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Further to the west on the spit are the buildings of the second phase. The most distinctive structures built during this phase were the two Vibration Test Buildings, now commonly referred to as ‘The Pagodas’ (National Trust buildings E2 and E3). The specification for the Vibration Test Buildings included the ability to withstand the accidental detonation of 400lbs (181.4kg) of high explosives; they were designed by G W Dixon ARIBA for the UK Atomic Energy Authority and are identical. Both Vibration Test Buildings, their control room and centrifuge were constructed in 1960.
They comprise a large reinforced concrete central cell 16.47m (54ft) by 7.30m (24ft) covered by a massive reinforced concrete roof supported on sixteen reinforced concrete columns. To the south and east of the main chambers are self-contained plant rooms. The main access to the building is from the south through an entrance passage which was originally sealed by a pair of outward opening metal covered wooden doors. On its western side, adjacent to the main entrance passage is a blocked doorway that led to a small staff room and toilet. Inside the buildings on the eastern side of the passageway one set of stairs gives access down to the main test cell and another to a walkway around the top of the chamber. At the end of the passageway is a lift pit, which allowed test pieces to be lowered on to the floor of the main test cell. To assist in manoeuvring heavy objects there are a number of substantial steel eyelets screwed into the underside of the roof. A travelling crane also ran on rails mounted on a ledge beneath the windows, a loose plate on the floor recorded ‘Becker twin Lift Maximum Working Load 40 tons serial A-2647-2’.
The floor of the main cell is formed of parallel and narrowly spaced steel ‘I’ section beams for test rigs to be firmly secured to the structure. To either side are cable ducts. At the same time as being vibrated objects might also be placed in jackets to simulate extremes of heat and cold, or in a portable altitude chamber to mimic the effects of altitudinal changes. Set into the north wall are seven steel plates with vertical cruciform slots that were also used for securing tests rigs or monitoring equipment. Below these are eight pipes opening from the service passageway to the north. In the south wall are three steel plates with horizontal slots, above the plate is stencilled 1-27ft and below it 1-7.5m. The walkway around three sides of the cell was originally protected by a handrail and there is another handrail fixed to the main wall. Running around the wall is a cable conduit and attached to the wall are various pipes for carrying electrical wires, switches, junction boxes and pressure gauges. Signs on the wall above the lift pit record ‘Telephone Instrument Room’, ‘Vac Pump Running, Vac Pump Stopped’ with associated light fittings. At the north east corner of the cell is a doorway to the rear service passage running east to west along the north side of the building. To the east a flight of stairs gives access to the eastern plant room. To the west another set of stairs provides access to the northern side of the lift pit, the upper walkway and to an emergency escape passage through the north side of the traverse. To the south of the main cell are free-standing Burwell brick-built plant rooms. The main plant room is entered through two sets of double doors on its south side, internally are four machinery mounting plinths. Attached to its west wall is a metal cabinet that probably housed equipment to operate the hydraulic compressor for the internal lift. At the eastern end of the building is a store room with a blocked doorway to the south.
Structure takes a different and more intricate look at one of the worlds most famous buildings, the Eiffel Tower. We spend so long in awe at the building, its views and what it stands for that we don't always take in the leviathan nature of it's construction. Structure studies the lines, joints and crossings of this great building in black and white, high contrast images.
With the release of the Redstone patch I have been meaning to start up a new world. Here is some screenshots of some of the structures I am working on. These are incomplete and will probably receive more detail as I have time to update them.
8/52 for the group T189 alphabet challenge
The set theme was: D is for Danger
One of the old buildings at the Gwynfynydd gold mine.
Though the sign clearly warns of danger, people have obviously been totally ignoring it and entering the building anyway.
Gigaom Structure Data event at Pier 60, Chelsea Piers in New York, NY on Wednesday March 19, 2014. (© Photo by Jakub Mosur).
Photo by George Taylor
Stumbled upon this amazing modern construction amongst all the ancient buildings of the city of Brugge.
A striking view of a modern architectural ceiling showcasing a symmetrical network of steel beams, reflective panels, and bright lights. The structured geometry and clean lines create a visually pleasing pattern, highlighting the elegance and precision of contemporary industrial design. The reflections and lighting add depth, giving the space a sense of scale, order, and urban sophistication.
The Postcard
A postally unused postcard that was published in 2007 by the Trustees of the British Museum. The card was printed in China.
On the back of the card it states:
Museum of the Terracotta Warriors
and Horses of Emperor Qin Shihuang,
Lintong.'
The First Emperor of China controlled a vast territory, and wielded enormous power. He summoned 700,000 men to build his tomb and other structures.
These were designed to reproduce the First Emperor's empire underground for eternity.
These perfectly executed, life-size sculptures, some over 190cm in height, were an early feat of mass production: a small and quite limited repertoire of body parts were joined together in a multitude of combinations, with details worked by hand afterwards.
The Terracotta Army
The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor in his afterlife.
The figures, dating from approximately the late third century BCE, were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in Lintong County, outside Xi'an, Shaanxi, China.
The figures vary in height according to their roles, the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and horses.
Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits near Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.
Other terracotta non-military figures were found in other pits, including officials, acrobats, strongmen, and musicians.
History of the Terracotta Army
The construction of the tomb was described by historian Sima Qian (145–90 BCE) in Records of the Grand Historian, the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, which was written a century after the mausoleum's completion.
Work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the throne, and the project eventually involved 700,000 conscripted workers.
Geographer Li Daoyuan, writing six centuries after the first emperor's death, recorded in Shui Jing Zhu that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspicious geology:
"Famed for its jade mines, its northern side was
rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beautiful
jade; the first emperor, covetous of its fine reputation,
therefore chose to be buried there".
Sima Qian wrote that the first emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valuable artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this account, 100 flowing rivers were simulated using mercury, and above them the ceiling was decorated with heavenly bodies, below which were the features of the land.
Some translations of this passage refer to "models" or "imitations"; however, those words were not used in the original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta army. High levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.
Later historical accounts suggested that the complex and tomb itself had been looted by Xiang Yu, a contender for the throne after the death of the first emperor. However, there are indications that the tomb itself may not have been plundered.
Discovery of the Terracotta Army
The Terracotta Army was discovered on the 29th. March 1974 by a group of farmers—Yang Zhifa, his five brothers, and neighbour Wang Puzhi—who were digging a well approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at Mount Li (Lishan), a region riddled with underground springs and watercourses.
For centuries, occasional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and fragments of the Qin necropolis – roofing tiles, bricks and chunks of masonry. The farmers' discovery prompted Chinese archaeologists, including Zhao Kangmin, to investigate, revealing the largest pottery figurine group ever found.
A museum complex has since been constructed over the area, the largest pit being enclosed by a roofed structure.
The Necropolis
The Terracotta Army is part of a much larger necropolis. Ground-penetrating radar and core sampling have measured the area to be approximately 98 square kilometers (38 square miles).
The necropolis was constructed as a microcosm of the emperor's imperial palace or compound, and covers a large area around the tomb mound of the first emperor.
The earthen tomb mound is located at the foot of Mount Li and built in a pyramidal shape, and is surrounded by two solidly built rammed earth walls with gateway entrances. The necropolis consists of several offices, halls, stables, and other structures as well as an imperial park placed around the tomb mound.
The warriors stand guard to the east of the tomb. Up to 5 metres of reddish, sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two millennia following its construction, but archaeologists found evidence of earlier disturbances at the site.
During the excavations near the Mount Li burial mound, archaeologists found several graves dating from the 18th. and 19th. centuries, where diggers had apparently struck terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless and used along with soil to backfill the excavations.
Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor
The tomb appears to be a hermetically sealed space roughly the size of a football pitch (c. 100 × 75 m). The tomb remains unopened, possibly due to concerns over the preservation of its artifacts. For example, after the excavation of the Terracotta Army, the painted surface present on some terracotta figures began to flake and fade. The lacquer covering the paint can curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air, and can flake off in just four minutes.
The Pits at the Excavation Site
Four main pits approximately 7 metres (23 ft) deep have been excavated. These are located approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the burial mound. The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb from the east, where the Qin Emperor's conquered states lay.
-- Pit 1
Pit 1, which is 230 metres (750 ft) long and 62 metres (203 ft) wide, contains the main army of more than 6,000 figures. Pit 1 has eleven corridors, most more than 3 metres (10 ft) wide and paved with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by large beams and posts.
This design was also used for the tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hallways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to 3 metres (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) above the surrounding ground level when completed.
-- Pit 2
Pit 2 has cavalry and infantry units as well as war chariots, and is thought to represent a military guard.
-- Pit 3
Pit 3 is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a war chariot.
-- Pit 4
Pit 4 is empty, perhaps left unfinished by its builders.
Some of the figures in Pits 1 and 2 show fire damage, while remains of burnt ceiling rafters have also been found. These, together with the missing weapons, have been taken as evidence of the reported looting by Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush the army figures below.
The terracotta figures currently on display have been restored from the fragments.
Additional Pits
Other pits that formed the necropolis have also been excavated. These pits lie within and outside the walls surrounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acrobats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, burial sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.
The Warrior Figures
The terracotta figures are life-sized, typically ranging from 175 cm (5.74 ft) to about 200 cm (6.6 ft) (the officers are typically taller). They vary in height, uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank.
Their faces appear to be different for each individual figure; scholars, however, have identified 10 basic face shapes. The figures are of these general types: armored infantry; unarmored infantry; cavalrymen who wear a pillbox hat; helmeted drivers of chariots with more armor protection; spear-carrying charioteers; kneeling crossbowmen or archers who are armored; standing archers who are not; as well as generals and other lower-ranking officers.
There are, however, many variations in the uniforms within the ranks: for example, some may wear shin pads while others not; they may wear either long or short trousers, some of which may be padded; and their body armors vary depending on rank, function, and position in formation.
There are also terracotta horses placed among the warrior figures.
Pigments Used on the Terracotta Warriors
Originally, the figures were painted with: ground precious stones, intensely fired bones (white), pigments of iron oxide (dark red), cinnabar (red), malachite (green), azurite (blue), charcoal (black), cinnabar barium copper silicate mix (Chinese purple or Han purple), tree sap from a nearby source, (more than likely from the Chinese lacquer tree) (brown).
Other colors used included pink, lilac, red, white, and one unidentified color. The colored lacquer finish and individual facial features would have given the figures a realistic feel, with eyebrows and facial hair in black and the faces done in pink.
However, in Xi'an's dry climate, much of the color coating would flake off in less than four minutes after removing the mud surrounding the army.
Some scholars have speculated a possible Hellenistic link to these sculptures, because of the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures before the Qin dynasty. They argued that potential Greek influence is particularly evident in some of the terracotta figures such as those of acrobats, combined with rare bronze artifacts made with a lost wax technique known in Greece and Egypt.
However, this idea is disputed by scholars who claim that there is "no substantial evidence at all" for contact between ancient Greeks and Chinese builders of the tomb, and the bases of such speculation are often imprecise or false interpretation of source materials or far-fetched conjectures.
They argue that such speculations rest on flawed and old "Eurocentric" ideas that assumed other civilizations were incapable of sophisticated artistry and thus foreign artistry must be seen through Western traditions.
Fabrication of the Terracotta Army
The terracotta army figures were manufactured in workshops by government laborers and local craftsmen using local materials.
Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were created separately and then assembled by luting the pieces together. When completed, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in precise military formation according to rank and duty.
The faces were created using molds, and at least ten face molds may have been used. Clay was then added after assembly to provide individual facial features to make each figure appear different.
It is believed that the warriors' legs were made in much the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at the time. This would classify the process as assembly line production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting a figure as one solid piece and subsequently firing it.
In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to inscribe its name on items produced to ensure quality control. This has aided modern historians in verifying which workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other mundane items for the terracotta army.
Weaponry
Most of the figures originally held real weapons, which would have increased their realism. The majority of these weapons were looted shortly after the creation of the army or have rotted away.
Despite this, over 40,000 bronze items of weaponry have been recovered, including swords, daggers, spears, lances, battle-axes, scimitars, shields, crossbows, and crossbow triggers.
Most of the recovered items are arrowheads, which are usually found in bundles of 100 units. Studies of these arrowheads suggests that they were produced by self-sufficient, autonomous workshops using a process referred to as cellular production or Toyotism. Some weapons were coated with a 10–15 micrometer layer of chromium dioxide before burial that was believed to have protected them from any form of decay for the last 2200 years.
However, research in 2019 indicated that the chromium was merely contamination from nearby lacquer, not a means of protecting the weapons. The slightly alkaline pH and small particle size of the burial soil most likely preserved the weapons.
The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt. Some carry inscriptions that date their manufacture to between 245 and 228 BCE, indicating that they were used before burial.
Scientific Research
In 2007, scientists at Stanford University and the Advanced Light Source facility in Berkeley, California, reported that powder diffraction experiments combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and micro-X-ray fluorescence analysis showed that the process of producing terracotta figures colored with Chinese purple dye consisting of barium copper silicate was derived from the knowledge gained by Taoist alchemists in their attempts to synthesize jade ornaments.
Since 2006, an international team of researchers at the UCL Institute of Archaeology have been using analytical chemistry techniques to uncover more details about the production techniques employed in the creation of the Terracotta Army.
Using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of 40,000 bronze arrowheads bundled in groups of 100, the researchers reported that the arrowheads within a single bundle formed a relatively tight cluster that was different to other bundles. In addition, the presence or absence of metal impurities was consistent within bundles.
Based on the arrows’ chemical compositions, the researchers concluded that a cellular manufacturing system similar to the one used in a modern Toyota factory, as opposed to a continuous assembly line in the early days of the automobile industry, was employed.
Grinding and polishing marks visible under a scanning electron microscope provide evidence for the earliest industrial use of lathes for polishing.
Terracotta Warrior Exhibitions
The first exhibition of the figures outside of China was held at the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne in 1982.
A collection of 120 objects from the mausoleum and 12 terracotta warriors were displayed at the British Museum in London as its special exhibition "The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army" from 13 September 2007 to April 2008.
This exhibition made 2008 the British Museum's most successful year, and made the British Museum the UK's top cultural attraction between 2007 and 2008. The exhibition brought the most visitors to the museum since the King Tutankhamun exhibition in 1972. The 400,000 advance tickets sold out so fast that the museum extended its opening hours until midnight.
Many people had to be turned away, despite the extended hours. During the day of events to mark the Chinese New Year, the crush was so intense that the gates to the museum had to be shut.
The Terracotta Army has been described as the only other set of historic artifacts (along with the remnants from the wreck of the Titanic) that can draw a crowd by the name alone.
Warriors and other artifacts were exhibited to the public at the Forum de Barcelona in Barcelona between May and September 2004. It was their most successful exhibition ever.
The same exhibition was presented at the Fundación Canal de Isabel II in Madrid between October 2004 and January 2005, their most successful ever.
From December 2009 to May 2010, the exhibition was shown in the Centro Cultural La Moneda in Santiago de Chile.
The exhibition traveled to North America and visited museums such as the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, Bowers Museum in Santa Ana, California, Houston Museum of Natural Science, High Museum of Art in Atlanta, National Geographic Society Museum in Washington, D.C. and the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.
Subsequently, the exhibition traveled to Sweden and was hosted in the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities between August 2010 and January 2011.
An exhibition entitled 'The First Emperor – China's Entombed Warriors', presenting 120 artifacts was hosted at the Art Gallery of New South Wales, between December 2010 and March 2011.
An exhibition entitled "The Warrior-Emperor of China and his Terracotta Army, featuring artifacts including statues from the mausoleum, was hosted by the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts from February 2011 to June 2011.
In Italy, from July 2008 to November 2008, five of the warriors of the terracotta army were displayed in Turin at the Museum of Antiquities, and from April 2010 to September 2010 nine warriors were exhibited in Milan, at the Royal Palace, at the exhibition entitled "The Two Empires". The group consisted of a horse, a counselor, an archer and six lancers.
The "Treasures of Ancient China" exhibition, showcasing two terracotta soldiers and other artifacts, including the Longmen Grottoes Buddhist statues, was held between February 2011 and November 2011 in four locations in India.
Soldiers and related items were on display from March 2013 to November 2013 at the Historical Museum of Bern.
Several Terracotta Army figures were on display, along with many other objects, in an exhibit entitled "Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties" at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City from April to July 2017.
An exhibition featuring ten Terracotta Army figures and other artifacts, "Terracotta Warriors of the First Emperor," was on display at the Pacific Science Center in Seattle, Washington, from April 2017 to September 2017 before traveling to The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to be exhibited from September 2017 to March 2018 with the addition of augmented reality.
An exhibition entitled "China's First Emperor and the Terracotta Warriors" was at the World Museum in Liverpool from February 2018 to October 2018. This was the first time in more than 10 years that the warriors had travelled to the UK.
An exhibition tour of 120 real-size replicas of terracotta statues was displayed in the German cities of Frankfurt am Main, Munich, Oberhof, Berlin and Nuremberg between 2003 and 2004.
Structure Security conference at the Golden Gate Club in San Francisco on Tuesda & Wednesday September 27-28, 2016
The design of static structures is a science and an art - especially when your construction materials are limited to marshmallows and spaghetti. Our first-ever "Spaghetti Structures" class in the Jocelyn H. Lee Innovation Lab was an opportunity to learn about 'compression', 'tension', 'torsion', 'trusses' and more.
Decided to post this photo of the inner structure of the previous Covered Bridge. Certainly, they were well constructed to last, function, and with standing much travel. Even heavy loads were apart of the planning many years ago, looking to the future may have only been done in their days, for they work very hard and slept deeply.
I am delighted that I can now post some contemporary photographs. The conditions of my permits for South Bay kite aerial photography include a hiatus each year from the end of February to the start of September to avoid disturbing nesting birds. Thus, I eagerly await the start of fall and with it the chance to do some fieldwork.
On this occasion, I made a Saturday trip to the Eden Landing Ecological Reserve (ELER) near Hayward, California. I launched the kite from the west end of Salt Pond E13 and walked its northern perimeter to the Oliver Salt Works ruins. After hanging out at the new observation platform there, I then walked the levee separating E13 from E12. When I first started photographing at ELER this area was a dusty plain, the disused remnants of a former salt operation. Several years ago, as part of ELER’s Phase I Project, the restoration managers built a series of new levees and flow control structures so that the area could be tuned to serve as wildlife habitat. The levees created small sub-ponds, which have slightly different salinities and thus different colors.
After making my way down the levee to the pumphouse at the eastern end of the ponds, I paused to swap kites. The Sutton 30 I was using became painfully overpowered as the afternoon breeze freshened. Up went the Sutton 16, which was much more pleasant to handle and had ample lifting capacity. I then retraced my steps back up the levee and around Oliver Salt while shooting from a lower altitude. Altogether it was a pleasant day.
I am taking these documentary photographs under a Special Use Permit from the California Department of Fish & Wildlife. Kite flying is prohibited over the Eden Landing Ecological Reserve without a Special Use Permit.
The kind of creature you might meet in the twilight zone (between awake and sleep, abstract and concrete, here and there). They act very alien also, never even remotely fitting your preconceptions, so be careful! It has that same kind of spooky, dark non-descript background.
Its ok, its not real. Its a representation.
Gigaom Structure Data event at Pier 60, Chelsea Piers in New York, NY on Wednesday March 19, 2014. (© Photo by Jakub Mosur).