View allAll Photos Tagged Relabeled
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
2006 IC CE 200. Bus used to be lables ARJ but was involved in the controversy that led to many busses being relabeled NYC School Bus. Ex. Birnie Bus Service 2629
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Entitled: Natives At Breakfast, Movable Chow Shop, Canton, China [c1919] Keystone View Co. [RESTORED] I did the usual spotting, contrast, tonal corrections and added a sepia. However there are really serious limits that one can do when the original shot was set up with a single light source and no apparent or proper fill. The shadows in this case, seem to be deeper than the US national debt.
I just love these funny propped shots that purport to show the "real" Chinese slice of life. The funniest part is that there were probably some who believed these pictures wholeheartedly. A mixture of truth, probabilities, outright falsehoods, and a often a lot of the photographers' wild imagination, they're not only of historical significance, but begin to take on artistic value purely because of their sheer Kitsch.
That said, historically, street vendors did in fact sell hot food from either portable or rolling kitchens like this in the larger Chinese cities of the 1900's, so the image probably leans more to the truthful side than not. However I do question the dating of this image, which seems to be thematically similar to many that were produced by the BW Kilburn Co in 1901 (Kilburn unfortunately never issued sets of images). As Kilburn eventually closed its doors in 1909, its vast collection of 17,000 views and over 100,000 plate glass negatives was sold to Keystone View.
Source: www.yellowstonestereoviews.com/publishers/kilburn.html
My own speculation is that Keystone then picked the best of each collection that they acquired and reissued them with new titles and dates; hence the production date of this image was relabeled as 1919.
This TROUBLEMAKER was "consuming" poppy buds that were JUST starting to open - he/she was VERY selective and VERY greedy !! Already marked as a TROUBLEMAKER; if not careful will soon be relabeled as a PEST !!
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
An ex SP speed-lettered AC4400 (now relabeled UP 6260) on an empty train from Trona near Mojave
29 Aug 2005, Mojave, CA-USA
As a result of a lawsuit by the Philco Radio Company in the early 1940s, Philips was prevented from using the name "Philips" on any products marketed in the United States. The two names were judged to sound similar enough to cause consumer confusion. As a result, Philips instead used the name Norelco, an acronym for "North American Philips [electrical] Company" for their products sold in the United States. Philips continued to use that name for all their U.S. products until 1974, when Philips purchased The Magnavox Company Philips then relabeled their U.S. consumer electronics products as Magnavox. (Paragraph adapted from Wikipedia)
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Near Irrel, path to Teufelsschlucht (Devil's Canyon)
Close to Luxembourg Border, this and the Müllerthal/Berdorf region is a really amazing area for hiking.
DM Paradies 400 is a drugstore brand film, possibly a relabeled Superia 400.
I spent nearly 3 hours today (Jan 7th, 2020) finishing up a cross-stitch that I had been working on for a long time. It was sort of bittersweet to be done with it. My plan had been to try to sell it at the upcoming sci-fi convention in February along with a bunch of other pieces I am entering into their art show, but I like this one so much that I am thinking of keeping it for myself. It has more meaning to me, personally, than it would have to anyone who bought it. I entitled it “Irregular Alphabet Soup for the Soul” because the circuit-board I stitched the project on is misprinted with a 25-letter alphabet that includes the letters “z” and “s” twice each and omits the letters “i” “j” (replaced by a z) and “x” (replaced by an s). So it goes “abcdefghzklmnopqrstuvwsyz”. Luckily I realized this fairly early on, and although it threw me into a state of flumox as I frantically relabeled my diagram, I got everything under control relatively quickly and made sure the irregularities were accounted for. The perpendicular edge of the board, as is traditional, is labeled with numbers. The numbers start at 1 and go to 65. So I had assumed there were 65 holes. And I labeled my cross-stitch diagrams based on this assumption and started working on the project. I started some bits lower down, starting between holes 7 and 8 and working my way up. And then there was a zig-zag lines that went up and down between holes 23 and 24 that stretched across the entire width. By which I mean the entire width of the pattern, which was not as wide as the board. But looking at the pattern it looked like it stretched across the whole thing, because there weren’t empty spaces on sides the pattern. I stitched the line across the entire board and then worked upwards from there for a bit before realizing my mistake. I had to go back and unpick each end of the line plus some stitches I had made above the line, and then deal with the loose thread ends created by unpicking the stitches, but they were too short to get inside of a needle and still be able to maneuver the needle to thread them underneath nearby stitches, not to mention that the zig-zag line didn’t create any vertical stitches on the backside of the board to tuck them under anyhow. Unpicking ALL of the stitches would get rid of the short loose ends and I could start over with longer loose ends but that seemed like a waste of both time/work and also thread. So I ended up using some dots of superglue and then waiting until I started filling in more of the space around the loose ends with another color to cover the loose ends with that. So that was a mistake on my part that was a bit frustrating, but which I surprisingly handled without feeling as much in the way of frustration as I would have expected. Then there was the MAJOR mistake which was NOT my fault. I had finished approximately half the project. It was a two-color project and I had finished all of the first color and a few bits near the middle of the board using the second color. Then I went to work on filling in the parts of the second color that were supposed to go in the lower part of the board. I started stitching directly below that troublesome line I had stitched (and then fixed) between holes 23 and 24 and working my way down from there. And things didn’t match up. I counted my stitches, and counted the stitches on the pattern, counted mine, counted the pattern, and was so confused as to why they weren’t matching up.... until finally I noticed that the freaking circuit board was missing the #10. It went straight from 9 to 11. I immediately went over all the numbers, to make sure there were no other errors, and there weren’t, but it still meant that I had to pick out all the stitches that I had started from holes 7-8 (which then worked their way upwards to about hole 20, comprising everything in that color below the fateful line, which meant I was picking out nearly a full third of the work done in that color) and re-do the whole thing starting 1 hole lower down (from holes 6-7). I was shocked when I discovered that there simply was no #10. And I called the manufacturers some swear words in my head very loudly (it was in my head, not out loud, but it was still very loud in my head.) I also used red pen to write “the f-ing bstards skipped #10” on a post-it note which I put on the paper pattern. But it was more a feeling of moral outrage than one of pure anger if that makes any sense. I was more just flabbergasted than anything else. I almost didn’t mind picking out and re-doing the stitching. It’s possible that I am remembering my feelings inaccurately - believing that I “almost didn’t mind” when in fact I just “didn’t mind as much as I would have expected” - but either way the point is that I dealt with frustrating obstacles in a relatively calm, ACCEPTING manner. I accepted that things don’t always go according to plan. And I tried to remain in that frame of mind as continued to work towards finishing the project and encountered inevitable thread tangles. They can usually be picked apart with the tip of the needle, but it takes patience. Once or twice I got stuck with tangles so nasty I had to put them down and do something else before coming back to work on picking them apart because if you’re all tensed up and angry and frustrated feeling like you are getting nowhere and you’ll never get the knot out then you start jabbing and pulling with the needle tip with more force and less accuracy and can end up making things even worse.
So “Irregular Alphabet Soup for the Soul” is a title to remind myself how dealing with setbacks can be good for the soul and help teach us patience. I tried to retain that lesson of patience when picking apart tangled thread knots, but didn’t always succeed and sometimes, as I said, had to put the project down and walk away for awhile to clear my head before coming back to try again. But in any case, the piece has personal meaning to me, so now I have to decide whether I want to try to sell it after all or not.
(I wish I could paste images directly into this description, but as the next best thing I uploaded a detail shot highlighting the printing errors and can provide a link to it here: flic.kr/p/2ig48dZ )
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
French rider Alain Bondue ( team La Redoute - Motobécane 1980–1985) with a Cinelli Laser Air relabeled Motobecane.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
On May 4 2017, former Metropolitan rake piloted by Apmbzf 116.8 driving trailer 70 80 80-95 714-3 D-DB was used as replacement for an ICE-T trainset. As a result, this domestic service ICE 1207 Berlin Hbf (tief) - München Hbf was relabeled as EuroCity (!) 2507. During a short call in Bamberg, the rake was pictured next to Talent 2 EMU 442 243, awaiting departure as S 1 service to Hartmannshof.
T201705-0134
Centaurea is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding regions are particularly species-rich. In the western United States, yellow starthistles are an invasive species. Around the year 1850, seeds from the plant had arrived to the state of California. It is believed that those seeds came from South America.
Common names
Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous "bluets"; a vernacular name used for these plants in parts of England is "loggerheads" (common knapweed). The Plectocephalus group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. "Cornflower" is used for a few species, but that term more often specifically means either C. cyanus (the annual cornflower) or Centaurea montana (the perennial cornflower). The common name "centaury" is sometimes used, although this also refers to the unrelated plant genus Centaurium.
The name is said to be in reference to Chiron, the centaur of Greek mythology who discovered medicinal uses of a plant eventually called "centaury".
Description
Knapweeds are robust weedy plants. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are usually deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants' lower part, becoming entire towards the top. The "flowers" (actually pseudanthium inflorescences) are diverse in colour, ranging from intense blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these and lighter shades towards white. Often, the disk flowers are much darker or lighter than the ray flowers, which also differ in morphology and are sterile. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly bracts, hence the name "basketflowers". Many species, in particular those inhabiting more arid regions, have a long and strong taproot.
Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, typically one or two grasses and as many other large herbaceous plants. The common knapweed (C. nigra) for example is plentiful in the mesotrophic grasslands of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by cock's-foot (Dactylis glomerata) as well as either of crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) and false oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). It is also often found in mesotrophic grassland on rendzinas and similar calcareous soils in association with glaucous sedge (Carex flacca), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and either tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum) and rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), or upright brome (Bromus erectus). In these grasslands, greater knapweed (C. scabiosa) is found much more rarely by comparison, often in association with red fescue (Festuca rubra) in addition to cock's-foot and false oat-grass.
Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many Centaurea species can become invasive weeds in regions where they are not native. In parts of North America, diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa), spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) and yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) cause severe problems in agriculture due to their uncontrolled spread. The seeds are typically transported by human traffic, in particular the tires of all-terrain vehicles. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly allelopathic, producing powerful toxins in their roots that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this. Yellow starthistle, meanwhile, is inedible to most livestock due to its spines and apparently outright poisonous to horses and other equines. However, efficient methods of biological control by insect pests of these weeds have been developed; the knapweeds can also exploited to their detriment by targeted grazing. Controlled burning may also be used, though the timing is important to avoid the plants having seeded already, and neither allowing sufficient time for them to regrow from the rootstock.
Yet other species of Centaurea – mostly ones that occur between Italy and the Caucasus – are endemics of a single island or valley, and some of these are endangered. The Akamas Centaurea (Centaurea akamantis) of Cyprus is almost extinct, while the western Caucasus endemics C. leptophylla and C. straminicephala are at least very rare and C. hedgei and C. pecho from the same region are certainly not abundant either. The last four species would be adversely affected by the proposed Yusufeli Dam, which might actually destroy enough habitat to push the two rarer ones over the brink of extinction.
Centaurea are copious nectar producers, especially on high-lime soils. The high nectar yield of the genus makes it very attractive to insects such as butterflies – including the endangered Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis) which visits introduced spotted knapweed – and day-flying moths – typically Zygaenidae, such as Zygaena loti or the six-spot burnet (Z. filipendulae). The larvae of some other Lepidoptera species use Centaurea species as food plants; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Centaurea. Several of these are used in biological control of invasive knapweeds and starthistles.
Larvae of several true weevils (Curculionidae) of the subfamily Lixinae also feed on Centaurea. Some genera – such as Larinus whose larval food is flowerheads – have many species especially adapted to particular knapweeds or starthistle and are used in biological control too. These include the yellow starthistle flower weevil (L. curtus) for yellow starthistle, lesser knapweed flower weevil (L. minutus) for diffuse knapweed and blunt knapweed flower weevil (L. obtusus) for spotted knapweed. Broad-nosed seedhead weevil (Bangasternus fausti) larvae eat diffuse, spotted and squarrose knapweed (C. virgata ssp. squarrosa), while those of the yellow starthistle bud weevil (B. orientalis) do not seem to live on anything other than yellow starthistle and occasionally purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa). But perhaps most efficient in destroying developing yellow starthistle seedheads is the larva of the yellow starthistle hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus). Knapweed root weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) larvae bore into the roots of spotted and to a lesser extentely diffuse knapweed, sometimes killing off the entire plant.
Also used in biological control are Tephritidae (peacock flies) whose larvae feed on Centaurea. Knapweed peacock fly (Chaetorellia acrolophi) larvae eat spotted knapweed and some other species. The yellow starthistle peacock fly (C. australis) has an initial generation each year which often uses cornflower (C. cyanus) as larval food; later generations switch to yellow starthistle. The flies are generally considered less efficient in destroying the growing seedheads than the weevils, but may be superior under certain conditions; employing flies and weevils in combination is expensive and does not noticeably increase their effect.
Use by humans
Although the genus may be considered by a quite significant number of relatively informed individuals to have an overall negative impact on human interests, particularly agricultural interests, the situation is not straightforward enough to simply declare the genus, or, at least, its most aggressively-spreading species, altogether negative. For instance, due to their moderate to high nectar production, which can occur over a comparatively long duration, many species of Centaurea are popular food sources for insects that may otherwise attack certain crops.[citation needed] It may be advisable for some types of farms to allow certain species in this genus, such as cornflower (C. cyanus) in a European setting, to grow adjacent to fields. Although they support and attract many types of beneficial life (not just beetles), these areas are known as beetle banks. When they are present, some pests may be drawn away from crops to them and predatory insects and arachnids that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting pollinators, unlike many field crops such as maize. Moreover, being untreated with pesticides and providing more diversity, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just in the roles of adult food and/or shelter provision.
Some plants which are considered invasive or problematic in certain areas can have beneficial qualities that outweigh their negative qualities from a human and/or human agricultural point of view, although this sometimes requires some human management – particularly if adequate biological control has not been established for the more aggressive species. An example is wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, which produces florets that feed predatory (and other beneficial) insects as well as large tubular stems that provide winter shelter for native bees, wasps, and other organisms that can be beneficial for agriculture. The plant is considered invasive in some areas of the United States and is also often considered undesirable due to its ability to cause contact skin irritation. However, it also serves as a host plant for the black swallowtail butterfly, helps to bring nutrients up from soils with its deep taproot, and possesses evergreen foliage even in climate zones such as US zone 6. This foliage increases soil warmth and moisture which can be beneficial for certain types of life. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a generally disliked plant's beneficial qualities being usually overlooked is the often-despised ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, which topped the list by a large amount for nectar production in a UK study, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg). This very high nectar production, coupled with its early blooming period, makes the plant helpful for the establishment of bee colonies in spring — a period that is often not well-served by commercial flower meadow seed mixes. It also has the situationally-beneficial quality of being a spring ephemeral, as well as an annual that lacks difficult-to-combat roots. Plants that provide necessary structural supports for invertebrate and small vertebrate predators can help to keep overall pest populations low.
The abundant nectar produced by C. solstitialis flowers attracts many pollinators. This is another reason for the success of the (situationally) highly invasive species. Due to genetic differences related to evolutionary adaption, not all members of Centaurea produce the same amount of nectar. Growing conditions, such as climate and soil, can have a very strong impact, even if the plants grow and flower. For instance, cornflower plants, Centaurea cyanus, produced 33% less seasonal nectar than Centaurea nigra in a UK study. C. nigra also ranked higher than ragwort in another UK study, although ragwort was still in the top 10 for yearly nectar production. The strong nectar production of certain members of the genus can be exploited to the farmer's advantage, possibly in combination with biological control. In particular, the yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) as well as spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) are major honey plants for beekeepers. Monofloral honey from these plants is light and slightly tangy, and one of the finest honeys produced in the United States – due to its better availability, it is even fraudulently relabeled and sold as the scarce and expensive sourwood honey of the Appalachian Mountains. Placing beehives near stands of Centaurea will cause increased pollination. As most seedheads fail however when biocontrol pests have established themselves, the plants will bloom ever more abundantly in an attempt to replace the destroyed seedheads, to the point where they exhaust their resources in providing food for the pests (seeds), bees (pollen) and humans (honey). Output of allelopathic compounds is also liable to be reduced under such conditions – the plant has to compromise between allocating energy to reproduction and defense. This renders the weeds more likely to be suppressed by native vegetation or crops in the following years, especially if properly timed controlled burning[5] and/or targeted grazing by suitable livestock are also employed. While yellow starthistle and perhaps other species are toxic to equines, some other livestock may eat the non-spiny knapweeds with relish. In Europe, common knapweed (C. nigra) and globe knapweed (C. macrocephala) are locally important pollen sources for honeybees in mid-late summer.
8-Hydroxyquinoline has been identified as a main allelopathic compound produced by diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa); native North American plants are typically sensitive to it, while those of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor usually have coevolved with the knapweed and are little harmed if at all, aided by native microorganisms that break down or even feed on the abundantly secreted compound. Thus, 8-hydroxyquinoline is potentially useful to control American plants that have become invasive weeds in the diffuse knapweed's native range.
Arctiin, found in C. imperialis, has shown anticancer activity in laboratory studies. The roots of the long-lost C. foliosa, an endemic of Hatay Province (Turkey), are used in folk medicine, and other species are presumably too. A South Italian variety[verification needed] of the purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa) is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of C. calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non-cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity [...] of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, [is] very interesting and [the] species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from C. calcitrapa were furthermore found to have significant xanthine oxidase (XO)-inhibiting activity.
Spotted knapweed as well as other species are rich in cnicin, a bitter compound found mainly in the leaves and often used to flavor the digestif amaro. In western Crete, Greece a local variety[verification needed] of C. calcitrapa called gourounaki (γουρουνάκι "little pig") also has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals. In the same island an endemic local species, C. idaea called katsoula (κατσούλα), tsita (τσίτα) or aspragatha (ασπραγκάθα), has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals too.
Some species are cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens. As regards other aspects of popular culture, cornflower (C. cyanus) is the floral emblem of Östergötland province (Sweden) – where is it called blåklint, literally "blue mountain" – and of Päijänne Tavastia region in Finland, where it is known as ruiskaunokki ("rye-beaks") or ruiskukka ("rye-flower"). It is also the national flower of Estonia where its local name rukkilill means "rye-lily", Belarus where it is called vałoška (Belarusian: валошка), and one of those of Germany where it is called Kornblume ("cornflower"). The origin of the name "caltrop" for the ancient low-tech area denial weapon is probably in some way connected with C. calcitrapa and its spiny seeds. This plant is attested to by the colloquial name "caltrop" at a time when the weapons were still called by their Roman name tribulus. Lastly, the color cornflower blue is named after C. cyanus. Cornflower is also used as a cut flower.
As namesake member of the subtribe Centaureinae of tribe Cardueae, the knapweeds are probably most closely related to genera such as Carthamus (distaff thistles), Cnicus (blessed thistle), Crupina (crupinas) or Notobasis (Syrian thistle), and somewhat less closely to most other thistles. The monotypic Cnicus seems in fact to properly belong in Centaurea.
Research in the late 20th century shows that Centaurea as traditionally defined is polyphyletic. A number of 19th- and 20th-century efforts to reorganize the genus were not successful, and it is not yet clear what the consequences of the recent research will be for classification of this genus and other related genera. The type species C. centaurium stands somewhat apart from the main lineage of knapweeds and thus the taxonomic consequences of a rearrangement might be severe, with hundreds of species needing to be moved to new genera. It has thus been proposed to change the type species to one of the main lineages to avoid this problem. What seems certain however is that the basketflowers – presently treated as a section Plectocephalus – will be reinstated as a distinct genus in the near future. The rock-centauries (Cheirolophus), formerly usually included in Centaurea, are now already treated as separate genus.
Better-known Centaurea species include:
Centaurea acaulis
Centaurea adpressa
Centaurea aegyptiaca
Centaurea aeolica
Centaurea aggregata
Centaurea akamantis – Akamas centaurea
Centaurea alba
Centaurea albonitens Turrill
Centaurea alpestris
Centaurea alpina
Centaurea ambigua
Centaurea amblyolepis
Centaurea americana – American basketflower, American starthistle
Centaurea ammocyanus
Centaurea antennata Dufour
Centaurea antiochia Boiss.
Centaurea aplolepa
Centaurea aplolepa subsp. carueliana
Centaurea appendicigera C.Koch
Centaurea argentea
Centaurea ascalonica
Centaurea aspera L. – rough starthistle
Centaurea atacamensis (Reiche) I.M.Johnst.
Centaurea atropurpurea
Centaurea ×aurata
Centaurea babylonica L.
Centaurea balsamita
Centaurea behen L. – ak behmen (Turkish)
Centaurea bella
Centaurea benedicta – Cnicus
Centaurea bieberseinii
Centaurea borjae
Centaurea bovina
Centaurea bracteata
Centaurea brevifimbriata Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea bulbosa
Centaurea busambarensis Guss.
Centaurea cachinalensis
Centaurea calcitrapa – purple starthistle, red starthistle, "caltrop"
Centaurea calcitrapoides
Centaurea cariensis Boiss.
Centaurea cariensiformis Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea caroli-henrici Gabrieljan & Dittrich
Centaurea centaurium L.
Centaurea chilensis
Centaurea cineraria – velvet centaurea, dusty miller
Centaurea clementei
Centaurea collina L.
Centaurea corymbosa
Centaurea crithmifolia
Centaurea crocodylium
Centaurea cyanoides J.Berggr. & Wahlenb.
Centaurea cyanus – cornflower, bachelor's button, boutonniere flower, hurtsickle, bluebottle, basketflower
Centaurea damascena
Centaurea debeauxii Gren. & Godr.
Centaurea demirizii Wagenitz
Centaurea depressa – low cornflower
Centaurea deusta
Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed, white knapweed, tumble knapweed
Centaurea diluta – North African knapweed
Centaurea drabifolia Sm.
Centaurea drabifolioides Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea dschungarica
Centaurea emilae Hüseynova et Qaraxani[13]
Centaurea eriophora
Centaurea eryngioides
Centaurea filiformis
Centaurea fischeri Willd.
Centaurea floccosa
Centaurea foliosa Boiss. & Kotschy
Centaurea forojuliensis
Centaurea friderici Vis. – palagruška zečina (Croatian)
Centaurea gayana
Centaurea glaberrima Tausch
Centaurea glastifolia
Centaurea grinensis
Centaurea gymnocarpa
Centaurea haradjianii Wagenitz
Centaurea hedgei
Centaurea helenioides Boiss.
Centaurea hermannii F.Hermann
Centaurea horrida Badarò – fiordaliso spinoso (Italian)
Centaurea hyalolepis
Centaurea hypoleuca
Centaurea iberica – Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed
Centaurea idaea – katsoula, tsita (Cretan Greek)
Centaurea imperialis Hausskn. ex Bornm.
Centaurea jabukensis
Centaurea jacea – brown knapweed, brownray knapweed
Centaurea kasakorum
Centaurea kopetaghensis
Centaurea kotschyana Heuff.
Centaurea lanulata
Centaurea leptophylla
Centaurea leucophylla
Centaurea limbata
Centaurea lydia Boiss.
Centaurea macrocephala Puschk. ex Willd. – globe knapweed, Armenian basketflower
Centaurea maculosa – spotted knapweed (might belong in C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea mannagettae
Centaurea margaritalba Klok.
Centaurea marschalliana
Centaurea melitensis – Maltese starthistle; tocalote, tocolote (California)
Centaurea minor
Centaurea moschata – sweet sultan
Centaurea ×moncktonii C.E.Britton – meadow knapweed, protean knapweed (= C. ×pratensis Thuill non Salisb.)
Centaurea monocephala
Centaurea montana – montane knapweed, perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, mountain bluet
Centaurea napifolia L. – fiordaliso romano (Italian)
Centaurea nervosa Rchb. ex Steud.
Centaurea nigra – common knapweed, black knapweed, lesser knapweed, hardheads
Centaurea nigrescens – Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed, Tyrol thistle
Centaurea nigrifimbria (C.Koch) Sosn.
Centaurea nivea (Bornm.) Wagenitz
Centaurea onopordifolia
Centaurea orientalis L.
Centaurea ornata Willd.
Centaurea ovina
Centaurea pallescens Delile
Centaurea paniculata L.
Centaurea parlatoris
Centaurea pecho
Centaurea phrygia – wig knapweed
Centaurea pindicola
Centaurea polypodiifolia
Centaurea ×pratensis Salisb. (C. jacea × C. nigra) – meadow knapweed
Centaurea procurrens
Centaurea ×psammogena G.Gayer. (C. diffusa × C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea pseudocaerulescens
Centaurea pseudophrygia C.A.Mey.
Centaurea pulcherrima Willd.
Centaurea pullata L.
Centaurea pumilio
Centaurea ragusina L.
Centaurea rigida
Centaurea rothrockii Greenm. – Mexican basketflower, Rothrock's basketflower, Rothrock's knapweed
Centaurea ruthenica
Centaurea rutifolia Sm.
Centaurea sadleriana – Pannonian knapweed
Centaurea salicifolia Bieb. ex Willd.
Centaurea scabiosa – greater knapweed
Centaurea scannensis
Centaurea scoparia
Centaurea scopulorum Boiss. & Heldr.
Centaurea seguenzae
Centaurea seridis L.
Centaurea sibirica
Centaurea simplicicaulis
Centaurea sinaica
Centaurea solstitialis – yellow starthistle, golden starthistle, yellow cockspur, St. Barnaby's thistle, Barnaby thistle
Centaurea speciosa
Centaurea sphaerocephala L.
Centaurea stenolepis
Centaurea stoebe L.
Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek
Centaurea straminicephala
Centaurea sulphurea – Sicilian starthistle
Centaurea tauromenitana Guss.
Centaurea tenoreana
Centaurea tommasinii
Centaurea transalpina Schleich. ex DC.
Centaurea tchihatcheffii — yanardöner (Turkish)
Centaurea trichocephala Bieb. ex Willd. – featherhead knapweed
Centaurea triniifolia
Centaurea triumfettii All.
Centaurea ucriae Lacaita
Centaurea uniflora Turra
Centaurea verbascifolia Vahl
Centaurea verutum L.
Centaurea virgata
Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa – squarrose knapweed
Centaurea wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey.
Centaurea yozgatensis Wagenitz
Formerly placed here
Plant species placed in Centaurea in former times include:
Acroptilon repens – Russian knapweed (as C. repens)
Cheirolophus crassifolius – Maltese rock-centaury (as C. crassifolia, C. spathulata)
Femeniasia balearica (as C. balearica)
Volutaria muricata (as C. muricata)
Artist: Manfred Sihle-Wissel
Induction / Enweihung: Septermber 2006
Loki (Hannelore) Schmidt (1919-2010) was the wife of Helmut Schmidt (*1918), former German 'Bundeskanzler'.
Loki Schmidt was very favoured in Hamburg, some of her themes were the plants and the nature.
Der "Botanische Garten" near the station "Klein-Flottbek" was recently (22.10.12.) relabeled in "Loki-Schmidt-Garten".
IMG_II-4839 ak.jpg
BOX DATE: 1963
APPROXIMATE RELEASE DATE:1964-1965
MANUFACTURER: Mattel
MISSING ITEMS: Coat, hat
PERSONAL FUN FACT written by my sister: In 2014, we obtained a case of vintage Barbie clothes and I believe that is where I got this purse. We aren't usually that lucky. Normally, we only find vintage clothes by chance, a few pieces here and there, in an assortment of newer Barbie clothes. On the occasions that we find an abundance of them, they usually cost a little more--like the lot Shelly got with one of her Talking P.J. dolls--than we'd ordinarily spend on a bin. Or, in the case of our 70s lot from New Year's day in 2012, they are scrappy. The lot I got this in had some VERY nice pieces, some more complete than others but all in good condition. We didn't initially document scraps like this for Flickr. The reason behind this is simple: when we first began uploading Flickr photos in 2014/2015, we prioritized. Our collection was so vast even then that we didn't originally take the time to photograph clone items or odd items like this--a hat, a purse, a solitary shoe that is distinctive. As time wore on, we'd photograph these items along with others when we got new bins. This, however, being an older acquisition, like many odds and ends like it, had been in our house back when we weren't photographing things like purses unless we had a clothing piece that went with it. In 2017, we started going through our drawers of doll clothes to check for items needing mending or items that needed to be relabeled. As we've gone through, we've remembered to photograph a lot of little items like this that we originally didn't bother to document.
This purse is super soft and high quality. It is absolutely adorable and perfect for play. A lot of my vintage outfits--like Silk 'N Fancy, Red Sensation, and Platter Party--have a similar red coloring, which I think looks really nice on vintage Skipper. So, this purse would work great with a number of my vintage Skipper clothes for play or photography. I'd love to have the rest of this outfit one day. The coat is SO iconic! It's the sort of thing Barbie and Skipper wore back in the day. Also, the coat and hat remind me of a handmade outfit that Shelly unearthed in her 60s Barbie house when she opened the wardrobe in 2011. Add that to the fact that we were most heavily into vintage dolls circa 2011 and it makes me really fond of this fashion and reminds me of my dad--even though he wasn't here to see me find this purse. The memory of trolling flea markets, antique stores, and eBay with him is still somehow attached to it so it still makes me think of him!
119 158 at the TBw Staßfurt.
In the second half of the 1970s, the GDR was in need of new diesel locomotives with more than 2000HP and an axle load of 16 metric tons. The logical choice would have been building more of the rather successful class 118 locomotives, but according to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the GDR wasn't allowed to build locomotives this large. The logical choice would have been the soviet union, but their Class 120 "Taigatrommel" and Class 130 "Ludmilla" locomotives were just too heavy.
In the end, romanian FAUR was tasked with developing the 118 to the updated 119, which got the nickname "U-Boot" (submarine) thanks to the circular engine room windows.
The class was never well-loved. With 2700 HP it had plenty of power, but it had both conceptual and quality control issues, and at times 20-30% of them could be found in repair shops. After the german re-unification, when they got relabeled as 219, they weren't kept for extremely long anymore either. Some got rebuilt extensively as the new class 229, but this was way too expensive. This particular example was a second shot at modernizing them in 2003, with a new cab, modern Caterpillar engines and a digital destination display behind the windscreen, but ultimately there was no interest in that either. It now belongs to DB Museum, displaying its old number and paint scheme again.
Some examples are still used for MOW trains and the like. A further few are now museum locomotives or are owned by private companies. Last but not least, twelve got sold - back to Romania.
© Dennis Matthies
My photographs are copyrighted and may not be altered, printed, published in any media and/or format, or re-posted in other websites/blogs.
Otto model Classic 65
For AW76, sorry it took a while.
There were several like this in the area that were cracked or damaged. I'm guessing many will be replaced when the mass relabeling for Republic Services comes through.
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Don't be a thief! Please do not use this photo without first asking for permission, thank you.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Double exposure and a self portrait - and an emergency break. This frame has it all.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
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Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Bronica SQ-A
Zenzanon PS 150mm
f/11 1/2
CatLabs X Film 80 (64)
Adox XT-3 1:1 10:30
Epson V850
It looks like CatLabs X Film 80 may no longer be available, which is a shame. I love how it handles conditions like this - I think it's beautiful, with very rich, silvery midtones. It can drop off pretty quickly, but, as here, it will retain shadow detail. And it's got very pleasant grain. Bergger Pancro 400 has handled midtones similarly for me, although I think it is a bit creamier, and its grain is broader. FP4+ comes close - indeed, FP4+ is becoming my go-to - but there's something uniquely lovely about this.
I've seen speculation that X Film 80 is relabeled Shanghai GP3, although that's not so easy to find right now, either.
BOX DATE: 2020
MANUFACTURER: Mattel
DOLLS IN LINE: Ruly; Lumina
BODY TYPE: 2020; GXM16; molded panties; articulated elbows, wrists, & knees
HEAD MOLD: 2019 "Emberly"
PERSONAL FUN FACT: Ah, the elusive Lumina! To be honest, I wasn't even entirely sure if this doll was real at first. I was doing some dolly research when I noticed two new Cave Club characters pop up on my Google search. Ruly and Lumina appeared on the Nordstrom Rack website. I found it odd that I wasn't able to find any other dolls for sale on the internet...just on this random clothing store. I was able to track down a few loose pictures of them on various blogs. But it seemed that Ruly and Lumina were not widely available. A few days later, when I popped back on the Nordstrom Rack website to see if they were still listed, Lumina showed up as "out of stock." Although it was tempting to purchase these newbie Cave Club characters, Colleen and I thought it made more sense to wait it out a bit. Surely other store websites would at least have these dolls in the near future. I'm very grateful we were patient, because it wasn't all that long after when Amazon had the dolls on their website. It was financially more sensible because of the free shipping (while we don't have prime, you only have to spend $25 to qualify for the free shipping). At first, I thought it wouldn't make much of a difference if we waited a week or two to purchase the dollies. We were going to the flea market that Sunday after all. It was early April, the best time for secondhand treasure hunting. But Colleen kept insistently nagging me. "What if they sell out? Weird things are going on with Cave Club dolls right now. What if they never make stores? It makes more sense to buy them new when they are so affordable!" She kept pestering me incessantly until I caved (pun intended). I agreed that because we were both so obsessed with this line, it wouldn't hurt to buy the dolls while we had the chance. We ordered Ruly, Lumina, Bashley, Dino Nursery Adventure Rockelle, and Cavetastic Sleepover Emberly (weirdly I couldn't find the other dolls from said line sold ANYWHERE in the U.S. online). When I glanced back a few days later at our order, I noticed that Rockelle and Lumina were sold out and labeled as "if" they would be restocked, not when. Later on, Lumina was relabeled as being in stock "soon." Either way, I'm glad we didn't gamble!
Honestly I wasn't sure how attractive Lumina was based on stock photos. She almost looked fake because of the way she was photoshopped. Since there weren't many loose pictures of her out there, and many weren't all that flattering, I couldn't get an idea of what she was actually going to look like. I had this feeling though that Lumina was going to be MUCH prettier in person. I'm not sure how I knew this, but it was just a gut instinct. Sure enough, when Miss Lumina arrived the following Saturday, I was blown away by her beauty. She has shocking green eyes and this amazing deep blue hair. She looks a tad static in my photo too, but not as fake as she did in the stock images. I love how she reminds me a bit of some of my Gothic inspired Bratz. I don't know if that's the look Mattel was going for, but her deep colored hair and super pale skin reminds me of that at least. I have to admit, she might have been the prettiest doll we got in that order, with the exception of Dino Nursery Adventure Rockelle of course!
Centaurea is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding regions are particularly species-rich. In the western United States, yellow starthistles are an invasive species. Around the year 1850, seeds from the plant had arrived to the state of California. It is believed that those seeds came from South America.
Common names
Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous "bluets"; a vernacular name used for these plants in parts of England is "loggerheads" (common knapweed). The Plectocephalus group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. "Cornflower" is used for a few species, but that term more often specifically means either C. cyanus (the annual cornflower) or Centaurea montana (the perennial cornflower). The common name "centaury" is sometimes used, although this also refers to the unrelated plant genus Centaurium.
The name is said to be in reference to Chiron, the centaur of Greek mythology who discovered medicinal uses of a plant eventually called "centaury".
Description
Knapweeds are robust weedy plants. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are usually deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants' lower part, becoming entire towards the top. The "flowers" (actually pseudanthium inflorescences) are diverse in colour, ranging from intense blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these and lighter shades towards white. Often, the disk flowers are much darker or lighter than the ray flowers, which also differ in morphology and are sterile. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly bracts, hence the name "basketflowers". Many species, in particular those inhabiting more arid regions, have a long and strong taproot.
Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, typically one or two grasses and as many other large herbaceous plants. The common knapweed (C. nigra) for example is plentiful in the mesotrophic grasslands of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by cock's-foot (Dactylis glomerata) as well as either of crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) and false oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). It is also often found in mesotrophic grassland on rendzinas and similar calcareous soils in association with glaucous sedge (Carex flacca), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and either tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum) and rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), or upright brome (Bromus erectus). In these grasslands, greater knapweed (C. scabiosa) is found much more rarely by comparison, often in association with red fescue (Festuca rubra) in addition to cock's-foot and false oat-grass.
Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many Centaurea species can become invasive weeds in regions where they are not native. In parts of North America, diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa), spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) and yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) cause severe problems in agriculture due to their uncontrolled spread. The seeds are typically transported by human traffic, in particular the tires of all-terrain vehicles. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly allelopathic, producing powerful toxins in their roots that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this. Yellow starthistle, meanwhile, is inedible to most livestock due to its spines and apparently outright poisonous to horses and other equines. However, efficient methods of biological control by insect pests of these weeds have been developed; the knapweeds can also exploited to their detriment by targeted grazing. Controlled burning may also be used, though the timing is important to avoid the plants having seeded already, and neither allowing sufficient time for them to regrow from the rootstock.
Yet other species of Centaurea – mostly ones that occur between Italy and the Caucasus – are endemics of a single island or valley, and some of these are endangered. The Akamas Centaurea (Centaurea akamantis) of Cyprus is almost extinct, while the western Caucasus endemics C. leptophylla and C. straminicephala are at least very rare and C. hedgei and C. pecho from the same region are certainly not abundant either. The last four species would be adversely affected by the proposed Yusufeli Dam, which might actually destroy enough habitat to push the two rarer ones over the brink of extinction.
Centaurea are copious nectar producers, especially on high-lime soils. The high nectar yield of the genus makes it very attractive to insects such as butterflies – including the endangered Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis) which visits introduced spotted knapweed – and day-flying moths – typically Zygaenidae, such as Zygaena loti or the six-spot burnet (Z. filipendulae). The larvae of some other Lepidoptera species use Centaurea species as food plants; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Centaurea. Several of these are used in biological control of invasive knapweeds and starthistles.
Larvae of several true weevils (Curculionidae) of the subfamily Lixinae also feed on Centaurea. Some genera – such as Larinus whose larval food is flowerheads – have many species especially adapted to particular knapweeds or starthistle and are used in biological control too. These include the yellow starthistle flower weevil (L. curtus) for yellow starthistle, lesser knapweed flower weevil (L. minutus) for diffuse knapweed and blunt knapweed flower weevil (L. obtusus) for spotted knapweed. Broad-nosed seedhead weevil (Bangasternus fausti) larvae eat diffuse, spotted and squarrose knapweed (C. virgata ssp. squarrosa), while those of the yellow starthistle bud weevil (B. orientalis) do not seem to live on anything other than yellow starthistle and occasionally purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa). But perhaps most efficient in destroying developing yellow starthistle seedheads is the larva of the yellow starthistle hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus). Knapweed root weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) larvae bore into the roots of spotted and to a lesser extentely diffuse knapweed, sometimes killing off the entire plant.
Also used in biological control are Tephritidae (peacock flies) whose larvae feed on Centaurea. Knapweed peacock fly (Chaetorellia acrolophi) larvae eat spotted knapweed and some other species. The yellow starthistle peacock fly (C. australis) has an initial generation each year which often uses cornflower (C. cyanus) as larval food; later generations switch to yellow starthistle. The flies are generally considered less efficient in destroying the growing seedheads than the weevils, but may be superior under certain conditions; employing flies and weevils in combination is expensive and does not noticeably increase their effect.
Use by humans
Although the genus may be considered by a quite significant number of relatively informed individuals to have an overall negative impact on human interests, particularly agricultural interests, the situation is not straightforward enough to simply declare the genus, or, at least, its most aggressively-spreading species, altogether negative. For instance, due to their moderate to high nectar production, which can occur over a comparatively long duration, many species of Centaurea are popular food sources for insects that may otherwise attack certain crops.[citation needed] It may be advisable for some types of farms to allow certain species in this genus, such as cornflower (C. cyanus) in a European setting, to grow adjacent to fields. Although they support and attract many types of beneficial life (not just beetles), these areas are known as beetle banks. When they are present, some pests may be drawn away from crops to them and predatory insects and arachnids that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting pollinators, unlike many field crops such as maize. Moreover, being untreated with pesticides and providing more diversity, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just in the roles of adult food and/or shelter provision.
Some plants which are considered invasive or problematic in certain areas can have beneficial qualities that outweigh their negative qualities from a human and/or human agricultural point of view, although this sometimes requires some human management – particularly if adequate biological control has not been established for the more aggressive species. An example is wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, which produces florets that feed predatory (and other beneficial) insects as well as large tubular stems that provide winter shelter for native bees, wasps, and other organisms that can be beneficial for agriculture. The plant is considered invasive in some areas of the United States and is also often considered undesirable due to its ability to cause contact skin irritation. However, it also serves as a host plant for the black swallowtail butterfly, helps to bring nutrients up from soils with its deep taproot, and possesses evergreen foliage even in climate zones such as US zone 6. This foliage increases soil warmth and moisture which can be beneficial for certain types of life. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a generally disliked plant's beneficial qualities being usually overlooked is the often-despised ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, which topped the list by a large amount for nectar production in a UK study, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg). This very high nectar production, coupled with its early blooming period, makes the plant helpful for the establishment of bee colonies in spring — a period that is often not well-served by commercial flower meadow seed mixes. It also has the situationally-beneficial quality of being a spring ephemeral, as well as an annual that lacks difficult-to-combat roots. Plants that provide necessary structural supports for invertebrate and small vertebrate predators can help to keep overall pest populations low.
The abundant nectar produced by C. solstitialis flowers attracts many pollinators. This is another reason for the success of the (situationally) highly invasive species. Due to genetic differences related to evolutionary adaption, not all members of Centaurea produce the same amount of nectar. Growing conditions, such as climate and soil, can have a very strong impact, even if the plants grow and flower. For instance, cornflower plants, Centaurea cyanus, produced 33% less seasonal nectar than Centaurea nigra in a UK study. C. nigra also ranked higher than ragwort in another UK study, although ragwort was still in the top 10 for yearly nectar production. The strong nectar production of certain members of the genus can be exploited to the farmer's advantage, possibly in combination with biological control. In particular, the yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) as well as spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) are major honey plants for beekeepers. Monofloral honey from these plants is light and slightly tangy, and one of the finest honeys produced in the United States – due to its better availability, it is even fraudulently relabeled and sold as the scarce and expensive sourwood honey of the Appalachian Mountains. Placing beehives near stands of Centaurea will cause increased pollination. As most seedheads fail however when biocontrol pests have established themselves, the plants will bloom ever more abundantly in an attempt to replace the destroyed seedheads, to the point where they exhaust their resources in providing food for the pests (seeds), bees (pollen) and humans (honey). Output of allelopathic compounds is also liable to be reduced under such conditions – the plant has to compromise between allocating energy to reproduction and defense. This renders the weeds more likely to be suppressed by native vegetation or crops in the following years, especially if properly timed controlled burning[5] and/or targeted grazing by suitable livestock are also employed. While yellow starthistle and perhaps other species are toxic to equines, some other livestock may eat the non-spiny knapweeds with relish. In Europe, common knapweed (C. nigra) and globe knapweed (C. macrocephala) are locally important pollen sources for honeybees in mid-late summer.
8-Hydroxyquinoline has been identified as a main allelopathic compound produced by diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa); native North American plants are typically sensitive to it, while those of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor usually have coevolved with the knapweed and are little harmed if at all, aided by native microorganisms that break down or even feed on the abundantly secreted compound. Thus, 8-hydroxyquinoline is potentially useful to control American plants that have become invasive weeds in the diffuse knapweed's native range.
Arctiin, found in C. imperialis, has shown anticancer activity in laboratory studies. The roots of the long-lost C. foliosa, an endemic of Hatay Province (Turkey), are used in folk medicine, and other species are presumably too. A South Italian variety[verification needed] of the purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa) is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of C. calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non-cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity [...] of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, [is] very interesting and [the] species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from C. calcitrapa were furthermore found to have significant xanthine oxidase (XO)-inhibiting activity.
Spotted knapweed as well as other species are rich in cnicin, a bitter compound found mainly in the leaves and often used to flavor the digestif amaro. In western Crete, Greece a local variety[verification needed] of C. calcitrapa called gourounaki (γουρουνάκι "little pig") also has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals. In the same island an endemic local species, C. idaea called katsoula (κατσούλα), tsita (τσίτα) or aspragatha (ασπραγκάθα), has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals too.
Some species are cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens. As regards other aspects of popular culture, cornflower (C. cyanus) is the floral emblem of Östergötland province (Sweden) – where is it called blåklint, literally "blue mountain" – and of Päijänne Tavastia region in Finland, where it is known as ruiskaunokki ("rye-beaks") or ruiskukka ("rye-flower"). It is also the national flower of Estonia where its local name rukkilill means "rye-lily", Belarus where it is called vałoška (Belarusian: валошка), and one of those of Germany where it is called Kornblume ("cornflower"). The origin of the name "caltrop" for the ancient low-tech area denial weapon is probably in some way connected with C. calcitrapa and its spiny seeds. This plant is attested to by the colloquial name "caltrop" at a time when the weapons were still called by their Roman name tribulus. Lastly, the color cornflower blue is named after C. cyanus. Cornflower is also used as a cut flower.
As namesake member of the subtribe Centaureinae of tribe Cardueae, the knapweeds are probably most closely related to genera such as Carthamus (distaff thistles), Cnicus (blessed thistle), Crupina (crupinas) or Notobasis (Syrian thistle), and somewhat less closely to most other thistles. The monotypic Cnicus seems in fact to properly belong in Centaurea.
Research in the late 20th century shows that Centaurea as traditionally defined is polyphyletic. A number of 19th- and 20th-century efforts to reorganize the genus were not successful, and it is not yet clear what the consequences of the recent research will be for classification of this genus and other related genera. The type species C. centaurium stands somewhat apart from the main lineage of knapweeds and thus the taxonomic consequences of a rearrangement might be severe, with hundreds of species needing to be moved to new genera. It has thus been proposed to change the type species to one of the main lineages to avoid this problem. What seems certain however is that the basketflowers – presently treated as a section Plectocephalus – will be reinstated as a distinct genus in the near future. The rock-centauries (Cheirolophus), formerly usually included in Centaurea, are now already treated as separate genus.
Better-known Centaurea species include:
Centaurea acaulis
Centaurea adpressa
Centaurea aegyptiaca
Centaurea aeolica
Centaurea aggregata
Centaurea akamantis – Akamas centaurea
Centaurea alba
Centaurea albonitens Turrill
Centaurea alpestris
Centaurea alpina
Centaurea ambigua
Centaurea amblyolepis
Centaurea americana – American basketflower, American starthistle
Centaurea ammocyanus
Centaurea antennata Dufour
Centaurea antiochia Boiss.
Centaurea aplolepa
Centaurea aplolepa subsp. carueliana
Centaurea appendicigera C.Koch
Centaurea argentea
Centaurea ascalonica
Centaurea aspera L. – rough starthistle
Centaurea atacamensis (Reiche) I.M.Johnst.
Centaurea atropurpurea
Centaurea ×aurata
Centaurea babylonica L.
Centaurea balsamita
Centaurea behen L. – ak behmen (Turkish)
Centaurea bella
Centaurea benedicta – Cnicus
Centaurea bieberseinii
Centaurea borjae
Centaurea bovina
Centaurea bracteata
Centaurea brevifimbriata Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea bulbosa
Centaurea busambarensis Guss.
Centaurea cachinalensis
Centaurea calcitrapa – purple starthistle, red starthistle, "caltrop"
Centaurea calcitrapoides
Centaurea cariensis Boiss.
Centaurea cariensiformis Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea caroli-henrici Gabrieljan & Dittrich
Centaurea centaurium L.
Centaurea chilensis
Centaurea cineraria – velvet centaurea, dusty miller
Centaurea clementei
Centaurea collina L.
Centaurea corymbosa
Centaurea crithmifolia
Centaurea crocodylium
Centaurea cyanoides J.Berggr. & Wahlenb.
Centaurea cyanus – cornflower, bachelor's button, boutonniere flower, hurtsickle, bluebottle, basketflower
Centaurea damascena
Centaurea debeauxii Gren. & Godr.
Centaurea demirizii Wagenitz
Centaurea depressa – low cornflower
Centaurea deusta
Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed, white knapweed, tumble knapweed
Centaurea diluta – North African knapweed
Centaurea drabifolia Sm.
Centaurea drabifolioides Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea dschungarica
Centaurea emilae Hüseynova et Qaraxani[13]
Centaurea eriophora
Centaurea eryngioides
Centaurea filiformis
Centaurea fischeri Willd.
Centaurea floccosa
Centaurea foliosa Boiss. & Kotschy
Centaurea forojuliensis
Centaurea friderici Vis. – palagruška zečina (Croatian)
Centaurea gayana
Centaurea glaberrima Tausch
Centaurea glastifolia
Centaurea grinensis
Centaurea gymnocarpa
Centaurea haradjianii Wagenitz
Centaurea hedgei
Centaurea helenioides Boiss.
Centaurea hermannii F.Hermann
Centaurea horrida Badarò – fiordaliso spinoso (Italian)
Centaurea hyalolepis
Centaurea hypoleuca
Centaurea iberica – Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed
Centaurea idaea – katsoula, tsita (Cretan Greek)
Centaurea imperialis Hausskn. ex Bornm.
Centaurea jabukensis
Centaurea jacea – brown knapweed, brownray knapweed
Centaurea kasakorum
Centaurea kopetaghensis
Centaurea kotschyana Heuff.
Centaurea lanulata
Centaurea leptophylla
Centaurea leucophylla
Centaurea limbata
Centaurea lydia Boiss.
Centaurea macrocephala Puschk. ex Willd. – globe knapweed, Armenian basketflower
Centaurea maculosa – spotted knapweed (might belong in C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea mannagettae
Centaurea margaritalba Klok.
Centaurea marschalliana
Centaurea melitensis – Maltese starthistle; tocalote, tocolote (California)
Centaurea minor
Centaurea moschata – sweet sultan
Centaurea ×moncktonii C.E.Britton – meadow knapweed, protean knapweed (= C. ×pratensis Thuill non Salisb.)
Centaurea monocephala
Centaurea montana – montane knapweed, perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, mountain bluet
Centaurea napifolia L. – fiordaliso romano (Italian)
Centaurea nervosa Rchb. ex Steud.
Centaurea nigra – common knapweed, black knapweed, lesser knapweed, hardheads
Centaurea nigrescens – Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed, Tyrol thistle
Centaurea nigrifimbria (C.Koch) Sosn.
Centaurea nivea (Bornm.) Wagenitz
Centaurea onopordifolia
Centaurea orientalis L.
Centaurea ornata Willd.
Centaurea ovina
Centaurea pallescens Delile
Centaurea paniculata L.
Centaurea parlatoris
Centaurea pecho
Centaurea phrygia – wig knapweed
Centaurea pindicola
Centaurea polypodiifolia
Centaurea ×pratensis Salisb. (C. jacea × C. nigra) – meadow knapweed
Centaurea procurrens
Centaurea ×psammogena G.Gayer. (C. diffusa × C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea pseudocaerulescens
Centaurea pseudophrygia C.A.Mey.
Centaurea pulcherrima Willd.
Centaurea pullata L.
Centaurea pumilio
Centaurea ragusina L.
Centaurea rigida
Centaurea rothrockii Greenm. – Mexican basketflower, Rothrock's basketflower, Rothrock's knapweed
Centaurea ruthenica
Centaurea rutifolia Sm.
Centaurea sadleriana – Pannonian knapweed
Centaurea salicifolia Bieb. ex Willd.
Centaurea scabiosa – greater knapweed
Centaurea scannensis
Centaurea scoparia
Centaurea scopulorum Boiss. & Heldr.
Centaurea seguenzae
Centaurea seridis L.
Centaurea sibirica
Centaurea simplicicaulis
Centaurea sinaica
Centaurea solstitialis – yellow starthistle, golden starthistle, yellow cockspur, St. Barnaby's thistle, Barnaby thistle
Centaurea speciosa
Centaurea sphaerocephala L.
Centaurea stenolepis
Centaurea stoebe L.
Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek
Centaurea straminicephala
Centaurea sulphurea – Sicilian starthistle
Centaurea tauromenitana Guss.
Centaurea tenoreana
Centaurea tommasinii
Centaurea transalpina Schleich. ex DC.
Centaurea tchihatcheffii — yanardöner (Turkish)
Centaurea trichocephala Bieb. ex Willd. – featherhead knapweed
Centaurea triniifolia
Centaurea triumfettii All.
Centaurea ucriae Lacaita
Centaurea uniflora Turra
Centaurea verbascifolia Vahl
Centaurea verutum L.
Centaurea virgata
Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa – squarrose knapweed
Centaurea wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey.
Centaurea yozgatensis Wagenitz
Formerly placed here
Plant species placed in Centaurea in former times include:
Acroptilon repens – Russian knapweed (as C. repens)
Cheirolophus crassifolius – Maltese rock-centaury (as C. crassifolia, C. spathulata)
Femeniasia balearica (as C. balearica)
Volutaria muricata (as C. muricata)
Me as a First Officer on the Beech 99B N596HA at the Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport 1986. A Henson Airlines domicile. Mr. Henson had sold the airline to Piedmont in 1985. We were then called Henson the Piedmont Regional Airline, later after USAir bought Piedmont we were relabeled as Piedmont Airlines.
Beech 99 Airliner
The Beechcraft Model 99 is a civilian aircraft produced by the Beechcraft. It is also known as the Beech 99 Airliner and the Commuter 99. The 99 is a twin-engine, unpressurized, 15 to 17 passenger seat turboprop aircraft, derived from the earlier Beechcraft King Air and Queen Air, using the wings of the Queen Air, and the engines and nacelles of the King Air, and sub-systems from both, and with a unique nose structure used only on the 99.
Design and development
Designed in the 1960s as a replacement for the Beechcraft Model 18, it first flew in July 1966. It received type certification on May 2, 1968, and 62 aircraft were delivered by the end of the year.
In 1984, the Beechcraft 1900, a pressurized 19-passenger airplane, was introduced as the follow-on aircraft.
Production ended in early 1987. Nearly half the Beech 99s in airline service are now operated as freighters by Ameriflight.
Variants
99 Airliner: Twin-engined Commuter and cargo transport aircraft, 10,400 lb max takeoff weight, accommodation for a crew of two and up to 15 passengers. powered by two 550-hp (410-kW) Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-20 turboprop engines.
99 Executive: Executive transport version of the 99 Airliner.
99A Airliner: Same as the 99 Airliner, but powered by two Pratt & Whitney PT6A-27 engines flat-rated at 550 hp.
A99A Airliner: One of a kind, 99A Airliner without wing center section tanks; this aircraft has been scrapped.
B99 Airliner: Improved version, 10,900 lb max takeoff weight, powered by two 680-hp (507-kW) Pratt & Whitney PT6A-27/28 engines.
B99 Executive: Executive transport version of the B99 Airliner.
C99 Commuter: Improved version, 11,300 lb (5,100 kg) max takeoff weight, Pratt & Whitney PT6A-36 (engines flat rated at 715 hp)
Specifications (Model 99A)
Data from Green[2]
General characteristics
Crew: One
Capacity: Normally 15 passengers (8-seat 'Business Executive' model available)
Length: 44 ft 6¾ in (13.58 m)
Wingspan: 45 ft 10½ in (13.98 m)
Height: 14 ft 4⅓ in (4.37 m)
Wing area: 279.7 ft² (25.99 m²)
Empty weight: 5,533 lb (varies depending upon equipment and configuration) (2,515 kg)
Loaded weight: ()
Max. takeoff weight: 10,400, 10,900, or 11,300 lb – see above (4,727 kg)
Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney PT6A-20, -27. or -36 turboprop Hartzell constant speed, feathering, and reversing, 550, 680, or 715 eshp depending upon model/mod status () each
Performance
Cruise speed: 205 knots (380 km/h) at 10,000 ft (3,050 m)
Range: 910 nm (1,048 mi, 1,686 km) at 216 mph (347 km/h) at 8,000 ft (2,440 m)
Service ceiling: 26,200 ft (7,988 m)
Rate of climb: 1,700 ft/min (8.63 m/s)
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
--
Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
--
Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
--
Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Centaurea is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding regions are particularly species-rich. In the western United States, yellow starthistles are an invasive species. Around the year 1850, seeds from the plant had arrived to the state of California. It is believed that those seeds came from South America.
Common names
Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous "bluets"; a vernacular name used for these plants in parts of England is "loggerheads" (common knapweed). The Plectocephalus group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. "Cornflower" is used for a few species, but that term more often specifically means either C. cyanus (the annual cornflower) or Centaurea montana (the perennial cornflower). The common name "centaury" is sometimes used, although this also refers to the unrelated plant genus Centaurium.
The name is said to be in reference to Chiron, the centaur of Greek mythology who discovered medicinal uses of a plant eventually called "centaury".
Description
Knapweeds are robust weedy plants. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are usually deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants' lower part, becoming entire towards the top. The "flowers" (actually pseudanthium inflorescences) are diverse in colour, ranging from intense blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these and lighter shades towards white. Often, the disk flowers are much darker or lighter than the ray flowers, which also differ in morphology and are sterile. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly bracts, hence the name "basketflowers". Many species, in particular those inhabiting more arid regions, have a long and strong taproot.
Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, typically one or two grasses and as many other large herbaceous plants. The common knapweed (C. nigra) for example is plentiful in the mesotrophic grasslands of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by cock's-foot (Dactylis glomerata) as well as either of crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) and false oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). It is also often found in mesotrophic grassland on rendzinas and similar calcareous soils in association with glaucous sedge (Carex flacca), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and either tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum) and rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), or upright brome (Bromus erectus). In these grasslands, greater knapweed (C. scabiosa) is found much more rarely by comparison, often in association with red fescue (Festuca rubra) in addition to cock's-foot and false oat-grass.
Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many Centaurea species can become invasive weeds in regions where they are not native. In parts of North America, diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa), spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) and yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) cause severe problems in agriculture due to their uncontrolled spread. The seeds are typically transported by human traffic, in particular the tires of all-terrain vehicles. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly allelopathic, producing powerful toxins in their roots that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this. Yellow starthistle, meanwhile, is inedible to most livestock due to its spines and apparently outright poisonous to horses and other equines. However, efficient methods of biological control by insect pests of these weeds have been developed; the knapweeds can also exploited to their detriment by targeted grazing. Controlled burning may also be used, though the timing is important to avoid the plants having seeded already, and neither allowing sufficient time for them to regrow from the rootstock.
Yet other species of Centaurea – mostly ones that occur between Italy and the Caucasus – are endemics of a single island or valley, and some of these are endangered. The Akamas Centaurea (Centaurea akamantis) of Cyprus is almost extinct, while the western Caucasus endemics C. leptophylla and C. straminicephala are at least very rare and C. hedgei and C. pecho from the same region are certainly not abundant either. The last four species would be adversely affected by the proposed Yusufeli Dam, which might actually destroy enough habitat to push the two rarer ones over the brink of extinction.
Centaurea are copious nectar producers, especially on high-lime soils. The high nectar yield of the genus makes it very attractive to insects such as butterflies – including the endangered Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis) which visits introduced spotted knapweed – and day-flying moths – typically Zygaenidae, such as Zygaena loti or the six-spot burnet (Z. filipendulae). The larvae of some other Lepidoptera species use Centaurea species as food plants; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Centaurea. Several of these are used in biological control of invasive knapweeds and starthistles.
Larvae of several true weevils (Curculionidae) of the subfamily Lixinae also feed on Centaurea. Some genera – such as Larinus whose larval food is flowerheads – have many species especially adapted to particular knapweeds or starthistle and are used in biological control too. These include the yellow starthistle flower weevil (L. curtus) for yellow starthistle, lesser knapweed flower weevil (L. minutus) for diffuse knapweed and blunt knapweed flower weevil (L. obtusus) for spotted knapweed. Broad-nosed seedhead weevil (Bangasternus fausti) larvae eat diffuse, spotted and squarrose knapweed (C. virgata ssp. squarrosa), while those of the yellow starthistle bud weevil (B. orientalis) do not seem to live on anything other than yellow starthistle and occasionally purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa). But perhaps most efficient in destroying developing yellow starthistle seedheads is the larva of the yellow starthistle hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus). Knapweed root weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) larvae bore into the roots of spotted and to a lesser extentely diffuse knapweed, sometimes killing off the entire plant.
Also used in biological control are Tephritidae (peacock flies) whose larvae feed on Centaurea. Knapweed peacock fly (Chaetorellia acrolophi) larvae eat spotted knapweed and some other species. The yellow starthistle peacock fly (C. australis) has an initial generation each year which often uses cornflower (C. cyanus) as larval food; later generations switch to yellow starthistle. The flies are generally considered less efficient in destroying the growing seedheads than the weevils, but may be superior under certain conditions; employing flies and weevils in combination is expensive and does not noticeably increase their effect.
Use by humans
Although the genus may be considered by a quite significant number of relatively informed individuals to have an overall negative impact on human interests, particularly agricultural interests, the situation is not straightforward enough to simply declare the genus, or, at least, its most aggressively-spreading species, altogether negative. For instance, due to their moderate to high nectar production, which can occur over a comparatively long duration, many species of Centaurea are popular food sources for insects that may otherwise attack certain crops.[citation needed] It may be advisable for some types of farms to allow certain species in this genus, such as cornflower (C. cyanus) in a European setting, to grow adjacent to fields. Although they support and attract many types of beneficial life (not just beetles), these areas are known as beetle banks. When they are present, some pests may be drawn away from crops to them and predatory insects and arachnids that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting pollinators, unlike many field crops such as maize. Moreover, being untreated with pesticides and providing more diversity, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just in the roles of adult food and/or shelter provision.
Some plants which are considered invasive or problematic in certain areas can have beneficial qualities that outweigh their negative qualities from a human and/or human agricultural point of view, although this sometimes requires some human management – particularly if adequate biological control has not been established for the more aggressive species. An example is wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, which produces florets that feed predatory (and other beneficial) insects as well as large tubular stems that provide winter shelter for native bees, wasps, and other organisms that can be beneficial for agriculture. The plant is considered invasive in some areas of the United States and is also often considered undesirable due to its ability to cause contact skin irritation. However, it also serves as a host plant for the black swallowtail butterfly, helps to bring nutrients up from soils with its deep taproot, and possesses evergreen foliage even in climate zones such as US zone 6. This foliage increases soil warmth and moisture which can be beneficial for certain types of life. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a generally disliked plant's beneficial qualities being usually overlooked is the often-despised ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, which topped the list by a large amount for nectar production in a UK study, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg). This very high nectar production, coupled with its early blooming period, makes the plant helpful for the establishment of bee colonies in spring — a period that is often not well-served by commercial flower meadow seed mixes. It also has the situationally-beneficial quality of being a spring ephemeral, as well as an annual that lacks difficult-to-combat roots. Plants that provide necessary structural supports for invertebrate and small vertebrate predators can help to keep overall pest populations low.
The abundant nectar produced by C. solstitialis flowers attracts many pollinators. This is another reason for the success of the (situationally) highly invasive species. Due to genetic differences related to evolutionary adaption, not all members of Centaurea produce the same amount of nectar. Growing conditions, such as climate and soil, can have a very strong impact, even if the plants grow and flower. For instance, cornflower plants, Centaurea cyanus, produced 33% less seasonal nectar than Centaurea nigra in a UK study. C. nigra also ranked higher than ragwort in another UK study, although ragwort was still in the top 10 for yearly nectar production. The strong nectar production of certain members of the genus can be exploited to the farmer's advantage, possibly in combination with biological control. In particular, the yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) as well as spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) are major honey plants for beekeepers. Monofloral honey from these plants is light and slightly tangy, and one of the finest honeys produced in the United States – due to its better availability, it is even fraudulently relabeled and sold as the scarce and expensive sourwood honey of the Appalachian Mountains. Placing beehives near stands of Centaurea will cause increased pollination. As most seedheads fail however when biocontrol pests have established themselves, the plants will bloom ever more abundantly in an attempt to replace the destroyed seedheads, to the point where they exhaust their resources in providing food for the pests (seeds), bees (pollen) and humans (honey). Output of allelopathic compounds is also liable to be reduced under such conditions – the plant has to compromise between allocating energy to reproduction and defense. This renders the weeds more likely to be suppressed by native vegetation or crops in the following years, especially if properly timed controlled burning[5] and/or targeted grazing by suitable livestock are also employed. While yellow starthistle and perhaps other species are toxic to equines, some other livestock may eat the non-spiny knapweeds with relish. In Europe, common knapweed (C. nigra) and globe knapweed (C. macrocephala) are locally important pollen sources for honeybees in mid-late summer.
8-Hydroxyquinoline has been identified as a main allelopathic compound produced by diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa); native North American plants are typically sensitive to it, while those of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor usually have coevolved with the knapweed and are little harmed if at all, aided by native microorganisms that break down or even feed on the abundantly secreted compound. Thus, 8-hydroxyquinoline is potentially useful to control American plants that have become invasive weeds in the diffuse knapweed's native range.
Arctiin, found in C. imperialis, has shown anticancer activity in laboratory studies. The roots of the long-lost C. foliosa, an endemic of Hatay Province (Turkey), are used in folk medicine, and other species are presumably too. A South Italian variety[verification needed] of the purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa) is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of C. calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non-cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity [...] of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, [is] very interesting and [the] species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from C. calcitrapa were furthermore found to have significant xanthine oxidase (XO)-inhibiting activity.
Spotted knapweed as well as other species are rich in cnicin, a bitter compound found mainly in the leaves and often used to flavor the digestif amaro. In western Crete, Greece a local variety[verification needed] of C. calcitrapa called gourounaki (γουρουνάκι "little pig") also has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals. In the same island an endemic local species, C. idaea called katsoula (κατσούλα), tsita (τσίτα) or aspragatha (ασπραγκάθα), has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals too.
Some species are cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens. As regards other aspects of popular culture, cornflower (C. cyanus) is the floral emblem of Östergötland province (Sweden) – where is it called blåklint, literally "blue mountain" – and of Päijänne Tavastia region in Finland, where it is known as ruiskaunokki ("rye-beaks") or ruiskukka ("rye-flower"). It is also the national flower of Estonia where its local name rukkilill means "rye-lily", Belarus where it is called vałoška (Belarusian: валошка), and one of those of Germany where it is called Kornblume ("cornflower"). The origin of the name "caltrop" for the ancient low-tech area denial weapon is probably in some way connected with C. calcitrapa and its spiny seeds. This plant is attested to by the colloquial name "caltrop" at a time when the weapons were still called by their Roman name tribulus. Lastly, the color cornflower blue is named after C. cyanus. Cornflower is also used as a cut flower.
As namesake member of the subtribe Centaureinae of tribe Cardueae, the knapweeds are probably most closely related to genera such as Carthamus (distaff thistles), Cnicus (blessed thistle), Crupina (crupinas) or Notobasis (Syrian thistle), and somewhat less closely to most other thistles. The monotypic Cnicus seems in fact to properly belong in Centaurea.
Research in the late 20th century shows that Centaurea as traditionally defined is polyphyletic. A number of 19th- and 20th-century efforts to reorganize the genus were not successful, and it is not yet clear what the consequences of the recent research will be for classification of this genus and other related genera. The type species C. centaurium stands somewhat apart from the main lineage of knapweeds and thus the taxonomic consequences of a rearrangement might be severe, with hundreds of species needing to be moved to new genera. It has thus been proposed to change the type species to one of the main lineages to avoid this problem. What seems certain however is that the basketflowers – presently treated as a section Plectocephalus – will be reinstated as a distinct genus in the near future. The rock-centauries (Cheirolophus), formerly usually included in Centaurea, are now already treated as separate genus.
Better-known Centaurea species include:
Centaurea acaulis
Centaurea adpressa
Centaurea aegyptiaca
Centaurea aeolica
Centaurea aggregata
Centaurea akamantis – Akamas centaurea
Centaurea alba
Centaurea albonitens Turrill
Centaurea alpestris
Centaurea alpina
Centaurea ambigua
Centaurea amblyolepis
Centaurea americana – American basketflower, American starthistle
Centaurea ammocyanus
Centaurea antennata Dufour
Centaurea antiochia Boiss.
Centaurea aplolepa
Centaurea aplolepa subsp. carueliana
Centaurea appendicigera C.Koch
Centaurea argentea
Centaurea ascalonica
Centaurea aspera L. – rough starthistle
Centaurea atacamensis (Reiche) I.M.Johnst.
Centaurea atropurpurea
Centaurea ×aurata
Centaurea babylonica L.
Centaurea balsamita
Centaurea behen L. – ak behmen (Turkish)
Centaurea bella
Centaurea benedicta – Cnicus
Centaurea bieberseinii
Centaurea borjae
Centaurea bovina
Centaurea bracteata
Centaurea brevifimbriata Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea bulbosa
Centaurea busambarensis Guss.
Centaurea cachinalensis
Centaurea calcitrapa – purple starthistle, red starthistle, "caltrop"
Centaurea calcitrapoides
Centaurea cariensis Boiss.
Centaurea cariensiformis Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea caroli-henrici Gabrieljan & Dittrich
Centaurea centaurium L.
Centaurea chilensis
Centaurea cineraria – velvet centaurea, dusty miller
Centaurea clementei
Centaurea collina L.
Centaurea corymbosa
Centaurea crithmifolia
Centaurea crocodylium
Centaurea cyanoides J.Berggr. & Wahlenb.
Centaurea cyanus – cornflower, bachelor's button, boutonniere flower, hurtsickle, bluebottle, basketflower
Centaurea damascena
Centaurea debeauxii Gren. & Godr.
Centaurea demirizii Wagenitz
Centaurea depressa – low cornflower
Centaurea deusta
Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed, white knapweed, tumble knapweed
Centaurea diluta – North African knapweed
Centaurea drabifolia Sm.
Centaurea drabifolioides Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea dschungarica
Centaurea emilae Hüseynova et Qaraxani[13]
Centaurea eriophora
Centaurea eryngioides
Centaurea filiformis
Centaurea fischeri Willd.
Centaurea floccosa
Centaurea foliosa Boiss. & Kotschy
Centaurea forojuliensis
Centaurea friderici Vis. – palagruška zečina (Croatian)
Centaurea gayana
Centaurea glaberrima Tausch
Centaurea glastifolia
Centaurea grinensis
Centaurea gymnocarpa
Centaurea haradjianii Wagenitz
Centaurea hedgei
Centaurea helenioides Boiss.
Centaurea hermannii F.Hermann
Centaurea horrida Badarò – fiordaliso spinoso (Italian)
Centaurea hyalolepis
Centaurea hypoleuca
Centaurea iberica – Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed
Centaurea idaea – katsoula, tsita (Cretan Greek)
Centaurea imperialis Hausskn. ex Bornm.
Centaurea jabukensis
Centaurea jacea – brown knapweed, brownray knapweed
Centaurea kasakorum
Centaurea kopetaghensis
Centaurea kotschyana Heuff.
Centaurea lanulata
Centaurea leptophylla
Centaurea leucophylla
Centaurea limbata
Centaurea lydia Boiss.
Centaurea macrocephala Puschk. ex Willd. – globe knapweed, Armenian basketflower
Centaurea maculosa – spotted knapweed (might belong in C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea mannagettae
Centaurea margaritalba Klok.
Centaurea marschalliana
Centaurea melitensis – Maltese starthistle; tocalote, tocolote (California)
Centaurea minor
Centaurea moschata – sweet sultan
Centaurea ×moncktonii C.E.Britton – meadow knapweed, protean knapweed (= C. ×pratensis Thuill non Salisb.)
Centaurea monocephala
Centaurea montana – montane knapweed, perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, mountain bluet
Centaurea napifolia L. – fiordaliso romano (Italian)
Centaurea nervosa Rchb. ex Steud.
Centaurea nigra – common knapweed, black knapweed, lesser knapweed, hardheads
Centaurea nigrescens – Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed, Tyrol thistle
Centaurea nigrifimbria (C.Koch) Sosn.
Centaurea nivea (Bornm.) Wagenitz
Centaurea onopordifolia
Centaurea orientalis L.
Centaurea ornata Willd.
Centaurea ovina
Centaurea pallescens Delile
Centaurea paniculata L.
Centaurea parlatoris
Centaurea pecho
Centaurea phrygia – wig knapweed
Centaurea pindicola
Centaurea polypodiifolia
Centaurea ×pratensis Salisb. (C. jacea × C. nigra) – meadow knapweed
Centaurea procurrens
Centaurea ×psammogena G.Gayer. (C. diffusa × C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea pseudocaerulescens
Centaurea pseudophrygia C.A.Mey.
Centaurea pulcherrima Willd.
Centaurea pullata L.
Centaurea pumilio
Centaurea ragusina L.
Centaurea rigida
Centaurea rothrockii Greenm. – Mexican basketflower, Rothrock's basketflower, Rothrock's knapweed
Centaurea ruthenica
Centaurea rutifolia Sm.
Centaurea sadleriana – Pannonian knapweed
Centaurea salicifolia Bieb. ex Willd.
Centaurea scabiosa – greater knapweed
Centaurea scannensis
Centaurea scoparia
Centaurea scopulorum Boiss. & Heldr.
Centaurea seguenzae
Centaurea seridis L.
Centaurea sibirica
Centaurea simplicicaulis
Centaurea sinaica
Centaurea solstitialis – yellow starthistle, golden starthistle, yellow cockspur, St. Barnaby's thistle, Barnaby thistle
Centaurea speciosa
Centaurea sphaerocephala L.
Centaurea stenolepis
Centaurea stoebe L.
Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek
Centaurea straminicephala
Centaurea sulphurea – Sicilian starthistle
Centaurea tauromenitana Guss.
Centaurea tenoreana
Centaurea tommasinii
Centaurea transalpina Schleich. ex DC.
Centaurea tchihatcheffii — yanardöner (Turkish)
Centaurea trichocephala Bieb. ex Willd. – featherhead knapweed
Centaurea triniifolia
Centaurea triumfettii All.
Centaurea ucriae Lacaita
Centaurea uniflora Turra
Centaurea verbascifolia Vahl
Centaurea verutum L.
Centaurea virgata
Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa – squarrose knapweed
Centaurea wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey.
Centaurea yozgatensis Wagenitz
Formerly placed here
Plant species placed in Centaurea in former times include:
Acroptilon repens – Russian knapweed (as C. repens)
Cheirolophus crassifolius – Maltese rock-centaury (as C. crassifolia, C. spathulata)
Femeniasia balearica (as C. balearica)
Volutaria muricata (as C. muricata)
Centaurea is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding regions are particularly species-rich. In the western United States, yellow starthistles are an invasive species. Around the year 1850, seeds from the plant had arrived to the state of California. It is believed that those seeds came from South America.
Common names
Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous "bluets"; a vernacular name used for these plants in parts of England is "loggerheads" (common knapweed). The Plectocephalus group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. "Cornflower" is used for a few species, but that term more often specifically means either C. cyanus (the annual cornflower) or Centaurea montana (the perennial cornflower). The common name "centaury" is sometimes used, although this also refers to the unrelated plant genus Centaurium.
The name is said to be in reference to Chiron, the centaur of Greek mythology who discovered medicinal uses of a plant eventually called "centaury".
Description
Knapweeds are robust weedy plants. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are usually deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants' lower part, becoming entire towards the top. The "flowers" (actually pseudanthium inflorescences) are diverse in colour, ranging from intense blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these and lighter shades towards white. Often, the disk flowers are much darker or lighter than the ray flowers, which also differ in morphology and are sterile. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly bracts, hence the name "basketflowers". Many species, in particular those inhabiting more arid regions, have a long and strong taproot.
Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, typically one or two grasses and as many other large herbaceous plants. The common knapweed (C. nigra) for example is plentiful in the mesotrophic grasslands of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by cock's-foot (Dactylis glomerata) as well as either of crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) and false oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). It is also often found in mesotrophic grassland on rendzinas and similar calcareous soils in association with glaucous sedge (Carex flacca), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and either tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum) and rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), or upright brome (Bromus erectus). In these grasslands, greater knapweed (C. scabiosa) is found much more rarely by comparison, often in association with red fescue (Festuca rubra) in addition to cock's-foot and false oat-grass.
Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many Centaurea species can become invasive weeds in regions where they are not native. In parts of North America, diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa), spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) and yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) cause severe problems in agriculture due to their uncontrolled spread. The seeds are typically transported by human traffic, in particular the tires of all-terrain vehicles. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly allelopathic, producing powerful toxins in their roots that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this. Yellow starthistle, meanwhile, is inedible to most livestock due to its spines and apparently outright poisonous to horses and other equines. However, efficient methods of biological control by insect pests of these weeds have been developed; the knapweeds can also exploited to their detriment by targeted grazing. Controlled burning may also be used, though the timing is important to avoid the plants having seeded already, and neither allowing sufficient time for them to regrow from the rootstock.
Yet other species of Centaurea – mostly ones that occur between Italy and the Caucasus – are endemics of a single island or valley, and some of these are endangered. The Akamas Centaurea (Centaurea akamantis) of Cyprus is almost extinct, while the western Caucasus endemics C. leptophylla and C. straminicephala are at least very rare and C. hedgei and C. pecho from the same region are certainly not abundant either. The last four species would be adversely affected by the proposed Yusufeli Dam, which might actually destroy enough habitat to push the two rarer ones over the brink of extinction.
Centaurea are copious nectar producers, especially on high-lime soils. The high nectar yield of the genus makes it very attractive to insects such as butterflies – including the endangered Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis) which visits introduced spotted knapweed – and day-flying moths – typically Zygaenidae, such as Zygaena loti or the six-spot burnet (Z. filipendulae). The larvae of some other Lepidoptera species use Centaurea species as food plants; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Centaurea. Several of these are used in biological control of invasive knapweeds and starthistles.
Larvae of several true weevils (Curculionidae) of the subfamily Lixinae also feed on Centaurea. Some genera – such as Larinus whose larval food is flowerheads – have many species especially adapted to particular knapweeds or starthistle and are used in biological control too. These include the yellow starthistle flower weevil (L. curtus) for yellow starthistle, lesser knapweed flower weevil (L. minutus) for diffuse knapweed and blunt knapweed flower weevil (L. obtusus) for spotted knapweed. Broad-nosed seedhead weevil (Bangasternus fausti) larvae eat diffuse, spotted and squarrose knapweed (C. virgata ssp. squarrosa), while those of the yellow starthistle bud weevil (B. orientalis) do not seem to live on anything other than yellow starthistle and occasionally purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa). But perhaps most efficient in destroying developing yellow starthistle seedheads is the larva of the yellow starthistle hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus). Knapweed root weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) larvae bore into the roots of spotted and to a lesser extentely diffuse knapweed, sometimes killing off the entire plant.
Also used in biological control are Tephritidae (peacock flies) whose larvae feed on Centaurea. Knapweed peacock fly (Chaetorellia acrolophi) larvae eat spotted knapweed and some other species. The yellow starthistle peacock fly (C. australis) has an initial generation each year which often uses cornflower (C. cyanus) as larval food; later generations switch to yellow starthistle. The flies are generally considered less efficient in destroying the growing seedheads than the weevils, but may be superior under certain conditions; employing flies and weevils in combination is expensive and does not noticeably increase their effect.
Use by humans
Although the genus may be considered by a quite significant number of relatively informed individuals to have an overall negative impact on human interests, particularly agricultural interests, the situation is not straightforward enough to simply declare the genus, or, at least, its most aggressively-spreading species, altogether negative. For instance, due to their moderate to high nectar production, which can occur over a comparatively long duration, many species of Centaurea are popular food sources for insects that may otherwise attack certain crops.[citation needed] It may be advisable for some types of farms to allow certain species in this genus, such as cornflower (C. cyanus) in a European setting, to grow adjacent to fields. Although they support and attract many types of beneficial life (not just beetles), these areas are known as beetle banks. When they are present, some pests may be drawn away from crops to them and predatory insects and arachnids that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting pollinators, unlike many field crops such as maize. Moreover, being untreated with pesticides and providing more diversity, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just in the roles of adult food and/or shelter provision.
Some plants which are considered invasive or problematic in certain areas can have beneficial qualities that outweigh their negative qualities from a human and/or human agricultural point of view, although this sometimes requires some human management – particularly if adequate biological control has not been established for the more aggressive species. An example is wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, which produces florets that feed predatory (and other beneficial) insects as well as large tubular stems that provide winter shelter for native bees, wasps, and other organisms that can be beneficial for agriculture. The plant is considered invasive in some areas of the United States and is also often considered undesirable due to its ability to cause contact skin irritation. However, it also serves as a host plant for the black swallowtail butterfly, helps to bring nutrients up from soils with its deep taproot, and possesses evergreen foliage even in climate zones such as US zone 6. This foliage increases soil warmth and moisture which can be beneficial for certain types of life. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a generally disliked plant's beneficial qualities being usually overlooked is the often-despised ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, which topped the list by a large amount for nectar production in a UK study, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg). This very high nectar production, coupled with its early blooming period, makes the plant helpful for the establishment of bee colonies in spring — a period that is often not well-served by commercial flower meadow seed mixes. It also has the situationally-beneficial quality of being a spring ephemeral, as well as an annual that lacks difficult-to-combat roots. Plants that provide necessary structural supports for invertebrate and small vertebrate predators can help to keep overall pest populations low.
The abundant nectar produced by C. solstitialis flowers attracts many pollinators. This is another reason for the success of the (situationally) highly invasive species. Due to genetic differences related to evolutionary adaption, not all members of Centaurea produce the same amount of nectar. Growing conditions, such as climate and soil, can have a very strong impact, even if the plants grow and flower. For instance, cornflower plants, Centaurea cyanus, produced 33% less seasonal nectar than Centaurea nigra in a UK study. C. nigra also ranked higher than ragwort in another UK study, although ragwort was still in the top 10 for yearly nectar production. The strong nectar production of certain members of the genus can be exploited to the farmer's advantage, possibly in combination with biological control. In particular, the yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) as well as spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) are major honey plants for beekeepers. Monofloral honey from these plants is light and slightly tangy, and one of the finest honeys produced in the United States – due to its better availability, it is even fraudulently relabeled and sold as the scarce and expensive sourwood honey of the Appalachian Mountains. Placing beehives near stands of Centaurea will cause increased pollination. As most seedheads fail however when biocontrol pests have established themselves, the plants will bloom ever more abundantly in an attempt to replace the destroyed seedheads, to the point where they exhaust their resources in providing food for the pests (seeds), bees (pollen) and humans (honey). Output of allelopathic compounds is also liable to be reduced under such conditions – the plant has to compromise between allocating energy to reproduction and defense. This renders the weeds more likely to be suppressed by native vegetation or crops in the following years, especially if properly timed controlled burning[5] and/or targeted grazing by suitable livestock are also employed. While yellow starthistle and perhaps other species are toxic to equines, some other livestock may eat the non-spiny knapweeds with relish. In Europe, common knapweed (C. nigra) and globe knapweed (C. macrocephala) are locally important pollen sources for honeybees in mid-late summer.
8-Hydroxyquinoline has been identified as a main allelopathic compound produced by diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa); native North American plants are typically sensitive to it, while those of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor usually have coevolved with the knapweed and are little harmed if at all, aided by native microorganisms that break down or even feed on the abundantly secreted compound. Thus, 8-hydroxyquinoline is potentially useful to control American plants that have become invasive weeds in the diffuse knapweed's native range.
Arctiin, found in C. imperialis, has shown anticancer activity in laboratory studies. The roots of the long-lost C. foliosa, an endemic of Hatay Province (Turkey), are used in folk medicine, and other species are presumably too. A South Italian variety[verification needed] of the purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa) is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of C. calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non-cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity [...] of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, [is] very interesting and [the] species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from C. calcitrapa were furthermore found to have significant xanthine oxidase (XO)-inhibiting activity.
Spotted knapweed as well as other species are rich in cnicin, a bitter compound found mainly in the leaves and often used to flavor the digestif amaro. In western Crete, Greece a local variety[verification needed] of C. calcitrapa called gourounaki (γουρουνάκι "little pig") also has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals. In the same island an endemic local species, C. idaea called katsoula (κατσούλα), tsita (τσίτα) or aspragatha (ασπραγκάθα), has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals too.
Some species are cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens. As regards other aspects of popular culture, cornflower (C. cyanus) is the floral emblem of Östergötland province (Sweden) – where is it called blåklint, literally "blue mountain" – and of Päijänne Tavastia region in Finland, where it is known as ruiskaunokki ("rye-beaks") or ruiskukka ("rye-flower"). It is also the national flower of Estonia where its local name rukkilill means "rye-lily", Belarus where it is called vałoška (Belarusian: валошка), and one of those of Germany where it is called Kornblume ("cornflower"). The origin of the name "caltrop" for the ancient low-tech area denial weapon is probably in some way connected with C. calcitrapa and its spiny seeds. This plant is attested to by the colloquial name "caltrop" at a time when the weapons were still called by their Roman name tribulus. Lastly, the color cornflower blue is named after C. cyanus. Cornflower is also used as a cut flower.
As namesake member of the subtribe Centaureinae of tribe Cardueae, the knapweeds are probably most closely related to genera such as Carthamus (distaff thistles), Cnicus (blessed thistle), Crupina (crupinas) or Notobasis (Syrian thistle), and somewhat less closely to most other thistles. The monotypic Cnicus seems in fact to properly belong in Centaurea.
Research in the late 20th century shows that Centaurea as traditionally defined is polyphyletic. A number of 19th- and 20th-century efforts to reorganize the genus were not successful, and it is not yet clear what the consequences of the recent research will be for classification of this genus and other related genera. The type species C. centaurium stands somewhat apart from the main lineage of knapweeds and thus the taxonomic consequences of a rearrangement might be severe, with hundreds of species needing to be moved to new genera. It has thus been proposed to change the type species to one of the main lineages to avoid this problem. What seems certain however is that the basketflowers – presently treated as a section Plectocephalus – will be reinstated as a distinct genus in the near future. The rock-centauries (Cheirolophus), formerly usually included in Centaurea, are now already treated as separate genus.
Better-known Centaurea species include:
Centaurea acaulis
Centaurea adpressa
Centaurea aegyptiaca
Centaurea aeolica
Centaurea aggregata
Centaurea akamantis – Akamas centaurea
Centaurea alba
Centaurea albonitens Turrill
Centaurea alpestris
Centaurea alpina
Centaurea ambigua
Centaurea amblyolepis
Centaurea americana – American basketflower, American starthistle
Centaurea ammocyanus
Centaurea antennata Dufour
Centaurea antiochia Boiss.
Centaurea aplolepa
Centaurea aplolepa subsp. carueliana
Centaurea appendicigera C.Koch
Centaurea argentea
Centaurea ascalonica
Centaurea aspera L. – rough starthistle
Centaurea atacamensis (Reiche) I.M.Johnst.
Centaurea atropurpurea
Centaurea ×aurata
Centaurea babylonica L.
Centaurea balsamita
Centaurea behen L. – ak behmen (Turkish)
Centaurea bella
Centaurea benedicta – Cnicus
Centaurea bieberseinii
Centaurea borjae
Centaurea bovina
Centaurea bracteata
Centaurea brevifimbriata Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea bulbosa
Centaurea busambarensis Guss.
Centaurea cachinalensis
Centaurea calcitrapa – purple starthistle, red starthistle, "caltrop"
Centaurea calcitrapoides
Centaurea cariensis Boiss.
Centaurea cariensiformis Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea caroli-henrici Gabrieljan & Dittrich
Centaurea centaurium L.
Centaurea chilensis
Centaurea cineraria – velvet centaurea, dusty miller
Centaurea clementei
Centaurea collina L.
Centaurea corymbosa
Centaurea crithmifolia
Centaurea crocodylium
Centaurea cyanoides J.Berggr. & Wahlenb.
Centaurea cyanus – cornflower, bachelor's button, boutonniere flower, hurtsickle, bluebottle, basketflower
Centaurea damascena
Centaurea debeauxii Gren. & Godr.
Centaurea demirizii Wagenitz
Centaurea depressa – low cornflower
Centaurea deusta
Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed, white knapweed, tumble knapweed
Centaurea diluta – North African knapweed
Centaurea drabifolia Sm.
Centaurea drabifolioides Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea dschungarica
Centaurea emilae Hüseynova et Qaraxani[13]
Centaurea eriophora
Centaurea eryngioides
Centaurea filiformis
Centaurea fischeri Willd.
Centaurea floccosa
Centaurea foliosa Boiss. & Kotschy
Centaurea forojuliensis
Centaurea friderici Vis. – palagruška zečina (Croatian)
Centaurea gayana
Centaurea glaberrima Tausch
Centaurea glastifolia
Centaurea grinensis
Centaurea gymnocarpa
Centaurea haradjianii Wagenitz
Centaurea hedgei
Centaurea helenioides Boiss.
Centaurea hermannii F.Hermann
Centaurea horrida Badarò – fiordaliso spinoso (Italian)
Centaurea hyalolepis
Centaurea hypoleuca
Centaurea iberica – Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed
Centaurea idaea – katsoula, tsita (Cretan Greek)
Centaurea imperialis Hausskn. ex Bornm.
Centaurea jabukensis
Centaurea jacea – brown knapweed, brownray knapweed
Centaurea kasakorum
Centaurea kopetaghensis
Centaurea kotschyana Heuff.
Centaurea lanulata
Centaurea leptophylla
Centaurea leucophylla
Centaurea limbata
Centaurea lydia Boiss.
Centaurea macrocephala Puschk. ex Willd. – globe knapweed, Armenian basketflower
Centaurea maculosa – spotted knapweed (might belong in C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea mannagettae
Centaurea margaritalba Klok.
Centaurea marschalliana
Centaurea melitensis – Maltese starthistle; tocalote, tocolote (California)
Centaurea minor
Centaurea moschata – sweet sultan
Centaurea ×moncktonii C.E.Britton – meadow knapweed, protean knapweed (= C. ×pratensis Thuill non Salisb.)
Centaurea monocephala
Centaurea montana – montane knapweed, perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, mountain bluet
Centaurea napifolia L. – fiordaliso romano (Italian)
Centaurea nervosa Rchb. ex Steud.
Centaurea nigra – common knapweed, black knapweed, lesser knapweed, hardheads
Centaurea nigrescens – Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed, Tyrol thistle
Centaurea nigrifimbria (C.Koch) Sosn.
Centaurea nivea (Bornm.) Wagenitz
Centaurea onopordifolia
Centaurea orientalis L.
Centaurea ornata Willd.
Centaurea ovina
Centaurea pallescens Delile
Centaurea paniculata L.
Centaurea parlatoris
Centaurea pecho
Centaurea phrygia – wig knapweed
Centaurea pindicola
Centaurea polypodiifolia
Centaurea ×pratensis Salisb. (C. jacea × C. nigra) – meadow knapweed
Centaurea procurrens
Centaurea ×psammogena G.Gayer. (C. diffusa × C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea pseudocaerulescens
Centaurea pseudophrygia C.A.Mey.
Centaurea pulcherrima Willd.
Centaurea pullata L.
Centaurea pumilio
Centaurea ragusina L.
Centaurea rigida
Centaurea rothrockii Greenm. – Mexican basketflower, Rothrock's basketflower, Rothrock's knapweed
Centaurea ruthenica
Centaurea rutifolia Sm.
Centaurea sadleriana – Pannonian knapweed
Centaurea salicifolia Bieb. ex Willd.
Centaurea scabiosa – greater knapweed
Centaurea scannensis
Centaurea scoparia
Centaurea scopulorum Boiss. & Heldr.
Centaurea seguenzae
Centaurea seridis L.
Centaurea sibirica
Centaurea simplicicaulis
Centaurea sinaica
Centaurea solstitialis – yellow starthistle, golden starthistle, yellow cockspur, St. Barnaby's thistle, Barnaby thistle
Centaurea speciosa
Centaurea sphaerocephala L.
Centaurea stenolepis
Centaurea stoebe L.
Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek
Centaurea straminicephala
Centaurea sulphurea – Sicilian starthistle
Centaurea tauromenitana Guss.
Centaurea tenoreana
Centaurea tommasinii
Centaurea transalpina Schleich. ex DC.
Centaurea tchihatcheffii — yanardöner (Turkish)
Centaurea trichocephala Bieb. ex Willd. – featherhead knapweed
Centaurea triniifolia
Centaurea triumfettii All.
Centaurea ucriae Lacaita
Centaurea uniflora Turra
Centaurea verbascifolia Vahl
Centaurea verutum L.
Centaurea virgata
Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa – squarrose knapweed
Centaurea wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey.
Centaurea yozgatensis Wagenitz
Formerly placed here
Plant species placed in Centaurea in former times include:
Acroptilon repens – Russian knapweed (as C. repens)
Cheirolophus crassifolius – Maltese rock-centaury (as C. crassifolia, C. spathulata)
Femeniasia balearica (as C. balearica)
Volutaria muricata (as C. muricata)
At dusk this Chicago Junction crew is working Richelieu Foods in Elk Grove Village, a private label maker of pizza, dressing, and sauces. The CJR engine was still in its St. Paul and Pacific and "City of Watsonville" paint and markings. Later in 2024 it would be relabeled for Chicago Junction Railway and "Village of Elk Grove" with the same green and white paint scheme.
CJR is part of Progressive Rail which at one time also operated the St. Paul & Pacific (SPP) in CA. Progressive Rail operates over track owned by UP in this industrial park and over CPKC owned tracks in an adjacent industrial park in Bensenville with its Chicago St. Paul & Pacific (CS&P) shortline subsidiary. Both CJR and CS&P took over operations from Chicago Terminal, a part of the defunct Iowa Pacific Holdings.
Relabeled to the "Spirit of Refreshment"? Well.. that's why this once amazing rocket is simply a relic of what was.
Let's take some effort to get back in the swing of things... shall I?
KGS IMAGING | FACEBOOK | TWITTER | ME
C-123K.
302 TAW.
Rickenbacker AFB, Ohio.
AFRES.
Sept. 1978.
To MASDC as CP069 3/30/1982. To US State Department as N8190B. Back to AMARC as CP094 12/27/1993.
Relabeled as MC0001 at AMARC 11/4/1994. Listed as going to
Minnesota Air National Guard Museum in 1997, but now owned by Hawkins and Powers and is undergoing a check before being made airworthy. Stored at Greybull, WY as N8190B. In 2008 was in storage at the Warner Museum of Aviation and Transportation, Sioux City, IA
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
For context: these images show Russian sailors when western countries were hoping for peace and collaboration with Russia. In these images, you can see Russian sailors visiting Hamburg as part of Hamburg's annual harbor birthday in May. Obviously, our hopes were crushed and now we are faced with a fascist Russian state that has started a brutal and vicious war against a peaceful neighbour. Russian soldiers now slaughter women, children, even pregnant women. These pictures are a reminder both of how different times back then were, but also how naive we were to assume Putin's Russia would seek friendship and collaboration with the rest of the world.
BTW, no more Apple devices and services for the fascists in Russia.
Slava Ukraini! Glory to Ukraine!
Taken on 135, color negative film.
--
Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
I bought these muffins yesterday and they were labeled as packed yesterday.
They are covered in webs of mold and the mold is thick and grows throughout the muffins.
These clearly have several days of mold growth. I believe that these muffins didn't sell by their original expiration date, so some employee relabeled them as brand new.
I felt chills and a fever. All night long I had night sweats and my stomach was killing me.
I didn't look closely at the rest of the muffins until today.
Now I know what was going on.
This isn't the first time I have had mold issues with this Safeway Bakery. I have found bread totally covered in thick green mold.
Safeway at 1978 Contra Costa Blvd. in Pleasant Hill, California
This is the cover of a Lonsdale Estate YD45 brochure from Great Britain.
The Lonsdale was a relabeled Australian Mitsubishi Sigma sold under the Lonsdale name only in Great Britain. It was very unsuccessful so they renamed it to Mitsubishi Sigma in the UK, too.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
--
Technical Notes: Rollei 35 LED. Long exposure with cable release in bulb mode. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Kerfoots in Porthmadog opened in 1874 as an ironmongers, but had become a department store by the 1980s.
Liquidators Parkin S. Booth said the store was unable to generate sufficient turnover. About 23 people were employed at Kerfoots.
Robert Rutherford from the liquidation firm said: "[It is] an institution, and I'm sure it will be sadly missed."
Wrexham MP calls local tax office closure threat 'madness'
Porthmadog drinks firm Dawsons fined for relabeling beer
The store has closed "despite the best efforts of the staff and the managers", Mr Rutherford added.
"It's ceased trading. It's down to a lack of footfall and the changing nature of how people shop," he said.
A creditors' meeting will be held on 21 September.
Hamburg, Germany. 2008 to 2016.
Taken on 135, color negative film.
--
Technical Notes: Minolta XD7. The film emulsion was probably Rossmann's house brand of a ASA400 film, made in Japan, likely relabeled Fuji film sold under the Rossmann brand. This film does not exist anymore. Scanned on a PrimeFilm XAs in RAW with VueScan Pro, then processed in Lightroom with Negative Lab Pro.
Centaurea is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding regions are particularly species-rich. In the western United States, yellow starthistles are an invasive species. Around the year 1850, seeds from the plant had arrived to the state of California. It is believed that those seeds came from South America.
Common names
Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous "bluets"; a vernacular name used for these plants in parts of England is "loggerheads" (common knapweed). The Plectocephalus group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. "Cornflower" is used for a few species, but that term more often specifically means either C. cyanus (the annual cornflower) or Centaurea montana (the perennial cornflower). The common name "centaury" is sometimes used, although this also refers to the unrelated plant genus Centaurium.
The name is said to be in reference to Chiron, the centaur of Greek mythology who discovered medicinal uses of a plant eventually called "centaury".
Description
Knapweeds are robust weedy plants. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are usually deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants' lower part, becoming entire towards the top. The "flowers" (actually pseudanthium inflorescences) are diverse in colour, ranging from intense blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these and lighter shades towards white. Often, the disk flowers are much darker or lighter than the ray flowers, which also differ in morphology and are sterile. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly bracts, hence the name "basketflowers". Many species, in particular those inhabiting more arid regions, have a long and strong taproot.
Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, typically one or two grasses and as many other large herbaceous plants. The common knapweed (C. nigra) for example is plentiful in the mesotrophic grasslands of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by cock's-foot (Dactylis glomerata) as well as either of crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) and false oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). It is also often found in mesotrophic grassland on rendzinas and similar calcareous soils in association with glaucous sedge (Carex flacca), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and either tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum) and rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), or upright brome (Bromus erectus). In these grasslands, greater knapweed (C. scabiosa) is found much more rarely by comparison, often in association with red fescue (Festuca rubra) in addition to cock's-foot and false oat-grass.
Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many Centaurea species can become invasive weeds in regions where they are not native. In parts of North America, diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa), spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) and yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) cause severe problems in agriculture due to their uncontrolled spread. The seeds are typically transported by human traffic, in particular the tires of all-terrain vehicles. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly allelopathic, producing powerful toxins in their roots that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this. Yellow starthistle, meanwhile, is inedible to most livestock due to its spines and apparently outright poisonous to horses and other equines. However, efficient methods of biological control by insect pests of these weeds have been developed; the knapweeds can also exploited to their detriment by targeted grazing. Controlled burning may also be used, though the timing is important to avoid the plants having seeded already, and neither allowing sufficient time for them to regrow from the rootstock.
Yet other species of Centaurea – mostly ones that occur between Italy and the Caucasus – are endemics of a single island or valley, and some of these are endangered. The Akamas Centaurea (Centaurea akamantis) of Cyprus is almost extinct, while the western Caucasus endemics C. leptophylla and C. straminicephala are at least very rare and C. hedgei and C. pecho from the same region are certainly not abundant either. The last four species would be adversely affected by the proposed Yusufeli Dam, which might actually destroy enough habitat to push the two rarer ones over the brink of extinction.
Centaurea are copious nectar producers, especially on high-lime soils. The high nectar yield of the genus makes it very attractive to insects such as butterflies – including the endangered Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis) which visits introduced spotted knapweed – and day-flying moths – typically Zygaenidae, such as Zygaena loti or the six-spot burnet (Z. filipendulae). The larvae of some other Lepidoptera species use Centaurea species as food plants; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Centaurea. Several of these are used in biological control of invasive knapweeds and starthistles.
Larvae of several true weevils (Curculionidae) of the subfamily Lixinae also feed on Centaurea. Some genera – such as Larinus whose larval food is flowerheads – have many species especially adapted to particular knapweeds or starthistle and are used in biological control too. These include the yellow starthistle flower weevil (L. curtus) for yellow starthistle, lesser knapweed flower weevil (L. minutus) for diffuse knapweed and blunt knapweed flower weevil (L. obtusus) for spotted knapweed. Broad-nosed seedhead weevil (Bangasternus fausti) larvae eat diffuse, spotted and squarrose knapweed (C. virgata ssp. squarrosa), while those of the yellow starthistle bud weevil (B. orientalis) do not seem to live on anything other than yellow starthistle and occasionally purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa). But perhaps most efficient in destroying developing yellow starthistle seedheads is the larva of the yellow starthistle hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus). Knapweed root weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) larvae bore into the roots of spotted and to a lesser extentely diffuse knapweed, sometimes killing off the entire plant.
Also used in biological control are Tephritidae (peacock flies) whose larvae feed on Centaurea. Knapweed peacock fly (Chaetorellia acrolophi) larvae eat spotted knapweed and some other species. The yellow starthistle peacock fly (C. australis) has an initial generation each year which often uses cornflower (C. cyanus) as larval food; later generations switch to yellow starthistle. The flies are generally considered less efficient in destroying the growing seedheads than the weevils, but may be superior under certain conditions; employing flies and weevils in combination is expensive and does not noticeably increase their effect.
Use by humans
Although the genus may be considered by a quite significant number of relatively informed individuals to have an overall negative impact on human interests, particularly agricultural interests, the situation is not straightforward enough to simply declare the genus, or, at least, its most aggressively-spreading species, altogether negative. For instance, due to their moderate to high nectar production, which can occur over a comparatively long duration, many species of Centaurea are popular food sources for insects that may otherwise attack certain crops.[citation needed] It may be advisable for some types of farms to allow certain species in this genus, such as cornflower (C. cyanus) in a European setting, to grow adjacent to fields. Although they support and attract many types of beneficial life (not just beetles), these areas are known as beetle banks. When they are present, some pests may be drawn away from crops to them and predatory insects and arachnids that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting pollinators, unlike many field crops such as maize. Moreover, being untreated with pesticides and providing more diversity, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just in the roles of adult food and/or shelter provision.
Some plants which are considered invasive or problematic in certain areas can have beneficial qualities that outweigh their negative qualities from a human and/or human agricultural point of view, although this sometimes requires some human management – particularly if adequate biological control has not been established for the more aggressive species. An example is wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, which produces florets that feed predatory (and other beneficial) insects as well as large tubular stems that provide winter shelter for native bees, wasps, and other organisms that can be beneficial for agriculture. The plant is considered invasive in some areas of the United States and is also often considered undesirable due to its ability to cause contact skin irritation. However, it also serves as a host plant for the black swallowtail butterfly, helps to bring nutrients up from soils with its deep taproot, and possesses evergreen foliage even in climate zones such as US zone 6. This foliage increases soil warmth and moisture which can be beneficial for certain types of life. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a generally disliked plant's beneficial qualities being usually overlooked is the often-despised ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, which topped the list by a large amount for nectar production in a UK study, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg). This very high nectar production, coupled with its early blooming period, makes the plant helpful for the establishment of bee colonies in spring — a period that is often not well-served by commercial flower meadow seed mixes. It also has the situationally-beneficial quality of being a spring ephemeral, as well as an annual that lacks difficult-to-combat roots. Plants that provide necessary structural supports for invertebrate and small vertebrate predators can help to keep overall pest populations low.
The abundant nectar produced by C. solstitialis flowers attracts many pollinators. This is another reason for the success of the (situationally) highly invasive species. Due to genetic differences related to evolutionary adaption, not all members of Centaurea produce the same amount of nectar. Growing conditions, such as climate and soil, can have a very strong impact, even if the plants grow and flower. For instance, cornflower plants, Centaurea cyanus, produced 33% less seasonal nectar than Centaurea nigra in a UK study. C. nigra also ranked higher than ragwort in another UK study, although ragwort was still in the top 10 for yearly nectar production. The strong nectar production of certain members of the genus can be exploited to the farmer's advantage, possibly in combination with biological control. In particular, the yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis) as well as spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) are major honey plants for beekeepers. Monofloral honey from these plants is light and slightly tangy, and one of the finest honeys produced in the United States – due to its better availability, it is even fraudulently relabeled and sold as the scarce and expensive sourwood honey of the Appalachian Mountains. Placing beehives near stands of Centaurea will cause increased pollination. As most seedheads fail however when biocontrol pests have established themselves, the plants will bloom ever more abundantly in an attempt to replace the destroyed seedheads, to the point where they exhaust their resources in providing food for the pests (seeds), bees (pollen) and humans (honey). Output of allelopathic compounds is also liable to be reduced under such conditions – the plant has to compromise between allocating energy to reproduction and defense. This renders the weeds more likely to be suppressed by native vegetation or crops in the following years, especially if properly timed controlled burning[5] and/or targeted grazing by suitable livestock are also employed. While yellow starthistle and perhaps other species are toxic to equines, some other livestock may eat the non-spiny knapweeds with relish. In Europe, common knapweed (C. nigra) and globe knapweed (C. macrocephala) are locally important pollen sources for honeybees in mid-late summer.
8-Hydroxyquinoline has been identified as a main allelopathic compound produced by diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa); native North American plants are typically sensitive to it, while those of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor usually have coevolved with the knapweed and are little harmed if at all, aided by native microorganisms that break down or even feed on the abundantly secreted compound. Thus, 8-hydroxyquinoline is potentially useful to control American plants that have become invasive weeds in the diffuse knapweed's native range.
Arctiin, found in C. imperialis, has shown anticancer activity in laboratory studies. The roots of the long-lost C. foliosa, an endemic of Hatay Province (Turkey), are used in folk medicine, and other species are presumably too. A South Italian variety[verification needed] of the purple starthistle (C. calcitrapa) is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians (Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area (southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania the young whorls of C. calcitrapa are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non-cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London) "the antioxidant activity [...] of the young whorls of Centaurea calcitrapa, both in the DPPH and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, [is] very interesting and [the] species should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from C. calcitrapa were furthermore found to have significant xanthine oxidase (XO)-inhibiting activity.
Spotted knapweed as well as other species are rich in cnicin, a bitter compound found mainly in the leaves and often used to flavor the digestif amaro. In western Crete, Greece a local variety[verification needed] of C. calcitrapa called gourounaki (γουρουνάκι "little pig") also has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals. In the same island an endemic local species, C. idaea called katsoula (κατσούλα), tsita (τσίτα) or aspragatha (ασπραγκάθα), has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals too.
Some species are cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens. As regards other aspects of popular culture, cornflower (C. cyanus) is the floral emblem of Östergötland province (Sweden) – where is it called blåklint, literally "blue mountain" – and of Päijänne Tavastia region in Finland, where it is known as ruiskaunokki ("rye-beaks") or ruiskukka ("rye-flower"). It is also the national flower of Estonia where its local name rukkilill means "rye-lily", Belarus where it is called vałoška (Belarusian: валошка), and one of those of Germany where it is called Kornblume ("cornflower"). The origin of the name "caltrop" for the ancient low-tech area denial weapon is probably in some way connected with C. calcitrapa and its spiny seeds. This plant is attested to by the colloquial name "caltrop" at a time when the weapons were still called by their Roman name tribulus. Lastly, the color cornflower blue is named after C. cyanus. Cornflower is also used as a cut flower.
As namesake member of the subtribe Centaureinae of tribe Cardueae, the knapweeds are probably most closely related to genera such as Carthamus (distaff thistles), Cnicus (blessed thistle), Crupina (crupinas) or Notobasis (Syrian thistle), and somewhat less closely to most other thistles. The monotypic Cnicus seems in fact to properly belong in Centaurea.
Research in the late 20th century shows that Centaurea as traditionally defined is polyphyletic. A number of 19th- and 20th-century efforts to reorganize the genus were not successful, and it is not yet clear what the consequences of the recent research will be for classification of this genus and other related genera. The type species C. centaurium stands somewhat apart from the main lineage of knapweeds and thus the taxonomic consequences of a rearrangement might be severe, with hundreds of species needing to be moved to new genera. It has thus been proposed to change the type species to one of the main lineages to avoid this problem. What seems certain however is that the basketflowers – presently treated as a section Plectocephalus – will be reinstated as a distinct genus in the near future. The rock-centauries (Cheirolophus), formerly usually included in Centaurea, are now already treated as separate genus.
Better-known Centaurea species include:
Centaurea acaulis
Centaurea adpressa
Centaurea aegyptiaca
Centaurea aeolica
Centaurea aggregata
Centaurea akamantis – Akamas centaurea
Centaurea alba
Centaurea albonitens Turrill
Centaurea alpestris
Centaurea alpina
Centaurea ambigua
Centaurea amblyolepis
Centaurea americana – American basketflower, American starthistle
Centaurea ammocyanus
Centaurea antennata Dufour
Centaurea antiochia Boiss.
Centaurea aplolepa
Centaurea aplolepa subsp. carueliana
Centaurea appendicigera C.Koch
Centaurea argentea
Centaurea ascalonica
Centaurea aspera L. – rough starthistle
Centaurea atacamensis (Reiche) I.M.Johnst.
Centaurea atropurpurea
Centaurea ×aurata
Centaurea babylonica L.
Centaurea balsamita
Centaurea behen L. – ak behmen (Turkish)
Centaurea bella
Centaurea benedicta – Cnicus
Centaurea bieberseinii
Centaurea borjae
Centaurea bovina
Centaurea bracteata
Centaurea brevifimbriata Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea bulbosa
Centaurea busambarensis Guss.
Centaurea cachinalensis
Centaurea calcitrapa – purple starthistle, red starthistle, "caltrop"
Centaurea calcitrapoides
Centaurea cariensis Boiss.
Centaurea cariensiformis Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea caroli-henrici Gabrieljan & Dittrich
Centaurea centaurium L.
Centaurea chilensis
Centaurea cineraria – velvet centaurea, dusty miller
Centaurea clementei
Centaurea collina L.
Centaurea corymbosa
Centaurea crithmifolia
Centaurea crocodylium
Centaurea cyanoides J.Berggr. & Wahlenb.
Centaurea cyanus – cornflower, bachelor's button, boutonniere flower, hurtsickle, bluebottle, basketflower
Centaurea damascena
Centaurea debeauxii Gren. & Godr.
Centaurea demirizii Wagenitz
Centaurea depressa – low cornflower
Centaurea deusta
Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed, white knapweed, tumble knapweed
Centaurea diluta – North African knapweed
Centaurea drabifolia Sm.
Centaurea drabifolioides Hub.-Mor.
Centaurea dschungarica
Centaurea emilae Hüseynova et Qaraxani[13]
Centaurea eriophora
Centaurea eryngioides
Centaurea filiformis
Centaurea fischeri Willd.
Centaurea floccosa
Centaurea foliosa Boiss. & Kotschy
Centaurea forojuliensis
Centaurea friderici Vis. – palagruška zečina (Croatian)
Centaurea gayana
Centaurea glaberrima Tausch
Centaurea glastifolia
Centaurea grinensis
Centaurea gymnocarpa
Centaurea haradjianii Wagenitz
Centaurea hedgei
Centaurea helenioides Boiss.
Centaurea hermannii F.Hermann
Centaurea horrida Badarò – fiordaliso spinoso (Italian)
Centaurea hyalolepis
Centaurea hypoleuca
Centaurea iberica – Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed
Centaurea idaea – katsoula, tsita (Cretan Greek)
Centaurea imperialis Hausskn. ex Bornm.
Centaurea jabukensis
Centaurea jacea – brown knapweed, brownray knapweed
Centaurea kasakorum
Centaurea kopetaghensis
Centaurea kotschyana Heuff.
Centaurea lanulata
Centaurea leptophylla
Centaurea leucophylla
Centaurea limbata
Centaurea lydia Boiss.
Centaurea macrocephala Puschk. ex Willd. – globe knapweed, Armenian basketflower
Centaurea maculosa – spotted knapweed (might belong in C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea mannagettae
Centaurea margaritalba Klok.
Centaurea marschalliana
Centaurea melitensis – Maltese starthistle; tocalote, tocolote (California)
Centaurea minor
Centaurea moschata – sweet sultan
Centaurea ×moncktonii C.E.Britton – meadow knapweed, protean knapweed (= C. ×pratensis Thuill non Salisb.)
Centaurea monocephala
Centaurea montana – montane knapweed, perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, mountain bluet
Centaurea napifolia L. – fiordaliso romano (Italian)
Centaurea nervosa Rchb. ex Steud.
Centaurea nigra – common knapweed, black knapweed, lesser knapweed, hardheads
Centaurea nigrescens – Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed, Tyrol thistle
Centaurea nigrifimbria (C.Koch) Sosn.
Centaurea nivea (Bornm.) Wagenitz
Centaurea onopordifolia
Centaurea orientalis L.
Centaurea ornata Willd.
Centaurea ovina
Centaurea pallescens Delile
Centaurea paniculata L.
Centaurea parlatoris
Centaurea pecho
Centaurea phrygia – wig knapweed
Centaurea pindicola
Centaurea polypodiifolia
Centaurea ×pratensis Salisb. (C. jacea × C. nigra) – meadow knapweed
Centaurea procurrens
Centaurea ×psammogena G.Gayer. (C. diffusa × C. stoebe subsp. micranthos)
Centaurea pseudocaerulescens
Centaurea pseudophrygia C.A.Mey.
Centaurea pulcherrima Willd.
Centaurea pullata L.
Centaurea pumilio
Centaurea ragusina L.
Centaurea rigida
Centaurea rothrockii Greenm. – Mexican basketflower, Rothrock's basketflower, Rothrock's knapweed
Centaurea ruthenica
Centaurea rutifolia Sm.
Centaurea sadleriana – Pannonian knapweed
Centaurea salicifolia Bieb. ex Willd.
Centaurea scabiosa – greater knapweed
Centaurea scannensis
Centaurea scoparia
Centaurea scopulorum Boiss. & Heldr.
Centaurea seguenzae
Centaurea seridis L.
Centaurea sibirica
Centaurea simplicicaulis
Centaurea sinaica
Centaurea solstitialis – yellow starthistle, golden starthistle, yellow cockspur, St. Barnaby's thistle, Barnaby thistle
Centaurea speciosa
Centaurea sphaerocephala L.
Centaurea stenolepis
Centaurea stoebe L.
Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek
Centaurea straminicephala
Centaurea sulphurea – Sicilian starthistle
Centaurea tauromenitana Guss.
Centaurea tenoreana
Centaurea tommasinii
Centaurea transalpina Schleich. ex DC.
Centaurea tchihatcheffii — yanardöner (Turkish)
Centaurea trichocephala Bieb. ex Willd. – featherhead knapweed
Centaurea triniifolia
Centaurea triumfettii All.
Centaurea ucriae Lacaita
Centaurea uniflora Turra
Centaurea verbascifolia Vahl
Centaurea verutum L.
Centaurea virgata
Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa – squarrose knapweed
Centaurea wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey.
Centaurea yozgatensis Wagenitz
Formerly placed here
Plant species placed in Centaurea in former times include:
Acroptilon repens – Russian knapweed (as C. repens)
Cheirolophus crassifolius – Maltese rock-centaury (as C. crassifolia, C. spathulata)
Femeniasia balearica (as C. balearica)
Volutaria muricata (as C. muricata)