potential quality unfulfilled.

 

A word about sharing iPhone photos via WhatsApp, the photos are very severely downsampled such that they ended up looking dull, low contrast and soft to the receiver so we’ll need to counter these in post-processing to boost brilliance, contrast, saturation and sharpness before sending via WhatsApp. Apple should include some automatic profiles depending on viewing platform, whether it’s for display, print or sharing via WhatsApp or other social media for instance to ensure that iPhone photos look consistent as how they appeared on the iPhone’s screen.

 

The same issue plagues iPhone photos (be it HEIF or ProRAW) uploaded to Flickr, it simply lacks the pop of the original photos on the iPhone since HEIF and ProRAW formats are apparently not very well converted to JPEG on Flickr.

 

Postscript

=========

Discovered that I could in fact edit this on iMac with 3rd party software and export the processed photo as a JPEG file, this should solve the issue of the photo looking different when uploading to Flickr. The original iPhone image file should be a clean copy without any post shot processing with the Photos app otherwise artefacts will appear.

Warm temperatures and a consistent rainy day wiping out most of the following week of of snow fall on the third day of February where normally temps are about 30 degrees, the ice is solid and snow cover all around at Birchwood Lake, Mountain Lakes New Jersey. But today the ice was breaking up, the rain coming down steady and the mixture of warm temps with snow on the ground was producing some misty fog.

Once again

Inevitably vital

Leave a mark

The World Solar Challenge (WSC), or the Bridgestone World Solar Challenge since 2013, tied to the sponsorship of Bridgestone Corporation is the world's most well-known solar-powered car race event. A biennial road race covering 3,022 km (1,878 mi) through the Australian Outback, from Darwin, Northern Territory, to Adelaide, South Australia, created to foster the development of experimental, solar-powered vehicles.

The race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations, although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 32-year history spanning fourteen races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. Initially held once every three years, the event became biennial from the turn of the century.

Since 2001 the World Solar Challenge was won seven times out of nine efforts by the Nuna team and cars of the Delft University of Technology from the Netherlands, with only the Tokai Challenger, built by the Tokai University of Japan able to take the crown in 2009 and 2011.

Starting in 2007, the WSC has been raced in multiple classes. After the German team of Bochum University of Applied Sciences competed with a four-wheeled, multi-seat car, the BoCruiser (in 2009), in 2013 a radically new "Cruiser Class" was introduced, racing and stimulating the technological development of practically usable, and ideally road-legal, multi-seater solar vehicles. Since its inception, Solar Team Eindhoven's four- and five-seat Stella solar cars from Eindhoven University of Technology (Netherlands) won the Cruiser Class in all three races so far.

Remarkable technological progress has been achieved since the GM led, highly experimental, single-seat Sunraycer prototype first won the WSC with an average speed of 66.9 km/h (41.6 mph). Once competing cars became steadily more capable to match or exceed legal maximum speeds on the Australian highway, the race rules were consistently made more demanding and challenging — for instance after Honda's Dream car first won the race with an average speed exceeding 55 mph (88.5 km/h) in 1996. In 2005 the Dutch Nuna team were the first to beat an average speed of 100 km/h (62 mph).

The 2017 Cruiser class winner, the five-seat Stella Vie vehicle, was able to carry an average of 3.4 occupants at an average speed of 69 km/h (43 mph). Like its two predecessors, the 2017 Stella Vie vehicle was successfully road registered by the Dutch team, further emphasizing the great progress in real world compliance and practicality that has been achieved.

The World Solar Challenge held its 30th anniversary event on October 8–15, 2017.

The 2019 World Solar Challenge will take place from 13 to 20 October. 53 teams from 24 countries have entered the competition. The same 3 classes, Challenger (30 teams), Cruiser (23 teams) and Adventure will be featured.

 

  

I went for a job there in 1985, when the rate of pay offered was £3.74 an hour. Thankfully, I was not selected.

 

Bloor's advertised vacancies almost every week in the local paper - which given the size of the place, was a very bad sign indeed.

 

They used to deliver their goods around the area in a small van which was painted white with the company name in blue lettering.

 

Bloor's was right next to High Wycombe's railway station. For quite some time, this was my most-photographed local building.

Bio!

If you're interested, here's a little background on the MOC and on my life currently.

 

Back in December of 2013 I wanted to do a build in the study of textures. I wanted to play with various textures and earth colors such as brown, greens, and tans. The MOC was initially going to be about 24x24 studs. But as i built it continued to expand until i was invested in a very large MOC, with the largest footprint and piece count of any MOC i've done to date. This MOC was undeniably inspired by the great David Hansel, whose vast array of medieval MOCs is quite impressive and inspiring.

This MOC presented a great deal of challenges which I had to overcome. In case you hadn't realized, texture is really hard to get right. While it looks random, it's far from it, several times I tore apart sections of the wall, or rock sections seeking perfection. The rock section in the direct front of the building, attached to it, (kinda behind where Re-Kah is standing) I re-did over 6 times just so it would be atheistically pleasing. Other challenges included the fact that very few Lego waterwheels exist, so it took a while to design one that was accurate and to scale. And the fact that this MOC includes about 3,000 pieces, which is roughly half the content of my collection. So I placed numerous BL orders to fill this MOC's demands. And designing a low yet strong roof had it's challenges as well.

 

As if the MOC itself wasn't challenging enough, I have been taking college classes all throughout the year, and have been consistently making Dean's list. So school, among other activities such as getting my license is why this MOC took 6+ months.

But with time came refinement. I felt with this MOC i was able to develop my own style, especially in the rock department. It also helped me broaden my building scope, and develop a newfound appreciation for castle and texture builders.

 

All in all I hope it was worth it and i hope you all like it.

if you read all of that, congratulations you get a stack of virtual cookies! :D

Enjoy the MOC (and the cookies) you earned it ;)

  

All pictures can be found here.

Moltes vegades m'agradaria ser fort i consistent com una muralla al prop de la mar, però no ho sóc mes aviat sóc onada i sorra de platja, feble i malajable,

Espero a les nits per semblar més fort i es quan qualsevol aire, quan qualsevol fregament amb fa tremolar com bandera al vent.

Quan tot pot semblar anar bé, és quan les atzagades del moment et fa tornar a sentir vençut sense pader presentar cap batalla.

Per sort tots els fantasmes s'eveixen en sortir el sol en nèixer i crèixer un nou dia.

M'agrada pensar que els nous dies us fant desapèixer aquells fantasmes dels dubte, dels neguits, de la fablesa.

Peles (Peleș) Castle is a Neo-Renaissance castle in the Carpathian Mountains, near Sinaia, in Prahova County, Romania, on an existing medieval route linking Transylvania and Wallachia. Its inauguration was held in 1883.

 

By form and function, Peles is a palace, but it is consistently called a castle. Its architectural style is a romantically inspired blend Neo-Renaissance and Gothic Revival similar to Schloss Neuschwanstein in Bavaria. A Saxon influence can be observed in the interior courtyard facades, which have allegorical hand-painted murals and ornate fachwerk similar to that seen in northern European alpine architecture. Interior decoration is mostly Baroque influenced, with heavy carved woods and exquisite fabrics.The collection of arms and armor has over 4,000 pieces.

Peles Castle has a 3,200-square-metre (34,000 sq ft) floor plan with over 170 rooms, many with dedicated themes from world cultures

=======================================

Many Thanks to the +3,085,000 visitors of my photographic stream

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© Ioan C. Bacivarov

 

All the photos on this gallery are protected by the international laws of copyright and they are not for being used on any site, blog or forum, transmitted or manipulated without the explicit written permission of the author. Thank you in advance

 

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Please view my most interesting photos on flickriver stream: www.flickriver.com/photos/ioan_bacivarov/

 

Many thanks for yours visits and comments.

 

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After camping at the Erbie campground, we woke the next morning to clearing skies. The rain that had consistently fallen the day before was gone. There was a small bit of fog hanging around, but it wouldn't last for long. After clearing the campsite, we got in the car and headed off to the Parker-Hickman Farmstead.

 

The sun had started to rise and burn off any lingering bits of fog. I rushed around trying to take a few pictures while the light was still nice. This is the fall colors next to the old home at the Parker-Hickman Farmstead. The home was built sometime in the late 1840s, and is the oldest standing structure within the Buffalo National River.

 

There was some nice fall color on this tree, although if you look closely you'll see that it's actually poison ivy...

vertigine: allucinosi spaziale consistente in una sensazione illusoria e sgradevole di movimento o rotazione del corpo o dell’ambiente che lo circonda, causata da alterazione della sensibilità spaziale per cause organiche, funzionali o psichiche

 

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è proprio nei momenti di felicità che si viene colti da vertigine...

in quei momenti in cui ti senti così al di sopra di tutto che basta un niente per farti cadere giù...

ed è proprio allora che serve qualcosa o qualcuno a cui aggrapparsi per non precipitare

love the colorway. not as consistent as i wanted it to be, but it was fun watching it spin up.

 

fiber dyed by Carrie of Funky Carolina.

Bordes de Mereig & Roc del Quer, view from Encamp, Vall d'Orient, Andorra, Pyrenees - (c) Lutz Meyer

 

More Vila, Beixalis & Encamp parroquia: Follow the group links at right side.

 

.......

 

About this image:

* Medium format 4x3 (645) high quality image

* Usage: Large format prints optional

* Motive is suitable as symbol pic

* "Andorra authentic" edition (20 years 2003-2023)

* "Andorra camis & rutes" active collection

* Advanced metadata functionality on dynamic websites or apps

* for large metadata-controlled business collections: photo-archives, travel agencies, tourism editiorials

 

We offer 200.000+ photos of Andorra and North of Spain. 20.000+ visable here at Flickr. Its the largest professional image catalog of Andorra: all regions, all cities and villages, all times, all seasons, all weather(s). Consistent for additional advanced programming. For smartphones and web-db. REAL TIME!

 

It's based on GeoCoded stock-photo images and metadata with 4-5 languages. Prepared for easy systematic organising of very large image portfolios with advanced online / print-publishing as "Culture-GIS" (Geographic Info System).

 

More information about usage, tips, how-to, conditions: www.flickr.com/people/lutzmeyer/. Get quality, data consistency, stable organisation and PR environments: Professional stockphotos for exciting stories - docu, tales, mystic.

 

Ask for licence! lutz(at)lutz-meyer.com

 

(c) Lutz Meyer, all rights reserved. Do not use this photo without license.

Rittreck Six 6x6 SLR. 12 frames per 120 roll/24 per 220.

Fitted with 80mm Rittron f/2 lens.

 

The Rittreck Six was the progenitor of the better known Norita SLR, but was manufactured by Musashino Kōki.

 

See here for more information about the Rittreck/Norita series. camera-wiki.org/wiki/Rittreck_6×6_and_Norita_66

 

Also:

www.rangefinderforum.com/threads/rittreck-six-slr-repair-...

 

By all accounts this one is virtually unused. I find this easy to believe, because it's become fairly obvious to me that, at the time of its assembly, Musashino Kōki's quality control left a bit to be desired, unfortunately. So its proud owner's first roll of film through this camera would have been a profound disappointment.

 

This Rittreck was sent to me to by its owner in order to get it to actually work properly. On arrival, it had any number of faults. Frame spacing was inconsistent, and the shutter curtains were poorly adjusted because there was considerable tapering across the gate at the faster speeds.

 

The back closure was a little on the loose side (causing other issues with the counter reset and frame spacing), and its Rittron lens would focus beyond infinity by an unacceptable amount (subsequent checks confirmed it had been assembled with the back focus out of spec).

 

It's an unusual mechanism in as much that it relies on the correct amount of friction in a few places in order to achieve satisfactory frame spacing or indeed, to get the shutter cocking and advance working together at all. I can't help thinking a Rollei type approach to integrating wind release and lock into the counter dial, so that the lever (or knob in the case of a Rolleicord) is either free, or blocked, depending on the counter position, is a much more elegant (and reliable) solution.

 

The back door closure is a key part of getting the plot to come together correctly. A reset tab inside the top door slot not only resets the counter to "S" but also kicks the film roller into action when you begin advancing to the first frame. If the tab is not firmly depressed by a snug door, or the linkages inside the bottom cover of the body which are driven by the tab's lever are incorrectly adjusted with the wrong play or orientation, the framing may be haphazard or even non-existent (the shutter may not get cocked at all).

 

At various points of problem solving the mechanism I had the frame advancing without cocking the shutter, and the shutter cocking without winding on the film. It's a Goldilocks mechanism. Has to be just right, in order to function sweetly. Nevertheless I got there eventually and it now produces 12 beautifully even frames on a roll of 120.

 

The shutter is now exposing the gate consistently even at its 1/500 maximum speed. After first cleaning and lubricating the mechanism, this was achieved by increasing the second curtain tension to reduce the tapering across the gate. The alternative would have been reducing the first curtain tension (or I suppose a combination of both). But the first curtain must activate the timing levers, and as medium and slow speeds were still OK, I judged it better to speed up the second curtain to get them balanced across the gate.

 

It's not a particularly well understood point—but you do actually need a slight amount of widening of the slit across the gate if the fastest speeds of a focal plane shutter are going to be really good. This is because the curtains are still gathering speed as they travel across the film gate. Because the far end of the gate is thus, exposed for a shorter amount of time, the width of the slit between the curtain ends needs to enlarge fractionally during the run, in order to negate the underexposure that will occur from the curtains accelerating.

 

I had to estimate the amount of taper needed to achieve consistent exposure by eye using a CRT screen. On receipt it was clearly grossly excessive with the slit tripling in size from side to side, or more. I moderated this to around a 1/3 increase from right side to left side of the gate (as viewed from the rear). A test roll with several 1/500 & 1/250 images featuring lots of clear sky indicates that exposure is very even across an entire negative, so my adjustments were fairly reasonable.

 

The 80mm Rittron f/2 lens seems reasonably sharp and after the addition of a 0.25mm shim behind the optic module, is now focusing only to infinity at its stop.

 

Whilst I am in no hurry to work on another it was an interesting job, and a learning exercise. But also a reminder of why I mostly stick with classic German cameras, I seem to relate to those better...

 

WORDS AND IMAGES

COPYRIGHT TASMANIA FILM PHOTOGRAPHY 2022

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.

All rights reserved, no use without license

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Hong kong)

 

Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.

 

Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]

 

Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.

 

Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]

 

Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]

Contents

 

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Prehistory

2.2 Imperial China

2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941

2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45

2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97

2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status

3 Governance

3.1 Structure of government

3.2 Electoral and political reforms

3.3 Legal system and judiciary

3.4 Foreign relations

3.5 Human rights

3.6 Regions and districts

3.7 Military

4 Geography and climate

5 Economy

5.1 Financial centre

5.2 International trading

5.3 Tourism and expatriation

5.4 Policy

5.5 Infrastructure

6 Demographics

6.1 Languages

6.2 Religion

6.3 Personal income

6.4 Education

6.5 Health

7 Culture

7.1 Sports

7.2 Architecture

7.3 Cityscape

7.4 Symbols

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

10.1 Citations

10.2 Sources

11 Further reading

12 External links

 

Etymology

 

Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]

 

The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]

 

Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]

 

Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]

 

The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.

 

As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.

 

Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".

History

Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong

 

Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]

 

Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]

Imperial China

Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China

 

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]

 

After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]

 

From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.

 

From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.

European discovery

 

The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.

 

Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]

British Crown Colony: 1842–1941

A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London

Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)

 

In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]

 

The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]

 

Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.

 

In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]

 

Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.

File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media

Hong Kong filmed in 1937

 

In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).

 

Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]

 

In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.

Japanese occupation: 1941–45

Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]

 

As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]

 

During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]

Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97

Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong

Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997

 

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.

Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953

 

In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.

 

Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.

A sky view of Hong Kong Island

An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986

 

To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]

 

In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]

The Hong Kong question

 

In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.

 

The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.

 

It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.

Handover and Special Administrative Region status

Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong

Transfer of sovereignty

Golden Bauhinia Square

 

On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.

 

Structure of government

 

Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]

 

Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.

 

Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]

 

The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]

 

In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.

 

Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]

Being lonely can impact you at any age, but getting older is consistently recognised as a trigger for feelings of loneliness and experiences of social isolation.

 

Older men who live alone say they struggle to access social support for reasons such as older people's clubs and activities being dominated by women, a lack of activities that interest them, and a lack of male staff running services.

  

Older Men at the Margins was a two-year study to understand how men aged 65 and over from different social backgrounds and circumstances experienced loneliness and social isolation.

 

Older men at the margins was led by Dr Paul Willis from the University of Bristol. The study focused on understanding how hard-to-reach or hidden groups of men aged 65+ seek to maintain social engagement and combat loneliness in later life.

 

And now Covid19

The Terowie Soldier's Memorial Hall is important for social and architectural reasons. It is a relatively simple stone building but makes a strong contribution to the streetscape and character of the

town which has numerous other significant buildings of this era and older. The style is consistent with the Hall typology of the region, with notable features such as the timber detailing to the gable end, and the stained-glass windows on the street elevation. The Hall has provided an important and varied social service to the local community as well as providing a memorial to the local soldiers who contributed to the First World War.

 

The foundation stone reads "AMDG St Josephs Memorial Hall in memory of our fallen soldiers 25 March 1920". It now appears to be a private residence.

 

Terowie:

 

The town of Terowie was established in the early 1870s as a service centre for northbound traffic. Terowie owes its birth to one man, John Aver Mitchell; and its subsequent growth and success to its position on a major South Australian transport route, and later, to its important position within the South Australian rail network. John Aver Mitchell (1833 - 1879) is widely acknowledged to be the founder of Terowie. He and his family arrived in South Australia in 1847, and settled in the Marrabel area. Mitchell turned his hand to many things and lived in many places, including Kapunda and Hallett, before establishing himself in the Terowie area.

 

In 1872, Mitchell selected Section 158 from the recently proclaimed Hundred of Terowie. This land had previously been part of McCulloch's Gottlieb's Well sheep run, the lease of which had been resumed by the Government and opened for credit selection. Mitchell planted wheat on his land, but soon turned to other ideas for a livelihood. The growing amount of northward traffic passing through his section required services, and he is believed to have established an underground store or possible sly-grog shop at the side of the track as early as 1872.

 

He soon built two substantial stone buildings close to one another, the Hotel which was licensed on the 7th of May 1874; and a chapel which probably served a variety of functions including as a general meeting place. The hotel and chapel are considered to be Terowie's earliest buildings, but it was not long before a smithy and store were also constructed near the hotel. To ensure the growth and success of his infant town, Mitchell donated land and money for a school and a Methodist Chapel, both of which were erected in 1877.

 

The fact that the young town of Terowie offered much needed services to the northward traffic, as well as to the growing number of local settlers, secured its future prosperity. By the end of the 1870s over 500 people had settled in the town. Subsequent fluctuations in population had two main causes: the times of depression which affected local production, state-wide production and hence local services; and the rise and fall of railway operations, which reached high points in the 1880s (with the Silverton/Broken Hill Traffic), the 1940s (Military manoeuvres) and the 1950s (Leigh Creek Coal). The 1970 bypassing of the Terowie break-of-gauge sounded the death knell for the town's prosperity.

 

This history, of massive boom and prosperity in the 1880s, but then a subsequent dip in popularity followed by later peaks of a similar height has, to a large extent, dictated the face of Terowie today. Almost all of the buildings in the core of the town were constructed before the turn of the century. Lack of a steadily rising population led to there being no necessity for new buildings to be built after the 1880s, as the old ones were built during a wave of optimism, and then rarely outgrown.

 

Therefore, within the core of the town, very few twentieth century buildings have been built, and few modern alterations and additions have been required. Terowie survives as a fascinating nineteenth century commercial and residential time capsule. However, it is also a living town, with a small number of interested residents trying to retain their unique heritage.

 

Source: Department for Environment & Heritage, District Councils of Mount Remarkable, Orroroo/Carrieton & Peterborough, Regional Council of Goyder, Northern Areas Council, and Port Pirie Regional Council "HERITAGE OF THE UPPER NORTH - Volume 2 - Regional Council of Goyder "

Streetshot in Chambéry - France.