View allAll Photos Tagged Signorelli
Luca Signorelli
Resurrection of the Flesh [1499-1502]
Orvieto, Duomo, Cappella di San Brizio - finestresullarte
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The account of the Apocalypse then continues with three large scenes, the Resurrection of the Flesh, the Damned and the Elect, and two smaller ones on either side of the chapel's window, Paradise and Hell.
It is primarily in this section of the fresco cycle that Signorelli has given free rein to his inventive genius. An inventiveness that, as Berenson said, made him one of the greatest of modern illustrators, and thanks to which his art is still an extremely important part of our figurative heritage. Despite the rhetorical devices, the theatrical ruses and the occasional contrived details, despite the limitations in his draughtsmanship and use of colour recognized by all modern critics, there is no denying that never before in Italian art had figurative ideas of such unforgettable power been used. Viewed all together the huge frescoes in the Orvieto chapel give an impression of overcrowding and of confusion which is far from pleasing. We have to isolate the individual details in order to grasp the greatness of Signorelli the 'illustrator' and the 'inventor' and therefore justify Berenson's statement. See, for example, in the Resurrection of the Flesh, the macabre but hilarious idea of the nude with his back to the observer who is carrying on a conversation with the skeletons; or the skulls surfacing through the cracks in the ground, who put on their bodies as though they were a costume, and become human beings once again.
Source: wga
PLEASE, no multi invitations, glitters or self promotion in your comments. My photos are FREE for anyone to use, just give me credit and it would be nice if you let me know. Thanks
No pictures are allowed in the Sistine Chapel, they just appear in the camera..... (I have to upload 3 sets)
One of the most famous places in the world, the Sistine Chapel is the site where the conclave for the election of the popes and other solemn pontifical ceremonies are held. Built between 1475 and 1481, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who commissioned it.
The frescoes on the long walls illustrate parallel events in the Lives of Moses and Christ and constitute a complex of extraordinary interest executed between 1481 and 1483 by Perugino, Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli and Domenico Ghirlandaio, with their respective groups of assistants, who included Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo and others; later Luca Signorelli also joined the group.
The barrel-vaulted ceiling is entirely covered by the famous frescoes which Michelangelo painted between 1508 and 1512 for Julius II. The original design was only to have represented the Apostles, but was modified at the artist's insistence to encompass an enormously complex iconographic theme which may be synthesized as the representation of mankind waiting for the coming of the Messiah. More than twenty years later, Michelangelo was summoned back by Paul III (1534-49) to paint the Last Judgement on the wall behind the altar. He worked on it from 1536 to 1541.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
PLEASE, no multi invitations, glitters or self promotion in your comments. My photos are FREE for anyone to use, just give me credit and it would be nice if you let me know. Thanks
No pictures are allowed in the Sistine Chapel, they just appear in the camera..... (I have to upload 3 sets)
One of the most famous places in the world, the Sistine Chapel is the site where the conclave for the election of the popes and other solemn pontifical ceremonies are held. Built between 1475 and 1481, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who commissioned it.
The frescoes on the long walls illustrate parallel events in the Lives of Moses and Christ and constitute a complex of extraordinary interest executed between 1481 and 1483 by Perugino, Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli and Domenico Ghirlandaio, with their respective groups of assistants, who included Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo and others; later Luca Signorelli also joined the group.
The barrel-vaulted ceiling is entirely covered by the famous frescoes which Michelangelo painted between 1508 and 1512 for Julius II. The original design was only to have represented the Apostles, but was modified at the artist's insistence to encompass an enormously complex iconographic theme which may be synthesized as the representation of mankind waiting for the coming of the Messiah. More than twenty years later, Michelangelo was summoned back by Paul III (1534-49) to paint the Last Judgement on the wall behind the altar. He worked on it from 1536 to 1541.
PLEASE, no multi invitations, glitters or self promotion in your comments. My photos are FREE for anyone to use, just give me credit and it would be nice if you let me know. Thanks
No pictures are allowed in the Sistine Chapel, they just appear in the camera..... (I have to upload 3 sets)
One of the most famous places in the world, the Sistine Chapel is the site where the conclave for the election of the popes and other solemn pontifical ceremonies are held. Built between 1475 and 1481, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who commissioned it.
The frescoes on the long walls illustrate parallel events in the Lives of Moses and Christ and constitute a complex of extraordinary interest executed between 1481 and 1483 by Perugino, Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli and Domenico Ghirlandaio, with their respective groups of assistants, who included Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo and others; later Luca Signorelli also joined the group.
The barrel-vaulted ceiling is entirely covered by the famous frescoes which Michelangelo painted between 1508 and 1512 for Julius II. The original design was only to have represented the Apostles, but was modified at the artist's insistence to encompass an enormously complex iconographic theme which may be synthesized as the representation of mankind waiting for the coming of the Messiah. More than twenty years later, Michelangelo was summoned back by Paul III (1534-49) to paint the Last Judgement on the wall behind the altar. He worked on it from 1536 to 1541.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
The abbey was founded in 1313 and it became a wealthy abbey. It has a cloister with frescos by Luca Signorelli and Il Sodoma.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarroti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
PLEASE, no multi invitations, glitters or self promotion in your comments. My photos are FREE for anyone to use, just give me credit and it would be nice if you let me know. Thanks
No pictures are allowed in the Sistine Chapel, they just appear in the camera..... (I have to upload 3 sets)
One of the most famous places in the world, the Sistine Chapel is the site where the conclave for the election of the popes and other solemn pontifical ceremonies are held. Built between 1475 and 1481, the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who commissioned it.
The frescoes on the long walls illustrate parallel events in the Lives of Moses and Christ and constitute a complex of extraordinary interest executed between 1481 and 1483 by Perugino, Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli and Domenico Ghirlandaio, with their respective groups of assistants, who included Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo and others; later Luca Signorelli also joined the group.
The barrel-vaulted ceiling is entirely covered by the famous frescoes which Michelangelo painted between 1508 and 1512 for Julius II. The original design was only to have represented the Apostles, but was modified at the artist's insistence to encompass an enormously complex iconographic theme which may be synthesized as the representation of mankind waiting for the coming of the Messiah. More than twenty years later, Michelangelo was summoned back by Paul III (1534-49) to paint the Last Judgement on the wall behind the altar. He worked on it from 1536 to 1541.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
春３月。女の子の節句がある桃色の季節にぜひとも聴きたくなるのが、ビル・エヴァンス。
名曲“ワルツ・フォー・デビー”を聴くと、何故かわたしは高校卒業の日の親睦会の夜を思い出してしまいます。
３月17日。“ムーンビームス”、“ワルツ・フォー・デビー”と言ったRIVERSIDEから発売された11タイトルが、22枚組でプレスされました。
45回転アナログ盤です。アルバムによっては、2枚組4面にカッティングされることになります。中でも10分ほどの曲を片面に１曲だけカッティングされていたりと、高音質が明らかに聴き取れるでしょう。
プレスはドイツで、180グラムの重量盤。
全世界で1,500セットの限定生産です。恐らくこの半分近くは日本で売れてしまうことでしょう。ビル・エヴァンスが好きな人だけではなくて、ジャズ、クラシックでも愛好家はいらっしゃるはず。せっかくの機会ですから案内します。
興味のある方は、コメント下さい。
リイシュー・レーベルからの案内は以下の通りです。
Here it is: THE Audiophile Jazz Fan's Box Set To End All Box Sets - All Of Bill Evans Riverside Releases Cut at 45 RPM PLUS The Cannonball Adderley Know What I Mean? Release For Which Evans Was Such An Important Contributor.
Of everything Analogue Productions has reissued, nothing has come close in sales or accolades to the 45-RPM versions of Bill Evans titles from his Riverside catalog. And now we've compiled all of them into one irresistible box set package. Includes facsimiles of each original jacket along with an 18-page booklet detailing Evans' career and Riverside era.
Titles Included: New Jazz Conceptions, Everybody Digs Bill Evans, Portrait In Jazz, Explorations, Sunday At The Village Vanguard, Waltz For Debby, Moonbeams, Know What I Mean?, Interplay, How My Heart Sings! and At Shelly's Manne-Hole.
Limited to 1,500 numbered copies. Pressed on 180-gram vinyl at Pallas in Germany.
Everybody Digs Bill Evans
Side 1
1. MINORITY (5:20) (Gigi Gryce)
2. YOUNG AND FOOLISH (5:48)(Horwit-Hague)
Side 2
1. LUCKY TO BE ME (3:35)(Comden, Green-Bernstein)
2. NIGHT AND DAY (7:12)(Cole Porter)
3. EPILOGUE (:38)(Bill Evans)
Side 3
1. TENDERLY (3:29) (Walter Gross)
2. PEACE PIECE (6:37)(Bill Evans)
Side 4
1. WHAT IS THERE TO SAY? (4:49)(Harburg-Duke)
2. OLEO (4:04)(Sonny Rollins)
3. EPILOGUE (:38)(Bill Evans)
Explorations
Side 1
1. ISRAEL (6:08)(John Carisi)
2. HAUNTED HEART (3:25)(Deitz-Schwartz)
Side 2
1. BEAUTIFUL LOVE (5:03)(Gillespie-King-Van Alstyne-Young)
2. ELSA (5:05)(Earl Zindars)
Side 3
1. NARDIS (5:48)(Miles Davis)
2. HOW DEEP IS THE OCEAN? (3:30)(Irving Berlin)
Side 4
1. I WISH I KNEW (4:39)(Gordon-Warren)
2. SWEET AND LOVELY (5:50)(Arnheim-Tobias-Lemare)
Portrait In Jazz
Side 1
1. COME RAIN OR COME SHINE (3:17)(Mercer-Arlen)
2. AUTUMN LEAVES (5:22)(Mercer-Kosmo-Prevert)
Side 2
1. WITCHCRAFT (4:30)(Leigh-Coleman)
2. WHEN I FALL IN LOVE (4:50)(Heyman-Young)
3. PERI’S SCOPE (3:11)(Bill Evans)
Side 3
1. WHAT IS THIS THING CALLED LOVE? (4:33)(Cole Porter)
2. SPRING IS HERE (5:01)(Rodgers & Hart)
Side 4
1. SOME DAY MY PRINCE WILL COME (4:48)(Morey-Churchill)a
2. BLUE IN GREEN (5:18)(Davis-Evans)
At Shelly’s Manne-Hole, Hollywood
Side 1
1. ISN’T IT ROMANTIC (4:34)(Rodgers, Hart)
2. THE BOY NEXT DOOR (5:14)(Youmans, Harbach, Greene)
Side 2
1. WONDER WHY (5:05)(Brodszky, Cahn)
2. SWEDISH PASTRY (5:35)(Barney Kessel)
Side 3
1. OUR LOVE IS HERE TO STAY (4:41)(G & I Gershwin)
2. ‘ROUND MIDNIGHT (8:50)(Monk, Williams)
Side 4
1. STELLA BY STARLIGHT (4:50)(Young, Washington)
2. BLUES IN “F” (5:05)(Chuck Israels)
How My Heart Sings!
Side 1
1. HOW MY HEART SINGS (4:56)(Earl Zindars) Zindars Publ. Co.-BMI
2. I SHOULD CARE (4:53)(Cahn-Stordahl-Weston) Cahn Music/Hanover Music/Stordahl Music-ASCAP
Side 2
1. IN YOUR OWN SWEET WAY (6:57)(Dave Brubeck) Derry Music Co.-BMI
2. WALKING UP (4:54)(Bill Evans) TRO-Acorn-BMI
Side 3
1. SUMMERTIME (5:56)(Gershwin-Heyward-Gershwin) Chappell& Co., Inc./Gershwin Publ.-ASCAP
2. 34 SKIDOO (6:19)(Bill Evans) TRO-Acorn-BMI
Side 4
1. EV’RYTHING I LOVE (4:11)(Cole Porter) Chappell Music-ASCAP
2. SHOW-TYPE TUNE (4:23)(Bill Evans) TRO-Acorn-BMI
Interplay
Side 1
1. YOU AND THE NIGHT AND THE MUSIC (7:03)(Dietz-Schwartz) (ASCAP)
Side 2
1. WHEN YOU WISH UPON A STAR (5:42)(Washington-Harline) (ASCAP)
2. I’LL NEVER SMILE AGAIN (6:30)(Ruth Lowe) (ASCAP)
Side 3
1. INTERPLAY (8:11)(Bill Evans) (BMI)
Side 4
1. YOU GO TO MY HEAD (5:02)(Gillespie-Coots) (ASCAP)
2. WRAP YOUR TROUBLES IN DREAMS (6:24)(Moll-Koehler-Barris) (ASCAP)
Moonbeams
Side 1
1. RE: PERSON I KNEW (5:42)(Bill Evans) TRO-Acorn-BMI
2. POLKA DOTS AND MOONBEAMS (4:57)(Burke-Van Heusen) Bourne Co./Music Sales Corp.-ASCAP
Side 2
1. I FALL IN LOVE TOO EASILY (2:39)(Styne-Cahn) SBK Feist Catalog-ASCAP
2. STAIRWAY TO THE STARS (4:48)(Parish-Malneck-Signorelli) SBK Robbins Catalog-ASCAP
Side 3
1. IF YOU COULD SEE ME NOW (4:24)(Dameron-Sigman) SBK Robbins Catalog-ASCAP
2. IT MIGHT AS WELL BE SPRING (6:03)(Rodgers-Hammerstein) Williamson Music ASCAP
Side 4
1. IN LOVE IN VAIN (4:56)(Kern-Robin) T.B. Harms, Inc.-ASCAP
2. VERY EARLY (5:04)(Bill Evans) TRO-Acorn-BMI
Waltz for Debby
Side 1
1. MY FOOLISH HEART (4:56)
2. WALTZ FOR DEBBY (6:54)
Side 2
1. DETOUR AHEAD (7:35)
Side 3
1. MY ROMANCE (7:11)
Side 4
1. SOME OTHER TIME (5:02)
2. MILESTONES (6:37)
Sunday at the Village Vanguard
Side 1
1. GLORIA’S STEP (6:05)(Scott LaFaro) Orpheum Music-BMI
2. MY MAN’S GONE NOW (6:21)(G. & I. Gershwin) Chappell Music-ASCAP
Side 2
1. SOLAR (8:51)(Miles Davis) Prestige Music-BMI
Side 3
1. ALICE IN WONDERLAND (8:32)(Fain-Hilliard) Walt Disney Music-ASCAP
Side 4
1. ALL OF YOU (8:20)(Cole Porter) Chappell Music-ASCAP
2. JADE VISIONS (3:46)(Scott LaFaro) Orpheum Music-BMI
Know What I Mean?
Side 1
1. WALTZ FOR DEBBY (5:14)
2. GOODBYE (6:12)
Side 2
1. WHO CARES? (take 5) (5:53)
2. VENICE (2:51)
Side 3
1. TOY (5:05)
2. ELSA (5:48)
Side 4
1. NANCY (WITH THE LAUGHING FACE) (4:07)
KNOW WHAT I MEAN? (re-take 7) (4:55)
New Jazz Conceptions
Side 1
1. I Love You
2. Five
3. I Got It Bad and That Ain't Good
4. Conception
5. Easy Living
Displacement
Side 2
Speak Low
Waltz for Debby
Our Delight
My Romance
No Cover, No Minimum
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Beim Jüngsten Gericht ist Christus der Richter die zentrale Figur und entscheidet über das Schicksal der menschlichen Rasse. Mit einer Armbewegung verdammt er einen großen Teil der Menschenund schickt sie in die Hölle, während die Erlösten zum Himmel aufsteigen. Seine Mutter Maria an seiner Seite wendet sich mit einer Geste des Mitleids von der erschreckenden Szene ab.
The center figure of the Last Judgment is Christ deciding the destiny of the human race. With a gesture of his arms he damns quite a part of mankind, sending them into hell, but the saved ones are rising to heaven. His mother Mary at his side turns away from the frightening scene with a gesture of compassion.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarroti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
rosetón de catedral - fachada lateral oeste
Orvieto, Umbría - foto analógica
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. . . Q ) . . El magnífico rosetón
El magnífico rosetón es la obra de Andrea di Cione, dijo Orcagna ( 1354-1380 ), quien también construyó las dos cúspides laterales que tienen la misma altura. Los mosaicos en los segmentos de la ventana de color de rosa es de Piero di Puccio ( 1388 ), aunque muy restaurado, y 4 se muestran los doctores de la Iglesia: San Agustín, San Gregorio Magno, San Jerónimo y San Ambrosio.
Los 12 quioscos de rosa mosqueta ( seis por cada lado ) son de Petruchio por Benedetto da Orvieto
( 1372-1388 ), mientras que las estatuas correspondientes depositada en ellos y que representan a 12 diferentes artistas son profetas finales XIV y XV.
Después de la terminación de la roseta y sus accesorios, la obra sufrió un largo descanso hasta que otro artista de Siena, Antonio Federighi, no se dio cuenta de los 12 nichos por encima del dosel
( 1451-1455 ). Sin dejar de respetar la configuración de la fachada original, Federighi no dudó en poner su trabajo en elementos renacentistas, como los arcos de los nichos.
Más tarde nos pusieron en ellos las estatuas de los 12 apóstoles, el trabajo de los artistas del siglo XVI.
La parte superior de los kioscos a las 12 se debe a Michael Federighi Sanmicheli. Se dieron cuenta de la cúspide central y los dos picos a los lados de la cúspide misma ( desde 1513 ). Pero el trabajo no terminó, incluso con la intervención de Sanmicheli, estas de haber dejado su trabajo sin terminar y no haber trabajado en todos los picos secundarios dos restantes. La aguja central se completó con un artista no identificado ( 1532 ). En su lugar, fue Antonio da Sangallo el Joven, en el extremo derecho de la aguja central ( 1547 ), mientras que el centro izquierda terminó Scalza Ippolito ( 1569 ) y anotó los otros dos lados ( 1571 hasta 1591 ), sin dejar de incluir las logias del estilo manierista.
A finales del siglo XVI, la fachada fue finalmente más. A partir de 1795 sufrió una importante restauración por los daños causados por un rayo, el trabajo que se prolongó durante el próximo siglo.
Los Mosaicos de las esquinas del rosetón
Como ya se mencionó, los segmentos de la rosa se muestran:
Los 4 mosaicos de los profetas - estos evangelistas son
Mateo, Marcos, Juan y Lucas
________________________________________________
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Orvieto
Las orígenes de Orvieto se remontan a la civilización etrusca:
las primeras instalaciones son del siglo IX a.C. y nacieron dentro de grutas tobosas obtenidas dentro del macizo donde la ciudad se asienta hoy.
Después de haber sido incluída en los territorios de Roma en el siglo III, Orvieto quedó bajo su dominación hasta la decandencia del Imperio Romano de Occidente. Luego se tranformó en un común libre y, durante las luchas entre Güelfos y Gibelinos, fue una valiente opositor del Barbarroja
y quedò fiel al Papa.
_________________________________________________
El Duomo de Orvieto
La catedral de Orvieto es una catedral del siglo XIV situada en la ciudad de Orvieto, Umbría. El edificio fue construido por orden del Papa Urbano IV para conmemorar y ofrecer un lugar de culto adecuado al milagro eucarístico de Bolsena.
Es considerada como una obra maestra de la arquitectura gótica italiana.
Edificación
La construcción de la iglesia comenzó en el año 1290 con el objetivo de dar una colocación digna al Corporal del milagro de Bolsena ( reliquia sagrada llevada a Orvieto por voluntad del Papa Urbano IV ). Los trabajos de edificación se prolongaron por espacio de casi un siglo. Inicialmente la dirección de los trabajos fue encargada a Fra Bevignate de Perugia, el cual se dedicó a la ejecución del proyecto elaborado muy probablemente por otros ( algunos críticos piensan en Arnolfo di Cambio ). El edificio debía tener una fachada de una sola cúspide de inspiración románica, según se puede ver en el plano que hoy se conserva en el museo, reconstruido según fuentes bien documentadas.
Después de una intervención de Giovanni di Uguccione de Orvieto, en 1310 fue llamado a dirigir la obra el sienés Lorenzo Maitani. Él fue quien ideó la fastuosa fachada actual, que es considerada un especie de tríptico embellecido con mosaicos y esculturas, abierta al centro por el magnífico rosetón atribuido a Andrea Orcagna. Los relieves que muestran historias del Antiguo y del Nuevo Testamento son atribuidos al mismo Maitani y a varios artistas menores del siglo XIV. Uno de ellos fue Raffaello da Montelupo quien realizó el relieve de la Adoración de los Magos. Los mosaicos han sido restaurados y prácticamente rehechos a lo largo de los años, entre ellos el de la cúspide que muestra la Coronación de la Virgen, diseñada por Cesare Nebbia. Es de resaltar el portal central encuadrado por una profunda abertura, y revestido de placas de bronce obra de Emilio Greco, donde se narran obras de misericordia.
Interior
El interior es de una gran simplicidad: planta basilical, subdividida en tres naves con pilastras circulares. La nave central está cubierta por armaduras de madera. La elegante homogeneidad estilística deriva de las franjas horizontales blancas y negras, de matriz toscana.
Entre las numerosas obras de arte conservadas en el Duomo, sobresale el preciosísimo Relicario del Corporal, realizado entre el 1337 y el 1339 por Ugolino di Vieri, que reproduce la silueta tripartita de la fachada del Duomo con refinadas escenas de la Vida de Cristo y escenas del milagro de Bolsena en esmalte traslúcido.
Una obra maestra del arte gótico se encuentra en la espléndida capilla pintada al fresco por los pintores Ugolino di Pietro Ilario, Domenico di Meo y Giovanni di Buccio: todos de Orvieto. Allí también se puede admirar la Madonna dei Raccomandati de Lippo Memmi. Es de notar el fresco que muestra Dos ángeles que sostienen el blasón de la Obra del Duomo, de Antonio del Massaro de Viterdo, llamado il Pastura, que también contribuyó en la realización de las pinturas del coro.
Un punto de referencia de la pintura del Renacimiento italiano es la Capilla de San Brizio. La decoración, iniciada en 1447 por el Beato Angelico junto con Benozzo Gozzoli, fue concluida con grandiosas escenas apocalípticas
Predicación del Anticristo, el Juicio Final y de los reinos celestes del Paraíso y del Infierno, realizadas por la mano de Luca Signorelli entre los años 1499 y 1502. En el transepto se puede admirar una Pietà del siglo XVI.
Al lado derecho se encuentra la Capilla de la Magdalena, restaurada en el siglo XVIII por los Gualterio para que sirviera de sepultura a algunos miembros de esta familia, los cardenales Carlo y Filippo Antonio y los arzobispos Ludovico Anselmo y Giannotto. A los pies de la capilla se lee una inscripción dedicada a Giovanni Battista Gualterio, marqués de Corgnolo, duque de Cumia y conde de Dundee.
relieves de las pilas de la fachada oeste y la fachada sur de Catedral en Orvieto
panorama de dos fotos analogicas
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.
Orvieto ( provincia di Terni en Umbria )
Las orígenes de Orvieto se remontan a la civilización etrusca:
las primeras instalaciones son del siglo IX a.C. y nacieron dentro
de grutas tobosas obtenidas dentro del macizo donde la ciudad se asienta hoy.
Después de haber sido incluída en los territorios de Roma en el siglo III, Orvieto quedó bajo su dominación hasta la decandencia del Imperio Romano de Occidente. Luego se tranformó en un común libre y, durante las luchas entre Güelfos y Gibelinos, fue una valiente opositor del Barbarroja
y quedò fiel al Papa.
________________________________________________
.
El Duomo de Orvieto
La catedral de Orvieto es una catedral del siglo XIV situada en la ciudad de Orvieto, Umbría.
.
Es considerada como una obra maestra de la arquitectura gótica italiana.
.
Edificación
La construcción de la iglesia comenzó en el año 1290 con el objetivo de dar una colocación digna al Corporal del milagro de Bolsena - reliquia sagrada llevada a Orvieto por voluntad del Papa Urbano IV . Los trabajos de edificación se prolongaron por espacio de casi un siglo. Inicialmente la dirección de los trabajos fue encargada a Fra Bevignate de Perugia, el cual se dedicó a la ejecución del proyecto elaborado muy probablemente por otros ( algunos críticos piensan en Arnolfo di Cambio ). El edificio debía tener una fachada de una sola cúspide de inspiración románica, según se puede ver en el plano que hoy se conserva en el museo, reconstruido según fuentes bien documentadas.
Después de una intervención de Giovanni di Uguccione de Orvieto, en 1310 fue llamado a dirigir la obra el sienés Lorenzo Maitani. Él fue quien ideó la fastuosa fachada actual, que es considerada un especie de tríptico embellecido con mosaicos y esculturas, abierta al centro por el magnífico rosetón atribuido a Andrea Orcagna. Los relieves que muestran Historias del Antiguo y del Nuevo Testamento son atribuidos al mismo Maitani y a varios artistas menores del siglo XIV. Uno de ellos fue Raffaello da Montelupo quien realizó el relieve de la Adoración de los Magos. Los mosaicos han sido restaurados y prácticamente rehechos a lo largo de los años, entre ellos el de la cúspide que muestra la Coronación de la Virgen, diseñada por Cesare Nebbia. Es de resaltar el portal central encuadrado por una profunda abertura, y revestido de placas de bronce obra de Emilio Greco, donde se narran obras de misericordia.
.
Interior
El interior es de una gran simplicidad: planta basilical, subdividida en tres naves con pilastras circulares. La nave central está cubierta por armaduras de madera. La elegante homogeneidad estilística deriva de las franjas horizontales blancas y negras, de matriz toscana.
Entre las numerosas obras de arte conservadas en el Duomo, sobresale el preciosísimo Relicario del Corporal, realizado entre el 1337 y el 1339 por Ugolino di Vieri, que reproduce La Silueta Tripartita de la fachada del Duomo con refinadas escenas de La Vida de Cristo y escenas el Milagro de Bolsena en esmalte traslúcido.
Una obra maestra del arte gótico se encuentra en la espléndida capilla pintada al fresco por los pintores Ugolino di Pietro Ilario, Domenico di Meo y Giovanni di Buccio: todos de Orvieto. Allí también se puede admirar la Madonna dei Raccomandati de Lippo Memmi. Es de notar el fresco que muestra Dos ángeles que sostienen el blasón de la Obra del Duomo, de Antonio del Massaro de Viterdo, llamado il Pastura, que también contribuyó en la realización de las pinturas del coro.
Un punto de referencia de la pintura del Renacimiento italiano es la Capilla de San Brizio. La decoración, iniciada en 1447 por el Beato Angelico junto con Benozzo Gozzoli, fue concluida con grandiosas escenas apocalípticas
Predicación del Anticristo, el Juicio Final y de los reinos celestes del Paraíso y del Infierno, realizadas por la mano de Luca Signorelli entre los años 1499 y 1502. En el transepto se puede admirar una Pietà del siglo XVI.
Al lado derecho se encuentra la Capilla de la Magdalena, restaurada en el siglo XVIII por los Gualterio para que sirviera de sepultura a algunos miembros de esta familia, los cardenales Carlo y Filippo Antonio y los arzobispos Ludovico Anselmo y Giannotto. A los pies de la capilla se lee una inscripción dedicada a Giovanni Battista Gualterio, Marqués de Corgnolo, Duque de Cumia y Conde de Dundee.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catedral_de_Orvieto
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.
Descripción de la fachada de abajo hacia arriba
.
La parte superior
.
El portal
enmarcado en el lado de dos en una concha de profundidad,
está cubierto con placas de bronce del escultor moderna Emilio Greco,
contar las obras de misericordia ( 1965-1970 ).
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Los pilares de la fachada con sus bajorrelieves -- aquí no a ver --
De acuerdo con la historiografía más reciente, la fachada se inició simultáneamente con el cuerpo del edificio, a finales del siglo XIII y no en 1310 como se pensaba hasta hace poco. El primer arquitecto y escultor que trabajó en es desconocida, pero probablemente no fue Lorenzo Maitani, quien asumió el cargo de capataz sólo a principios de 1300 y trabajó allí hasta su muerte, que llegó en 1330. Estos elementos góticos inserta, decorada en bajo relieve en la parte inferior de la frente, cambió el proyecto para monocuspidato tricúspide y dio la apariencia de la fachada que vemos hoy en día, prácticamente respetado por muchos capataces que le sucedió en el año.
Los bajorrelieves que decoran los 4 pilares de la fachada más baja es uno de los ejemplos más maravillosos de la escultura gótica en Italia, si no en Europa. Que describen el destino del hombre, desde la Creación hasta el Juicio Final.
En los 4 pilares que tenemos
__ de izquierda a derecha __
. . . . A ) Historias del Antiguo Testamento, con especial referencia a Génesis
. . . . B ) Historias del Antiguo Testamento, con especial referencia a los eventos mesiánicos
. . . . C ) Historias del Nuevo Testamento
. . . . D ) Juicio Final
El primero y el último de los bajorrelieves ( y externa ) se han realizado justo al lado de Lorenzo Maitani, que sustituyó a los trabajadores extranjeros no identificados, que probablemente ya había trabajado con relieves en el interior.
A la muerte de Maitaini ( 1330 ) continuó la labor de la fachada a través de la intervención de muchos artistas que siguieron, cada uno por un corto período de tiempo, la posición de capataz y cuyas contribuciones individuales son difíciles de rastrear. Estos, sin embargo, trabajó principalmente en las partes entre el marco que delimita la galería superior de los bajorrelieves y arcos trilobulados. Estos incluyen Nino Pisano ( 1347-1348 ) y Andrea Pisano ( 1349 ).
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Las estatuas superiores de bronce -- aquí no a ver --
Las estatuas en el marco de los 4 pilares que flanquean
las puertas de Lorenzo Maitani Vitale y su hijo ( 1325 a 1330 ).
En ellos se describen más precisamente los símbolos de los 4 evangelistas
__ de izquierda a derecha __
. . . . E ) Angel (símbolo por San Mateo )
. . . . F ) León (símbolo por San Marco )
. . . . G ) Águila (símbolo por San Juan )
. . . . H ) Taurus (símbolo por San Lucas )
El complejo de la puerta central de la cubierta de bronce que representa a dos ángeles que abrir las cortinas para mostrar la estatua de mármol de la Virgen y el Niño son también de los mismos artistas y en el mismo período. Estos han sido reubicados en el lugar después de una renovación a largo y no aparecerá en muchas de las fotos disponibles de la Catedral.
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Los mosaicos
Los mosaicos de la fachada, hecha por varios autores, sobre todo en el siglo XIV (de 1321), sino también en el siglo XVI, XV y principios, en los siglos siguientes fueron restaurados y reconstruidos en gran medida, perdiendo su forma y estilo originales. El único sobreviviente es el mosaico de la Natividad de María, preservada desde 1891 en el Museo Victoria and Albert de Londres.
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Mosaicos de los portales
En los remates en los portales central son
__ de izquierda a derecha __
. . . . I ) El Bautismo de Cristo
. . . . K ) La Asunción de María en la gloria
. . . . L ) La Natividad de María
_________
En los segmentos a ambos lados de los frontones son
__ de izquierda a derecha __
. . . . M ) La Anunciación
. . . . N ) Los Apóstoles en el éxtasis para la contratación de Madonna
. . . . O ) Joaquín y Ana
_________
.
. . . . P ) Estatua en bronce El Agnus Dei
que se encuentra en la parte superior del hastial central
en lugar de Matteo di Ugolino da Bologna ( 1352 ).
________________________________________________
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. . . Q ) El magnífico rosetón
El magnífico rosetón es la obra de Andrea di Cione, dijo Orcagna ( 1354-1380 ), quien también construyó las dos cúspides laterales que tienen la misma altura. Los mosaicos en los segmentos de la ventana de color de rosa es de Piero di Puccio ( 1388 ), aunque muy restaurado, y 4 se muestran los doctores de la Iglesia: San Agustín, San Gregorio Magno, San Jerónimo y San Ambrosio.
Los 12 quioscos de rosa mosqueta ( seis por cada lado ) son de Petruchio por Benedetto da Orvieto
( 1372-1388 ), mientras que las estatuas correspondientes depositada en ellos y que representan a 12 diferentes artistas son profetas finales XIV y XV.
Después de la terminación de la roseta y sus accesorios, la obra sufrió un largo descanso hasta que otro artista de Siena, Antonio Federighi, no se dio cuenta de los 12 nichos por encima del dosel
( 1451-1455 ). Sin dejar de respetar la configuración de la fachada original, Federighi no dudó en poner su trabajo en elementos renacentistas, como los arcos de los nichos.
Más tarde nos pusieron en ellos las estatuas de los 12 apóstoles, el trabajo de los artistas del siglo XVI.
La parte superior de los kioscos a las 12 se debe a Michael Federighi Sanmicheli. Se dieron cuenta de la cúspide central y los dos picos a los lados de la cúspide misma ( desde 1513 ). Pero el trabajo no terminó, incluso con la intervención de Sanmicheli, estas de haber dejado su trabajo sin terminar y no haber trabajado en todos los picos secundarios dos restantes. La aguja central se completó con un artista no identificado ( 1532 ). En su lugar, fue Antonio da Sangallo el Joven, en el extremo derecho de la aguja central ( 1547 ), mientras que el centro izquierda terminó Scalza Ippolito ( 1569 ) y anotó los otros dos lados ( 1571 hasta 1591 ), sin dejar de incluir las logias del estilo manierista.
A finales del siglo XVI, la fachada fue finalmente más. A partir de 1795 sufrió una importante restauración por los daños causados por un rayo, el trabajo que se prolongó durante el próximo siglo.
Los Mosaicos de las esquinas del rosetón
Como ya se mencionó, los segmentos de la rosa se muestran:
Los 4 mosaicos de los profetas - estos evangelistas son
Mateo, Marcos, Juan y Lucas
.
_________
Los tres Mosaicos de los gabletes
Por último, en las cúspides en la parte superior podemos ver:
__ de izquierda a derecha __
. . . . R ) Los desposorios de la Virgen
. . . . S ) La Coronación de la Virgen -- aquí no a ver
. . . . T ) La Presentación de María en el Templo
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it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duomo_di_Orvieto
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Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
The frescoes in the chapel are the impressive work by the Italian Renaissance painter Luca Signorelli (1445-1523).
Der Päpstliche Zeremonienmeister Biagio da Cesena kritisierte Michelangelos Werk und äußerte die Meinung, nackte Figuren sollten nicht in einem geheiligten Raum dargestellt werden, sie würden eher in eine Osteria passen.. Als Rache malte ihn Michelangelo im Jüngsten Gericht als Minos, einen der Richter der Unterwelt. Als sich Biagio da Cesena darüber bei Papst Paul III. Farnese beklagte, erklärte dieser, die Hölle stünde nicht unter seiner Gerichtsbarkeit und das Porträt müsse bleiben.
Biagio da Cesena, Papal Master of Cceremonies, criticized Michelangelo's work and voiced the opinon that nude figures should not be painted in a sacred place and that they would better suit a tavern. As a revenge, Michelangelo painted him in the Last Judgement as Minos, one of the judges of the underworld. When Biagio complained to the Pope Paul III. Farnese, the pontiff explained that he had no jurisdiction over hell and that the portrait would have to remain.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Rome, Italy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.comune.roma.it/was/wps/portal/pcr
For the civilisation of classical antiquity, see Ancient Rome. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation).
Rome (English pronunciation: /ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in 1,285.3 km2 (496.3 sq mi). Rome's metropolitan area is also the largest in Italy with some 4.2 million residents of Province of Rome.[2] The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.
After the Middle-Ages, Rome was ruled by popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X, who transformed the city into one of the major centers of the Italian Renaissance, along with Florence.[3] The current-day version of St Peter's Basilica was built and the Sistine Chapel was painted by Michelangelo. Famous artists and architects, such as Bramante, Bernini and Raphael resided for some time in Rome, contributing to its Renaissance and Baroque architecture.
In 2007 Rome was the 11th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy.[4] The city is one of Europe's and the world's most successful city "brands," both in terms of reputation and assets.[5] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6] Monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are amongst the world's 50 most visited tourist destinations (the Vatican Museums receiving 4.2 million tourists and the Colosseum receiving 4 million tourists every year).[7]
Etymology
About the origin of the name Roma several hypotheses have been advanced.[8] The most important are the following:
from Rommylos (Romulus), son of Ascanius and founder of the city;
from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of Tiber. It has the same root of the Greek verb ῥέω (rhèo) and of the Latin verb ruo, which both mean "flow";[9]
from the Etruscan word ruma, whose root is *rum-, "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of Palatine and Aventine hills;
from the Greek word ῤώμη (rhòme), which means strength;[10]
History
Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of Rome history
Earliest history
Main article: Founding of Rome
There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from at least 14,000 years, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[11] Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to at least 10,000 years of human presence. The power of the well known tale of Rome's legendary foundation tends also to deflect attention from its actual, and much more ancient, origins.
Monarchy, Republic, Empire
Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus.
Rome's early history is shrouded in legend. According to Roman tradition, the city was founded by Romulus[12] on 21 April 753 BC.[13] The legendary origin of the city tells that Romulus and Remus decided to build a city. After an argument, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[14] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilisations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From its foundation Rome, although losing occasional battles, had been undefeated in war until 386 BC, when it was briefly occupied by the Gauls.[15] According to the legend, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat, after which the Romans recovered the city in the same year.
Map depicting late ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic was wealthy, powerful and stable before it became an empire. According to tradition, Rome became a republic in 509 BC. However, it took a few centuries for Rome to become the great city of popular imagination, and it only became a great empire after the rule of Augustus (Octavian). By the 3rd century BC, Rome had become the pre-eminent city of the Italian peninsula, having conquered and defeated the Sabines, the Etruscans, the Samnites and most of the Greek colonies in Sicily, Campania and Southern Italy in general. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's stature increased further as it became the capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline, exhausted from endless civil wars and relying on mercenary troops. This saw the fall of Greece after the Battle of Corinth 146 BC and the establishment of Roman control over Greece.[16]
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[17] of land surface.
The Roman Empire had begun more formally when Emperor Augustus (63 BC–AD 14; known as Octavian before his throne accession) founded the Principate in 27 BC.[18] This was a monarchy system which was headed by an emperor holding power for life, rather than making himself dictator like Julius Caesar had done, which had resulted in his assassination on 15 March, 44 BC.[19] At home, Emperor Augustus started off a great programme of social, political and economic reform and grand-scale reconstruction of the city of Rome. The city became dotted with impressive and magnificent new buildings, palaces, fora and basilicae. Augustus became a great and enlightened patron of the arts, and his court was attended by such poets as Virgil, Horace and Propertius.[18] His rule also established the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace which lasted approximately 200 years.[20] Following his rule were emperors such as Caligula, Nero, Trajan, and Hadrian, to name a few. Roman emperor Nero was well-known for his extravagance, cruelty, tyranny, and the myth that he was the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" during the night of 18 to 19 July 64 AD.[21] The Antonine Plague of 165–180 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[22]
Roman dominance expanded over most of Western Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, though its influence through client states and the sheer power of its presence was wider than its formal borders. Its population surpassed one million inhabitants.[23] For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest, and largest city in the Western world. After the Empire started to decline and was split, it lost its capital status to Milan and then to Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, whose Greek inhabitants continued through the centuries to call themselves Roman.
Middle Ages
15th century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome (410)
The Bishop of Rome became the Pope due to his increased political and religious importance under Emperor Constantine I. The Pope set Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and Germanic control. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to a mere 35,000 during the Early Middle Ages,[24] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire until 751 AD, when the Lombards finally extinguished the Exarchate of Ravenna which was the last holdout of the Byzantines in northern Italy. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States. In 846, Muslim Arabs invaded Rome and looted St. Peter's Basilica.[25]
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).
Early modern
Main article: Roman Renaissance
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges, squares and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli.
The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio), which is an excellent example of Italian Renaissance architecture
The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Popes, such as Alexander VI, were well-known for their decadence, wild parties, extravagance and immoral lives.[26] However, under these extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.
Michelangelo's ceiling in the Sistine Chapel.
Rome in 1642
The Renaissance period changed Rome's face dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. In this twenty-years period Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[27] (which by then was in a terrible state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one the most famous painters of Italy creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The fight between France and Spain in Europe caused the first plunder of the City in more than one thousand years. In 1527 the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, putting to an abrupt end the golden age of the renaissance in Rome.[28]
In the beginning of the 16th century the Church began also a secular struggle against the Reformation, which subtracted a great part of Christendom to the papal authority.[28] The revenge of the church started with the Council of Trent, and with the great Popes of the Counter-Reformation (from Pius IV to Sixtus V). Under them Rome became the center of the reformed Catholicism, and thanks to them the City was adorned with monuments which celebrated the restored greatness of the Papacy.[29] During the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the Popes continued the tradition of Counter-reformation, enriching the city's landscape with Baroque buildings, erected by the Popes themselves or by theirs Cardinal-nephews.[28] During the Age of Enlightenment the new ideas reached also the Eternal City, where the Papacy supported Archeological Studies and improved the people's welfare.[28] However, at the same time the Popes had to fight against the anti-church policy of the great European powers which, among others, forced them to suppress the Jesuits.[28]
Late modern and contemporary
The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798), which was built under the influence of the French Revolution. During Napoleon's reign, Rome was annexed into the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, the Church State under the pope was reinstated through the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, another Roman Republic arose within the framework of revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic.
Italian soldiers enter Rome in 1870.
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under the French protection Napoleon III. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Afterwards, Pope Pius IX declared himself as prisoner in the Vatican, and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[30]
Soon after World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian Fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany. The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants. In World War II, due to its status of Open City, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities, but was occupied by the Germans from the Italian Armistice until its liberation on June 4th, 1944. However, on June 19, 1943 Rome was bombed by Anglo-American forces, being one of the hardest hit areas in the San Lorenzo district. Causing about 3,000 deaths and 11,000 wounded.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of "la dolce vita" ("the sweet life"), with popular classic fims such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita[31] being filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. A new rising trend in population continued until the mid-1980s, when the commune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby suburbs.
The Abbey of Monte Oliveto Maggiore (south of Siena) has a magnificent Chiostro Grande (Great Cloister), constructed between 1426 and 1443. Under the vaults of the cloister are frescoes of the Life of St. Benedict painted by Luca Signorelli and il Sodoma, considered amongst the most important Renaissance artworks in Italy.
Signorelli's paintings were executed in 1497-98, while Sodoma's date to 1505 afterwards.
Luca Signorelli (c. 1450-1523)
The Resurrection of the Flesh (1500-1503)
Orvieto, Cathedral, Chapel of the Madonna of San Brizio
The Resurrection of the Flesh is a study by Signorelli, exploring the possibilities of the male and female nude, while trying to recreate a three-dimensional setting. Signorelli shows his mastery in depicting the many positions of the human body. The risen, brought back to life, are crawling in an extreme effort from under the earth and are received by two angels in the sky blowing on a trumpet.
Der Apostel Batholomäus ist mit seiner geschundenen Haut in der linken Hand und einem Messer in der rechten Hand dargestellt, um sein Martyrium zu symbolisieren. Es wird allgemein angenommen, dass Michelangelo sein eigenes Porträt auf die geschundene Haut malte.
The Apostle Bartholomew holds a sheet of his flayed skin in his left hand and a knive in his right one to symbolize his martyrdom. It is generally presumed that Michelangelo painted his own portait on the flayed skin.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
Die unter Sixtus IV. zwischen 1475 und 1481 erbaute Sixtinische Kapelle ist die Hauptattraktion der Vatikanischen Museen und immer überfüllt. Ihre malerische Ausstattung ließ sie zum Synonym für Renaissancemalerei werden.
In den Jahren 1482 und 1483 wurden unter der Leitung von Pietro Perugino an den Längswänden 16 Fresken ausgeführt, von denen noch 12 erhalten sind, und die Szenen aus dem Leben von Moses als Vorläufer Christi auf der einen Seite und aus dem Leben Christi auf der anderen Seite darstellen. Die beteiligten Künstler waren neben Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli und Cosimo Roselli.
Das riesige Deckenfresko, das die Schöpfung und die frühe Menschheitsgeschichte zum Thema hat, wurde von Michelangelo Buonarotti in zwischen 1508 und 1512 im Auftrag von Julius II. della Rovere geschaffen.
Michelangelo schuf in den Jahren 1535 und 1536 im Auftrag von Paul III. Farnese auch das riesige Fresko des Jüngsten Gerichts an der Stirnseite der Kapelle.
Leider herrscht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle Fotoverbot, so dass nur wenige Schnappschüsse, wenn überhaupt, möglich sind. Dieses Album beinhaltet daher überwiegend Scans.
ROMA ARCHEOLOGICA & RESTAURO ARCHITETTURA 2021. Dal Colosseo a Michelangelo = "Un Gemello Digitale" (e tutto il patrimonio italiano ora può essere legalmente venduto in tutto il mondo), ora Nft interessa anche al ministro Franceschini. [Italiano & English]. Corriere Della Sera (14/05/2021); Italian Tech (06/10/2021) & Cinello - Florence / Fb (06/10/2021). wp.me/pbMWvy-21q
Foto: l’iconico Tondo Doni di Michelangelo degli Uffizi / DAW (Digital Art Work) = 70000-140000 Euro. Il Direttore degli Uffizi, Eike Schmidt. Cinello / Fb (06/10/2021).
1). ITALIA - NUOVE STRATEGIE - Michelangelo ha un gemello digitale e la Venere di Botticelli è crittografata. Corriere Della Sera (14/05/2021).
Niente visitatori o mostre, i conti dei musei più importanti sono in rosso. Gli uffizi di Firenze hanno avuto un’idea: creare avatar, riproduzioni virtuali delle grandi opere, e metterle in vendita. A caro prezzo.
Una chiavetta microprocessore, un brevetto mondiale, una protezione informatica (su Blockchain con gli immancabili NFT a corredo) e giuridica, un’autentica del museo che dà valore assoluto a questi perfetti gemelli digitali crittografati (in edizione limitata) dei grandi capolavori italiani, tra cui la Venere del Botticelli. Non la solita copia fatta benissimo nei laboratori cinesi, ma un DAW (Digital Art Work), avatar dell’originale ben custodito nelle collezioni. Signori il catalogo è questo: Mantegna, Raffaello, Caravaggio, Tiziano, Botticelli, Bronzino, Leonardo, Michelangelo, Lippi, Signorelli, Canaletto e molti altri maestri che il mondo ci invidia e che ora si possono avere (a caro prezzo) in duplicato. Un centinaio (a catalogo) le opere fedelmente riproposte in versione digitale su schermo, in collaborazione con Uffizi, Gallerie dell’Accademia di Venezia, Pinacoteca di Brera e Pinacoteca Ambrosiana di Milano, Galleria Nazionale delle Marche a Urbino, i Musei Reali di Torino, il Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte a Napoli, il Complesso monumentale della Pilotta a Parma, il Museo di Palazzo Pretorio a Prato, la Fondazione Cavallini Sgarbi di Ferrara, la Fondazione MPS di Siena.
Regalo di compleanno
Lo sviluppo tecnologico è frutto dell’ingegno di Franco Losi (una passione per l’arte ereditata dal padre pittore) e del suo socio John Blem. Dal 2017, con la loro società Cinello, hanno sviluppato questo progetto (benvoluto anche dal Mic) giunto a maturazione proprio nell’era Covid-19. Prima opera DAW ad essere venduta (a 140 mila euro, di cui 70 andranno al museo) l’iconico Tondo Doni di Michelangelo degli Uffizi. Questa Sacra Famiglia (tanto ammirata dal Vasari e poi anche da Roberto Longhi ma criticata nei secoli da altri storici dell’arte per l’esecuzione compositiva), con le figure plastiche e imponenti di Maria, del Bambino e di Giuseppe con sullo sfondo figure nude, fu dipinta dall’artista a Firenze tra il 1506 e il 1508 per il banchiere Agnolo Doni.
Opere fisiche ma create da un algoritmo
Il Direttore degli Uffizi, Eike Schmidt, parla di quest’opera DAW non come di un clone, ma nei termini di una “traduzione” dell’originale in una tecnologia. In un primo tempo saranno 17 le opere DAW (su una più ampia selezione) che gli Uffizi concedono a questo mercato, ottenendo da Cinello il 50% sul prezzo di vendita. Certo questi profitti non risolvono il bilancio stravolto del museo (34 milioni d’incassi globali nel 2019, 8,8 nel 2020) ma se i collezionisti si fanno avanti, aiutano le casse magre. «Nel medio termine potranno contribuire alle finanze di un museo, paragonabile ai proventi della ristorazione. Non è un cambiamento di rotta quanto a fonte di introiti, è un ricavo aggiuntivo. Ma la creazione di un mercato di questo tipo non è una cosa veloce», dice Schmidt. «Queste opere DAW (dalla doppia appartenenza sia al mondo fisico che a quello degli algoritmi) sono così un “pezzo” degli Uffizi. Per ciascun dipinto del progetto abbiamo voluto far realizzare nove esemplari digitali identici (nove è un numero ben testato per i multipli della scultura), per distinguerle dall’originale».
Fonte / source:
--- Corriere Della Sera (14/05/2021).
www.corriere.it/sette/cultura-societa/21_maggio_14/michel...
2). ITALY - ART 2.0. From the Colosseum to Michelangelo, now Nft is also of interest to Minister Franceschini. Italian Tech (06/10/2021).
The initiative of a collective of politicians, artists, philosophers and curators follows the sale by the Uffizi of a Non Fungible Token of a work by Michelangelo for 70 thousand euros. Italy can play a leading role on the cryptoart.
It all started with an unconventional proposal to say the least: «We sell the Colosseum». The idea comes from a collective of politicians, artists, philosophers and curators (or "researchers" as they prefer to define themselves) which includes Alessandro Fusacchia, Alex Braga, Federico Clapis, Andrea Colamedici and Serena Tabacchi. Let's sell it, they tell us in an open letter published last July, because today it would be possible to do so "without touching a single stone, and clearly leaving the property to the Italian State."
It is not a joke, nor a comedy by Totò: we can sell the Flavian amphitheater, the collective suggests, because to end up on the market and in some collector's computer it would be only his NFT, acronym stands for Non Fungible Token (non-fungible token ), and which defines a digital file created using the computer code of the blockchain. A digital item that is purchased using cryptocurrencies such as Ether or Wax and that exists as a single file that cannot be duplicated.
To create and sell the NFT of the famous monument, many different technologies and skills would be needed: for example, those necessary to create a 3D digital copy of a huge object. Any collection could then be used, for example, for the conservation and enhancement of the immense patrimony of Italian cultural heritage, which in turn can be digitized according to the same criteria and can be sold with the same noble purpose.
It would be just the beginning: behind the "provocation" that touched one of the greatest icons of Italian cultural and artistic heritage, there is in fact a strategic vision according to which "after covid-19, culture cannot restart only with protection of existing assets, because now we have the opportunity to exploit digital and new technologies to enhance what already exists, but also and above all to produce new culture ", explains Alessandro Fusacchia, parliamentarian and member of the VII Commission (Culture, Science, Instruction).
ossibility that the group of researchers is determined to grasp: «The idea is to build a center of gravity - continues Fusacchia - to bring together a group of people who represent different and complementary worlds. And who have decided to think at a systemic level on which legislative, civil society, entrepreneurial and artistic initiatives can be set up to raise awareness of the centrality of new technologies throughout the country. And then their adoption to create a new cultural and economic ecosystem capable of generating wealth and projecting Italy into the future ».
A few months ago, the Uffizi Galleries sold the NFT of Michelangelo's Tondo Doni, a very high resolution copy made with technology developed by the Cinello startup, bringing around 70,000 euros to the museum's coffers. It is perhaps an isolated case, but sufficient to arouse the interest of Minister Dario Franceschini, who has already promised guidelines for museums.
And it is always from the world of art - in this case contemporary and digital - that examples of what happens when culture, technology and business meet. Not so much and not only for the case of the experienced artist Beeple (40 years old), who through the auction house Christie's sold a work entitled Everydays: The First 5000 Days, composed from five thousand images taken in as many days and then brought together in a single picture.
But also and above all for what artists of the so-called generation Z are doing: we are talking about digital natives like the 15-year-old Jaiden Stipp, who already last March had auctioned his first collection of digital artwork earning 20ETH, at the exchange rate of 30 thousand dollars. And who has since sold four other works, then using the money he earned to help his parents pay the mortgage, but also to finance other artists of his age.
Or even like Benyamin Ahmed, who at the age of 12 creates and sells collections of pixelated art, or objects and characters made according to the style of the Minecraft video game, and who had already collected the equivalent of 350 thousand dollars in Ethereum at the end of August.
A new generation that is already fully ready to be the protagonist of that change hoped for by the group of researchers, which is partly already underway and which now requires the participation of all stakeholders to be fully realized also in Italy: "They must be brought aboard this operation intellectuals, artists, operators, startuppers, entrepreneurs, and then obviously the institutions - concludes Alessandro Fusacchia - And we need to understand that if we combine technology and culture, we strengthen both by giving a future to the country ».
Fonte / source:
--- Italian Tech (06/10/2021).
www.italian.tech/2021/11/02/news/vendiamo_l_nft_del_colos...
3). ITALIA - Cinello / @CinelloOfficial · Art / Firenze - Milano - COPENAGHEN / Fb (06/10/2021).