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Date: Circa 1880
Source Type: Photograph, Carte de Visite
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: John Wesley McLellan
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This carte de visite was included in a photograph album owned by Louise DeMotte Letherman.
On the reverse of the carte de visite is printed the following information:
A. W. CADMAN.
Phootographer.
JACKSONVILLE, ILL..
This photograph was taken Albert William Cadman. Cadman served in Company E of the 8th Missouri Infantry during the Civil War. At the conclusion of the conflict he moved to Jacksonville, Morgan County, Illinois, where he established a photographer business that operated till his death in 1895.
Louise (DeMotte) Letherman was born August 21, 1859, in Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana, the daughter of Mark L. DeMotte and Elizabeth (Christy) DeMotte. She married Lawrence Letherman on May 3, 1883, in Valparaiso. Louise died at Malden, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, on September 24, 1905. Louise is buried in Valparaiso's Maplewood Cemetery.
Mark Lindsey DeMotte was born in Rockville, Parke County, Indiana, on December 28, 1832, the son of Daniel DeMotte and Mary (Brewer) DeMotte. He graduated from Asbury University (now DePauw University) in Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana, with an A.B. degree in 1853 and immediately began studying law at this institution, earning his law degree (LL.B.) in 1855. DeMotte was soon admitted to the Indiana bar and began his practice of law at Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana.
In December 1856, Elizabeth Christy wedded DeMotte in Valparaiso, a union that resulted in two children, Louise and Mary.
DeMotte would serve in the Civil War rising to the rank of captain under the command of General Robert H. Milroy. At the conclusion of the war, DeMotte moved to Lexington, Lafayette County, Missouri, to resume his practice of law. He was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress in the 1872 and 1876 elections.
DeMotte returned to Valparaiso in 1877 to practice law and would organize the Northern Indiana Law School in 1879, which later became known as the Valparaiso University School of Law (which went defunct in 2020).
DeMotte would again be a Republican candidate for Congress, winning the election of 1880, but would lose as an incumbent in the 1882 election. He would then serve in the Indiana State Senate between 1886 and 1890. He was appointed the postmaster of Valparaiso serving from March 24, 1890, to March 20, 1894. He would also serve as dean of the Northern Indiana Law School from 1890 to 1908.
DeMotte passed away on September 23, 1908, in Valparaiso and was interred in Maplewood Cemetery in that community.
Source:
Goodspeed, Weston A., and Charles Blanchard. 1882. Counties of Porter and Lake, Indiana: Historical and Biographical, Illustrated. Chicago, Illinois: F. A. Battey & Company. 771 p. [see pp. 255-256]
Copyright 2020. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
REUBENS, IDAHO, ___________ 192__ No. ______
BANK OF REUBENS 92-198-12
PAY TO THE
ORDER OF_____________________ $ __________
_________________________________ DOLLARS
_________________________________________
Date: Circa 1920s
Source Type: Check
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: The Irwin-Hodson Company
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: The Bank of Reubens located in Reubens, Lewis County, Idaho, was incorporated in 1907 with primary shareholders being John P. Vollmer, E. W. Eaves, and E. Clarke; the bank began operating in May 1907. In 1920, the bank had a capital stock of $10,000, a surplus of $3,000, and deposits of $100,000. Its corresponding banks were the First National Bank of Chicago and the Old National Bank of Spokane.
During the Great Depression, the Bank of Reubens was forced to cease operations for a period of time. However, the bank was relicensed to open on June 1, 1933, by order of the Federal Reserve Bank on April 26, 1933.
On January 15, 1935, the Bank of Reubens consolidated with the First Bank of Culdesac located in nearby Culdesac, Lewis County, Idaho. In April 1956, the First State Bank of Culdesac was purchased by First Security Bank of Idaho, located in Boise.
Sources:
Hawley, James H. 1920. History of Idaho: The Gem of the Mountains. Volume 1. Chicago, Illinois: The S. J. Clarke Publishing Company. 895 p. [see p. 405]
Idaho Evening Times, Twin Falls, Twin Falls County, Idaho; May 26, 1933; Volume 15, Number 40, Page 8, Column 2. Column titled "North Idaho Banks Will Reopen June 1."
Lewiston Evening Teller, Lewiston, Nez Perce County, Idaho; May 16, 1907; Number 107, Page 1, Column 5. Column titled "Organize Bank New Townsite. Town of Reubens Promises to Be Active Business Center."
Times-News, Twin Falls, Twin Falls County, Idaho; April 29, 1956; Volume 38, Number 14, Page 8, Column 6. Column titled Boise Bank Buys Culdesac Branch."
Copyright 2021. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Date: 1873-1878
Source Type: Photograph, Carte de Visite
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: John Wesley McLellan
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This carte de visite was included in a photograph album owned by Louise DeMotte Letherman.
On the reverse of the carte de visite is printed the following information:
FROM
J. W. McLELLAN'S
Photograph
GALLERY,
MAIN STREET,
VALPARAISO, - - IND.
NEGATIVES RETAINED FOR FUTURE ORDERS.
The photograph was taken by John Wesley McLellan at Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana. McLellan operated a photography studio in Valparaiso from 1873 to the mid-1890s.
Louise (DeMotte) Letherman was born August 21, 1859, in Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana, the daughter of Mark L. DeMotte and Elizabeth (Christy) DeMotte. She married Lawrence Letherman on May 3, 1883, in Valparaiso. Louise died at Malden, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, on September 24, 1905. Louise is buried in Valparaiso's Maplewood Cemetery.
Mark Lindsey DeMotte was born in Rockville, Parke County, Indiana, on December 28, 1832, the son of Daniel DeMotte and Mary (Brewer) DeMotte. He graduated from Asbury University (now DePauw University) in Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana, with an A.B. degree in 1853 and immediately began studying law at this institution, earning his law degree (LL.B.) in 1855. DeMotte was soon admitted to the Indiana bar and began his practice of law at Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana.
In December 1856, Elizabeth Christy wedded DeMotte in Valparaiso, a union that resulted in two children, Louise and Mary.
DeMotte would serve in the Civil War rising to the rank of captain under the command of General Robert H. Milroy. At the conclusion of the war, DeMotte moved to Lexington, Lafayette County, Missouri, to resume his practice of law. He was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress in the 1872 and 1876 elections.
DeMotte returned to Valparaiso in 1877 to practice law and would organize the Northern Indiana Law School in 1879, which later became known as the Valparaiso University School of Law (which went defunct in 2020).
DeMotte would again be a Republican candidate for Congress, winning the election of 1880, but would lose as an incumbent in the 1882 election. He would then serve in the Indiana State Senate between 1886 and 1890. He was appointed the postmaster of Valparaiso serving from March 24, 1890, to March 20, 1894. He would also serve as dean of the Northern Indiana Law School from 1890 to 1908.
DeMotte passed away on September 23, 1908, in Valparaiso and was interred in Maplewood Cemetery in that community.
Copyright 2020. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Date: Circa 1890
Source Type: Cabinet Card
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: Marion M. Mudge
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: The following information is printed on the reverse of this cabinet card:
FACULTY, OF N. I. N .S.
M. M. MUDGE, Photographer, 13 East Main St., Valparaiso, Ind.
1. H. B. Brown, Principal.
2. O. P. Kinsey, Associate Principal.
3. Florence Higgins, Elocution.
4. Henri Rulfrok, Piano.
5. C. W. Benton, Commercial Department.
6. J. B. Showalter, Common Branches.
7. Grace Groth, Piano and Voice.
8. H. N. Carver, Ancient Languages.
9. S. P. Corboy, Stenography.
10. J. N. Roe, Pharmacy.
11. O. P. McAuley, Common Branches.
12. H. V. Hibbard, Sciences.
13. Mrs. O. P. Kinsey, Common Branches.
14. Kate Corboy, Private Secretary.
15. M. E. Bogarte, Special Mathematics.
16. M. L. DeMotte, Law.
17. J. E. Roessler, German.
18. G. H. Dodge, Telegraphy.
19. H. M. Evans, Natural Sciences.
20. Mantie E. Baldwin, Literature.
21. S. B. Wright, Fine Art.
22. L. G. Campbell, Stenography.
23. R. A. Heritage, Music.
24. Lizzie McAlilly, Common Branches.
Copyright 2021. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
LOGIE-BUCHAN, a parish, in the district of Ellon, county of Aberdeen, 2 miles (E. by S.) from Ellon; containing 713 inhabitants.
The word Logie, expressive of a low-lying spot, was given to this place on account of its applicability to the tract in which the church is situated; while the affix is descriptive of the position of the parish in that part of the county called Buchan.
Logie-Buchan Parish Church is located on the southern slope of the River Ythan valley, in gently rolling countryside with small fields, rough grazing and enclosures of trees. There is a narrow trackway and footbridge across the river a short distance to the north. The church stands in a sloping graveyard, bounded by a rubble wall. The large former manse is positioned to the south and the church itself closed recently and a new use had not been found when it was visited (2012).
A church here was granted to Aberdeen Cathedral by David II in 1361, while the current church was built in the late 18th century with later additions and alterations.
Description (exterior)
The church is a small, simple building with little architectural detailing. It is aligned roughly east-west and has harled, rubble walls and a slate roof. There are narrow strips of granite stone around the windows and doors. The church is rectangular on plan, with a small, gabled porch and a lean-to vestry at the west end.
The east elevation has a hipped or piended roof rather than a gable. There are two rectangular windows with simple timber tracery and small panes of leaded glass. There has clearly been alterations carried out at this end of the church, shown by two blocked openings, a doorway and window, in the centre of the east elevation.
The north elevation of the church has four equally-spaced rectangular windows, each with simple tracery and latticed glazing. The opposite south elevation has two larger rectangular windows, towards the centre, again with tracery and latticed glazing.
The west end of the church has a small, gabled porch with a rectangular doorway on the south side, which is the main entrance into the church. There is a rectangular window in the west gable of this porch and a tall chimney rises from the apex, serving a fireplace in the small lean-to vestry extension to the north of the porch. The church has a tall gable at the west end, topped by an ashlar-built bellcote, which has a stone ball finial.
Description (interior)
Some of the fittings remain in the church but are likely to be removed if and when a new use is found for the church, which is no longer in use.
People / Organisations:
Name RoleDates Notes
William RuxtonRecast the interior 1912
Robert MaxwellMade the church bell1728
Events:
Church built on site of older church (1787)
Porch and vestry added to west (1891)
Interior recast (1912)
Logie-Buchan is separated on the east from the German Ocean by the parish of Slains, and is intersected by the river Ythan.
The river abounds with various kinds of trout, also with salmon, eels, lounders, and mussels; and pearls are still occasionally found.
It has a ferry opposite the parish church, where its breadth at low water is about sixty yards; and two boats are kept, one for general passengers, and the other, a larger boat, for the conveyance of the parishioners to church from the northern side.
A tradition has long prevailed that the largest pearl in the crown of Scotland was obtained in the Ythan; and it appears that, about the middle of the last century, £100 were paid by a London jeweller to gentleman in Aberdeen, for pearls found in the river.
Most of the inhabitants of the district are employed in agricultural pursuits, a small brick-work recently established being the only exception.
The great north road from Aberdeen passes through the parish, and the mail and other public coaches travel to and fro daily. On another road, leading to the shipping-port of Newburgh, the tenantry have a considerable traffic in grain, lime, and coal, the last procured from England, and being the chief fuel.
The river Ythan is navigable for lighters often or twelve tons' burthen at high water. The marketable produce of the parish is sent to Aberdeen. Logie- Buchan is ecclesiastically in the presbytery of Ellon, synod of Aberdeen, and in the patronage of Mr. Buchan.
The church was built in 1787, and contains 400 sittings.
Cemeteries - Presbyterian / Unitarian
Logie Buchan Parish Church, Logie-Buchan, Church of Scotland
The church of Logie-Buchan was dedicated to St Andrew.
St Andrew's Church was built in 1787 and has been much altered. It contains a 1728 bell.
Logie-Buchan (Aberdeen, Buchan). Also known as Logie Talargy, the church was granted by David II in 1361 to the common fund of the canons of Aberdeen cathedral, and this was confirmed to the uses of the canons by Alexander, bishop of Aberdeen in 1362, both parsonage and vicarage fruits being annexed while the cure was to become a vicarage pensionary.
Although possession was obtained by the dean and chapter, this was subsequently lost, and the church had to be re-annexed in 1437, the previous arrangement being adhered to, with both parsonage and vicarage remaining annexed.
St Andrew's Kirk, 1787. Undistinguished externally, porch 1891, inside original ceiling with Adam-like centrepiece and two-light Gothic windows, part of 1912 recasting, William Buxton. Pulpit was originally in the centre of the N wall with a horseshoe gallery bearing the Buchan coat of arms (George Reid, Peterhead, carver). Monuments to Thomas (d. 1819) and Robert (d. 1825) Buchan.
Bell, 1728, Robert Maxwell. Church bought by Captain David Buchan to ensure access and survival.
Kirkyard: plain ashlar gatepiers and rubble walls; some table tombs.
Copyright © John G. Lidstone, all rights reserved.
You are warned: DO NOT STEAL or RE-POST THIS PHOTO.
It is an offence under law if you remove my copyright marking, or post this image anywhere else without my express written permission.
If you do, and I find out, you WILL be reported for copyright infringement action to the host platform and/or group applicable.
The same applies to all of my images.
My copyright is also embedded in the image metadata.
Date: Circa 1910
Source Type: Photograph
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: Unknown
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: Stamped on the reverse of this photograph is "O. F. JORDAN CO, EAST CHICAGO, IND."
O. F. Jordan was a major manufacturer of rail line track maintenance equipment headquartered in East Chicago, Lake County, Indiana. The company manufactured a combined spreader, ditcher, and snowplow that was widely used by railroad companies, as well as oilers.
Copyright 2020. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Copyright © John G. Lidstone, all rights reserved.
You are warned: DO NOT STEAL or RE-POST THIS PHOTO.
It is an offence under law if you remove my copyright marking, or post this image anywhere else without my express written permission.
If you do, and I find out, you WILL be reported for copyright infringement action to the host platform and/or group applicable.
The same applies to all of my images.
My copyright is also embedded in the image metadata.
Copyright © John G. Lidstone, all rights reserved.
I hope you enjoy my work and thanks for viewing.
NO use of this image is allowed without my express prior permission and subject to compensation/payment.
I do not want my images linked in Facebook groups.
It is an offence, under law, if you remove my copyright marking, and/or post this image anywhere else without my express written permission.
If you do, and I find out, you will be reported for copyright infringement action to the host platform and/or group applicable and you will be barred by me from social media platforms I use.
The same applies to all of my images.
My ownership & copyright is also embedded in the image metadata.
(P.S. NOT applicable for USA :P)
Taken at : Caldaro, ITALY.
Thanks in advance for your views, any valuable comments, or favorites!
Gary Railways Interurban Line, Valparaiso Division, at Milepost 18.9, Wauhob Lake Siding
Valparaiso, Indiana
Date: 1938
Source Type: Photograph
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: J. F. Humiston
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: The Gary and Valparaiso Railway's Valparaiso Line operated from 1917 to October 23, 1938, when it was abandoned. The interurban provided hourly runs between Garyton (East Gary/Lake Station) and Valparaiso for many years. During the Great Depression, however, the schedule was reduced, with runs being operated every two hours. The discontinuance of interurban service was largely affected by the increasing use of automobiles, an improved highway system, and the financial depression. A freight service was also run on this line, transporting goods between Gary, LaPorte, South Bend, and Goshen. Milk cars were especially important in moving this commodity to larger population centers located to the west; milk cars were run on this line between Chesterton, Gary, Hammond, Indiana Harbor, LaPorte, and Valparaiso. Milk traffic on the line increased from 70 cans a day in 1913 to 270 cans by 1916. Milk cars continued operation from Valparaiso to Hammond until 1924. Originally called Van Loon Lake, Wauhob Lake was purchased by Olcott Dillingham. William Wahoub acquired ownership of the land and lake after marrying Betsy Electa Dillingham on January 28, 1837, renaming the lake after himself. By 1876, Wauhob Lake was owned by Chauncey Elwood. Around 1900, Elwood sold his property to Isaac W. Dillingham, who also owned farm land to the north of Elwood's property. Along the western shore of Wauhob Lake ran the Valparaiso & Northern Railway's interurban line, and a station was established at the lake. At the northwest side of the lake a deep cut, known as the Wauhob Cut, was made into the hillside during the construction of the interurban line as it proceeded north to its junction at Woodville. The Wauhob Cut is visible today from County Road 700 North, east of Indiana State Road 49. Wauhob Lake would be located to the right of the tracks in this image. The house located on the horizon is believed to be that of Arthur Hanrahan.
Copyright 2009. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
75 CENTS
SEVENTY-FIVE CENTS.
75
Payable on demand
In Goods or
Current Bank Bills.
Frank Hunt
Valparaiso Ind
[Written on reverse, faint]
Frank Hunt
Valparaiso
Ind
Production Date: Circa 1840s
Source Type: Obsolete Scrip
Printer, Publisher, Photographer: Unknown
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark:
This obsolete scrip is listed in Wolka at al. (p. 255) as No. 821-1 with a rarity of R7, and in Wolka (p. 790) as No. 2395-05 with a rarity of R7. This is believed to be the only known example of this scrip to exist. This particular scrip appears as the example plate in both Wolka books.
According to the Lewis Publishing Company (1912), Franklin “Frank” W. Hunt was born in Coos County, New Hampshire, on February 6, 1817, and “He was one of the early settlers of Valparaiso, where he engaged in the dry-goods business.” Frank’s brother was Hubbard Hunt, who arrived in Porter County in 1846 and “became associated with his brother in the store.” Hubbard would go to California in 1849, but “returned to Valparaiso in the spring of 1851 and again entered into partnership with his brother. In 1855 they disposed of their dry-goods business and opened a banking house.” Hubbard withdrew from the bank business in 1856 and Frank “continued in the [bank] business for some years.” This 1912 history mentions that “Franklin W. Hunt finally liquidated the business of this early bank and retired from active pursuits.”
It is known from Goodspeed and Blanchard (1882) that Frank Hunt was still operating the bank business in 1882 and another source (The Vidette-Messenger, 1931) relates that Frank’s bank “This then, was the town of Valparaiso, when the first real bank was established, in 1862. Previous to that time, Franklin W. Hunt had conducted a small loaning and banking business in connection with his dry goods store on South Washington Street.”
Hardesty (1876) mentions in his history of Porter County that “1837. On the 15th day of February of this year Lake Co. began to paddle its own canoe. And with this exception nothing of much note transpired except the completing of our [Porter County’s] first Court House that was built a frame and located about where Mr. Frank Hunt's store now stands.” Similarly, Skinner (1878) writes that “The first court house built during the year, by Solomon Cheny [sic; Cheney] and others. The money for this enterprise was raised by subscription. The building was erected on the site of the Frank Hunt building, west of the square next to which it still remains, and forms now the saloon of Philip Bayer. The building was for years our temple of justice, and was hallowed by Christian worship.”
Franklin Willard Hunt was born February 6, 1817, in Lancaster, Coos County, New Hampshire, the son of Moses Trussell Hunt and Martha B. (Willard) Hunt. Frank’s parents were both deceased by 1825 and, as a result, he spent his youth performing farm labor under his guardian until the age of 15. Frank then became employed as a clerk for a merchant in Lancaster where he remained until the age of 20. Around 1837, Frank went West in pursuit of a career in agriculture but returned to Coos County in 1840. In 1843, Frank again went West and established his home in Valparaiso.
Frank was married to Mary Jane Hunt prior to 1852 and at least one child was born as a result of this union; namely, Ida Finette (Hunt) McConkey. Frank died of pneumonia on January 27, 1892, in Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana. His published death notice mentions that “He was a banker and merchant, known in northern Indiana as the pioneer capitalist. His failure six years ago caused great excitement and surprise. The once wealthy banker died poor.”
Research suggests that Frank Hunt could not meet withdraws or perhaps interest payment by depositors at his private bank beginning in the fall of 1885. For instance, it is known that at least four civil cases were filed against him in October 1885 on certificates of deposit. Three of these lawsuits were filed by Hannah Noble, Oliver Stell, and Jacob Wolf.
Interestingly, there are two burial sites for Frank, with nearly identical tombstones. Frank is either interred in Valparaiso’s Old City Cemetery or in the Wilder Cemetery located in Lancaster, Coos County, New Hampshire.
Frank Hunt’s business was apparently successful at other points in his life since he would have an impressive brick mansion constructed on the southeast corner of present day Indiana Avenue and Franklin Street in 1860. In December 1870, The Porter County Board of Commissioners paid Hunt $2,200 for his home and adjoining land; the home was used to house the Sheriff and a jail, connected to the home, was constructed in 1871 behind the home on vacant land. Both Frank Hunt’s mansion and the jail still stand as of 2022.
Hunt used the proceeds from the 1870 sale of his mansion to construct a new sprawling brick home at present day 1755 Joliet Road. This home also still stands as of 2022.
Collectively, this information suggests that, given the absence of Hubbard’s name, this scrip can be dated between 1843 and 1846 or between 1849 and 1851. The location of Frank Hunt’s dry goods business was on the west side of present day Washington Street between Lincolnway and Indiana Avenue (known as the Frank Hunt Block) – across the street from the Porter County Courthouse. It is described as the south one-half of Lot 3, Block 24 of the original recorded plat of Valparaiso. Today [2022], this is the site of the Fifth Third Bank’s parking lot.
Source Information:
The Daily Democrat, Huntington, Huntington County, Indiana; January 30, 1892; Volume 6, Number 259, Page 1, Column 6. Column titled “Died a Poor Man.”
Goodspeed, Weston A., and Charles Blanchard. 1882. Counties of Lake and Porter, Indiana: Historical and Biographical. Chicago, Illinois: F. A. Battey and Company. 771 p. [see pp. 122, 127, 132]
Hardesty, A. G. 1876. Illustrated Historical Atlas of Porter County, Indiana. Valparaiso, Indiana: A. G. Hardesty. 90 p. [see p. 26]
The Indianapolis Journal, Indianapolis, Marion County, Indiana; January 29, 1892; Page3, Column 2. Column titled “Minor Notes.”
The Lewis Publishing Company. 1912. History of Porter County, Indiana: A Narrative Account of its Historical Progress, its People and its Principal Interests. Volume I. Chicago, Illinois: The Lewis Publishing Company. 357 p. [see p. 218]
Porter County Vidette, Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana; October 8, 1885; Volume 29, Number 41, Page 5, Column 2. Column titled "Local Items. Saturday."
Porter County Vidette, Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana; October 8, 1885; Volume 29, Number 41, Page 5, Column 5. Column titled "Local Items. Wednesday."
Skinner, Hubert M. January 15, 1878. Complete History of Porter County, Indiana. Valparaiso, Indiana: Valparaiso Messenger.
The Times, Munster, Lake County, Indiana; January 17, 2016; Volume 107, Number 167, Page D5, Columns 1-4. Column titled “NWI History Lingers,” by Larry Clark.
The Times, Munster, Lake County, Indiana; December 30, 2021; Volume 113, Number 149, Page A1, Columns 1-4 and Page A4, Columns 1-5. Column titled “Key Part of Local History,” by Doug Ross.
The Vidette-Messenger, Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana; January 12, 1931; Volume 4, Page 1, Column 1 and Page 3, Columns 3-4. Column titled “Pays Tribute to Those that Took Part.”
Wolka, Wendell. 2018. A History of Indiana Obsolete Bank Notes and Scrip. Sun City Center, Florida: Wendell Wolka. 900 p. [see p. 790]
Wolka, Wendell A., Jack M. Vorhies, and Donald A. Schramm. 1978. Indiana: Obsolete Notes and Scrip. Iola, Wisconsin, Krause Publications. 306 p. [see p. 255]
Copyright 2022. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Date: Circa 1876-1882
Source Type: Photograph, Carte de Visite
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: Cobham James Joseph Martyr
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This carte de visite was included in a photograph album owned by Louise DeMotte Letherman.
On the reverse of the carte de visite is printed the following information:
C. J. J. Martyr,
Photographer,
Norborne, -- Missouri.
The photograph was taken by Cobham James Joseph Martyr of Norborne, Carroll County, Missouri. Little is known of Martyr, though it is believed that he began his photography business some time during or after 1876.
Louise (DeMotte) Letherman was born August 21, 1859, in Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana, the daughter of Mark L. DeMotte and Elizabeth (Christy) DeMotte. She married Lawrence Letherman on May 3, 1883, in Valparaiso. Louise died at Malden, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, on September 24, 1905. Louise is buried in Valparaiso's Maplewood Cemetery.
Mark Lindsey DeMotte was born in Rockville, Parke County, Indiana, on December 28, 1832, the son of Daniel DeMotte and Mary (Brewer) DeMotte. He graduated from Asbury University (now DePauw University) in Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana, with an A.B. degree in 1853 and immediately began studying law at this institution, earning his law degree (LL.B.) in 1855. DeMotte was soon admitted to the Indiana bar and began his practice of law at Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana.
In December 1856, Elizabeth Christy wedded DeMotte in Valparaiso, a union that resulted in two children, Louise and Mary.
DeMotte would serve in the Civil War rising to the rank of captain under the command of General Robert H. Milroy. At the conclusion of the war, DeMotte moved to Lexington, Lafayette County, Missouri, to resume his practice of law. He was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress in the 1872 and 1876 elections.
DeMotte returned to Valparaiso in 1877 to practice law and would organize the Northern Indiana Law School in 1879, which later became known as the Valparaiso University School of Law (which went defunct in 2020).
DeMotte would again be a Republican candidate for Congress, winning the election of 1880, but would lose as an incumbent in the 1882 election. He would then serve in the Indiana State Senate between 1886 and 1890. He was appointed the postmaster of Valparaiso serving from March 24, 1890, to March 20, 1894. He would also serve as dean of the Northern Indiana Law School from 1890 to 1908.
DeMotte passed away on September 23, 1908, in Valparaiso and was interred in Maplewood Cemetery in that community.
Copyright 2020. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
LOGIE-BUCHAN, a parish, in the district of Ellon, county of Aberdeen, 2 miles (E. by S.) from Ellon; containing 713 inhabitants.
The word Logie, expressive of a low-lying spot, was given to this place on account of its applicability to the tract in which the church is situated; while the affix is descriptive of the position of the parish in that part of the county called Buchan.
Logie-Buchan Parish Church is located on the southern slope of the River Ythan valley, in gently rolling countryside with small fields, rough grazing and enclosures of trees. There is a narrow trackway and footbridge across the river a short distance to the north. The church stands in a sloping graveyard, bounded by a rubble wall. The large former manse is positioned to the south and the church itself closed recently and a new use had not been found when it was visited (2012).
A church here was granted to Aberdeen Cathedral by David II in 1361, while the current church was built in the late 18th century with later additions and alterations.
Description (exterior)
The church is a small, simple building with little architectural detailing. It is aligned roughly east-west and has harled, rubble walls and a slate roof. There are narrow strips of granite stone around the windows and doors. The church is rectangular on plan, with a small, gabled porch and a lean-to vestry at the west end.
The east elevation has a hipped or piended roof rather than a gable. There are two rectangular windows with simple timber tracery and small panes of leaded glass. There has clearly been alterations carried out at this end of the church, shown by two blocked openings, a doorway and window, in the centre of the east elevation.
The north elevation of the church has four equally-spaced rectangular windows, each with simple tracery and latticed glazing. The opposite south elevation has two larger rectangular windows, towards the centre, again with tracery and latticed glazing.
The west end of the church has a small, gabled porch with a rectangular doorway on the south side, which is the main entrance into the church. There is a rectangular window in the west gable of this porch and a tall chimney rises from the apex, serving a fireplace in the small lean-to vestry extension to the north of the porch. The church has a tall gable at the west end, topped by an ashlar-built bellcote, which has a stone ball finial.
Description (interior)
Some of the fittings remain in the church but are likely to be removed if and when a new use is found for the church, which is no longer in use.
People / Organisations:
Name RoleDates Notes
William RuxtonRecast the interior 1912
Robert MaxwellMade the church bell1728
Events:
Church built on site of older church (1787)
Porch and vestry added to west (1891)
Interior recast (1912)
Logie-Buchan is separated on the east from the German Ocean by the parish of Slains, and is intersected by the river Ythan.
The river abounds with various kinds of trout, also with salmon, eels, lounders, and mussels; and pearls are still occasionally found.
It has a ferry opposite the parish church, where its breadth at low water is about sixty yards; and two boats are kept, one for general passengers, and the other, a larger boat, for the conveyance of the parishioners to church from the northern side.
A tradition has long prevailed that the largest pearl in the crown of Scotland was obtained in the Ythan; and it appears that, about the middle of the last century, £100 were paid by a London jeweller to gentleman in Aberdeen, for pearls found in the river.
Most of the inhabitants of the district are employed in agricultural pursuits, a small brick-work recently established being the only exception.
The great north road from Aberdeen passes through the parish, and the mail and other public coaches travel to and fro daily. On another road, leading to the shipping-port of Newburgh, the tenantry have a considerable traffic in grain, lime, and coal, the last procured from England, and being the chief fuel.
The river Ythan is navigable for lighters often or twelve tons' burthen at high water. The marketable produce of the parish is sent to Aberdeen. Logie- Buchan is ecclesiastically in the presbytery of Ellon, synod of Aberdeen, and in the patronage of Mr. Buchan.
The church was built in 1787, and contains 400 sittings.
Cemeteries - Presbyterian / Unitarian
Logie Buchan Parish Church, Logie-Buchan, Church of Scotland
The church of Logie-Buchan was dedicated to St Andrew.
St Andrew's Church was built in 1787 and has been much altered. It contains a 1728 bell.
Logie-Buchan (Aberdeen, Buchan). Also known as Logie Talargy, the church was granted by David II in 1361 to the common fund of the canons of Aberdeen cathedral, and this was confirmed to the uses of the canons by Alexander, bishop of Aberdeen in 1362, both parsonage and vicarage fruits being annexed while the cure was to become a vicarage pensionary.
Although possession was obtained by the dean and chapter, this was subsequently lost, and the church had to be re-annexed in 1437, the previous arrangement being adhered to, with both parsonage and vicarage remaining annexed.
St Andrew's Kirk, 1787. Undistinguished externally, porch 1891, inside original ceiling with Adam-like centrepiece and two-light Gothic windows, part of 1912 recasting, William Buxton. Pulpit was originally in the centre of the N wall with a horseshoe gallery bearing the Buchan coat of arms (George Reid, Peterhead, carver). Monuments to Thomas (d. 1819) and Robert (d. 1825) Buchan.
Bell, 1728, Robert Maxwell. Church bought by Captain David Buchan to ensure access and survival.
Kirkyard: plain ashlar gatepiers and rubble walls; some table tombs.
LOGIE-BUCHAN, a parish, in the district of Ellon, county of Aberdeen, 2 miles (E. by S.) from Ellon; containing 713 inhabitants.
The word Logie, expressive of a low-lying spot, was given to this place on account of its applicability to the tract in which the church is situated; while the affix is descriptive of the position of the parish in that part of the county called Buchan.
Logie-Buchan Parish Church is located on the southern slope of the River Ythan valley, in gently rolling countryside with small fields, rough grazing and enclosures of trees. There is a narrow trackway and footbridge across the river a short distance to the north. The church stands in a sloping graveyard, bounded by a rubble wall. The large former manse is positioned to the south and the church itself closed recently and a new use had not been found when it was visited (2012).
A church here was granted to Aberdeen Cathedral by David II in 1361, while the current church was built in the late 18th century with later additions and alterations.
Description (exterior)
The church is a small, simple building with little architectural detailing. It is aligned roughly east-west and has harled, rubble walls and a slate roof. There are narrow strips of granite stone around the windows and doors. The church is rectangular on plan, with a small, gabled porch and a lean-to vestry at the west end.
The east elevation has a hipped or piended roof rather than a gable. There are two rectangular windows with simple timber tracery and small panes of leaded glass. There has clearly been alterations carried out at this end of the church, shown by two blocked openings, a doorway and window, in the centre of the east elevation.
The north elevation of the church has four equally-spaced rectangular windows, each with simple tracery and latticed glazing. The opposite south elevation has two larger rectangular windows, towards the centre, again with tracery and latticed glazing.
The west end of the church has a small, gabled porch with a rectangular doorway on the south side, which is the main entrance into the church. There is a rectangular window in the west gable of this porch and a tall chimney rises from the apex, serving a fireplace in the small lean-to vestry extension to the north of the porch. The church has a tall gable at the west end, topped by an ashlar-built bellcote, which has a stone ball finial.
Description (interior)
Some of the fittings remain in the church but are likely to be removed if and when a new use is found for the church, which is no longer in use.
People / Organisations:
Name RoleDates Notes
William RuxtonRecast the interior 1912
Robert MaxwellMade the church bell1728
Events:
Church built on site of older church (1787)
Porch and vestry added to west (1891)
Interior recast (1912)
Logie-Buchan is separated on the east from the German Ocean by the parish of Slains, and is intersected by the river Ythan.
The river abounds with various kinds of trout, also with salmon, eels, lounders, and mussels; and pearls are still occasionally found.
It has a ferry opposite the parish church, where its breadth at low water is about sixty yards; and two boats are kept, one for general passengers, and the other, a larger boat, for the conveyance of the parishioners to church from the northern side.
A tradition has long prevailed that the largest pearl in the crown of Scotland was obtained in the Ythan; and it appears that, about the middle of the last century, £100 were paid by a London jeweller to gentleman in Aberdeen, for pearls found in the river.
Most of the inhabitants of the district are employed in agricultural pursuits, a small brick-work recently established being the only exception.
The great north road from Aberdeen passes through the parish, and the mail and other public coaches travel to and fro daily. On another road, leading to the shipping-port of Newburgh, the tenantry have a considerable traffic in grain, lime, and coal, the last procured from England, and being the chief fuel.
The river Ythan is navigable for lighters often or twelve tons' burthen at high water. The marketable produce of the parish is sent to Aberdeen. Logie- Buchan is ecclesiastically in the presbytery of Ellon, synod of Aberdeen, and in the patronage of Mr. Buchan.
The church was built in 1787, and contains 400 sittings.
Cemeteries - Presbyterian / Unitarian
Logie Buchan Parish Church, Logie-Buchan, Church of Scotland
The church of Logie-Buchan was dedicated to St Andrew.
St Andrew's Church was built in 1787 and has been much altered. It contains a 1728 bell.
Logie-Buchan (Aberdeen, Buchan). Also known as Logie Talargy, the church was granted by David II in 1361 to the common fund of the canons of Aberdeen cathedral, and this was confirmed to the uses of the canons by Alexander, bishop of Aberdeen in 1362, both parsonage and vicarage fruits being annexed while the cure was to become a vicarage pensionary.
Although possession was obtained by the dean and chapter, this was subsequently lost, and the church had to be re-annexed in 1437, the previous arrangement being adhered to, with both parsonage and vicarage remaining annexed.
St Andrew's Kirk, 1787. Undistinguished externally, porch 1891, inside original ceiling with Adam-like centrepiece and two-light Gothic windows, part of 1912 recasting, William Buxton. Pulpit was originally in the centre of the N wall with a horseshoe gallery bearing the Buchan coat of arms (George Reid, Peterhead, carver). Monuments to Thomas (d. 1819) and Robert (d. 1825) Buchan.
Bell, 1728, Robert Maxwell. Church bought by Captain David Buchan to ensure access and survival.
Kirkyard: plain ashlar gatepiers and rubble walls; some table tombs.
Name/Alias: Kimidori Cosplay
Character and source (if applicable): Zakuro (from manga Otome Youkai Zakuro by Hoshino Lily)
Wig and color: Chibi and short wefts in Dark Purple
Photographer credit: Zhanyi Jiang Photography
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Date: December Circa 1860s
Source Type: Photograph, Carte de Visite
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: Lewis H. Mandeville
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This carte de visite was included in a photograph album owned by Louise DeMotte Letherman.
On the reverse of the carte de visite is printed the following information:
L. H. MANDEVILLES,
Photographic
ART GALLERY,
Washington St.,
VALPARAISO, IND.
This photograph was taken by Lewis H. Mandeville at his Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana, photograph gallery. Mandeville was born January 15, 1823. During the 1850s, he trained in photography with Clark H. Lillibridge of Chicago. He opened his own photograph studio in Valparaiso in May 1855. Mandeville passed away on December 25, 1906.
Louise (DeMotte) Letherman was born August 21, 1859, in Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana, the daughter of Mark L. DeMotte and Elizabeth (Christy) DeMotte. She married Lawrence Letherman on May 3, 1883, in Valparaiso. Louise died at Malden, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, on September 24, 1905. Louise is buried in Valparaiso's Maplewood Cemetery.
Mark Lindsey DeMotte was born in Rockville, Parke County, Indiana, on December 28, 1832, the son of Daniel DeMotte and Mary (Brewer) DeMotte. He graduated from Asbury University (now DePauw University) in Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana, with an A.B. degree in 1853 and immediately began studying law at this institution, earning his law degree (LL.B.) in 1855. DeMotte was soon admitted to the Indiana bar and began his practice of law at Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana.
In December 1856, Elizabeth Christy wedded DeMotte in Valparaiso, a union that resulted in two children, Louise and Mary.
DeMotte would serve in the Civil War rising to the rank of captain under the command of General Robert H. Milroy. At the conclusion of the war, DeMotte moved to Lexington, Lafayette County, Missouri, to resume his practice of law. He was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress in the 1872 and 1876 elections.
DeMotte returned to Valparaiso in 1877 to practice law and would organize the Northern Indiana Law School in 1879, which later became known as the Valparaiso University School of Law (which went defunct in 2020).
DeMotte would again be a Republican candidate for Congress, winning the election of 1880, but would lose as an incumbent in the 1882 election. He would then serve in the Indiana State Senate between 1886 and 1890. He was appointed the postmaster of Valparaiso serving from March 24, 1890, to March 20, 1894. He would also serve as dean of the Northern Indiana Law School from 1890 to 1908.
DeMotte passed away on September 23, 1908, in Valparaiso and was interred in Maplewood Cemetery in that community.
Copyright 2020. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
A Flying Painted Stork - @ Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary - Andhra Pradesh, India.
IN FLICKR EXPLORE ON 10-02-2014.
www.flickr.com/photos/59670248@N05/12438474875/in/explore...
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The Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) is a large wading bird in the stork family. It is found in the wetlands of the plains of tropical Asia south of the Himalayas in the Indian Subcontinent and extending into Southeast Asia. Their distinctive pink tertial feathers give them their name. They forage in flocks in shallow waters along rivers or lakes. They immerse their half open beaks in water and sweep them from side to side and snap up their prey of small fish that are sensed by touch. As they wade along they also stir the water with their feet to flush hiding fish. They nest colonially in trees, often along with other waterbirds. They only sounds they produce are weak moans or bill clattering at the nest. They are not migratory and only make short distance movements in some parts of their range in response to food and for breeding. Like other storks, they are often seen soaring on thermals.
Source : en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painted_Stork
Pulicat lake bird sanctuary is a saline backwater lake lying along the T.N.-A.P coast; part extending to Chengalpattu district of T.N. It has an area of 481 sq.KM and it is the 2nd largest brackish water lagoon in India after Chilka lake in Orissa. The area on the TN side is 153.67 sq.km.
The Pulicat sanctuary is drained by Arni river while the Buckingham canal brings in the city’s drainage water. At the southern end is an opening on to Bay of Bengal through a shallow mouth of 200 m in width. The rest of the lake is closed by a sand bar running parallel to the Bay of Bengal in the form of the Sriharikota island.
The sanctuary has an area of 321 Sq. KM with 108 sq.KM of National Park area.
It lies within 11o 30’ N to 11o 42’ N and 76o 30’ E to 76o 45’ E.
Rainfall ranges from 800 - 2000mm. Temperature varies from 14o C to 33o C.
Altitude ranges from 100’ MSL to 1200’ MSL.
The wetlands eco system are considered as among the richest areas of bio diversity. Pulicat, by virtue of the mixing of fresh water with sea water is found to be an ideal habitat for diverse life-forms. 160 species of fish, 25 species of polychaete worms, 12 species of prawn, 19 species of mollusk and 100 speceis of birds are well documented apart from a number of other aquatic flora and fauna.
Among the most spectacular is the flamingo-a tall gaunt, white-coloured bird with a touch of pink on the wings, pink beak and legs, seen feeding in shallow water. The squat, large-billed grey pelican with gular pouch and a number of ducks are commonly seen. Flocks of sea gulls and terns circling in the sky or bobbing up and down on the water are an added attraction at pulicat. Besides, there are a number of waterside birds and waders such as curlews, stilts, plovers, sand pipers, lapwings, redshank. Egrets, herons, kites etc. are some other birds found here. The lake is also home to crabs, clams, mussels, oysters, snails, fish worms, insects, spiders, sponges, anemone, prawns, plankton and so on including rare endemic species like gilled leech, an unidentified bloodred fish, etc., Rapid siltation has caused loss of bio diversity. It is seen that mangrove opllen is found on Sriharikota Island indicating their existence some years back. Loss of mangroves may be one of the resons hastening siltation, reducing biodiversity and hence depriving fisherfolk of their livelihood.
Source : www.forests.tn.nic.in/wildbiodiversity/bs_plbs.html
Revisited
Production Date: 1935
Source Type: Photograph
Printer, Publisher, Photographer: Unknown
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: Written in pencil on the reverse of this 2"x3" photograph is the following - "Camp Bertha Hall and Continental Divide in Back-ground the Saw Tooth mountains. Co. 1647. 1935"
It is believed that this Civilian Conservation Corps camp was also referred to as Camp Black Bear, or perhaps directly associated with Camp Black Bear.
Wendell M. Stark mentions this CCC camp in his book North Fork of the Clearwater River. On page 71, Stark writes:
"Jim [Otrembiak] was born an raised in the East and had not yet seen the wonders of the Pacific North West. At the age of 15, he and his brother ventured out west and enlisted into the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). This was in Company 1647, at the Black Bear Camp P-262, which was on Bertha Hill, near Headquarters, Idaho. While in this camp, he helped to build the Benton Creek Bridge across the North Fork River in 1935."
Information Source:
Stark, Wendell M. 2013. North Fork of the Clearwater River: The Almost Forgotten History. Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris Corporation. 351 p.
Copyright 2016. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Production Date: 1941
Source Type: Photograph
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: George McKinnon, The Owl Drug Company
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This photograph is one of ten photographs and companion negatives contained in a packet. The photographs were developed by The Owl Drug Company located in Lewiston, Nez Perce County, Idaho. The customer's name, written in pencil on the packet, is Geo McKinnon. Also written in pencil on this photograph packet is "pictures of camp 14 winter of 1941 & 1942."
Camp 14 of Potlatch Forests, Inc. was located in the southwest quarter of the northwest quarter of Section 2, Township 39 North, Range 6 East Boise Meridian, at the confluence of the East Fork of Beaver Creek and Sheep Mountain Creek. Sheep Mountain Saddle Forest Service Road and National Forest Road 251 intersect about 200 feet east of this confluence. Camp 14 was located approximately 11.75 miles northeast of Headquarter, Clearwater County, Idaho.
George H. McKinnon served as Camp 14 foreman from 1939 to his death at his home in Lewiston on August 27, 1942. George's death notice mentions that he was "the first P. F. I. camp foreman in the Clearwater white pine belt."
------------------------------
Farbo, in his history of Potlatch lumber camps, writes the following concerning Camp 14 (1930-1962):
"One of the longest occupied camps in the railroad logging history of the Headquarters [Idaho] side. This camp began as a tent-railroad car camp and was relocated at least twice during its tenure. After partial destruction by structural fires, the rail car camp was replaced with a pre-fabricated board building-passenger rail car complex.
After Morrison-Knudson completed the track to Camp 6 in 1928, the Clearwater Timber Company took over the grade construction to the end of the line -- the East Fork of Beaver Creek. High priority prevailed in spite of swampy flats and steep, rocky canyons and the rail reached the Camp 14 site in 1930.
Very little information is available about the camp in the 1930's. The depression years, 1932-1935, probably curtailed operations at this "end of the line" camp. From 1935 to 1943, logging contractors were active and registered a total of 31,512 man days of work. The Family Tree [a publication of Potlatch Forests, Inc.] began publication in the fall of 1936 and reported that 9 1/2 miles of truck roads and landings were under construction in November. George McKinnon was camp boss.
Logging was in full bore during 1940-1941. The peak crew numbered 185 men and logging took place on the Harlan Creek spur, Sheep Mountain Creek spur, Beaver Creek above Bonner Creek and a dray haul from Camp W. Skidding was by horse, cat, railroad jammer and truck jammer. Volume logged in 1940 was 13.9 M.M. and in 1941, 18.5 M.M.
In 1942, a total of 515 men worked out of Camp 14. Of this total 394 were bachelors and 121 were married. Eighteen men with the name of "Johnson" were on the payroll. Logs were trucked from Camp W and 14 scalers were employed at the reload and rail landings. Foreman George McKinnon died -- a long time, faithful and competent employee. Two crews were placed on the trail run to try 'gyppo logging.'"
------------------------------
The following death notice for George McKinnon appeared in the August 1942 issue of The Family Tree, a publication of Potlatch Forest, Inc.:
"GEORGE McKINNON, 1880-1942
Mirthful, mischievous eyes instantly told one his nature. Spinner of tall yarns, stooped by hard labor, but young in spirit with a kindly, humorous way about him. He was more than just the foreman of a logging camp and his passing is a loss to all the men of Clearwater and to those others that knew him. A part of the early logging days of the Clearwater goes with him and although he will long be remembered as foreman of the first Clearwater camps, his leaving marks an indefinable break from those early days. A native of Nova Scotia, he was a credit to the industry that knew him best."
Sources:
Anonymous. August 1942. George McKinnon, 1880-1942. The Family Tree 6(11):7. [The Family Tree was a publication of Potlatch Forests, Inc. and was printed in Lewiston, Nez Perce County, Idaho.]
Farbo, Tom. 1996. White Pine Wobblies and Wannigans: A History of Potlatch Lumber Camps, North Central Idaho, 1903-1986. Lewiston, Idaho: Steeley Print and Binding. 362 p. [see pp. 245-249]
Spokane Daily Chronicle, Spokane, Spokane County, Washington; August 28, 1942; Volume 56, Number 293, Second Section, Page 5, Column 5. Column titled "George McKinnon Funeral Thursday."
Copyright 2022. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
via
Vendor: Creative Wall Clock
Type:
Price: 39.90
Type:Wall Clocks;Style:Modern;Material:Bamboo & Wooden;Motivity Type:Quartz;Display Type:Needle;Pattern:Abstract;Applicable Placement:Living Room;Feature:Antique Style;Combination:Separates;Shape:Geometric;Brand Name:The Vinyl Clock;Form:Single Face;Model Number:MZGZ-001;Body Material:Wood;Body Material:Wood;Wall Clock Type:Wood;
Honeycomb Wall Clock
Time sweetly flies when you're watching it pass on this nature-inspired clock. Combines the geometric beauty of honeycomb with the human innovation of laser-cutting technology. The delicate, hexagonal lattice is created by precision-cutting decorative plywood
A single, laser-cut honeybee rests in the 12 o'clock spot. The clock adds a burst of cheery sweetness without taking up much wall space, and makes a buzz-worthy addition to your kitchen, sun room or office.
****BASIC INFORMATIONS****
Size -30cm (12") x 27 cm (10 5/8")
Thickness - 5 mm (1/5 ")
Clock colour - natural wood
Please keep in your mind that wood is a natural material and therefore all wooden clocks are little bit different in color and wood pattern; each clock is a unique piece of wood.
Laser cutting the designs into the plywood give each piece an unique smoky smell!
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Get Shit Done Wall Clock Decorative Timepiece For Your Walls Motivational Life Motto Wall Art Wall Watch Man Cave Office Clock USD 14.99/piece
Math Equation Wall Clock Home School Math Teaching Aid Math Class Wall Art Teachers Gift Science Equation Formula Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
End Result Of Dating Decorative Wall Clock Wicked Wedding Mantra Wall Decor Wicked Wedding Mantra Marriage Clock Couple Gift USD 14.99/piece
DIY Large Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Luxury Interior Design English Letters Frameless Wall Watch Clock DIY Enthusiast USD 9.99-12.99/piece
3D Large Wall Clock DIY Large Modern Frameless Home Decor Cat Big Clock Mirror For Bedroom Living Room Kittens Kitty Wall Decor USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Wall Clock Large Mute Wall Stickers for Living Room Bedroom Home Decorations Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Butterflies Wall Watch Large Wall Clock For Living Room Bedroom Home Decor Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Yoga Large Wall Clocks Mirror Effect Living Room DIY Wall Clock Meditation Zen Wall Art Home Decoration Frameless Clock Watch USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Musical Note Flew From The Clock Flying Music Notes Wall Art Music Studio Room Decorative Modern Wall Clock Rock n Roll Gift USD 19.99/piece
Flowing Ballerinas Wall Art Dancing Room Wall Decor Modern Clock Dancing Girls Decorative Wall Clocks Escape Girls Clock Watch USD 21.99/piece
A Bat Clock From The Escape Clock Halloween Bat Silhouette Wall Clock Scary Bat Symbols Home Decor Contemporary Black Wall Clock USD 19.99/piece
My Plane Flew Away Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Flying Plane Decorative Wall Clock Abstract Art Espcape DIY Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Fairy Angel Flew Away Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Flying Butterflies Wall Clock Decorative Escape Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
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Vendor: Creative Wall Clock
Type:
Price: 39.90
Type:Wall Clocks;Style:Modern;Material:Bamboo & Wooden;Motivity Type:Quartz;Display Type:Needle;Shape:circular;Length:300 mm;Diameter:30 cm;Pattern:Abstract;Applicable Placement:Living Room;Feature:Antique Style;Combination:Separates;Brand Name:The Vinyl Clock;Width:30 cm;Form:Single Face;Model Number:MZGZ-012;Body Material:Wood;Body Material:Wood;Wall Clock Type:Wood;
Modern Spiral Wall Clock
Aren’t you tired of the same old, boring clocks? Would you like to decorate your room with a unique, wooden clock? This elegant, wooden clock can be placed anywhere in your home.
Unique wall clock designed for the modern times with sate of the art design and lasting quality. Fashionable and attractive, our wall clock will add a new and fascinating look to your home.
Clocks is crafted from quality materials that offer a lasting use.It will be a great mascot gift for wedding or housewarming.
Manufacturing process:
This model has been laser cut from birch plywood by 1/5" (5 mm) thick.
****BASIC INFORMATIONS****
Size -30cm (12") x 30 cm (12")
Thickness - 5 mm (1/5 ")
Clock colour - natural wood
The movement: is silent (non-ticking)
Requires one AA battery (not included)
Please keep in your mind that wood is a natural material and therefore all wooden clocks are little bit different in color and wood pattern; each clock is a unique piece of wood.
Laser cutting the designs into the plywood give each piece an unique smoky smell!
Japanese Cat Wall Clock With Swishing Tail Silhouette Cat Wags Its Tail Fun Design Modern Wall Clock Wall Watch Cat Lovers Gift USD 19.99/piece
Cat And Mouse Pendulum Clock Cat and Mouse Game Wall Art Wall Clock Hunter Cat Modern Wall Decor Clock Watch Cat Pet Owners Gift USD 19.99/piece
Modern Jigsaw Wall Decor Falling Puzzle Wall Clock Puzzle Pendulum Vinyl Record Wall Clock Home Decor Steampunk Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Japanese Adorable Black Cat Pendulum Clock Funny Cat Fnny Cat Swinging Tail Wall Clock Kit Cat Wall Decor Kitten Lovers Gift USD 19.99/piece
Skull Wall Art Modern Wall Decor Wall Clock Funny Skull Wall Clock With Pendulum Decorative Skeleton Clock Halloween Ornament USD 19.99/piece
Ballroom Dancers Minimalist Design Wall Clock Latin Couple Dancers Wall Decor Dancing Studio Social Dancing Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Baseball Time Wall Clock Baseball Players Different Poses Minimalist Design Home Decor Modern Wall Clock Baseball Lovers Gift USD 14.99/piece
Pole Dancers Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Night Club Wall Decor Sexy Chick Dancing Strippers Decorative Clock Watch Gift USD 14.99/piece
Ballet Time Wall Clock Ballerina Dancers Minimalist Design Dance Studio Wall Decor Modern Wall Clock Dancing Lovers Art Gift USD 14.99/piece
American Football Wall Clock Rugby Players Minimalist Design Sport Room Wall Decor Clock Watch American Football Enthusiast Gift USD 14.99/piece
African Animals Silhouette Wall Clock Safari Wild Animals Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Kid Room Nursery Wall Watch Clock USD 14.99/piece
Cats Meow Wall Clock Fuuny Kittens Different Poses Girls Room Wall Decor Black Cats Silhouette Kitty Lovers Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Ocean Marine Species Animals Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Sea Animals Decorative Clock Watch Seaside Beach Wall Decor USD 14.99/piece
Guns Military Army Wall Clock Different Machine Guns Weapons Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Military Vintage Firearms Gift USD 14.99/piece
Different Pose Dogs Silhouette Wall Clock Puppy Pet Vet Clinic Wall Decor Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Dog Lovers Gift USD 14.99/piece
Bodybuilders Minimalist Design GYM Wall Clock Fitness Centre Prefessional Wall Decor Work Out Fitness Bodybuilding Handmade Gift USD 14.99/piece
T-Rex Minimalist Design Clock Dinosaurs Breeds Modern Wall Clock Nursery Kids Room Jurassic Wall Decor Dinosaur Interior Clock USD 14.99/piece
Hockey Minimalist Design Wall Clock Ice Hockey Field Hockey Sports Room Wall Decor Team Game Hockey Players Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Boxing Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Boxing Fighters Decorative Prizefighting Wall Clock Boxing Boxers Wall Art Sport Gift USD 14.99/piece
Basketball Sport Game Wall Clock Basketball Players Minimalist Design Shooting Postures Salm Dunk Modern Clock Basketball Gift USD 14.99/piece
Safari Animals Wall Clock Woodland Adventure Wild Life Aniaml Handmade Exclusive Wall Clock Kid Room Nursery Jungle Wall Decor USD 14.99/piece
Yoga Positions Wall Clock Yoga Meditation Wall Decor Gift Yoga Hindu Philosophy Align Yourself Spiritual Yogi Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Taekwondo Karate Wall Clock Martial Arts Karate Club Modern Wall Decor Fighting Sports Kung Fu Exclusive Wall Clock Watch USD 14.99/piece
Horse Silhouette Wall Clock Horse Training Minimalist Design Modern Decorative Wall Clock Equestrianism Wall Decor Horseman Gift USD 14.99/piece
Water Polo Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Sport Ball Competition Pool Game Team Play Swimming Water Polo Wall Watch Gift USD 14.99/piece
Naughty Rude Humor 24 Hours Sex Positions Wall Clock Karma Sutra Wall Clock Wedding Party Wall Decor Couple Valentines Gift USD 14.99/piece
3D Pi Symbol Geek Pi 3.14 Silhouette Wall Clock Mathematical Sign Pi 3.14 Life of Pi Minimalist Math Wall Clock Math Chic Gift USD 14.99/piece
12 hours 12 Christmas Vector Iconic Clock Merry Clockmas Merry Christmas Wall Clock 2018 Christmas Housewarming Family Gift USD 14.99/piece
USA Classic Movie Characters Silhouette Wall Clock Living Room Decorative Icon Roles Clock Wall Watch Home Decor Moive Fans Gift USD 14.99/piece
Sexual Positions Wall Clock Adult Sex Game 24 Hours Sex Dirty Smut Humor Wall Art Decorative Living Room Clock Bachelorette Gift USD 14.99/piece
3.14 Pi Wall Clock Mathematical Pi Classroom Wall Decor Black Acrylic Pop Quiz Wall Clock Home Decor Geek Nerd Math Chic Gift USD 12.99-14.99/piece
Whatever I'm Late Anyway Modern Wall Clock Whatever Inspirational Quote With Falling Numbers Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Gift USD 14.99/piece
Get Shit Done Wall Clock Decorative Timepiece For Your Walls Motivational Life Motto Wall Art Wall Watch Man Cave Office Clock USD 14.99/piece
Math Equation Wall Clock Home School Math Teaching Aid Math Class Wall Art Teachers Gift Science Equation Formula Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
End Result Of Dating Decorative Wall Clock Wicked Wedding Mantra Wall Decor Wicked Wedding Mantra Marriage Clock Couple Gift USD 14.99/piece
DIY Large Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Luxury Interior Design English Letters Frameless Wall Watch Clock DIY Enthusiast USD 9.99-12.99/piece
3D Large Wall Clock DIY Large Modern Frameless Home Decor Cat Big Clock Mirror For Bedroom Living Room Kittens Kitty Wall Decor USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Wall Clock Large Mute Wall Stickers for Living Room Bedroom Home Decorations Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Butterflies Wall Watch Large Wall Clock For Living Room Bedroom Home Decor Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Yoga Large Wall Clocks Mirror Effect Living Room DIY Wall Clock Meditation Zen Wall Art Home Decoration Frameless Clock Watch USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Musical Note Flew From The Clock Flying Music Notes Wall Art Music Studio Room Decorative Modern Wall Clock Rock n Roll Gift USD 19.99/piece
Flowing Ballerinas Wall Art Dancing Room Wall Decor Modern Clock Dancing Girls Decorative Wall Clocks Escape Girls Clock Watch USD 21.99/piece
A Bat Clock From The Escape Clock Halloween Bat Silhouette Wall Clock Scary Bat Symbols Home Decor Contemporary Black Wall Clock USD 19.99/piece
My Plane Flew Away Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Flying Plane Decorative Wall Clock Abstract Art Espcape DIY Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Fairy Angel Flew Away Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Flying Butterflies Wall Clock Decorative Escape Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
woodysigns.myshopify.com/products/modern-spiral-hanging-m...
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Vendor: Creative Wall Clock
Type:
Price: 39.90
Type:Wall Clocks;Style:Modern;Material:Bamboo & Wooden;Motivity Type:Quartz;Display Type:Needle;Shape:circular;Length:300 mm;Diameter:30 cm;Pattern:Abstract;Applicable Placement:Living Room;Feature:Antique Style;Combination:Separates;Brand Name:The Vinyl Clock;Model Number:MZGZ-011;Width:30 cm;Form:Single Face;Body Material:Wood;Body Material:Wood;Wall Clock Type:Wood;
Dreamcatcher Wall Clock
Aren’t you tired of the same old, boring clocks? Would you like to decorate your room with a unique, wooden clock?
This elegant, wooden clock can be placed anywhere in your home. Unique, high quality handmade geometrical wooden wall clock, inspired by native American story about dream talisman, that helped suround themselves with supernatural spirits.
Each wall clock is unique because it is made of a natural wood-veneer panel. Unique natural shell pattern never repeats. Each laser-cut clock base is hand-polished to meet the highest quality requirements. It will be a great mascot gift for wedding or housewarming.
Manufacturing process:
This model has been laser cut from birch plywood by 1/5" (5 mm) thick.
****BASIC INFORMATIONS****
Size -30cm (12") x 30 cm (12")
Thickness - 5 mm (1/5 ")
Clock colour - natural wood
The movement: is silent (non-ticking)
Requires one AA battery (not included)
Please keep in your mind that wood is a natural material and therefore all wooden clocks are little bit different in color and wood pattern; each clock is a unique piece of wood.
Laser cutting the designs into the plywood give each piece an unique smoky smell!
Japanese Cat Wall Clock With Swishing Tail Silhouette Cat Wags Its Tail Fun Design Modern Wall Clock Wall Watch Cat Lovers Gift USD 19.99/piece
Cat And Mouse Pendulum Clock Cat and Mouse Game Wall Art Wall Clock Hunter Cat Modern Wall Decor Clock Watch Cat Pet Owners Gift USD 19.99/piece
Modern Jigsaw Wall Decor Falling Puzzle Wall Clock Puzzle Pendulum Vinyl Record Wall Clock Home Decor Steampunk Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Japanese Adorable Black Cat Pendulum Clock Funny Cat Fnny Cat Swinging Tail Wall Clock Kit Cat Wall Decor Kitten Lovers Gift USD 19.99/piece
Skull Wall Art Modern Wall Decor Wall Clock Funny Skull Wall Clock With Pendulum Decorative Skeleton Clock Halloween Ornament USD 19.99/piece
Ballroom Dancers Minimalist Design Wall Clock Latin Couple Dancers Wall Decor Dancing Studio Social Dancing Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Baseball Time Wall Clock Baseball Players Different Poses Minimalist Design Home Decor Modern Wall Clock Baseball Lovers Gift USD 14.99/piece
Pole Dancers Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Night Club Wall Decor Sexy Chick Dancing Strippers Decorative Clock Watch Gift USD 14.99/piece
Ballet Time Wall Clock Ballerina Dancers Minimalist Design Dance Studio Wall Decor Modern Wall Clock Dancing Lovers Art Gift USD 14.99/piece
American Football Wall Clock Rugby Players Minimalist Design Sport Room Wall Decor Clock Watch American Football Enthusiast Gift USD 14.99/piece
African Animals Silhouette Wall Clock Safari Wild Animals Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Kid Room Nursery Wall Watch Clock USD 14.99/piece
Cats Meow Wall Clock Fuuny Kittens Different Poses Girls Room Wall Decor Black Cats Silhouette Kitty Lovers Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Ocean Marine Species Animals Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Sea Animals Decorative Clock Watch Seaside Beach Wall Decor USD 14.99/piece
Guns Military Army Wall Clock Different Machine Guns Weapons Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Military Vintage Firearms Gift USD 14.99/piece
Different Pose Dogs Silhouette Wall Clock Puppy Pet Vet Clinic Wall Decor Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Dog Lovers Gift USD 14.99/piece
Bodybuilders Minimalist Design GYM Wall Clock Fitness Centre Prefessional Wall Decor Work Out Fitness Bodybuilding Handmade Gift USD 14.99/piece
T-Rex Minimalist Design Clock Dinosaurs Breeds Modern Wall Clock Nursery Kids Room Jurassic Wall Decor Dinosaur Interior Clock USD 14.99/piece
Hockey Minimalist Design Wall Clock Ice Hockey Field Hockey Sports Room Wall Decor Team Game Hockey Players Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Boxing Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Boxing Fighters Decorative Prizefighting Wall Clock Boxing Boxers Wall Art Sport Gift USD 14.99/piece
Basketball Sport Game Wall Clock Basketball Players Minimalist Design Shooting Postures Salm Dunk Modern Clock Basketball Gift USD 14.99/piece
Safari Animals Wall Clock Woodland Adventure Wild Life Aniaml Handmade Exclusive Wall Clock Kid Room Nursery Jungle Wall Decor USD 14.99/piece
Yoga Positions Wall Clock Yoga Meditation Wall Decor Gift Yoga Hindu Philosophy Align Yourself Spiritual Yogi Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Taekwondo Karate Wall Clock Martial Arts Karate Club Modern Wall Decor Fighting Sports Kung Fu Exclusive Wall Clock Watch USD 14.99/piece
Horse Silhouette Wall Clock Horse Training Minimalist Design Modern Decorative Wall Clock Equestrianism Wall Decor Horseman Gift USD 14.99/piece
Water Polo Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Sport Ball Competition Pool Game Team Play Swimming Water Polo Wall Watch Gift USD 14.99/piece
Naughty Rude Humor 24 Hours Sex Positions Wall Clock Karma Sutra Wall Clock Wedding Party Wall Decor Couple Valentines Gift USD 14.99/piece
3D Pi Symbol Geek Pi 3.14 Silhouette Wall Clock Mathematical Sign Pi 3.14 Life of Pi Minimalist Math Wall Clock Math Chic Gift USD 14.99/piece
12 hours 12 Christmas Vector Iconic Clock Merry Clockmas Merry Christmas Wall Clock 2018 Christmas Housewarming Family Gift USD 14.99/piece
USA Classic Movie Characters Silhouette Wall Clock Living Room Decorative Icon Roles Clock Wall Watch Home Decor Moive Fans Gift USD 14.99/piece
Sexual Positions Wall Clock Adult Sex Game 24 Hours Sex Dirty Smut Humor Wall Art Decorative Living Room Clock Bachelorette Gift USD 14.99/piece
3.14 Pi Wall Clock Mathematical Pi Classroom Wall Decor Black Acrylic Pop Quiz Wall Clock Home Decor Geek Nerd Math Chic Gift USD 12.99-14.99/piece
Whatever I'm Late Anyway Modern Wall Clock Whatever Inspirational Quote With Falling Numbers Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Gift USD 14.99/piece
Get Shit Done Wall Clock Decorative Timepiece For Your Walls Motivational Life Motto Wall Art Wall Watch Man Cave Office Clock USD 14.99/piece
Math Equation Wall Clock Home School Math Teaching Aid Math Class Wall Art Teachers Gift Science Equation Formula Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
End Result Of Dating Decorative Wall Clock Wicked Wedding Mantra Wall Decor Wicked Wedding Mantra Marriage Clock Couple Gift USD 14.99/piece
DIY Large Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Luxury Interior Design English Letters Frameless Wall Watch Clock DIY Enthusiast USD 9.99-12.99/piece
3D Large Wall Clock DIY Large Modern Frameless Home Decor Cat Big Clock Mirror For Bedroom Living Room Kittens Kitty Wall Decor USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Wall Clock Large Mute Wall Stickers for Living Room Bedroom Home Decorations Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Butterflies Wall Watch Large Wall Clock For Living Room Bedroom Home Decor Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Yoga Large Wall Clocks Mirror Effect Living Room DIY Wall Clock Meditation Zen Wall Art Home Decoration Frameless Clock Watch USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Musical Note Flew From The Clock Flying Music Notes Wall Art Music Studio Room Decorative Modern Wall Clock Rock n Roll Gift USD 19.99/piece
Flowing Ballerinas Wall Art Dancing Room Wall Decor Modern Clock Dancing Girls Decorative Wall Clocks Escape Girls Clock Watch USD 21.99/piece
A Bat Clock From The Escape Clock Halloween Bat Silhouette Wall Clock Scary Bat Symbols Home Decor Contemporary Black Wall Clock USD 19.99/piece
My Plane Flew Away Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Flying Plane Decorative Wall Clock Abstract Art Espcape DIY Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Fairy Angel Flew Away Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Flying Butterflies Wall Clock Decorative Escape Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
woodysigns.myshopify.com/products/dreamcatcher-wooden-wal...
via
Vendor: Creative Wall Clock
Type:
Price: 39.90
Type:Wall Clocks;Style:Modern;Material:Bamboo & Wooden;Motivity Type:Quartz;Display Type:Needle;Shape:circular;Length:300 mm;Diameter:30 cm;Pattern:Abstract;Applicable Placement:Living Room;Feature:Antique Style;Combination:Separates;Brand Name:The Vinyl Clock;Width:30 cm;Form:Single Face;Model Number:MZGZ-010;Body Material:Wood;Body Material:Wood;Wall Clock Type:Wood;
Honeycomb Wall Clock
Aren’t you tired of the same old, boring clocks? Would you like to decorate your room with a unique, wooden clock?
This elegant, wooden clock can be placed anywhere in your home.
This delicate wall clock in the form of honeycomb design would be a great decoration for your home or office and it also makes a wonderful housewarming gift! It is meant for the creative and inspired. It measures the time precisely while the hands flow continuously without making a sound. The natural wood color will give you comfort and warmth.
Manufacturing process:
This model has been laser cut from birch plywood by 1/5" (5 mm) thick.
****BASIC INFORMATIONS****
Size -30cm (12") x 30 cm (12")
Thickness - 5 mm (1/5 ")
Clock colour - natural wood
The movement: is silent (non-ticking)
Requires one AA battery (not included)
Please keep in your mind that wood is a natural material and therefore all wooden clocks are little bit different in color and wood pattern; each clock is a unique piece of wood.
Laser cutting the designs into the plywood give each piece an unique smoky smell!
Japanese Cat Wall Clock With Swishing Tail Silhouette Cat Wags Its Tail Fun Design Modern Wall Clock Wall Watch Cat Lovers Gift USD 19.99/piece
Cat And Mouse Pendulum Clock Cat and Mouse Game Wall Art Wall Clock Hunter Cat Modern Wall Decor Clock Watch Cat Pet Owners Gift USD 19.99/piece
Modern Jigsaw Wall Decor Falling Puzzle Wall Clock Puzzle Pendulum Vinyl Record Wall Clock Home Decor Steampunk Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Japanese Adorable Black Cat Pendulum Clock Funny Cat Fnny Cat Swinging Tail Wall Clock Kit Cat Wall Decor Kitten Lovers Gift USD 19.99/piece
Skull Wall Art Modern Wall Decor Wall Clock Funny Skull Wall Clock With Pendulum Decorative Skeleton Clock Halloween Ornament USD 19.99/piece
Ballroom Dancers Minimalist Design Wall Clock Latin Couple Dancers Wall Decor Dancing Studio Social Dancing Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Baseball Time Wall Clock Baseball Players Different Poses Minimalist Design Home Decor Modern Wall Clock Baseball Lovers Gift USD 14.99/piece
Pole Dancers Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Night Club Wall Decor Sexy Chick Dancing Strippers Decorative Clock Watch Gift USD 14.99/piece
Ballet Time Wall Clock Ballerina Dancers Minimalist Design Dance Studio Wall Decor Modern Wall Clock Dancing Lovers Art Gift USD 14.99/piece
American Football Wall Clock Rugby Players Minimalist Design Sport Room Wall Decor Clock Watch American Football Enthusiast Gift USD 14.99/piece
African Animals Silhouette Wall Clock Safari Wild Animals Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Kid Room Nursery Wall Watch Clock USD 14.99/piece
Cats Meow Wall Clock Fuuny Kittens Different Poses Girls Room Wall Decor Black Cats Silhouette Kitty Lovers Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Ocean Marine Species Animals Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Sea Animals Decorative Clock Watch Seaside Beach Wall Decor USD 14.99/piece
Guns Military Army Wall Clock Different Machine Guns Weapons Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Military Vintage Firearms Gift USD 14.99/piece
Different Pose Dogs Silhouette Wall Clock Puppy Pet Vet Clinic Wall Decor Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Dog Lovers Gift USD 14.99/piece
Bodybuilders Minimalist Design GYM Wall Clock Fitness Centre Prefessional Wall Decor Work Out Fitness Bodybuilding Handmade Gift USD 14.99/piece
T-Rex Minimalist Design Clock Dinosaurs Breeds Modern Wall Clock Nursery Kids Room Jurassic Wall Decor Dinosaur Interior Clock USD 14.99/piece
Hockey Minimalist Design Wall Clock Ice Hockey Field Hockey Sports Room Wall Decor Team Game Hockey Players Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Boxing Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Boxing Fighters Decorative Prizefighting Wall Clock Boxing Boxers Wall Art Sport Gift USD 14.99/piece
Basketball Sport Game Wall Clock Basketball Players Minimalist Design Shooting Postures Salm Dunk Modern Clock Basketball Gift USD 14.99/piece
Safari Animals Wall Clock Woodland Adventure Wild Life Aniaml Handmade Exclusive Wall Clock Kid Room Nursery Jungle Wall Decor USD 14.99/piece
Yoga Positions Wall Clock Yoga Meditation Wall Decor Gift Yoga Hindu Philosophy Align Yourself Spiritual Yogi Modern Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
Taekwondo Karate Wall Clock Martial Arts Karate Club Modern Wall Decor Fighting Sports Kung Fu Exclusive Wall Clock Watch USD 14.99/piece
Horse Silhouette Wall Clock Horse Training Minimalist Design Modern Decorative Wall Clock Equestrianism Wall Decor Horseman Gift USD 14.99/piece
Water Polo Minimalist Design Modern Wall Clock Sport Ball Competition Pool Game Team Play Swimming Water Polo Wall Watch Gift USD 14.99/piece
Naughty Rude Humor 24 Hours Sex Positions Wall Clock Karma Sutra Wall Clock Wedding Party Wall Decor Couple Valentines Gift USD 14.99/piece
3D Pi Symbol Geek Pi 3.14 Silhouette Wall Clock Mathematical Sign Pi 3.14 Life of Pi Minimalist Math Wall Clock Math Chic Gift USD 14.99/piece
12 hours 12 Christmas Vector Iconic Clock Merry Clockmas Merry Christmas Wall Clock 2018 Christmas Housewarming Family Gift USD 14.99/piece
USA Classic Movie Characters Silhouette Wall Clock Living Room Decorative Icon Roles Clock Wall Watch Home Decor Moive Fans Gift USD 14.99/piece
Sexual Positions Wall Clock Adult Sex Game 24 Hours Sex Dirty Smut Humor Wall Art Decorative Living Room Clock Bachelorette Gift USD 14.99/piece
3.14 Pi Wall Clock Mathematical Pi Classroom Wall Decor Black Acrylic Pop Quiz Wall Clock Home Decor Geek Nerd Math Chic Gift USD 12.99-14.99/piece
Whatever I'm Late Anyway Modern Wall Clock Whatever Inspirational Quote With Falling Numbers Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Gift USD 14.99/piece
Get Shit Done Wall Clock Decorative Timepiece For Your Walls Motivational Life Motto Wall Art Wall Watch Man Cave Office Clock USD 14.99/piece
Math Equation Wall Clock Home School Math Teaching Aid Math Class Wall Art Teachers Gift Science Equation Formula Wall Clock USD 14.99/piece
End Result Of Dating Decorative Wall Clock Wicked Wedding Mantra Wall Decor Wicked Wedding Mantra Marriage Clock Couple Gift USD 14.99/piece
DIY Large Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Luxury Interior Design English Letters Frameless Wall Watch Clock DIY Enthusiast USD 9.99-12.99/piece
3D Large Wall Clock DIY Large Modern Frameless Home Decor Cat Big Clock Mirror For Bedroom Living Room Kittens Kitty Wall Decor USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Wall Clock Large Mute Wall Stickers for Living Room Bedroom Home Decorations Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Frameless DIY Wall Clock 3D Mirror Butterflies Wall Watch Large Wall Clock For Living Room Bedroom Home Decor Big Time Clock USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Yoga Large Wall Clocks Mirror Effect Living Room DIY Wall Clock Meditation Zen Wall Art Home Decoration Frameless Clock Watch USD 9.99-12.99/piece
Musical Note Flew From The Clock Flying Music Notes Wall Art Music Studio Room Decorative Modern Wall Clock Rock n Roll Gift USD 19.99/piece
Flowing Ballerinas Wall Art Dancing Room Wall Decor Modern Clock Dancing Girls Decorative Wall Clocks Escape Girls Clock Watch USD 21.99/piece
A Bat Clock From The Escape Clock Halloween Bat Silhouette Wall Clock Scary Bat Symbols Home Decor Contemporary Black Wall Clock USD 19.99/piece
My Plane Flew Away Wall Art Home Decor Wall Clock Flying Plane Decorative Wall Clock Abstract Art Espcape DIY Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
Fairy Angel Flew Away Wall Clock Modern Wall Art Home Decor Flying Butterflies Wall Clock Decorative Escape Clock Watch USD 19.99/piece
woodysigns.myshopify.com/products/hexagon-wooden-wall-clo...
Go to the Book with image in the Internet Archive
Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 5 Nos. 1-4, 1911
Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Publisher:
Sponsor:
Contributor:
Date: 1911
Language: eng
Vol. 5, No. 1<br /><br />Preface... ... . ..... . . .. ......... .. ... .... . ... . .. . .... .. . . ..... . .. . . . ..... . v<br />Special articles ............. . ....... . . . .. . ............... . ............1<br />Diphtheria prophylaxis in the Navy. by C. S. Butler. .... . .. .. . ...1<br />Notes on "606," by Raymond Spear.. . .... .. . ... .. .. . ... ..... . ........ . . 4<br />Recent diagnostic methods in otology applicable to the naval service, by<br />G. B. Trible.... . . .. .... ...... . . .......... .. .. . .. 6<br />Bier's method of treatment in acute gonorrheal arthritis, by H.F. Strine. 12<br />Problems of sanitation in landing and expeditionary service in tropical and<br />subtropical regions, translation by P. J. Waldner.. .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. 13<br />The mental examination of candidates for enlistment in the Navy and<br />Marine Corps, by Heber Butts.. . ......... . . . .............. . .... . . . .... 29<br />The recent outbreak of cholera in Italy, by C. J. Holeman.. ..... .. . .. . . . 38<br /><br />United States Naval Medical School Laboratories... ... ... .. ... .. .......... . . 41<br />The United States National Museum in its relation to other Government<br />scientific collections, by P. E . Garrison .... . . . .. . .. . ..... . ..... .,..... 41<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, June-August, 1910....... . ... . .... ... . . ........ . .... . 43<br />Recent additions to the pathological collection, United States Naval Medical School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 43<br /><br />Suggested devices............ . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . ..... . . . .. . ... . . . ..... . . . .. . 46<br />A sanitary garbage-can holder, by H. C. Kellers. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 46<br />The blanket splint, by F. X. Koltes..... ..... ... . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45<br /><br />Clinical notes.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />Reports of four transfusions by the vein-to-vein method with curved glass<br />tubes, by A. M. Fauntleroy.. . . . . . . . .. . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />Bilateral inguino-superficial hernia with bilateral undescended testicle,<br />by H. C. Curl...... . ..... . .. . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51<br />Larvae in the deep urethra and bladder, by H. F. Strine..... ... .. . . .. ... 51<br />An extensive razor wound of throat, by W. G. Farwell. ...... . ....... ..... 62<br />Report of two cases of heat cramps on U. S. S. Charleston, by H. A. May... 53<br />Fatigue and exhaustion in the fireroom, by F. G. Abeken .... ... . ... .. . . 67<br />A case of diabetes mellitus, by J.B. Dennis and A. C. Stanley . ........... 58<br />Sciatica incident to physical test (50-mile walk), by J. A. B. Sinclair..... 58<br />Poisoning resulting from the injection of bismuth paste, by C. B. Camerer... 59<br /><br />Current comment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61<br />The medical library on the U. S. S. Solace... . ..... .. ......... .... . ... .. 61<br />Dioxydiamidoarsenobenzol in the treatment of syphilis. .. . .. . .. . . . . . . ... 61<br />New blank forms and instructions pertaining thereto.. . .. .... . ... . . ..... 63<br />A case of yellow fever reaches Honolulu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences. . ....... ... . .. . . . .. . . . ... . . .. . .... . ... .. ... . .. 67<br />General medicine. . .. .. ... . . .. . .... .. ... .. . .. . . .. . .. ..... .. . .. ........ 67<br />A modern conception of the psychoneuroses; status thymolymphaticus and its relation to sudden death; the Cammidge test in experimental pancreatitis and other conditions; hiccough in course of diaphragmatic pleurisy treated by Laborde's method ; fatigue the cause of enuresis; pellagra, some clinical and other features of the disease; is mercury a specific in pulmonary tuberculosis; a case of an acute febrile and probably infectious disease of unknown origin; further remarks on duodenal alimentation ; pemphigoid eruptions in typhoid<br />fever, A. W. Dunbar and J . L. Neilson . .. . .... . ... . . . .. . ... . . . .. 67<br />Surgery - The special field of neurological surgery, five years later; hypodermic injections in action, suggestions for simplifying their administration; the result of 168 operations for hernia; modern treatment of<br />fractures; report of two cases of revolver shot wound of the brain; haemophilia; the exclusion of the skin in surgery; removal of foreign bodies<br />from the bronchi; some notes on the use of nitrous oxid and oxygen for<br />prolonged anesthesia; the end results of prostatectomy, R. Spear and<br />E. Thompson ... . . . .. .. . .. . .... . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76<br />Hygiene and sanitation - Ventilation of ships, particularly merchant ships;<br />oral prophylaxis; recruiting in the German army; concerning the sources<br />of infection in cases of venereal diseases in the city of New York; the<br />effect of a mosquito net on the air within it, H. G. Beyer and C. N.<br />Fiske. .. . . .. ... . .. . .. . . .. . ... . . . . . .. . .. . . . ... . .... .. ... .... .. .. ..... 87<br />Tropical medicine - The rationale of quinine prophylaxis; a case of sleeping<br />sickness studied by precise enumerative methods; statistical study of<br />uncinariasis among white men in the Philippines, C. S. Butler.. . .. .. . .. 95<br />Pathology and bacteriology - A case of typhoid meningitis; complement fixation in thrombo-angiitie obliterans; personal observations on the Ehrlich-Hata "606;" certain aspects of the bacteriology of bacillary dysentery; a rapid presumptive test for diarrhea caused by the gas bacillus; investigation into the acid-fast bacteria found in the faeces with special reference to their presence in cases of tuberculosis; on the nature of the cellular elements presence in milk; infection of a still-born infant by an amoebiform protozoan (entamooba mortinatalium), O. J . Mink.. . . ..... . 99<br />Medical zoology - Ulcerating granuloma of the pudenda a protozoal disease<br />(preliminary communication); report of 15 cases of hymenolepis nana,<br />P. E. Garrison ... .... ... . ... ... .... .. ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. 102<br />Chemistry and pharmacy - Studies in OEdema. VI. The influence of adrenaline on absorption from the peritoneal cavity, with some remarks<br />on the influence of calcium chloride on absorption ; the action of mercury<br />and iodine in experimental syphilis; a protein reaction in the blood of the insane; chemistry of the antigen used in the Wassermann reaction; a lack of oxygen not a cause of death in cases of diminished air pressure; influence of mercury on the results of the serum reaction in antisyphilitic treatment; quantitative determination of albumin in the urine;<br />E.W. Brown and O. G. Ruge ............. . ............ ... ..... 104<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - The use of carbon dioxide snow in eye work;<br />preliminary communication of a new method for the prevention and treatment<br />of sympathetic ophthalmitis, E. M. Shipp......... .. . .. ... ... .. . 106 <br />Reports and letters .. . . . ...... . .... . .... . ... . . ... . ... . .. . . . .. . . 109<br />A visit to the Leper Settlement, Molokai, Hawaii, J. D. Gatewood .... ... . 109<br />Report on the meeting of the American Public Health Association, 1910,<br />C. N. Fiske. . ... ......... .. .. . .. . . . ... . . . ...... . . . .... .. . . ..... ... . . . 114<br />Report on the meeting of the American Hospital Association, 1910, A. W.<br />Dunbar.. . .. .. .... . ... . ... .. . .. .. .. . . . .... ... ... ... .. .. .. ... . ....... 117<br />The latest word from Ehrlich........ . .............................. . .. 122<br /><br />Vol. 5, No. 2<br /><br />Preface... ... .. ... .. ........ ... .................. .... ..... .............. vii<br />Special articles.....................125<br />The intravenous administration of "606" in 56 case, by G. B. Trible and<br />H. A. Garrison ...................... 125<br />Ehrlich discusses "606," translation, by Dr. J.C. Bierwirth. . ...... . . . ... 134<br />Satisfactory results with a simplified Wassermann technique (Emery), by<br />E. R. Stitt. ..................... 142<br />Further notes on the preparation of a culture medium from dried blood<br />serum, by E. W. Brown... . . .. .... . . .. . .. .... . . ... ........ .. .. . .... 144<br />Note on the existence of Agchylostoma duodenale in Guam, by W. M. Kerr. .....................145<br />Intestinal parasites found among the crew of the U.S.S. South Dakota, by<br />E.G. Parker. .... . ..... .. . ..... .. . ..... ...... . .... ... . . ... .. ...... . 145<br />Results of an examination of Filipino mess attendants for intestinal parasites,<br />by W. A. Angwin and C. E. Camerer ..................... 147<br />The practical use of carbon dioxide snow as seen at the West London Hospital, by G. D. Hale. .. .... . .. . . . .. ... . . . .......... . .......... . ..... . 148<br />Nomenclature for causes of physical disability in the Navy, by 0. N.<br />Fiske.. . .. . .......................... . .. .. . .... .. . . .. ...... .. .. .. . 149<br /><br />United States Naval Medical School laboratories . . . . . . ..................... 159<br />An atypical typhoid bacillus, by O. J. Mink.. .. . .. ........ .. ........... 159<br />Notes on parasites found at animal autopsies in the Naval Medical School<br />laboratories during 1910, by C. S. Butler and P. E. Garrison.. . .. . ...... 159<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, December, 1910-February, 1911 . .. ... . . 161<br />Additions to the pathological collection, United States Naval Medical<br />School, December, 1910-February, 1911 . .... .162<br /><br />Suggested devices ...... . . . ... ... .. . . . . . . 163<br />An intestine tray for autopsies, by P. E. Garrison. . . .... .... .. .. .. .. .. ... 163<br />A suggested improvement in the method of taking finger prints, by F. H.<br />Brooks . .... .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. ... . .... .. .. .. .. . . .. .... . . .. .. . ..... . .. 164<br /><br />Clinical notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167<br />A case of cholecystectomy, by R. Spear. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 167<br />A case of fracture of the skull, by W. M. Garton. . . ... ... . ... . ........ . .. 168<br />Hypernephroma of right kidney, nephrectomy with recovery, by A. M.<br />Fauntleroy... ... .. ... .. ..... .... . .. . . ..... ..... . .... . ............. . 169<br />A case of general chronic perihepatitis, by E. R. Stitt .. . . . . . .. ...... . ... 171<br />Bacillary dysentery showing extreme toxaemia, by E. R. Stitt........ .. .. 173<br />Report on 10 cases of syphilis treated with "606," by U. R. Webb....... 173<br />A suspected case of gangosa, by O. J. Mink.. . . .. . ...... . .... .. . . . .... .... 178<br />Lamblia intestinalis and ascaris lumbricoides associated with amoebic dysentery by G. B. Trible . . . . . ... ....... . . . . .. . .. .. ... . .... . ........ . . . . . . 178<br />A case of pernicious anemia showing points of resemblance to kala azar,<br />by E. R. Stitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180<br />A case of amoebic dysentery with liver abscess by E. R. Stitt. . .. .. ... ... 180<br />A case of intussusception, by E. R. Stitt..... . . .. . . . . . .. ......... .. . .. . . . 181<br />Report of two unusual fracture cases, by J. B. Dennis and A. C. Stanley... 181<br />Associated tuberculosis and syphilis, by O. J. Mink and E. H. H. Old...... 182<br />An undesirable recruit, by Heber Butts............................ . . . . . 183<br />Report of six cases of appendicitis aboard the U.S. S. Tennessee, by M. K.<br />Johnson and W. L. Mann...... ... .......................... .. ........ 190<br /><br />Current comment... .. .................................................... 193<br />Notification of venereal diseases.............. . .......................... 193<br />The use of salvarsan in filarial disease.. ...................... . .......... 194<br />Howard Taylor Ricketts...................................... . ........ 195<br />Typhoid vaccination. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195<br />Further notes on the new blank forms..................................... 196<br />The bacteriology of acute poliomyelitis............. . .... .. .. ...... ..... 197<br />Hospital facilities at Montevideo.... .... . .............................. 197<br />A correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197<br />A course of instructive lectures . ......................................... 197<br />Physical culture......... ... . . ........... .. .......................... . . 198<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences...... . ................. . ..... . ............. . .. 199<br />General medicine - Haemoglobinuric fever on the Canal Zone; malingering; on the presence of a venous hum in the epigastrium in cirrhosis of the liver; the use of the X-ray in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis; mercury succinimid in the treatment of tuberculosis; high blood pressure in arteriosclerosis; the treatment and prognosis of exophthalmic goitre; some clinical methods of diagnosis of the functional activity of the heart; further notes on the treatment of paralysis agitans with parathyroid gland; on fever caused by the bite of the sand fly (Phlebotomus papatasii); Myzomyia roasii as a malaria carrier; a modified Caldwell kitchen incinerator for field use, by A. W. Dunbar and J. L. Xeilson....... 199<br />Surgery - The cause of death from shock by commercial electric currents<br />and the treatment of same; the best method of exposing the interior of the bladder in suprapubic operations; "606 "; a consideration of surgical methods of treating hyperthyroidism; genito-urinary diseases; radium therapy; the intravenous use of cocaine, report of a case; diseases of the stomach and duodenum from a surgical standpoint; dry iodine catgut; disinfection of the skin by tincture of iodine; the Roentgen-ray examination of the esophagus; solitary perforation of the ileum associated with strangulated and obstructed hernia; the time and method for prostatectomy; a practical mechanical method of end-to-end anastomosis of blood vessels; by R. Spear and E. \V . Thompson................... 213<br />Hygiene and sanitation - Sterilization of water on a large scale by means<br />of ultra-violet rays; nota sulla carne refrigerata e sui refrigeranti dei piroscafi; the American game of football, is it a factor for good or for evil? the hygiene of the simming pool ; "cordite eating"; the process of disinfection by chemical agencies and hot water; eggs, a study of eggs offered for sale as pure food; by H. G. Beyer and C. N. Fiske. ..... .. 226<br />Tropical medicine - Upon a new pathognomonic sign of malaria; a simple<br />method for the treatment of cholera; traitement de la trypanosomiase<br />humaine, by C. S. Butler. . .... .. ....... ... .. ...... . . . . ..... .. . ....... 237<br />Pathology and bacteriology - A method for the bacteriological standardization of disinfectants; microorganism found in the blood of acute cases of poliomyelitis; experimental rssearches upon typhus exanthematicus<br />done at the Pasteur Institute of Tunis during the year l910; bacteriology of human bile with especial reference to the typhoid carrier problem; the control of typhoid in the army by vaccination; experiments on transmission of bacteria by flies with special relation to an epidemic of bacillary dysentery at the Worcester State Hospital, Massachusetts, 1910; experiences in the use of vaccines in chronic suppuration of the nasal access0ry sinuses; histological study of skin lesions of pellagra; a resume of the evidence concerning the diagnostic and clinical value of the Wassermann reaction; experimentelle Beitrage zum Studium des Mechanismus der Immunkorper und Komplementwirkung; by O. J . Mink.............. 240<br />Chemistry and pharmacy.-The preparation of thyroid extract for therapeutic<br />purposes; the action of urinary antiseptics; wird eingenommenes<br />Chinin mit der Muttermilch ausgeschieden? Uebergang von Arzenmitteln<br />in die Milch; the quantitative estimation of albumin in the urine, by Tsuchiya's procss; the quantitative determination of albumin according to Tsuchiya; on the stability of the solutions prepared for Bang's method of estimating sugar in the urine, by E. M. Brown and O. G. Ruge.. . .......... 251<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - Tests for color-vision ; a note on the use of scarlet red in corneal diseases; report on progress in otology; ear disease and its prevention; the prevalence of middle ear disease in the [British] army, with a suggestion for a remedy; peritonsillar abscess; by E. M. Shipp. . ........ . . 266<br /><br />Reports and letters ............ 267<br />The surgical aspect of the engagement of La Ceiba, Honduras, by L. W.<br />Bishop and W. L. Irvine.......... . ......... . .. . ... . ....... . . . ...... 267<br />Extract from sanitary report of U.S.S. New Orleans, for the year 1901, by<br />W. F. Arnold... .. .. .. ....... ... . . . ... . . ... ..... . . ... . . . .. .. . . ....... 269<br /><br />Vol. 5, No. 3<br /><br />Preface...... ........... ................... .... ...... .... .. .... ...... .. ... v<br />Special articles: ·<br />Tropical diseases in their relation to the eye, by E. M. Shipp.... .... . . . . 271<br />Intravenous administration of salvarsan, by G. B. Trible and H. A.<br />Garrison. ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285<br />The mental examination of 50 recruits who became insane soon after enlistment, by Heber Butts........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295<br />Diagnosis and treatment of hernia in the Navy, by B. F. Jenness.... .. ... 313<br /><br />United States Medical School laboratories:<br />Davainea madagascariensis in the Philippine Islands, by P. E. Garrison. . 321<br />The interpretation of negative and weakly positive reactions in Noguchi's<br />complement fixation test, by M. E. Higgins... . .. . . . ....... . ......... 327<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, March-May, 1911........ . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328<br />Specimens added to the pathological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, March-May, 1911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328<br /><br />Suggested devices:<br />An improvised X-ray apparatus, by H. A. Harris. . . . ..... . .. .. . .. . . . . . . 331<br />Fracture of mandible with improved method of adjustment, by W. A.<br />Angwin .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332<br /><br />Clinical notes:<br />Gunshot wound of elbow, by Raymond Spear..... .. .. . .... . . . ... . . . ... . 335<br />Clinical symptoms appearing immediately after antityphoid inoculation,<br />by J. R. Phelps and G. F. Clark. . .. .... . .. ..... . . ... . . ... .. . .. . . . . . .. 336<br />Posterior gastro-enteroetomy three years after anterior gastro-enteroetomy,<br />by A. M. Fauntleroy... . .. ... .. ... . . ... . .. . . .. ... ... ... .. ..... . .. . . . 338<br />Pontine hemorrhage resulting from a blow in boxing, by H. C. Curl.. . . . . 340<br />Fracture of the zygoma, by R. B. Williams... ... .. . . ............ ....... 341<br />Death from unruptured thoracic aneurism, by E. P. Huff... . . .... . .. ... 342<br />A plastic pernicious anemia associated with agchyloetomiaeis, by E. R. Stitt. 345<br />Balantidium coli infection associated with amoebic dysentery, by G. B.<br />Trible..... . ..... ... . ... . . . ... . . . ....... . ........ . ..... .. . 346<br />Return of syphilitic symptoms after administration of salvarsan, by C. F.<br />Sterne. . ....... . .. . . . . .. . . ... . ..... . .... . ........ . .... . . . . .... . ... . . . 348<br />A case of syphilis which poeeibly demonstrates the efficacy of prophylaxis<br />against venereal diseases, by E. H. H. Old ... . . . . .. ..... 349<br />Cerebral syphilis in a native of Guam, by W. M. Kerr.. ... . . ... ... ..... 350<br />A case of autoserotherapy, by E. O. J. Eytinge and L. W. McGuire. ...... 351<br />Haemoglobinuric fever, by D. G. Sutton. . . . ...... . .. . .. .. . .... .. . .... .. 352<br />Shock caused by lightning stroke, by W. S. Hoen .... . .. . . ............ . . 353<br />An unusual cause of burn, by F. M. Munson.......... .. . . .. . ..... . .. .. 354<br />Traumatic extrusion of testicle, by J . A. B. Sinclair. . . .. . . . . ....... . ... 355<br /><br />Current comment: <br />Criticisms and suggestions relative to the health records . .. .. . . . · 357<br />Distinguished honors conferred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358<br />The closing exercises of the Naval Medical School... . ...... . .... . ... . . . 358<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences:<br />General medicine - Plague in Manchuria and its lessons; the treatment of<br />arthritis deformans; hereditary haemophilia, deficiency in the coagulability<br />of the blood the only immediate cause of the condition; discussion of acidosis, by A. W. Dunbar and J . L. Neilson .. ........ .. ... .. . . .... 361<br />Surgery - Laceration of the axillary portion of the shoulder joint as a factor in the etiology of traumatic combined paralysis of the upper extremity; tuberculosis of the kidney and ureter; injuries to the kidneys with end results; fracture of the patella; acute emergencies of abdominal disease; intestinal obstruction due to kinks and adhesions of the terminal ileum; the functions of the great omentum; treatment of peritonitis consecutive to appendicitis; treatment of ascites by drainage into the subcutaneous tissue of the abdomen; special dangers associated with operations on the biliary passages and their avoidance; a simple method for the relief of certain forms of odynphagia; by Raymond Spear and Edgar Thompson....... ...... . . ... . ... ... ... .. 365<br />Hygiene and sanitation - Food requirements for sustenance and work; carbo-gasoline method for the disinfection of books; typhoid fever and mussel pollution; the duty of the community toward ita consumptives; some aspects of tropical sanitation; table jellies; the significance of the bacillus carrier in the spread of Asiatic cholera; the value of vaccination and revaccination; prophylaxie de la syphilis; the value of terminal disinfection; a method for determining the germicidal value and penetrating power of liquid disinfectants; by H. G. Beyer and C. N. Fiske........... 377<br />Tropical medicine - Further researches on the hyphomycetes of tinea imbricata; the action of'' 606" in sleeping sickness; the action of salvarsan in malaria; the application of "606" to the treatment of kala-azar; the specific treatment of leprosy; the role of the infective granule in certain protozoa! infections as illustrated by the spirochaetosis of Sudanese fowls, preliminary note; by C. S. Butler. . .... . . . ..... . .. .. .. . . . . ... . ... .... 389<br />Pathology and bacteriology - Ehrlich's biochemical theory and its conception<br />and application; researches on experimental typhoid fever; a record of 90 diphtheria carriers; the serum diagnosis of syphilis; by M. E. Higgins. . . . 392<br />Medical zoology - Note on the presence of a lateral spine in the eggs of<br />Schistosoma japonicum; onchocerciasis in cattle with special reference<br />to the structure and bionomic characters of the parasite; by P. E.<br />Garrison .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397<br />Chemistry and pharmacy - The preparation of a convenient and stable litmus solution; a method to demonstrate and estimate the digestive fermenta in the feces; a simple method for the estimation of ammonia in the urine of diabetics for the recognition of acidosis; new process for sterilizing water by potassium permanganate; the colorimetric estimation of dextrose in urine; a new method for the estimation of sugar in the urine; by E.W. Brown and O. G. Ruge . .. . .. ... . . . ..... ... . . 398<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - Examination of the nose and throat in relation<br />to general diagnosis, results in asthma; the nonsurgical treatment of<br />cataract; by E. M. Shipp..... . . . .. . .. .. .. . .... .. ... . 400<br /><br />Reports and letters:<br />Plague conditions in North China, by W. D. Owens.......... .. .. ... ... 405<br /><br />Vol. 5, No. 4<br /><br />Preface ... .. . . . ............... . ...... ... ........................ .. ........ v<br /><br />Special articles:<br />The tenth convention of the second Hague conference of 1907, and its <br />relation to the evacuation of the wounded in naval warfare, by F. L.<br />Pleadwell (first paper) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409<br />Is gangoea a form of syphilis? by H. E. Odell....... .. ... . ............. 430<br />Salvarsan as a diagnostic and therapeutic agent in syphilis, by C. M.<br />George.... .. ............ ...... . . .. .... . . . .... . .. . 485<br />Flat foot and its relation to the Navy, by R. G. Heiner.. . ............... 451<br />Notes on submarine cruising, by I. F. Cohn............................ 455<br />Important features in the technique of carbon dioxide estimations in air,<br />by E. W. Brown... . ................. . .. . . . ... . ...... . ...... . ..... . . 457<br />The use of salvarsan on board the U.S.S. Michigan, by J . J. Snyder and<br />A. L. Clifton............. . . .. . . .............. . .................... . .. 459<br />Notes on vaccination, by A. B. Clifford... .. ........................... 461<br />The preparation of patient.e for operation at the United States Naval Hospital,<br />Norfolk, Va., by W. M. Garton.. . ..... .... .. .. ... . . . ...... ..... 462<br /><br />United States Naval Medical School laboratories:<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, June-Aug., 1911 ........ . ... .......... . .. . .. 465<br />Specimens added to the pathological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, June-Aug., 1911.................... . .... . .. .. . ... . .. 465<br /><br />Suggested devices:<br />An apparatus for hoisting patients aboard the hospital ship Solace, by<br />E. M. Blackwell... . ............ . . . ................................ . . 467<br />An inexpensive and satisfactory ethyl chloride inhaler for general<br />anaesthesia, by J. H. Barton .. . . ... .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .... ...... 469<br /><br />Clinical notes:<br />Old "irreducible" dislocation of head of humerus, by H. C. Curl. . . . ... . 471<br />A case of brain tumor, by R. E. Hoyt.. .. .... .... . ...... . . .... . .. ........ 472<br />A case of brain abscess, by J. R. Phelps and G. F. Clark.. .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . 474<br />Report of two cases of cerebrospinal fever, by R. A. Bachmann.. . . . .... 477<br />A case of leprosy on board the U.S.S. Villalobos, by D. H. Noble....... 479<br />A case resembling gangosa, in which a treponema was found, by P. S.<br />Rossiter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481<br />A case extensively burned, by N. T. McLean.. ... .... .. . . .. . .. ... ... . . . 481<br />Acute pemphigus following vaccination, by R. Hayden.... ... . .... ..... . . 482<br />Two interesting cases on the U.S.S. Prairie, by C. C. Grieve . .. . . . .... . . 486<br />An atypical case of typhoid fever, by L. W. Johnson... . ... . .. . .... . .. . .. 488<br />Tolerance of the peritoneum rarely seen, by P. R. Stalnaker and G. W.<br />Shepard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489<br />Note on tincture of iodine, by R. Spear...... . . . . . ... . ... .... . .. . .. ..... 490<br />Notes on salvarsan, by R. Spear..... . ...... . .............. . ..... . . ..... 491<br /><br /><br />Current comment :<br />Instructions relative to medical returns ... ....... . ..... . ............... .493<br />Clinical cards .. ........... ... . . .. .. ... . .... . . . . . .. . ... . .. . ......... . . .494<br />Measles in Samoa . ................ .. . ... . . . . ... . ....................... .495<br />The conservation of the public health ........ . .................... .496<br />Closure of the naval stations at San Juan and Culebra ....... .. .. . . . ..... 498<br />New pavilion for the practice of thoracic surgery ........ . ..... ...... 498<br />The Bellevue Hospital nomenclature of diseases and conditions, 1911 .... .498<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences:<br />General medicine - Pathological and experimental data derived from a<br />further study of an acute infectious disease of unknown origin; the mode<br />of transmission of leprosy; genesis of incipient tuberculisus; a method<br />for determining the absolute pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid; the after<br />history of cases of albuminuria occurring in adolescence; the stereoscopic<br />X-ray examination of the chest with special reference to the diagnosis of<br />pulmonary tuberculosis; the use of antiformin in the examination for the<br />tubercle bacillus; by A. W. Dunbar and J. L. Neilson ............. . . . 501<br />Surgery - The control of bleeding in operations for brain tumors; intravenous<br />anesthesia from hedonal; the difficulties and limitations of diagnosis in advanced cases of renal tuberculosis; the treatment of X-ray ulcer; nephroureterectomy; by Raymond Spear and Edgar Thompson .. 511<br />Hygiene and Sanitation - A simple method of purifying almost any infected<br />water for drinking purposes; the physiology of the march; wall paper and illumination; vaccination et serotherapie anticholeriques; upon the<br />inoculation of materia morbi through the human skin by fleabites; garbage receptacles; the relative influence of the heat and chemical impurity of close air; method for measuring the degree of vitiation of the air of inclosed spaces; by H. G. Beyer and C.N. Fiske . .. . .. ..... . 518<br />Tropical medicine - The diagnosis of pellagra; researches upon acarids <br />among lepers; action of "606" upon malaria; by C. S. Butler ......... . 523<br />Pathology and bacteriology - An outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by<br />B. paratyphosus; infection of rabbits with the virus of poliomyelitis; the<br />mechanism of the formation of metastases in malignant tumors; a method<br />for the pure cultivation of pathogenic treponema pallidum; by Y. E .<br />Higgins .. .... .. .. . ..................... .. ..... . ............. . ...... . 528<br />Medical zoology - On Kwan's fluke and the presence of spines in<br />fasciolopsis; endemic Mediterranean fever (Malta fever) in southwest<br />Tcxas; by P. E. Garrison . ..... . .......... .. . . .... . .... . ........... . . . 532<br />Chemistry and pharmacy - Detection of blood by means of leuco-malachitegreen; an improved form of Heller's ring test for detection of albumin in the urine; an important reagent for Fehling's method for sugar estimation; method for the estimation of urotropin in the urine; detection of amylolytic ferments in the feces; new technique for the estimation of total nitrogen, ammonia, and urea in the urine; chemotherapy and "606" by E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge ............... 533<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - Defective vision and its bearing on the question<br />of fitness for service; "606 ' ' and eye diseases; by E. M. Shipp ... .. .. .538<br /><br />Reports and letters:<br />American Medical Association meeting, by C. P. Bfagg .. .. .... . .....550<br />Sanitary report on Kiukiang, Kiangse Province, China, by D. H. Noble ...550<br />Index to volume V ...............559<br />Subject index .......... . ........ . ....................... 559<br />Author's index . . . ........ . ..... . ......... . ......... . 570<br /><br /><br />
If you have questions concerning reproductions, please contact the Contributing Library.
Note: The colors, contrast and appearance of these illustrations are unlikely to be true to life. They are derived from scanned images that have been enhanced for machine interpretation and have been altered from their originals.
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Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
38
fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
40
3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
41
2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of oxygen and nitrogen with
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
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fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
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(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
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3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
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2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
____________________________________________________________----
Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of oxygen and nitrogen with
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Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
-------------------------------------------------- -------------
Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
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fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
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(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
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3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
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2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
____________________________________________________________----
Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of oxygen and nitrogen with
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
38
fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
40
3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
41
2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of oxygen and nitrogen with
Prof. Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
38
fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
40
3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
41
2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of oxygen and nitrogen
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
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fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
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3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
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2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component o
A Painted Stork in search for a pray - @ Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary - Andhra Pradesh, India.
IN FLICKR EXPLORE ON 11-02-2014.
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The Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) is a large wading bird in the stork family. It is found in the wetlands of the plains of tropical Asia south of the Himalayas in the Indian Subcontinent and extending into Southeast Asia. Their distinctive pink tertial feathers give them their name. They forage in flocks in shallow waters along rivers or lakes. They immerse their half open beaks in water and sweep them from side to side and snap up their prey of small fish that are sensed by touch. As they wade along they also stir the water with their feet to flush hiding fish. They nest colonially in trees, often along with other waterbirds. They only sounds they produce are weak moans or bill clattering at the nest. They are not migratory and only make short distance movements in some parts of their range in response to food and for breeding. Like other storks, they are often seen soaring on thermals.
Source : en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painted_Stork
Pulicat lake bird sanctuary is a saline backwater lake lying along the T.N.-A.P coast; part extending to Chengalpattu district of T.N. It has an area of 481 sq.KM and it is the 2nd largest brackish water lagoon in India after Chilka lake in Orissa. The area on the TN side is 153.67 sq.km.
The Pulicat sanctuary is drained by Arni river while the Buckingham canal brings in the city’s drainage water. At the southern end is an opening on to Bay of Bengal through a shallow mouth of 200 m in width. The rest of the lake is closed by a sand bar running parallel to the Bay of Bengal in the form of the Sriharikota island.
The sanctuary has an area of 321 Sq. KM with 108 sq.KM of National Park area.
It lies within 11o 30’ N to 11o 42’ N and 76o 30’ E to 76o 45’ E.
Rainfall ranges from 800 - 2000mm. Temperature varies from 14o C to 33o C.
Altitude ranges from 100’ MSL to 1200’ MSL.
The wetlands eco system are considered as among the richest areas of bio diversity. Pulicat, by virtue of the mixing of fresh water with sea water is found to be an ideal habitat for diverse life-forms. 160 species of fish, 25 species of polychaete worms, 12 species of prawn, 19 species of mollusk and 100 speceis of birds are well documented apart from a number of other aquatic flora and fauna.
Among the most spectacular is the flamingo-a tall gaunt, white-coloured bird with a touch of pink on the wings, pink beak and legs, seen feeding in shallow water. The squat, large-billed grey pelican with gular pouch and a number of ducks are commonly seen. Flocks of sea gulls and terns circling in the sky or bobbing up and down on the water are an added attraction at pulicat. Besides, there are a number of waterside birds and waders such as curlews, stilts, plovers, sand pipers, lapwings, redshank. Egrets, herons, kites etc. are some other birds found here. The lake is also home to crabs, clams, mussels, oysters, snails, fish worms, insects, spiders, sponges, anemone, prawns, plankton and so on including rare endemic species like gilled leech, an unidentified bloodred fish, etc., Rapid siltation has caused loss of bio diversity. It is seen that mangrove opllen is found on Sriharikota Island indicating their existence some years back. Loss of mangroves may be one of the resons hastening siltation, reducing biodiversity and hence depriving fisherfolk of their livelihood.
Source : www.forests.tn.nic.in/wildbiodiversity/bs_plbs.html
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Snake Boat Race at Alleppey, Kerala, India – The name of the Team has been announced !
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Nehru Trophy Boat Race is a popular Vallam Kali held in the Punnamada Lake near Alappuzha, Kerala, India. Vallam Kali or Vallamkali literally means boat play/game, but can be translated to boat race in English. The most popular event of the race is the competition of Chundan Vallams (Snake Boats). Hence the race is also known as Snake Boat Race in English. Other types boats which participate in various events of the race are Churulan Vallam, Iruttukuthy Vallam, Odi Vallam, Veppu Vallam (Vaipu Vallam), Vadakkanody Vallam and Kochu Vallam.
The race conducted on the second Saturday of August every year is a major tourist attraction.
How this boat race got the name? Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of Independent India visited Kerala in 1952. He was given a roaring reception by the people of Alleppey, escorted by the huge snake-boats. Having gone through the tremendous excitement of sailing in a snake-boat Jawaharlal Nehru donated a rolling trophy to be awarded to the winner of the race. The trophy is a replica of a snake-boat in silver, placed on wooden abacus on which the following words are inscribed:
“To the winner of the boat-race which is a unique feature of community life in Travancore-Cochin”.
The 100–120 feet long canoes made of a forest wood locally called "Aanjili thadi" carrying 90- 110 rowers which moves like a snake through the channels (hence the name), is an eye catching sight for any tourist. The Chundan Vallam also has the record as "the biggest water vessel used for sports purpose".
Karichal,Kallooparamban, Chambakulam, Nadubhagom, Paayipaadu, Kaavalam, Alapaatu, Aanari, Cheruthana, Aayaparambu, St.George, Jawahar thaayankari, Vallamkulangara, Valiya Divanji, Sri.Ganesh, Paarthasarathy, Ambedkar , Pattara ,Ellikkulam,Vadakkeaattupuram and Deva's Chundan are the name of popular snake boats who participate in the Chundan Vallam category. Famous Karichal Chundan winning the Nehrutrophy Boat Race in 14 times.(www.karichalchundan.com)
Palliyodam or Royal Canoe of Aranmula is the other type of Snake boat.
Source : Wikipedia
Landing Mars tech.
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
-------------------------------------------------- -------------
Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
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fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
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3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
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2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of o
Proportions are applicable to the HTC Eris Droid PDA. Please feel free to utilize artwork on your phone!
BANK OF RENSSELAER
Will Pay ONE DOLLAR to the bearer
on demand. Rensselaer. January 2nd 1854
Date: January 2, 1854
Source Type: Obsolete Scrip
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: Danforth, Wright & Company
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This note is listed in Wolka et al. as No. 696-1 with a rarity of R7 and Wolka as 2075-02 with a rarity noted as R4. The rarity scale ranges from R-1 to R-7, with R-7 indicating that between one and five specimens are known to exist. R-4 indicates that between twenty-six to fifty specimens are known to exist.
The Bank of Rensselaer was a state authorized free bank that began operation in January 1854 with a capital stock of $500,000 and Isaac Adams serving as president. As early as July 12, 1854, the bank was reported to have failed because brokers, especially those located in Cincinnati, refused to accept the bank’s notes despite the fact that they were “amply secured.” As late as December 2, 1854, however, the bank’s notes were still be accepted within the state at their par value.
By November 28, 1855, the Bank of Rensselaer’s notes were being devalued at 80 cents on the dollar. It is believed that the bank failed by the end of the year (1855). No legal outstanding notes were left in circulation according to state records. At the time the bank was established Rensselaer had a population of less than 400 and the surrounding agriculture community was quite dispersed. The limited population upon which to draw business likely affected the viability of the bank.
Isaac Adams was born in Wayne County, Ohio, on May 28, 1814, and died June 14, 1882, in Jasper County, Indiana; he is interred in Welsh Cemetery in Egypt, Jasper County, Indiana.
Source Information:
Daily Indiana State Sentinel, Indianapolis, Marion County, Indiana; December 2, 1854; Volume 4, Number 185, Page 1, Column 5. Column titled “Indiana Stock Banks at Par.”
Evansville Daily Journal, Evansville, Vanderburgh County, Indiana; February 25, 1854; Volume 6, Number 259, Page 2, Column 4. Column titled “New Free Banks.”
Evansville Daily Journal, Evansville, Vanderburgh County, Indiana; August 18, 1854; Volume 7, Number 96, Page 2, Column 3. Column titled “Indiana Banks.”
Putnam Republican Banner, Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana; November 28, 1855; Volume 3, Number 51, Page 4, Column 2. Column titled “Indiana Free Banks.”
Wolka, Wendell. 2018. A History of Indiana Obsolete Bank Notes and Scrip. Sun City Center, Florida: Wendell Wolka. 900 p. [see p. 680]
Wolka, Wendell A., Jack M. Vorhies, and Donald A. Schramm. 1978. Indiana Obsolete Notes and Scrip. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. 306 p. [see p. 220]
Copyright 2018. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Date: Circa 1871-1873
Source Type: Photograph, Carte de Visite
Publisher, Printer, Photographer: Archylus William Monfort and George Hill
Postmark: Not Applicable
Collection: Steven R. Shook
Remark: This carte de visite was included in a photograph album owned by Louise DeMotte Letherman and is labeled in pencil Grand Ma. It is believed to be a photograph of Mary (Brewer) DeMotte, mother of Mark L. DeMotte and grandmother of Louise DeMotte Letherman. Mary was born on March 6, 1783, and died October 21, 1866. She is buried in Forest Hill Cemetery in Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana.
On the reverse of the carte de visite is printed the following information:
MONFORT & HILL'S
NEW ART GALLERY
Sweny's New Block,
27 & 29 THIRD STREET,
BURLINGTON, IOWA.
The photograph has been dated between 1871-1873 when the Mark and Jane were residing in Iowa. Archylus William Monfort and George Hill's studio operated at 27 and 29 Third Street in Burlington, Des Moines County, Iowa, from 1871 to 1873.
Louise (DeMotte) Letherman was born August 21, 1859, in Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana, the daughter of Mark L. DeMotte and Elizabeth (Christy) DeMotte. She married Lawrence Letherman on May 3, 1883, in Valparaiso. Louise died at Malden, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, on September 24, 1905. Louise is buried in Valparaiso's Maplewood Cemetery.
Mark Lindsey DeMotte was born in Rockville, Parke County, Indiana, on December 28, 1832, the son of Daniel DeMotte and Mary (Brewer) DeMotte. He graduated from Asbury University (now DePauw University) in Greencastle, Putnam County, Indiana, with an A.B. degree in 1853 and immediately began studying law at this institution, earning his law degree (LL.B.) in 1855. DeMotte was soon admitted to the Indiana bar and began his practice of law at Valparaiso, Porter County, Indiana.
In December 1856, Elizabeth Christy wedded DeMotte in Valparaiso, a union that resulted in two children, Louise and Mary.
DeMotte would serve in the Civil War rising to the rank of captain under the command of General Robert H. Milroy. At the conclusion of the war, DeMotte moved to Lexington, Lafayette County, Missouri, to resume his practice of law. He was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress in the 1872 and 1876 elections.
DeMotte returned to Valparaiso in 1877 to practice law and would organize the Northern Indiana Law School in 1879, which later became known as the Valparaiso University School of Law (which went defunct in 2020).
DeMotte would again be a Republican candidate for Congress, winning the election of 1880, but would lose as an incumbent in the 1882 election. He would then serve in the Indiana State Senate between 1886 and 1890. He was appointed the postmaster of Valparaiso serving from March 24, 1890, to March 20, 1894. He would also serve as dean of the Northern Indiana Law School from 1890 to 1908.
DeMotte passed away on September 23, 1908, in Valparaiso and was interred in Maplewood Cemetery in that community.
Copyright 2020. Some rights reserved. The associated text may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Steven R. Shook.
Google translation from the French...
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The ships go to war
Here is a long saga. The episodes that follow are cited by Mr. Henry HOUARD honorary lieutenant, who was, from 1 November 1939 to October 10, 1940, Officer "trans" on the ship "El Djezair", became the auxiliary cruiser "X 17 "at the beginning of the war. The illustrations that accompany these memories come from the photo albums of M. Michel Paquet, whose uncle, Francis Ollive was purser of the same "El Djezair".
Before World War II, traffic, intense, between North Africa and the city was assured, for almost all, with regard to passengers, by the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique and the Compagnie de Navigation Mixte. Under the flag of the latter three small sailing ships bearing the names of Djezair El, El Mansour and El Kentara. The first two, the most recent, were absolutely identical ("sister ships"), the third oldest in a little different. They were small vessels (3 to 4 000 t) but fast (20 knots) and scored a comfortable enough, given the brevity of the crossings. Certainly they did not look imposing large Transat, the City of Algiers and Oran City, but that rather, the large yachts smooth silhouette.
So they pursue their civilian careers, silent and forth between Marseille and Port-Vendres, Algiers and Tunis. Then, in September 1939, everything changed. Pipes to the acronym "NM" disappeared from the Mediterranean.
These three ships, under their stylish look, were not so innocent as that! In their construction, and probably in return for state support (already), they were designed to become, if applicable, auxiliary cruisers. Bridges, in the space provided for artillery platforms were strengthened, the location of the central station fire control remained free electrical cables needed were gone; bunkers and ammunition had elevations location in the hold, and finally seemed powerful radio equipment, for the time and for vessels that remain in the Mediterranean.
"El" to X
From September 1939 the three "EL" were found in sites of Seyne to become the three "X": X-17, respectively, and X-06 X 16. A swarm of workmen made the necessary changes: changes of the silhouette in the sense of discretion and to this end the chimney back, to present a simple matter of aesthetics, was withdrawn and all superstructures painted gray.
Then they installed a powerful artillery. September carriages 130, 75 A two carriages and two double machine gun 13.2. over all facilities essential accessories: rangefinders, fire control systems, tankers, etc.. The optical transmission means were also increased: signal lamps and double morocco for pavillonnerie.
In the month of October, while the work drew to a close, the manning was completed. The entire staff which armed ships in time of peace was maintained and the staff are supplemented by reserve or active duty, especially in the specialties of arms and transmission. The commanders of the three vessels have remained in office and reserve officers or not, have been given the rank of Commander Auxiliary and temporary. The same procedure was adopted for second officers with the rank of auxiliary lieutenant.
The "El Djezair" with a single stack, just before the Second World War.
In operation, they were to form a division under the command of Admiral Cadart cons, of the 2nd Division, who hoisted his mark on the X-17. It was therefore with a staff including chief of staff, transport officer (all three active), Commissioner, doctor, dentist and chaplain. Those who, like Henry Houard, lived near him every day, not soon forget this great figure.
With ended his active career as a captain commanding one of the three Lorraine in the Atlantic Fleet under the command of Admiral de Laborde - hard school he symbolized for all the true sailor's beard "squared ", an enormous pipe in his mouth constantly. It was the officer of the bridge type, whose career had not made in the backrooms of the Rue Royale. For all, despite some rigidity in the service, he was the "Father Cadart," a term which we must see more of affection and familiarity.
In this crew, a beautiful day of November 39, three El doubled the tip of St. Mandrier to indulge in a few days of intensive training before going into operation.
The "police" of the Atlantic
After a little rest in Toulon and the additional supplies, it was off to Casablanca. Based in that port, Cadart division was given the job of establishing a kind of dam in the Atlantic. In this ocean that these three ships were attending for the first time, the mission was clear: capture German cargo ships or sailing under another flag, but the benefit of Germany.
By accident or on information, several freighters were boarded and headed for Casablanca. Others were left free after reviewing the documents on board and the nature of cargo, by a team of one of the three cruisers. Few shots across the bow to bring to reason those who were late to stop military actions were the only of this period which lasted until February 1940.
That's when the division was in Casablanca rally around Brest unspecified. It was war. Soon arrived at Brest, the three "X" were supported by the arsenal .. New transformations permitted to advance assumptions about the fate of the Division.
Draft Far North
Designed for navigation in the gentle waters under the Mediterranean sun they could, in the state, the rigors of the North. Heating systems were strengthened, all exterior ducts insulated and equipped with Canadian men and woolen hats. Also air defense was increased two carriages 130 to the front carriages were replaced by two double 37-AA.
Everything was planned for the Far North Mission Division Cadart reserved by the Admiralty in agreement with the English who appreciated highly the qualities and capabilities of these three boats. "Fast And The Three small ships" they said. It was necessary to rescue Finland, attacked by the USSR and Germany.
Failing to reach the White Sea, too unhealthy, the only port possible was Petsamo on the Arctic Ocean, beyond the North Cape. Everything was ready for the equipment but no orders came. The expedition was canceled Petsamo. Why? Perhaps the information they have collected on the precariousness of the Nazi-Soviet pact. Or more simply, this expedition may have been considered too adventurous? Other projects have then been scaffolded in which the division Cadart found its place?
Click to enlarge
El Mansour "saw the bridge of" El Djezair ".
On the bridge of "El Djezair" against the Admiral Cadart (right) and the second class midshipman H. Houard narrator of the story
We will interrupt one-\ time the story of Henri Houard to publish excerpts from a book out of print, dating from 1957, written by Father P. Parquin, who was chaplain on board the auxiliary cruiser " X-17 "(pre-war" El Djezair. "With two other ships, the" El Mansour "and" El Kantara " the " X 17 "should participate in combat operations since 1939. These passages give us the opportunity to present additional pictures.
Since the campaign began, three El have been used for the navy, they were used in a convoy of troops to Beirut. A tragic accident at sea marked the beginning. In the night two trains collided. In the outburst of sirens, car horns hoarse screams, stamps chadburn, cries "Away all!" Buildings collide, sheets wrinkle and human bodies are crushed. The ship landed in Malta Chenonceaux fifteen dead and cons destroyer Vulture, whose rabota bridge, port side, the front of "El Djezair", had six serious injuries. Since then, our hull door, in the sheet metal building, a long scratch on the port bow, evocation of a night terror.
Linguistic sea
The father Parquin evokes the origin of names given to three ships. Recall that the word which the boat is adorned with bow and stern (El Djezair) is the Arabic term designating the city of Algiers. Linguists free to decline the different phases of the African word to reach the French noun. In our maritime style, the name of the boat, just about to be transformed into a diminutive, remained intact. At sea, its function taking precedence over the word Algerian, did appoint the Head of division: the "Admiral", an abbreviation of the generic term flagship ..
El Mansour means the great and beautiful. During the North African history, this term has been attributed to many sultans of Morocco. Besides Tlemcen are the ruins of the city of El Mansour. It had been built by a sultan of Morocco came to lay siege to Tlemcen. But he left his name. In the parlance of the division, the boat does change lives that Article Algerian "El" for the French translation of these two letters. C. Therefore, preventing the meeting of the two labial "L" and "M", ease of pronunciation unanimously decided the choice of the term The Mansour.
"X-16" El Kantara was named a Parade located in southern Algeria in the Sahara. near Biskra. The term Arab means the door of the desert.
A word of mouth capital
Come changes to the workings of Seyne previously described by Mr. Henry Houard. For Father Parquin he did not rule on board monastic silence ...
The El Mansour is not to be outdone by the flagship. And, on the other side, the two destroyers on hold, and Sword Corsair, who displayed their bare fishbone not yet expanded, vibrate in their frames pointing skyward like organ pipes. Amidst all this din, and in all these vibrations, the one who can work at his office is privileged. All the boat comes to shake the fever so if you happen, by weariness to close their eyes, you can believe transported the dentist's chair when you twist drill bits and the brain.
A Sunday, October 22, a pneumatic hammer, surely demonic, did not stop running around us, throughout the mass. For the songs, it was only the lesser evil. For the sermon, it was a disaster at least for my voice.
We talk all the same in this boat, but wide open mouth and into the whorl of the ear of your listener. The bottom of the corridor serving the cabins of the Majority (Staff), hear through two or three closed doors, someone who talks like a bridge in a storm:
- You see Commander, if we put that gun there on the bridge as shown in the plan, the room tear the floor from the first shell. We'll have épontiller that bridge until the hold!
- That's right, Admiral, Commander Carpenter screams confidence.
Shy maintenance which is a crucial challenge.
Click to enlarge
The three "El" in a row. " El Mansour "at the bottom," El Kantara "between the two, and" El Djezair "in the foreground.
Click to enlarge
An anti-aircraft machine gun on " El Djezair ".
Cadart division, made up of various vessels with auxiliary cruisers "El Djezair", "El Mansour" and "El Kantara," must, in April 1940, sailing from Brest to join the north of Norway and landed troops there. But the mission is canceled. On board, we wonder: other projects do they expect the division? This is the question answered here, officer " Trans " of "El Djezair" Mr. Henry Houard.
This question soon found an answer: what was the operation of Norway. He had cut off the German troops landed in the south who were heading north to protect the iron road. An ore mined in northern Sweden, indispensable to the German war industry. Of French and British troops were then landed at Narvik, including old acquaintances, "Cities of Algiers" and "City of Oran", the Transat.
The division Cadart, she was entrusted with a diversion on the German rear: landing of troops (Alpine troops) in the fjord Namsons, 100 nautical note of Trondheim. The embarkation of these troops and their equipment is made in Brest. The division sailed for Norway escorted by the destroyer against "Bison" and the light cruiser "Emile Bertin." "The poor guy" M Houard adds, referring to the Alpini had never seen the sea They did not embark. They had to carry on the ladder! "
Stuck in a fjord
Uneventful crossing. On arrival at nightfall, April 27, 1940, a Norwegian driver took over the convoy at the entrance of the fjord. The escorts were left on the outside to keep their freedom of maneuver. For the sailor accustomed to the vast horizons of the open sea, the entry and journey into the fjord gave the impression of being trapped Basically, a small town flirt grouped around its church, the people friendly and welcoming, Finally, a sense of calm and sweetness of life, far removed from war.
The landing took place in the nu t on a small wooden jetty where boats docked all three in turn. Then head out with a big "Whew!" Of relief.
The secrecy of the operation Namsos was well kept. Had they known, the Germans could attack by air, inside the fjord, away from DCA. It would have been a massacre. Taking back the convoy training, empty of troops, and zigzag road to Scapa Flow in Orkney away nets and the DCA of the English fleet.
The Germans attacked the fjord until the next day and subsequent days. The troops having been landed
unfold, the losses were insignificant. The village of Namsos, there remained a heap of ashes.
But the rest of our group to Scapa Flow was short lived. Indeed, the situation deteriorated rapidly in Norway. Division Cadart, always available, was shipped to Namsos to embark on May 3, not the French Alpine troops but British troops turned back by the Germans and completely demoralized.
The Namsos that we found in ruins a week later, Namsos dapper and welcoming that we had remembered. After a rembarquernent crash during the night, leaving the fjord took place at dawn. Training under convoy of British destroyers and road in Great Britain. That's when things soured s.
The escort ships were there, faithful to the post. They devoted themselves to sudden changes because of enemy submarines had been reported. The attack came from heaven. The convoy was the target of Messerschmitt 109 fighter-bomber crashing in waves all day May 3. Either they had been lucky or they are very handy, they were able to maneuver to avoid the bombs, the three "El" fared intact. It was not the same for the escort: the "Bison" was sunk, the "Emile Bertlin" damaged by a bomb that had crossed from top to bottom without exploding. Several enemy planes were shot down.
At the front of "El Djezair", you can see the artillery platforms.
The old ships carrying British troops that they are repatriated. Under the protection of British destroyers, they are on Greenock Road.
Soon reached the 8 May 40: the rush of German mechanized divisions across Belgium, the breakthrough at Sedan, the siege of the Franco-British forces and Dunkirk. French troops are in England. In the hope, vain, to counteract the surging German forces in France, it was decided to bring them back to Brest. The three "El" was still available to provide transportation in part. Thus the "small and fast ships" found themselves in Brest at the beginning of June.
With current events, one could believe their military careers ended. It did not happen. In the general debacle, he had to save everything he could to save, and among other things, the gold of the Banque de France stored in forts around Brest. Again, the Division Cadart was put to use for transportation to Africa.
Gold in Dakar
For 48 hours, while everything that could float left Brest, sometimes jumping on magnetic mines by aircraft launched by the Germans, an endless stream of trucks requisitioned civilians, realized the clock moving boxes of bullion, since the strong up Wharf Lannion. At first, the trucks were escorted by riot police then, there remained the driver when the troops had evacuated the town.
Controller of the Bank of France was on hand to point out the crates. He boarded the El Djezair with them. The most extraordinary in all this is that with the exception of one case probably escaped from a net and fell into the water, there was no shortage!
Equipment on June 18, hours before the Germans arrived, with orders to reach Casablanca without escort protection. Uneventful crossing.
The Armistice was signed. Before the lusts that could cause the loading of the three "El", both by the Germans than English, it was decided to put the gold away in Dakar. And three "El" to sail again, still without protection and with orders to avoid English cruisers might be interested a little too close to the loading ... It's along the coast and closer to the shelter of a sand storm providential that limited visibility to a few miles (speed cameras did not exist at that time) that the Division reached its destination. She found the Richelieu left Brest a few days before it.
Gold could be landed and buried at Fort Thies, lost in the sands. where he remained until 1945. Thus ended the campaign of the Division Cadart. The ships were disarmed, the crews returned to their homes, except the necessary personnel to guard and security. Present in Dakar during the attack of 23, 24 and 25 September 1940, they have taken no part.
The three auxiliary cruisers were cited twice in the order of the Nation, during operations in Norway.
The finder of "El Djezair" discrete beacon signaling, was built on board, according to the plans of Henry Houard.
What happened to "El Djezair", "El Mansour" and "El Kantara" after traveling to Norway and then in Dakar in 1940, you indicated to finish.
The steamer "El Mansour" crossing the Mediterranean after the war (return to service date of August 15, 1948). He no longer has a fireplace as a result of its transformation in 1938.
Déréquisitionné November 16, 1940, after the events in Dakar, El Djezair wins Marseille with the two other El shipyards in the Mediterranean Seyne take charge of its restoration. With his brother El Mansour and El Kantara their eldest, he assures, in 1941 some connections with North Africa, then laid up at Marseilles, he took the sea in 1942.
Seized by the Germans in 1943, they yield to the Italians as the Casino. Retaken by the Germans at the end of that year, he is disarmed in the Thau lagoon. In June 144, during an Allied air bombardment, El Djezair receives bombs, burned and capsized.
The life of this brave nvire're not completely finished because, in 1950, the wreck will be bailed out and sold in Italy. Recovered its machines will be transplanted to a new El
Rescue "Littoria"
The existence of her sister ship El Mansour will be much longer and happier. Built to sites from the Mediterranean to the Seine, commissioned in 1933, it will be for more than thirty years, one of the fastest ships in the Mediterranean and comfortable. El Mansour, weighing 5835 tx for a length of 122 m, will carry 383 passengers and its speed will be over 20 knots. He will know the Italian government praise for rescuing the crew of the seaplane Littoria and shells of Spanish Republicans in 1938.
During the war, he shared the fate of his younger El Djezair of the 1st division of auxiliary cruisers (DCX) and then was seized by the Germans in 1943. Italian as a moment then back Amagni German scuttled by them in August 1944 in the port of Marseille, salvaged in 1946, he underwent an overhaul in two years at La Ciotat.
From 1948 to 1963, when it was sold to the Navy, it will honor its flag, its owners and its shipyards. Navy turns it into basic building under the name of Maine, and he will therefore still in Tahiti, for the atomic bomb tests in the Pacific.
Two Chimneys low
In 1974, it will be delisted from the fleet and sunk by a cannon advised on April 3. The end of the boat as El Mansour goal sadden all lovers of ships, particularly those who are known.
The existence of the eldest of El will, too, very animated. El Kantara, built in 1932 at Swan Hunter shipyards in Britain, was in some ways the prototype of the series. Since its commissioning on-line Port-Vendres Algiers, its elegant silhouette, with its two low stacks and rear cruiser rallies all votes. Characteristics: 5080 tx, length 121 m, speed: over 20 knots, passengers: 360.
He released a grounding in 1936 with the help of his cousin El Mansour. In January 1943 he will also, before leaving the German authorities then shipped to Italy, April 23 following, Aquino (his new name) carrying troops from Livorno to Tunis, will be bombarded and burned by the Royal Air Force .
Rarely will a trio of ships had as much success with clients on both sides of the Mediterranean. The commissioning of these three El has symbolized the height of the mixed company of Navigation.
Readers wishing more details may refer to the book by Bernard Bernadac on the history of the Compagnie de Navigation Mixte.
Go to the Book with image in the Internet Archive
Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 5 Nos. 1-4, 1911
Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Publisher:
Sponsor:
Contributor:
Date: 1911
Language: eng
Vol. 5, No. 1<br /><br />Preface... ... . ..... . . .. ......... .. ... .... . ... . .. . .... .. . . ..... . .. . . . ..... . v<br />Special articles ............. . ....... . . . .. . ............... . ............1<br />Diphtheria prophylaxis in the Navy. by C. S. Butler. .... . .. .. . ...1<br />Notes on "606," by Raymond Spear.. . .... .. . ... .. .. . ... ..... . ........ . . 4<br />Recent diagnostic methods in otology applicable to the naval service, by<br />G. B. Trible.... . . .. .... ...... . . .......... .. .. . .. 6<br />Bier's method of treatment in acute gonorrheal arthritis, by H.F. Strine. 12<br />Problems of sanitation in landing and expeditionary service in tropical and<br />subtropical regions, translation by P. J. Waldner.. .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. 13<br />The mental examination of candidates for enlistment in the Navy and<br />Marine Corps, by Heber Butts.. . ......... . . . .............. . .... . . . .... 29<br />The recent outbreak of cholera in Italy, by C. J. Holeman.. ..... .. . .. . . . 38<br /><br />United States Naval Medical School Laboratories... ... ... .. ... .. .......... . . 41<br />The United States National Museum in its relation to other Government<br />scientific collections, by P. E . Garrison .... . . . .. . .. . ..... . ..... .,..... 41<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, June-August, 1910....... . ... . .... ... . . ........ . .... . 43<br />Recent additions to the pathological collection, United States Naval Medical School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 43<br /><br />Suggested devices............ . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . ..... . . . .. . ... . . . ..... . . . .. . 46<br />A sanitary garbage-can holder, by H. C. Kellers. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 46<br />The blanket splint, by F. X. Koltes..... ..... ... . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45<br /><br />Clinical notes.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />Reports of four transfusions by the vein-to-vein method with curved glass<br />tubes, by A. M. Fauntleroy.. . . . . . . . .. . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />Bilateral inguino-superficial hernia with bilateral undescended testicle,<br />by H. C. Curl...... . ..... . .. . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51<br />Larvae in the deep urethra and bladder, by H. F. Strine..... ... .. . . .. ... 51<br />An extensive razor wound of throat, by W. G. Farwell. ...... . ....... ..... 62<br />Report of two cases of heat cramps on U. S. S. Charleston, by H. A. May... 53<br />Fatigue and exhaustion in the fireroom, by F. G. Abeken .... ... . ... .. . . 67<br />A case of diabetes mellitus, by J.B. Dennis and A. C. Stanley . ........... 58<br />Sciatica incident to physical test (50-mile walk), by J. A. B. Sinclair..... 58<br />Poisoning resulting from the injection of bismuth paste, by C. B. Camerer... 59<br /><br />Current comment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61<br />The medical library on the U. S. S. Solace... . ..... .. ......... .... . ... .. 61<br />Dioxydiamidoarsenobenzol in the treatment of syphilis. .. . .. . .. . . . . . . ... 61<br />New blank forms and instructions pertaining thereto.. . .. .... . ... . . ..... 63<br />A case of yellow fever reaches Honolulu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences. . ....... ... . .. . . . .. . . . ... . . .. . .... . ... .. ... . .. 67<br />General medicine. . .. .. ... . . .. . .... .. ... .. . .. . . .. . .. ..... .. . .. ........ 67<br />A modern conception of the psychoneuroses; status thymolymphaticus and its relation to sudden death; the Cammidge test in experimental pancreatitis and other conditions; hiccough in course of diaphragmatic pleurisy treated by Laborde's method ; fatigue the cause of enuresis; pellagra, some clinical and other features of the disease; is mercury a specific in pulmonary tuberculosis; a case of an acute febrile and probably infectious disease of unknown origin; further remarks on duodenal alimentation ; pemphigoid eruptions in typhoid<br />fever, A. W. Dunbar and J . L. Neilson . .. . .... . ... . . . .. . ... . . . .. 67<br />Surgery - The special field of neurological surgery, five years later; hypodermic injections in action, suggestions for simplifying their administration; the result of 168 operations for hernia; modern treatment of<br />fractures; report of two cases of revolver shot wound of the brain; haemophilia; the exclusion of the skin in surgery; removal of foreign bodies<br />from the bronchi; some notes on the use of nitrous oxid and oxygen for<br />prolonged anesthesia; the end results of prostatectomy, R. Spear and<br />E. Thompson ... . . . .. .. . .. . .... . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76<br />Hygiene and sanitation - Ventilation of ships, particularly merchant ships;<br />oral prophylaxis; recruiting in the German army; concerning the sources<br />of infection in cases of venereal diseases in the city of New York; the<br />effect of a mosquito net on the air within it, H. G. Beyer and C. N.<br />Fiske. .. . . .. ... . .. . .. . . .. . ... . . . . . .. . .. . . . ... . .... .. ... .... .. .. ..... 87<br />Tropical medicine - The rationale of quinine prophylaxis; a case of sleeping<br />sickness studied by precise enumerative methods; statistical study of<br />uncinariasis among white men in the Philippines, C. S. Butler.. . .. .. . .. 95<br />Pathology and bacteriology - A case of typhoid meningitis; complement fixation in thrombo-angiitie obliterans; personal observations on the Ehrlich-Hata "606;" certain aspects of the bacteriology of bacillary dysentery; a rapid presumptive test for diarrhea caused by the gas bacillus; investigation into the acid-fast bacteria found in the faeces with special reference to their presence in cases of tuberculosis; on the nature of the cellular elements presence in milk; infection of a still-born infant by an amoebiform protozoan (entamooba mortinatalium), O. J . Mink.. . . ..... . 99<br />Medical zoology - Ulcerating granuloma of the pudenda a protozoal disease<br />(preliminary communication); report of 15 cases of hymenolepis nana,<br />P. E. Garrison ... .... ... . ... ... .... .. ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. 102<br />Chemistry and pharmacy - Studies in OEdema. VI. The influence of adrenaline on absorption from the peritoneal cavity, with some remarks<br />on the influence of calcium chloride on absorption ; the action of mercury<br />and iodine in experimental syphilis; a protein reaction in the blood of the insane; chemistry of the antigen used in the Wassermann reaction; a lack of oxygen not a cause of death in cases of diminished air pressure; influence of mercury on the results of the serum reaction in antisyphilitic treatment; quantitative determination of albumin in the urine;<br />E.W. Brown and O. G. Ruge ............. . ............ ... ..... 104<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - The use of carbon dioxide snow in eye work;<br />preliminary communication of a new method for the prevention and treatment<br />of sympathetic ophthalmitis, E. M. Shipp......... .. . .. ... ... .. . 106 <br />Reports and letters .. . . . ...... . .... . .... . ... . . ... . ... . .. . . . .. . . 109<br />A visit to the Leper Settlement, Molokai, Hawaii, J. D. Gatewood .... ... . 109<br />Report on the meeting of the American Public Health Association, 1910,<br />C. N. Fiske. . ... ......... .. .. . .. . . . ... . . . ...... . . . .... .. . . ..... ... . . . 114<br />Report on the meeting of the American Hospital Association, 1910, A. W.<br />Dunbar.. . .. .. .... . ... . ... .. . .. .. .. . . . .... ... ... ... .. .. .. ... . ....... 117<br />The latest word from Ehrlich........ . .............................. . .. 122<br /><br />Vol. 5, No. 2<br /><br />Preface... ... .. ... .. ........ ... .................. .... ..... .............. vii<br />Special articles.....................125<br />The intravenous administration of "606" in 56 case, by G. B. Trible and<br />H. A. Garrison ...................... 125<br />Ehrlich discusses "606," translation, by Dr. J.C. Bierwirth. . ...... . . . ... 134<br />Satisfactory results with a simplified Wassermann technique (Emery), by<br />E. R. Stitt. ..................... 142<br />Further notes on the preparation of a culture medium from dried blood<br />serum, by E. W. Brown... . . .. .... . . .. . .. .... . . ... ........ .. .. . .... 144<br />Note on the existence of Agchylostoma duodenale in Guam, by W. M. Kerr. .....................145<br />Intestinal parasites found among the crew of the U.S.S. South Dakota, by<br />E.G. Parker. .... . ..... .. . ..... .. . ..... ...... . .... ... . . ... .. ...... . 145<br />Results of an examination of Filipino mess attendants for intestinal parasites,<br />by W. A. Angwin and C. E. Camerer ..................... 147<br />The practical use of carbon dioxide snow as seen at the West London Hospital, by G. D. Hale. .. .... . .. . . . .. ... . . . .......... . .......... . ..... . 148<br />Nomenclature for causes of physical disability in the Navy, by 0. N.<br />Fiske.. . .. . .......................... . .. .. . .... .. . . .. ...... .. .. .. . 149<br /><br />United States Naval Medical School laboratories . . . . . . ..................... 159<br />An atypical typhoid bacillus, by O. J. Mink.. .. . .. ........ .. ........... 159<br />Notes on parasites found at animal autopsies in the Naval Medical School<br />laboratories during 1910, by C. S. Butler and P. E. Garrison.. . .. . ...... 159<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, December, 1910-February, 1911 . .. ... . . 161<br />Additions to the pathological collection, United States Naval Medical<br />School, December, 1910-February, 1911 . .... .162<br /><br />Suggested devices ...... . . . ... ... .. . . . . . . 163<br />An intestine tray for autopsies, by P. E. Garrison. . . .... .... .. .. .. .. .. ... 163<br />A suggested improvement in the method of taking finger prints, by F. H.<br />Brooks . .... .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. ... . .... .. .. .. .. . . .. .... . . .. .. . ..... . .. 164<br /><br />Clinical notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167<br />A case of cholecystectomy, by R. Spear. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 167<br />A case of fracture of the skull, by W. M. Garton. . . ... ... . ... . ........ . .. 168<br />Hypernephroma of right kidney, nephrectomy with recovery, by A. M.<br />Fauntleroy... ... .. ... .. ..... .... . .. . . ..... ..... . .... . ............. . 169<br />A case of general chronic perihepatitis, by E. R. Stitt .. . . . . . .. ...... . ... 171<br />Bacillary dysentery showing extreme toxaemia, by E. R. Stitt........ .. .. 173<br />Report on 10 cases of syphilis treated with "606," by U. R. Webb....... 173<br />A suspected case of gangosa, by O. J. Mink.. . . .. . ...... . .... .. . . . .... .... 178<br />Lamblia intestinalis and ascaris lumbricoides associated with amoebic dysentery by G. B. Trible . . . . . ... ....... . . . . .. . .. .. ... . .... . ........ . . . . . . 178<br />A case of pernicious anemia showing points of resemblance to kala azar,<br />by E. R. Stitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180<br />A case of amoebic dysentery with liver abscess by E. R. Stitt. . .. .. ... ... 180<br />A case of intussusception, by E. R. Stitt..... . . .. . . . . . .. ......... .. . .. . . . 181<br />Report of two unusual fracture cases, by J. B. Dennis and A. C. Stanley... 181<br />Associated tuberculosis and syphilis, by O. J. Mink and E. H. H. Old...... 182<br />An undesirable recruit, by Heber Butts............................ . . . . . 183<br />Report of six cases of appendicitis aboard the U.S. S. Tennessee, by M. K.<br />Johnson and W. L. Mann...... ... .......................... .. ........ 190<br /><br />Current comment... .. .................................................... 193<br />Notification of venereal diseases.............. . .......................... 193<br />The use of salvarsan in filarial disease.. ...................... . .......... 194<br />Howard Taylor Ricketts...................................... . ........ 195<br />Typhoid vaccination. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195<br />Further notes on the new blank forms..................................... 196<br />The bacteriology of acute poliomyelitis............. . .... .. .. ...... ..... 197<br />Hospital facilities at Montevideo.... .... . .............................. 197<br />A correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197<br />A course of instructive lectures . ......................................... 197<br />Physical culture......... ... . . ........... .. .......................... . . 198<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences...... . ................. . ..... . ............. . .. 199<br />General medicine - Haemoglobinuric fever on the Canal Zone; malingering; on the presence of a venous hum in the epigastrium in cirrhosis of the liver; the use of the X-ray in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis; mercury succinimid in the treatment of tuberculosis; high blood pressure in arteriosclerosis; the treatment and prognosis of exophthalmic goitre; some clinical methods of diagnosis of the functional activity of the heart; further notes on the treatment of paralysis agitans with parathyroid gland; on fever caused by the bite of the sand fly (Phlebotomus papatasii); Myzomyia roasii as a malaria carrier; a modified Caldwell kitchen incinerator for field use, by A. W. Dunbar and J. L. Xeilson....... 199<br />Surgery - The cause of death from shock by commercial electric currents<br />and the treatment of same; the best method of exposing the interior of the bladder in suprapubic operations; "606 "; a consideration of surgical methods of treating hyperthyroidism; genito-urinary diseases; radium therapy; the intravenous use of cocaine, report of a case; diseases of the stomach and duodenum from a surgical standpoint; dry iodine catgut; disinfection of the skin by tincture of iodine; the Roentgen-ray examination of the esophagus; solitary perforation of the ileum associated with strangulated and obstructed hernia; the time and method for prostatectomy; a practical mechanical method of end-to-end anastomosis of blood vessels; by R. Spear and E. \V . Thompson................... 213<br />Hygiene and sanitation - Sterilization of water on a large scale by means<br />of ultra-violet rays; nota sulla carne refrigerata e sui refrigeranti dei piroscafi; the American game of football, is it a factor for good or for evil? the hygiene of the simming pool ; "cordite eating"; the process of disinfection by chemical agencies and hot water; eggs, a study of eggs offered for sale as pure food; by H. G. Beyer and C. N. Fiske. ..... .. 226<br />Tropical medicine - Upon a new pathognomonic sign of malaria; a simple<br />method for the treatment of cholera; traitement de la trypanosomiase<br />humaine, by C. S. Butler. . .... .. ....... ... .. ...... . . . . ..... .. . ....... 237<br />Pathology and bacteriology - A method for the bacteriological standardization of disinfectants; microorganism found in the blood of acute cases of poliomyelitis; experimental rssearches upon typhus exanthematicus<br />done at the Pasteur Institute of Tunis during the year l910; bacteriology of human bile with especial reference to the typhoid carrier problem; the control of typhoid in the army by vaccination; experiments on transmission of bacteria by flies with special relation to an epidemic of bacillary dysentery at the Worcester State Hospital, Massachusetts, 1910; experiences in the use of vaccines in chronic suppuration of the nasal access0ry sinuses; histological study of skin lesions of pellagra; a resume of the evidence concerning the diagnostic and clinical value of the Wassermann reaction; experimentelle Beitrage zum Studium des Mechanismus der Immunkorper und Komplementwirkung; by O. J . Mink.............. 240<br />Chemistry and pharmacy.-The preparation of thyroid extract for therapeutic<br />purposes; the action of urinary antiseptics; wird eingenommenes<br />Chinin mit der Muttermilch ausgeschieden? Uebergang von Arzenmitteln<br />in die Milch; the quantitative estimation of albumin in the urine, by Tsuchiya's procss; the quantitative determination of albumin according to Tsuchiya; on the stability of the solutions prepared for Bang's method of estimating sugar in the urine, by E. M. Brown and O. G. Ruge.. . .......... 251<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - Tests for color-vision ; a note on the use of scarlet red in corneal diseases; report on progress in otology; ear disease and its prevention; the prevalence of middle ear disease in the [British] army, with a suggestion for a remedy; peritonsillar abscess; by E. M. Shipp. . ........ . . 266<br /><br />Reports and letters ............ 267<br />The surgical aspect of the engagement of La Ceiba, Honduras, by L. W.<br />Bishop and W. L. Irvine.......... . ......... . .. . ... . ....... . . . ...... 267<br />Extract from sanitary report of U.S.S. New Orleans, for the year 1901, by<br />W. F. Arnold... .. .. .. ....... ... . . . ... . . ... ..... . . ... . . . .. .. . . ....... 269<br /><br />Vol. 5, No. 3<br /><br />Preface...... ........... ................... .... ...... .... .. .... ...... .. ... v<br />Special articles: ·<br />Tropical diseases in their relation to the eye, by E. M. Shipp.... .... . . . . 271<br />Intravenous administration of salvarsan, by G. B. Trible and H. A.<br />Garrison. ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285<br />The mental examination of 50 recruits who became insane soon after enlistment, by Heber Butts........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295<br />Diagnosis and treatment of hernia in the Navy, by B. F. Jenness.... .. ... 313<br /><br />United States Medical School laboratories:<br />Davainea madagascariensis in the Philippine Islands, by P. E. Garrison. . 321<br />The interpretation of negative and weakly positive reactions in Noguchi's<br />complement fixation test, by M. E. Higgins... . .. . . . ....... . ......... 327<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, March-May, 1911........ . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328<br />Specimens added to the pathological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, March-May, 1911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328<br /><br />Suggested devices:<br />An improvised X-ray apparatus, by H. A. Harris. . . . ..... . .. .. . .. . . . . . . 331<br />Fracture of mandible with improved method of adjustment, by W. A.<br />Angwin .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332<br /><br />Clinical notes:<br />Gunshot wound of elbow, by Raymond Spear..... .. .. . .... . . . ... . . . ... . 335<br />Clinical symptoms appearing immediately after antityphoid inoculation,<br />by J. R. Phelps and G. F. Clark. . .. .... . .. ..... . . ... . . ... .. . .. . . . . . .. 336<br />Posterior gastro-enteroetomy three years after anterior gastro-enteroetomy,<br />by A. M. Fauntleroy... . .. ... .. ... . . ... . .. . . .. ... ... ... .. ..... . .. . . . 338<br />Pontine hemorrhage resulting from a blow in boxing, by H. C. Curl.. . . . . 340<br />Fracture of the zygoma, by R. B. Williams... ... .. . . ............ ....... 341<br />Death from unruptured thoracic aneurism, by E. P. Huff... . . .... . .. ... 342<br />A plastic pernicious anemia associated with agchyloetomiaeis, by E. R. Stitt. 345<br />Balantidium coli infection associated with amoebic dysentery, by G. B.<br />Trible..... . ..... ... . ... . . . ... . . . ....... . ........ . ..... .. . 346<br />Return of syphilitic symptoms after administration of salvarsan, by C. F.<br />Sterne. . ....... . .. . . . . .. . . ... . ..... . .... . ........ . .... . . . . .... . ... . . . 348<br />A case of syphilis which poeeibly demonstrates the efficacy of prophylaxis<br />against venereal diseases, by E. H. H. Old ... . . . . .. ..... 349<br />Cerebral syphilis in a native of Guam, by W. M. Kerr.. ... . . ... ... ..... 350<br />A case of autoserotherapy, by E. O. J. Eytinge and L. W. McGuire. ...... 351<br />Haemoglobinuric fever, by D. G. Sutton. . . . ...... . .. . .. .. . .... .. . .... .. 352<br />Shock caused by lightning stroke, by W. S. Hoen .... . .. . . ............ . . 353<br />An unusual cause of burn, by F. M. Munson.......... .. . . .. . ..... . .. .. 354<br />Traumatic extrusion of testicle, by J . A. B. Sinclair. . . .. . . . . ....... . ... 355<br /><br />Current comment: <br />Criticisms and suggestions relative to the health records . .. .. . . . · 357<br />Distinguished honors conferred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358<br />The closing exercises of the Naval Medical School... . ...... . .... . ... . . . 358<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences:<br />General medicine - Plague in Manchuria and its lessons; the treatment of<br />arthritis deformans; hereditary haemophilia, deficiency in the coagulability<br />of the blood the only immediate cause of the condition; discussion of acidosis, by A. W. Dunbar and J . L. Neilson .. ........ .. ... .. . . .... 361<br />Surgery - Laceration of the axillary portion of the shoulder joint as a factor in the etiology of traumatic combined paralysis of the upper extremity; tuberculosis of the kidney and ureter; injuries to the kidneys with end results; fracture of the patella; acute emergencies of abdominal disease; intestinal obstruction due to kinks and adhesions of the terminal ileum; the functions of the great omentum; treatment of peritonitis consecutive to appendicitis; treatment of ascites by drainage into the subcutaneous tissue of the abdomen; special dangers associated with operations on the biliary passages and their avoidance; a simple method for the relief of certain forms of odynphagia; by Raymond Spear and Edgar Thompson....... ...... . . ... . ... ... ... .. 365<br />Hygiene and sanitation - Food requirements for sustenance and work; carbo-gasoline method for the disinfection of books; typhoid fever and mussel pollution; the duty of the community toward ita consumptives; some aspects of tropical sanitation; table jellies; the significance of the bacillus carrier in the spread of Asiatic cholera; the value of vaccination and revaccination; prophylaxie de la syphilis; the value of terminal disinfection; a method for determining the germicidal value and penetrating power of liquid disinfectants; by H. G. Beyer and C. N. Fiske........... 377<br />Tropical medicine - Further researches on the hyphomycetes of tinea imbricata; the action of'' 606" in sleeping sickness; the action of salvarsan in malaria; the application of "606" to the treatment of kala-azar; the specific treatment of leprosy; the role of the infective granule in certain protozoa! infections as illustrated by the spirochaetosis of Sudanese fowls, preliminary note; by C. S. Butler. . .... . . . ..... . .. .. .. . . . . ... . ... .... 389<br />Pathology and bacteriology - Ehrlich's biochemical theory and its conception<br />and application; researches on experimental typhoid fever; a record of 90 diphtheria carriers; the serum diagnosis of syphilis; by M. E. Higgins. . . . 392<br />Medical zoology - Note on the presence of a lateral spine in the eggs of<br />Schistosoma japonicum; onchocerciasis in cattle with special reference<br />to the structure and bionomic characters of the parasite; by P. E.<br />Garrison .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397<br />Chemistry and pharmacy - The preparation of a convenient and stable litmus solution; a method to demonstrate and estimate the digestive fermenta in the feces; a simple method for the estimation of ammonia in the urine of diabetics for the recognition of acidosis; new process for sterilizing water by potassium permanganate; the colorimetric estimation of dextrose in urine; a new method for the estimation of sugar in the urine; by E.W. Brown and O. G. Ruge . .. . .. ... . . . ..... ... . . 398<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - Examination of the nose and throat in relation<br />to general diagnosis, results in asthma; the nonsurgical treatment of<br />cataract; by E. M. Shipp..... . . . .. . .. .. .. . .... .. ... . 400<br /><br />Reports and letters:<br />Plague conditions in North China, by W. D. Owens.......... .. .. ... ... 405<br /><br />Vol. 5, No. 4<br /><br />Preface ... .. . . . ............... . ...... ... ........................ .. ........ v<br /><br />Special articles:<br />The tenth convention of the second Hague conference of 1907, and its <br />relation to the evacuation of the wounded in naval warfare, by F. L.<br />Pleadwell (first paper) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409<br />Is gangoea a form of syphilis? by H. E. Odell....... .. ... . ............. 430<br />Salvarsan as a diagnostic and therapeutic agent in syphilis, by C. M.<br />George.... .. ............ ...... . . .. .... . . . .... . .. . 485<br />Flat foot and its relation to the Navy, by R. G. Heiner.. . ............... 451<br />Notes on submarine cruising, by I. F. Cohn............................ 455<br />Important features in the technique of carbon dioxide estimations in air,<br />by E. W. Brown... . ................. . .. . . . ... . ...... . ...... . ..... . . 457<br />The use of salvarsan on board the U.S.S. Michigan, by J . J. Snyder and<br />A. L. Clifton............. . . .. . . .............. . .................... . .. 459<br />Notes on vaccination, by A. B. Clifford... .. ........................... 461<br />The preparation of patient.e for operation at the United States Naval Hospital,<br />Norfolk, Va., by W. M. Garton.. . ..... .... .. .. ... . . . ...... ..... 462<br /><br />United States Naval Medical School laboratories:<br />Specimens added to the helminthological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, June-Aug., 1911 ........ . ... .......... . .. . .. 465<br />Specimens added to the pathological collection, United States Naval<br />Medical School, June-Aug., 1911.................... . .... . .. .. . ... . .. 465<br /><br />Suggested devices:<br />An apparatus for hoisting patients aboard the hospital ship Solace, by<br />E. M. Blackwell... . ............ . . . ................................ . . 467<br />An inexpensive and satisfactory ethyl chloride inhaler for general<br />anaesthesia, by J. H. Barton .. . . ... .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .... ...... 469<br /><br />Clinical notes:<br />Old "irreducible" dislocation of head of humerus, by H. C. Curl. . . . ... . 471<br />A case of brain tumor, by R. E. Hoyt.. .. .... .... . ...... . . .... . .. ........ 472<br />A case of brain abscess, by J. R. Phelps and G. F. Clark.. .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . 474<br />Report of two cases of cerebrospinal fever, by R. A. Bachmann.. . . . .... 477<br />A case of leprosy on board the U.S.S. Villalobos, by D. H. Noble....... 479<br />A case resembling gangosa, in which a treponema was found, by P. S.<br />Rossiter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481<br />A case extensively burned, by N. T. McLean.. ... .... .. . . .. . .. ... ... . . . 481<br />Acute pemphigus following vaccination, by R. Hayden.... ... . .... ..... . . 482<br />Two interesting cases on the U.S.S. Prairie, by C. C. Grieve . .. . . . .... . . 486<br />An atypical case of typhoid fever, by L. W. Johnson... . ... . .. . .... . .. . .. 488<br />Tolerance of the peritoneum rarely seen, by P. R. Stalnaker and G. W.<br />Shepard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489<br />Note on tincture of iodine, by R. Spear...... . . . . . ... . ... .... . .. . .. ..... 490<br />Notes on salvarsan, by R. Spear..... . ...... . .............. . ..... . . ..... 491<br /><br /><br />Current comment :<br />Instructions relative to medical returns ... ....... . ..... . ............... .493<br />Clinical cards .. ........... ... . . .. .. ... . .... . . . . . .. . ... . .. . ......... . . .494<br />Measles in Samoa . ................ .. . ... . . . . ... . ....................... .495<br />The conservation of the public health ........ . .................... .496<br />Closure of the naval stations at San Juan and Culebra ....... .. .. . . . ..... 498<br />New pavilion for the practice of thoracic surgery ........ . ..... ...... 498<br />The Bellevue Hospital nomenclature of diseases and conditions, 1911 .... .498<br /><br />Progress in medical sciences:<br />General medicine - Pathological and experimental data derived from a<br />further study of an acute infectious disease of unknown origin; the mode<br />of transmission of leprosy; genesis of incipient tuberculisus; a method<br />for determining the absolute pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid; the after<br />history of cases of albuminuria occurring in adolescence; the stereoscopic<br />X-ray examination of the chest with special reference to the diagnosis of<br />pulmonary tuberculosis; the use of antiformin in the examination for the<br />tubercle bacillus; by A. W. Dunbar and J. L. Neilson ............. . . . 501<br />Surgery - The control of bleeding in operations for brain tumors; intravenous<br />anesthesia from hedonal; the difficulties and limitations of diagnosis in advanced cases of renal tuberculosis; the treatment of X-ray ulcer; nephroureterectomy; by Raymond Spear and Edgar Thompson .. 511<br />Hygiene and Sanitation - A simple method of purifying almost any infected<br />water for drinking purposes; the physiology of the march; wall paper and illumination; vaccination et serotherapie anticholeriques; upon the<br />inoculation of materia morbi through the human skin by fleabites; garbage receptacles; the relative influence of the heat and chemical impurity of close air; method for measuring the degree of vitiation of the air of inclosed spaces; by H. G. Beyer and C.N. Fiske . .. . .. ..... . 518<br />Tropical medicine - The diagnosis of pellagra; researches upon acarids <br />among lepers; action of "606" upon malaria; by C. S. Butler ......... . 523<br />Pathology and bacteriology - An outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by<br />B. paratyphosus; infection of rabbits with the virus of poliomyelitis; the<br />mechanism of the formation of metastases in malignant tumors; a method<br />for the pure cultivation of pathogenic treponema pallidum; by Y. E .<br />Higgins .. .... .. .. . ..................... .. ..... . ............. . ...... . 528<br />Medical zoology - On Kwan's fluke and the presence of spines in<br />fasciolopsis; endemic Mediterranean fever (Malta fever) in southwest<br />Tcxas; by P. E. Garrison . ..... . .......... .. . . .... . .... . ........... . . . 532<br />Chemistry and pharmacy - Detection of blood by means of leuco-malachitegreen; an improved form of Heller's ring test for detection of albumin in the urine; an important reagent for Fehling's method for sugar estimation; method for the estimation of urotropin in the urine; detection of amylolytic ferments in the feces; new technique for the estimation of total nitrogen, ammonia, and urea in the urine; chemotherapy and "606" by E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge ............... 533<br />Eye, ear, nose, and throat - Defective vision and its bearing on the question<br />of fitness for service; "606 ' ' and eye diseases; by E. M. Shipp ... .. .. .538<br /><br />Reports and letters:<br />American Medical Association meeting, by C. P. Bfagg .. .. .... . .....550<br />Sanitary report on Kiukiang, Kiangse Province, China, by D. H. Noble ...550<br />Index to volume V ...............559<br />Subject index .......... . ........ . ....................... 559<br />Author's index . . . ........ . ..... . ......... . ......... . 570<br /><br /><br />
If you have questions concerning reproductions, please contact the Contributing Library.
Note: The colors, contrast and appearance of these illustrations are unlikely to be true to life. They are derived from scanned images that have been enhanced for machine interpretation and have been altered from their originals.
Read/Download from the Internet Archive
Name/Alias: Kira Elric / KamuiYamato
Character and source (if applicable): Hatsune Miku / World's End Dancehall / Project Diva F
Wig and color: Chibi with two long clips in Ocean Green
Photographer credit: ArtistiCaise Cosplay Photography
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
During the interwar period, the U.S. Navy Command had placed considerable emphasis upon the role of armed aerial reconnaissance aircraft. To meet this interest, during 1931, the young Great Lakes Aircraft Company (founded in 1929 in Cleveland, Ohio) decided to embark on the development of a new naval combat aircraft to meet this role. The new aircraft, which was designated as the SBG, was a relatively modern all-metal design, even though some conservative traits like a fixed landing gear were kept.
The SBG was a low-wing cantilever monoplane, featuring all-metal, metal-covered construction. The crew of three consisted of a pilot, a bombardier and a rear gunner. The bombardier's combat station was situated in a gondola underneath the hull. The pilot was positioned well forward in the fuselage with an excellent field of view, within a fully enclosed, air-conditioned and heated cockpit, while the observer was seated directly behind him and could descend into the ventral gondola during applicable parts of a given mission, where he had an unobstructed field of view underneath the aircraft. A lookout station at the gondola’s front end could be outfitted with a bombsight.
The fixed undercarriage was covered with spats and comprised a pair of cantilever struts and single tail wheel, all of which were outfitted with pneumatic shock absorbers. One of the more unusual features of the SBG was the design of its three-piece low-mounted wing: In order to produce a wing that was both light and strong, the wing construction combined a revolutionary heavy-gauge corrugated duralumin center box and a multi-cellular trailing edge, along with a partially stressed exterior skin composed of duralumin. It was one of the earliest implementations of a metal sandwich structure in the field of aviation. Furthermore, the wings could, for storage on carriers, be manually folded back, just outside of the landing gear.
The fuselage of the SBG had an oval-section structure, composed of a mixture of duralumin frames and stringers, which were strengthened via several struts on the middle section. The fuselage exterior was covered with smooth duralumin sheet, which was internally reinforced in some areas by corrugated sheeting. The rear fuselage featured a semi-monocoque structure. A cantilever structure composed of ribs and spars was used for the tail unit; fin and tail plane were covered by duralumin sheeting, while the rudder and elevators had finely corrugated exterior surfaces.
The SBG’s original powerplant was a Pratt & Whitney R-1830-64 Twin Wasp radial engine of 850 hp (630 kW). The aircraft's offensive payload consisted of bombs. These were carried externally underneath the fuselage and the wings, using racks; the maximum load was a single 1,935 lb. (878 kg) Bliss-Leavitt Mark 13 aerial torpedo or 1,500 lb. (700 kg) of bombs, including a single 1,000 lb. (450 kg) bomb under the fuselage and up to 200 lb. under the outer wings.
The SBG was also armed with several machine guns, including rearward-facing defensive ventral and dorsal positions, each outfitted with a manual .30 in (7.62 mm) Browning machine gun. Another fixed machine gun fired, synchronized with the engine, forward through the propeller arc.
The first XSBG-1 prototype, which was christened “Prion” by Great Lakes, was ready in early 1934 and made its maiden flight on 2nd of April. While the aircraft handled well, esp. at low speed, thanks to generously dimensioned flaps, it soon became clear that it was seriously underpowered. Therefore, Great Lakes tried to incorporate a more powerful engine. The choice fell on the new Pratt & Whitney R-2180-A Twin Hornet. However, the bigger and heavier engine called for considerable changes to the engine mount and the cowling. The R-2180 also precluded the fixed machine gun, so it was, together with the synchronization gearbox, deleted. Instead, a pair of .30 in machine guns were added to the spats, which were deepened in order to take the weapons and the magazines.
Furthermore, the heavier engine shifted the aircraft’s center of gravity forward, so that the tail section had to be lengthened by roughly 1’ and the tail surfaces were enlarged, too. Various other alterations were made to the wings, including the adoption of more effective slotted ailerons, improved flaps and center-section slots. The latter feature served to smooth the airflow over the tail when flown at high angles of incidence. However, despite these changes, the SBG’s good handling did not suffer, and the modified XSBG-2 took to the air for the first time in late 1935, with a much better performance.
Satisfied with the changes, the US Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) placed an initial order for 54 SBG-2s in 1936 with the aircraft entering service during 1938, serving on USS Yorktown and Enterprise. However, faults were discovered with the Mark XIII torpedo at this point. Many were seen to hit the target yet failed to explode; there was also a tendency to run deeper than the set depth. It took over a year for the defects to be corrected. Another problem of the SBG when carrying the torpedo was the aimer’s position, which was located directly behind the weapon and obstructed the bomb aimer’s field of view forward. When deploying bombs from higher altitudes, this was not a problem at all, but as a consequence the SBG rarely carried torpedoes. Therefore, a second order of 48 aircraft (designated SBG-3) were pure bombers. These lacked any torpedo equipment, but they received a ventral displacement yoke that allowed to deploy bombs in a shallow dive and release them outside of the propeller arc. Furthermore, the bomb aimer/observer station received a more generous glazing, improving the field of view and offering the prone crewman in this position more space and comfort. Another modification was the reinforcement of the underwing hardpoints, so that these could now carry stores of up to 325 lb each or, alternatively, drop tanks. While the total payload was not changed, the SBG-3 could carry and deploy up to three depth charges against submarines, and the extended range was a welcome asset for reconnaissance missions.
In prewar use, SBG units were engaged in training and other operational activities and were gradually approaching the end of their useful service life with at least one aircraft being converted to target tug duty. By 1940, the US Navy was aware that the SBG had become outclassed by the fighters and bombers of other nations and a replacement was in the works, but it was not yet in service when the US entered World War II. By then, attrition had reduced their numbers to just over 60 aircraft, and with the arrival of the Curtiss SB2C “Helldiver” in December 1942, the obsolete SBGs were retired.
General characteristics:
Crew: 3
Length: 31 ft 9 in (9.682 m)
Wingspan: 45 ft 9 in (13.95 m)
Height: 10 ft 10 in (3.3 m)
Wing area: 288 sq ft (26.8 m²)
Empty weight: 4,251 lb. (1,928 kg)
Gross weight: 6,378 - 6,918 lb. (2,893 - 3,138 kg) for reconnaissance missions
7,705 - 7,773 lb (3,495 - 3,526 kg) for bombing missions
Fuel capacity: 200 US gal (740 l; 160 imp gal) in six wing tanks plus
7.9 US gal (30 l; 6.6 imp gal) in a gravity feed collector tank in the fuselage
18 US gal (70 l; 15 imp gal) of engine oil was also carried in a forward fuselage tank
Powerplant:
1 × Pratt & Whitney R-2180-A Twin Hornet 14 cylinder radial engine with 1,200 hp (865 kW),
driving a 3-bladed Hamilton-Standard Hydromatic, 11 ft 3 in (3.43 m) diameter constant-speed
fully-feathering propeller
Performance:
Maximum speed: 245 mph (395 km/h, 213 kn) at 3,650 m (11,980 ft)
210 mph (338 km/h, 183 kn) at sea level
Stall speed: 110 km/h (68 mph, 59 kn)
Range: 1,260 km (780 mi, 680 nmi)
Service ceiling: 7,300 m (24,000 ft)
Time to altitude: 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in 4 minutes
4,000 m (13,000 ft) in 11 minutes 10 seconds
Wing loading: 116 kg/m² (24 lb/sq ft) to 130 kg/m2 (27 lb/sq ft)
Power/mass: 6.3–6.8 kg/kW (10.4–11.2 lb/hp)
Armament:
2x fixed forward firing 0.30 “ (7.62 mm) Browning machine guns in the spats, firing forward,
plus 2x flexibly mounted 0.30 “ (7.62 mm) Browning machine guns in ventral and dorsal positions
A total of up to 1,500 lb (700 kg) of bombs on hardpoints under the fuselage (max. 1.000 lb; the SCG-2
could carry a single Mk. XIII torpedo) and under the wings (max. 325 lb per hardpoint, SCG-2 only 200 lb)
The kit and its assembly:
I had the idea to convert a PZL.23 into a carrier-borne light bomber on the agenda for a long time and also already a Heller kit stashed away – but it took the “In the Navy” group build at whatifmodelers.com in early 2020 to dig everything out from the stash and start the hardware phase.
Originally, this was inspired by a picture of a Ju 87D with USN “Yellow wings” markings which I came across while doing online research. This looked really good, but since the USN would never have accepted a liquid-cooled engine on one of its pre-WWII aircraft, the concept had IMHO some flaws. When I came across the PZL.23 in another context, I found that the aircraft, with its cockpit placed well forward and the generous window area, could also be a good carrier-based recce/light bomber/torpedo aircraft? This was the conceptual birth of the SBG.
The basis is the vintage, original Heller kit of the PZL.23: a VERY nice kit. It has been crisply molded, fit is very good, and even the interior detail is decent, e.g. with a nice fuselage structure and dashboard. Surface details are raised but very fine, and the styrene is also easy to handle.
Basically the PZL.23 was built OOB. The only changes I made are a crew of three figures (all Matchbox WWII pilots, two of them with their heads in different directions), a tail wheel instead of the original skid, an opening for an arrester hook under the fin (there’s even plausible space available!) and a new engine: the PZL.23’s bulky 9 cylinder Jupiter radial engine with its generous cowling and the two-blade propeller was completely replaced. The engine dummy is actually a matching R-2600 and comes from a Matchbox SB2C, even though its rear bulkhead was trimmed away so that it would fit into the new cowling. The latter came from an Italeri La-5FN, cut off long time ago from another conversion project, and I added a carburetor/oil cooler fairing underneath. Inside of the new engine I implanted a styrene tube which attaches the engine to the fuselage and also takes the metal axis of the new propeller, a (rather clumsy) donor from a Matchbox Douglas A-20G. The whole package works well, though, and gives the PZL.23 a more modern and different look.
A late modification is the glasshouse for the rear gunner. Since the PZL.23 offered considerable comfort for its crew, at least for pilot and observer, I thought that a closed rear position would make sense. I found an old rear gunner station glaizing from a vintage Airfix B-17G in the stash, and with some tailoring (including an opening for the OOB manual machine gun) the piece could be inserted into the fuselage opening. Small gaps were left, but these were simply filled with white glue. I think this was a good move, since it changes the PZL.23’s profile a little.
Other small cosmetic changes include the machine guns instead of the original large landing lights on the spats, an additional antenna mast and a cranked pitot, made from brass wire. Furthermore, I added small underwing bomb pylons and a ventral hardpoint with a scratched swing arm and a 500 lb iron bomb from an Academy kit.
Painting and markings:
For proper anachronism and some color in the shelf, I wanted the SBG to be a pre-WWII aircraft in the USN’s bright “Yellow Wings” markings, just like the Ju 87 mentioned above. As a slight twist, the fuselage was finished in all-over Light Gull Grey (FS 36440, Humbrol 40) instead of a NMF – some aircraft like F4Bs were finished this way, even though some fabric-covered parts were still painted with alu dope. In 1940, however, the bright colors would be replaced by a uniform light grey livery with subdued markings, anyway.
The aircraft’s individual markings were a bit tricky, because the USN has a very complicated color code system to identify not only the carrier to which an aircraft would belong, color markings would also identify the individual aircraft within a full squadron of 18 aircraft and its six sections. I won’t go into details, but I chose to depict the lead aircraft of section two of the scout bomber squadron on board of USS Enterprise.
For this carrier, the tail surfaces became blue (I used Modelmaster French Blue for the authentic “True Blue”), while the 2nd section had white aircraft markings on fuselage and wings. The lead aircraft (connected with the individual aircraft code “4”) had a full ring marking around the cowling. The fuselage band seems to be rather optional on bomber aircraft (more frequent on fighters?), but I eventually decided to add it - pictures suggest that probably only lead aircraft of a Section in the scout or torpedo squadrons carried this marking?
Like the cowling ring, it was painted with white and then black borders were added with decal strips. The wings were painted with Revell 310 (Lufthansa Yellow, RAL 1028), which is a pretty rich tone, and the section markings on top of them were fully created with decal material, a white 5mm stripe over a black 6mm stripe on each wing.
The aircraft’s tactical code was created from single US 45° numbers; the “S” had to be scratched from an “8”, since the decal sheet did not contain letters… Other decals were gathered from the scrap box and improvised.
After the free-standing exhaust pipes had been fixed, the kit received a light weathering treatment and was finally sealed with a coat of semi-matt acrylic varnish (Italeri semi-gloss with some matt varnish added).
A colorful aircraft model, and the transformation from a Polish light bomber into an American armed scout aircraft worked well – for an interesting result with that anachronistic touch that many interwar designs carried. However, even though the conversion has been conceptually successful, I am not happy with the finish. The glossy Humbrol paints I used refused to cure properly, and the decals were also not without problems (e.g. when you realize that the roundels you wanted to use had a poor opacity, so that the yellow underneath shines blatantly through). But despite a lot of improvisation, the outcome is quite O.K.