View allAll Photos Tagged Multilingual
Christmas 2015
Logo Modernism
Jens Müller
R. Roger Remington
Taschen 2015
Multilingual Edition: English, French, German
This exotic and unusual Korean VHS release for "Avortement Clandestin" (1974), an obscure French 'social problem' expose, features a panel of graphics that was also used on the release for Roberta Findlay's "Tenement" (!). The colorful cover features four languages, including the trusty hanja characters for "woman", and ad copy along the lines of "the frightening adventure has begun!" Rarely seen even during the rental era.
© Jo De Baerdemaeker, Stockholm, December 2009
'I am a citizen of the world, my homeland is everywhere, I'm a foreigner everywhere.' set in English, Hindi, Arabic and Chinese.
A multilingual road sign in three different scripts (Latin, Chinese and Russian Cyrillic) at the N-35 Kakoram Highway at Chilas April 7, 2023. Photo by Tim Chong
Pasting from the Wikipedia page on the Rosetta Stone:
[[[
The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The stone is a Ptolemaic era stele with carved text made up of three translations of a single passage: two in Egyptian language scripts (hieroglyphic and Demotic) and one in classical Greek. It was created in 196 BC, discovered by the French in 1799 at Rosetta, and transported to England in 1802. Once in Europe, it contributed greatly to the deciphering of the principles of hieroglyph writing, through the work of the British scientist Thomas Young and the French scholar Jean-François Champollion. Comparative translation of the stone assisted in understanding many previously undecipherable examples of hieroglyphic writing. The text on the stone is a decree from Ptolemy V, describing the repeal of various taxes and instructions to erect statues in temples. Two Egyptian-Greek multilingual steles predated Ptolemy V's Rosetta Stone: Ptolemy III's Decree of Canopus, 239 BC, and Ptolemy IV's Decree of Memphis, ca 218 BC.
The Rosetta Stone is 114.4 centimetres (45.0 in) high at its highest point, 72.3 centimetres (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimetres (11.0 in) thick.[1] It is unfinished on its sides and reverse. Weighing approximately 760 kilograms (1,700 lb), it was originally thought to be granite or basalt but is currently described as granodiorite of a dark grey-pinkish colour.[2] The stone has been on public display at The British Museum since 1802.
Contents
• 1 History of the Rosetta Stone
• 5 Notes
History of the Rosetta Stone
Modern-era discovery
In preparation for Napoleon's 1798 campaign in Egypt, the French brought with them 167 scientists, scholars and archaeologists known as the 'savants'. French Army engineer Lieutenant Pierre-François Bouchard discovered the stone sometime in mid-July 1799, first official mention of the find being made after the 25th in the meeting of the savants' Institut d'Égypte in Cairo. It was spotted in the foundations of an old wall, during renovations to Fort Julien near the Egyptian port city of Rashid (Rosetta) and sent down to the Institute headquarters in Cairo. After Napoleon returned to France shortly after the discovery, the savants remained behind with French troops which held off British and Ottoman attacks for a further 18 months. In March 1801, the British landed at Aboukir Bay and scholars carried the Stone from Cairo to Alexandria alongside the troops of Jacques-Francois Menou who marched north to meet the enemy; defeated in battle, Menou and the remnant of his army fled to fortified Alexandria where they were surrounded and immediately placed under siege, the stone now inside the city. Overwhelmed by invading Ottoman troops later reinforced by the British, the remaining French in Cairo capitulated on June 22, and Menou admitted defeat in Alexandria on August 30.[3]
After the surrender, a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological and scientific discoveries in Egypt. Menou refused to hand them over, claiming they belonged to the Institute. British General John Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Earl of Donoughmore, refused to relieve the city until de Menou gave in. Newly arrived scholars Edward Daniel Clarke and William Richard Hamilton agreed to check the collections in Alexandria and found many artifacts that the French had not revealed.[citation needed]
When Hutchinson claimed all materials were property of the British Crown, a French scholar, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, said to Clarke and Hamilton that they would rather burn all their discoveries — referring ominously to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria — than turn them over. Clarke and Hamilton pleaded their case and Hutchinson finally agreed that items such as biology specimens would be the scholars' private property. But Menou regarded the stone as his private property and hid it.[4]
How exactly the Stone came to British hands is disputed. Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner, who escorted the stone to Britain, claimed later that he had personally seized it from Menou and carried it away on a gun carriage. In his much more detailed account however, Clarke stated that a French 'officer and member of the Institute' had taken him, his student John Cripps, and Hamilton secretly into the back-streets of Alexandria, revealing the stone among Menou's baggage, hidden under protective carpets. According to Clarke this savant feared for the stone's safety should any French soldiers see it. Hutchinson was informed at once, and the stone taken away, possibly by Turner and his gun-carriage. French scholars departed later with only imprints and plaster casts of the stone.[5]
Turner brought the stone to Britain aboard the captured French frigate HMS Egyptienne landing in February 1802. On March 11, it was presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London and Stephen Weston played a major role in the early translation. Later it was taken to the British Museum, where it remains to this day. Inscriptions painted in white on the artifact state "Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801" on the left side and "Presented by King George III" on the right.
Translation
Experts inspecting the Rosetta Stone during the International Congress of Orientalists of 1874
In 1814, Briton Thomas Young finished translating the enchorial (demotic) text, and began work on the hieroglyphic script but he did not succeed in translating them. From 1822 to 1824 the French scholar, philologist, and orientalist Jean-François Champollion greatly expanded on this work and is credited as the principal translator of the Rosetta Stone. Champollion could read both Greek and Coptic, and figured out what the seven Demotic signs in Coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in Coptic, he worked out what they meant. Then he traced the Demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs. By working out what some hieroglyphs stood for, he transliterated the text from the Demotic (or older Coptic) and Greek to the hieroglyphs by first translating Greek names which were originally in Greek, then working towards ancient names that had never been written in any other language. Champollion then created an alphabet to decipher the remaining text.[6]
In 1858, the Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania published the first complete English translation of the Rosetta Stone as accomplished by three of its undergraduate members: Charles R Hale, S Huntington Jones, and Henry Morton.[7]
Recent history
The Rosetta Stone has been exhibited almost continuously in the British Museum since 1802. Toward the end of World War I, in 1917, the Museum was concerned about heavy bombing in London and moved the Rosetta Stone to safety along with other portable objects of value. The Stone spent the next two years in a station on the Postal Tube Railway 50 feet below the ground at Holborn.
The Stone left the British Museum again in October 1972 to be displayed for one month at the Louvre Museum on the 150th anniversary of the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing with the famous Lettre à M. Dacier of Jean-François Champollion.
In July 2003, Egypt requested the return of the Rosetta Stone. Dr. Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, told the press: "If the British want to be remembered, if they want to restore their reputation, they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity". In 2005, Hawass was negotiating for a three-month loan, with the eventual goal of a permanent return.[8][9] In November 2005, the British Museum sent him a replica of the stone.[10] In December 2009 Hawass said that he would drop his claim for the return of the Rosetta Stone if the British Museum loaned the stone to Egypt for three months.[11]
Inscription
In essence, the Rosetta Stone is a tax amnesty given to the temple priests of the day, restoring the tax privileges they had traditionally enjoyed from more ancient times. Some scholars speculate that several copies of the Rosetta Stone must exist, as yet undiscovered, since this proclamation must have been made at many temples. The complete Greek portion, translated into English,[12] is about 1600–1700 words in length, and is about 20 paragraphs long (average of 80 words per paragraph):
n the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, but also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;
In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.
THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared: Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, who came to the help of his Father Osiris; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.[13]
Idiomatic use
The term Rosetta Stone came to be used by philologists to describe any bilingual text with whose help a hitherto unknown language and/or script could be deciphered. For example, the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks (Obverse in Greek, reverse in Pali, using the Kharo??hi script), which enabled James Prinsep (1799–1840) to decipher the latter.
Later on, the term gained a wider frequency, also outside the field of linguistics, and has become idiomatic as something that is a critical key to the process of decryption or translation of a difficult encoding of information:
"The Rosetta Stone of immunology"[14] and "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of flowering time (fossils)".[15] An algorithm for predicting protein structure from sequence is named Rosetta@home. In molecular biology, a series of "Rosetta" bacterial cell lines have been developed that contain a number of tRNA genes that are rare in E. coli but common in other organisms, enabling the efficient translation of DNA from those organisms in E. coli.
"Rosetta" is an online language translation tool to help localisation of software, developed and maintained by Canonical as part of the Launchpad project.
"Rosetta" is the name of a "lightweight dynamic translator" distributed for Mac OS X by Apple. Rosetta enables applications compiled for PowerPC processor to run on Apple systems using x86 processor.
Rosetta Stone is a brand of language learning software published by Rosetta Stone Ltd., headquartered in Arlington, VA, USA.
The Rosetta Project is a global collaboration of language specialists and native speakers to develop a contemporary version of the historic Rosetta Stone to last from 2000 to 12,000 AD. Its goal is a meaningful survey and near permanent archive of 1,500 languages.
Rosetta Stone was also a pseudonym used by Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) for the book "Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo"
See also
• Decree of Canopus, stele no. 1 of the 3-stele series
Notes
• Allen, Don Cameron. "The Predecessors of Champollion", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 5. (1960), pp. 527–547
• Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy. The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins, 2000 ISBN 0-06-019439-1
• Budge, E. A. Wallis (1989). The Rosetta Stone. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261638. http://books.google.com/books?id=RO_m47hLsbAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rosetta+stone&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U1_VaJ_NxkLmbZuYyDLji99DXwY6w.
• Downs, Jonathan. Discovery at Rosetta. Skyhorse Publishing, 2008 ISBN 978-1-60239-271-7
• Downs, Jonathan. "Romancing the Stone", History Today, Vol. 56, Issue 5. (May, 2006), pp. 48–54.
• Parkinson, Richard. Cracking Codes: the Rosetta Stone, and Decipherment. University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0-520-22306-3
• Parkinson, Richard. The Rosetta Stone. Objects in Focus; British Museum Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-7141-5021-5
• Ray, John. The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-674-02493-9
• Reviewed by Jonathon Keats in the Washington Post, July 22, 2007.
• Solé, Robert; Valbelle, Dominique. The Rosetta Stone: The Story of the Decoding of Hieroglyphics. Basic Books, 2002 ISBN 1-56858-226-9
• The Gentleman's Magazine: and Historical Chronicle, 1802: Volume 72: part 1: March: p. 270: Wednesday, March 31.
References
• ^ "The Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/t/the_rosetta_stone.aspx. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
• ^ "History uncovered in conserving the Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/h/history_uncovered_in_conservin.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ See University of Pennsylvania, Philomathean Society, Report of the committee [C.R. Hale, S.H. Jones, and Henry Morton], appointed by the society to translate the inscript on the Rosetta stone, Circa 1858 and most likely published in Philadelphia. See later editions of circa 1859 and 1881 by same author, as well as Randolph Greenfield Adams, A Translation of the Rosetta Stone (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925.) The Philomathean Society holds relevant archival material as well as an original casting.
• ^ Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner (2003-07-20). "Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1436606/Egypt-demands-return-of-the-Rosetta-Stone.html. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
• ^ Henry Huttinger (2005-07-28). "Stolen Treasures: Zahi Hawass wants the Rosetta Stone back—among other things". Cairo Magazine. http://www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=html. Retrieved 2006-10-06. [dead link]
• ^ "The rose of the Nile". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2005-11-30. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/770/he1.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
• ^ [1] "Rosetta Stone row 'would be solved by loan to Egypt'" BBC News 8 December 2009
• ^ "Translation of the Greek section of the Rosetta Stone". Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/rosettastone.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
• ^ "Text of the Rosetta Stone". http://pw1.netcom.com/~qkstart/rosetta.html. Retrieved 2006-11-26.
• ^ The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2000-09-06). "International Team Accelerates Investigation of Immune-Related Genes". http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
• ^ Gordon G. Simpson, Caroline Dean (2002-04-12). "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of Flowering Time?". http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5566/285?ijkey=zlwRiv/qSEivQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
External links
• Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rosetta Stone
• Wikisource has original text related to this article: Text on the Rosetta Stone in English
• Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Greek Text from the Rosetta Stone
• The Rosetta Stone in The British Museum
• More detailed British Museum page on the stone with Curator's comments and bibliography
• The translated text in English – The British Museum
• The Finding of the Rosetta Stone
• The 1998 conservation and restoration of The Rosetta Stone at The British Museum
• Champollion's alphabet – The British Museum
• people.howstuffworks.com/rosetta-stone.htm
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone"
Categories: 196 BC | 2nd century BC | 2nd-century BC steles | 2nd-century BC works | 1st-millennium BC steles | Ancient Egyptian objects in the British Museum | Ancient Egyptian texts | Ancient Egyptian stelas | Antiquities acquired by Napoleon | Egyptology | Metaphors referring to objects | Multilingual texts | Ptolemaic dynasty | Stones | Nile River Delta | Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions | Archaeological corpora documents
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Imitation cunning linguistics all the way, this James Bond ripoff from Germany was the one of six (?) Kommissar X films released in the mid-60s. The rare Korean VHS release dates to the mid-80s...
Hand made and handstamped using Stampendous rubber stamps. Christmas tree image stamped onto dark green cardstock and then embossed in gold.
“The Earth on Turtle’s Back”, an Onondaga Myth | Drawn by students in Mrs. Oliner's Classroom | – A Teacher Resource designed by LPO in 2003
Tags:
English, Language Arts, Reading Comprehension, Outlining, Multilingual, Bilingual, Multimodal, ESL, ELL, Semiotics, Pinterest
Some rights reserved
Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivs
Fashion in Italy is a serious thing and you can meet very elegant people at every street corner.
I liked this scene because it was funny to see the elegant woman reading a German newspaper while you could hear the two men in suit talking in Italian simultaneously.
Kind of surrealist.
This rare release of Luigi Russo's sex comedy "La Nuova Giovane" (1975) hit the Korean rental shelves courtesy of the Ajoo label, a then-robust distributor of obscure Euro films. The ad copy says something to the effect of "Be careful...she's dangerous" (!)
International Mother Language Day is an observance held annually on 21 February worldwide to promote awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity and multilingualism. It was first announced by UNESCO on 17 November 1999. Its observance was also formally recognized by the United Nations General Assembly in its resolution establishing 2008 as the International Year of Languages.
International Mother Language Day originated as the international recognition of Language Movement Day, which has been commemorated in Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) since # 1952, when a number of University of Dhaka students were killed by the Pakistani police and army in Dhaka during Bengali Language Movement protests.
On 21 March 1948, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the Governor general of Pakistan, declared that Urdu would be the only official language for both West and East Pakistan. The people of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), whose main language is Bangla, started to protest against this. On 21 February 1952, (8th Falgun 1359 in the Bangla calendar), students in the present day capital city of Dhaka called for a provincial strike. The government invoked a limited curfew to prevent this and the protests were tamed down so as to not break the curfew. The Pakistani police fired on the students despite these peaceful protests and a number of students were killed.
Source : Wikipedia.
pic taken from Shaheed Minar, or the Martyr's monument,Dhaka,Bangladesh
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All rights reserved worldwide. DO NOT use this image in any commercial, non-commercial or blogging purpose without my explicit permission. Otherwise, you'll face legal action for violating national or international copyright law.
For permission, mail me at:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
farhan_822@yahoo.com
“The Earth on Turtle’s Back”, an Onondaga Myth II | Drawn by students in Mrs. Oliner's Classroom | – A Teacher Resource designed by LPO in 2003
Tags:
English, Language Arts, Reading Comprehension, Outlining, Student-Centered Learning, Multilingual, Bilingual, Multimodal, ESL, ELL, Semiotics, Pinterest
Some rights reserved
Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivs
Re the multilingual stop signs: I see a need for the English and Spanish signs, but why those other two in particular? Why isn't there an Arrêt or 정지 decal? Does this town have a problem specifically with Mandarin and German speakers barging into the store room of the local Sears?
Actually, knowing the fate of this and all other Sears locations, I can believe that entering the store room is an issue with all customers, because you need to hunt someone down to assist you. You can't buy anything from a Sears even if you wanted to.
(Cue the angry comments from devoted Sears shoppers. Just kidding -- they don't exist!)
Pasting from the Wikipedia page on the Rosetta Stone:
[[[
The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The stone is a Ptolemaic era stele with carved text made up of three translations of a single passage: two in Egyptian language scripts (hieroglyphic and Demotic) and one in classical Greek. It was created in 196 BC, discovered by the French in 1799 at Rosetta, and transported to England in 1802. Once in Europe, it contributed greatly to the deciphering of the principles of hieroglyph writing, through the work of the British scientist Thomas Young and the French scholar Jean-François Champollion. Comparative translation of the stone assisted in understanding many previously undecipherable examples of hieroglyphic writing. The text on the stone is a decree from Ptolemy V, describing the repeal of various taxes and instructions to erect statues in temples. Two Egyptian-Greek multilingual steles predated Ptolemy V's Rosetta Stone: Ptolemy III's Decree of Canopus, 239 BC, and Ptolemy IV's Decree of Memphis, ca 218 BC.
The Rosetta Stone is 114.4 centimetres (45.0 in) high at its highest point, 72.3 centimetres (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimetres (11.0 in) thick.[1] It is unfinished on its sides and reverse. Weighing approximately 760 kilograms (1,700 lb), it was originally thought to be granite or basalt but is currently described as granodiorite of a dark grey-pinkish colour.[2] The stone has been on public display at The British Museum since 1802.
Contents
• 1 History of the Rosetta Stone
• 5 Notes
History of the Rosetta Stone
Modern-era discovery
In preparation for Napoleon's 1798 campaign in Egypt, the French brought with them 167 scientists, scholars and archaeologists known as the 'savants'. French Army engineer Lieutenant Pierre-François Bouchard discovered the stone sometime in mid-July 1799, first official mention of the find being made after the 25th in the meeting of the savants' Institut d'Égypte in Cairo. It was spotted in the foundations of an old wall, during renovations to Fort Julien near the Egyptian port city of Rashid (Rosetta) and sent down to the Institute headquarters in Cairo. After Napoleon returned to France shortly after the discovery, the savants remained behind with French troops which held off British and Ottoman attacks for a further 18 months. In March 1801, the British landed at Aboukir Bay and scholars carried the Stone from Cairo to Alexandria alongside the troops of Jacques-Francois Menou who marched north to meet the enemy; defeated in battle, Menou and the remnant of his army fled to fortified Alexandria where they were surrounded and immediately placed under siege, the stone now inside the city. Overwhelmed by invading Ottoman troops later reinforced by the British, the remaining French in Cairo capitulated on June 22, and Menou admitted defeat in Alexandria on August 30.[3]
After the surrender, a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological and scientific discoveries in Egypt. Menou refused to hand them over, claiming they belonged to the Institute. British General John Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Earl of Donoughmore, refused to relieve the city until de Menou gave in. Newly arrived scholars Edward Daniel Clarke and William Richard Hamilton agreed to check the collections in Alexandria and found many artifacts that the French had not revealed.[citation needed]
When Hutchinson claimed all materials were property of the British Crown, a French scholar, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, said to Clarke and Hamilton that they would rather burn all their discoveries — referring ominously to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria — than turn them over. Clarke and Hamilton pleaded their case and Hutchinson finally agreed that items such as biology specimens would be the scholars' private property. But Menou regarded the stone as his private property and hid it.[4]
How exactly the Stone came to British hands is disputed. Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner, who escorted the stone to Britain, claimed later that he had personally seized it from Menou and carried it away on a gun carriage. In his much more detailed account however, Clarke stated that a French 'officer and member of the Institute' had taken him, his student John Cripps, and Hamilton secretly into the back-streets of Alexandria, revealing the stone among Menou's baggage, hidden under protective carpets. According to Clarke this savant feared for the stone's safety should any French soldiers see it. Hutchinson was informed at once, and the stone taken away, possibly by Turner and his gun-carriage. French scholars departed later with only imprints and plaster casts of the stone.[5]
Turner brought the stone to Britain aboard the captured French frigate HMS Egyptienne landing in February 1802. On March 11, it was presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London and Stephen Weston played a major role in the early translation. Later it was taken to the British Museum, where it remains to this day. Inscriptions painted in white on the artifact state "Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801" on the left side and "Presented by King George III" on the right.
Translation
Experts inspecting the Rosetta Stone during the International Congress of Orientalists of 1874
In 1814, Briton Thomas Young finished translating the enchorial (demotic) text, and began work on the hieroglyphic script but he did not succeed in translating them. From 1822 to 1824 the French scholar, philologist, and orientalist Jean-François Champollion greatly expanded on this work and is credited as the principal translator of the Rosetta Stone. Champollion could read both Greek and Coptic, and figured out what the seven Demotic signs in Coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in Coptic, he worked out what they meant. Then he traced the Demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs. By working out what some hieroglyphs stood for, he transliterated the text from the Demotic (or older Coptic) and Greek to the hieroglyphs by first translating Greek names which were originally in Greek, then working towards ancient names that had never been written in any other language. Champollion then created an alphabet to decipher the remaining text.[6]
In 1858, the Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania published the first complete English translation of the Rosetta Stone as accomplished by three of its undergraduate members: Charles R Hale, S Huntington Jones, and Henry Morton.[7]
Recent history
The Rosetta Stone has been exhibited almost continuously in the British Museum since 1802. Toward the end of World War I, in 1917, the Museum was concerned about heavy bombing in London and moved the Rosetta Stone to safety along with other portable objects of value. The Stone spent the next two years in a station on the Postal Tube Railway 50 feet below the ground at Holborn.
The Stone left the British Museum again in October 1972 to be displayed for one month at the Louvre Museum on the 150th anniversary of the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing with the famous Lettre à M. Dacier of Jean-François Champollion.
In July 2003, Egypt requested the return of the Rosetta Stone. Dr. Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, told the press: "If the British want to be remembered, if they want to restore their reputation, they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity". In 2005, Hawass was negotiating for a three-month loan, with the eventual goal of a permanent return.[8][9] In November 2005, the British Museum sent him a replica of the stone.[10] In December 2009 Hawass said that he would drop his claim for the return of the Rosetta Stone if the British Museum loaned the stone to Egypt for three months.[11]
Inscription
In essence, the Rosetta Stone is a tax amnesty given to the temple priests of the day, restoring the tax privileges they had traditionally enjoyed from more ancient times. Some scholars speculate that several copies of the Rosetta Stone must exist, as yet undiscovered, since this proclamation must have been made at many temples. The complete Greek portion, translated into English,[12] is about 1600–1700 words in length, and is about 20 paragraphs long (average of 80 words per paragraph):
n the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, but also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;
In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.
THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared: Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, who came to the help of his Father Osiris; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.[13]
Idiomatic use
The term Rosetta Stone came to be used by philologists to describe any bilingual text with whose help a hitherto unknown language and/or script could be deciphered. For example, the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks (Obverse in Greek, reverse in Pali, using the Kharo??hi script), which enabled James Prinsep (1799–1840) to decipher the latter.
Later on, the term gained a wider frequency, also outside the field of linguistics, and has become idiomatic as something that is a critical key to the process of decryption or translation of a difficult encoding of information:
"The Rosetta Stone of immunology"[14] and "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of flowering time (fossils)".[15] An algorithm for predicting protein structure from sequence is named Rosetta@home. In molecular biology, a series of "Rosetta" bacterial cell lines have been developed that contain a number of tRNA genes that are rare in E. coli but common in other organisms, enabling the efficient translation of DNA from those organisms in E. coli.
"Rosetta" is an online language translation tool to help localisation of software, developed and maintained by Canonical as part of the Launchpad project.
"Rosetta" is the name of a "lightweight dynamic translator" distributed for Mac OS X by Apple. Rosetta enables applications compiled for PowerPC processor to run on Apple systems using x86 processor.
Rosetta Stone is a brand of language learning software published by Rosetta Stone Ltd., headquartered in Arlington, VA, USA.
The Rosetta Project is a global collaboration of language specialists and native speakers to develop a contemporary version of the historic Rosetta Stone to last from 2000 to 12,000 AD. Its goal is a meaningful survey and near permanent archive of 1,500 languages.
Rosetta Stone was also a pseudonym used by Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) for the book "Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo"
See also
• Decree of Canopus, stele no. 1 of the 3-stele series
Notes
• Allen, Don Cameron. "The Predecessors of Champollion", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 5. (1960), pp. 527–547
• Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy. The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins, 2000 ISBN 0-06-019439-1
• Budge, E. A. Wallis (1989). The Rosetta Stone. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261638. http://books.google.com/books?id=RO_m47hLsbAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rosetta+stone&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U1_VaJ_NxkLmbZuYyDLji99DXwY6w.
• Downs, Jonathan. Discovery at Rosetta. Skyhorse Publishing, 2008 ISBN 978-1-60239-271-7
• Downs, Jonathan. "Romancing the Stone", History Today, Vol. 56, Issue 5. (May, 2006), pp. 48–54.
• Parkinson, Richard. Cracking Codes: the Rosetta Stone, and Decipherment. University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0-520-22306-3
• Parkinson, Richard. The Rosetta Stone. Objects in Focus; British Museum Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-7141-5021-5
• Ray, John. The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-674-02493-9
• Reviewed by Jonathon Keats in the Washington Post, July 22, 2007.
• Solé, Robert; Valbelle, Dominique. The Rosetta Stone: The Story of the Decoding of Hieroglyphics. Basic Books, 2002 ISBN 1-56858-226-9
• The Gentleman's Magazine: and Historical Chronicle, 1802: Volume 72: part 1: March: p. 270: Wednesday, March 31.
References
• ^ "The Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/t/the_rosetta_stone.aspx. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
• ^ "History uncovered in conserving the Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/h/history_uncovered_in_conservin.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ See University of Pennsylvania, Philomathean Society, Report of the committee [C.R. Hale, S.H. Jones, and Henry Morton], appointed by the society to translate the inscript on the Rosetta stone, Circa 1858 and most likely published in Philadelphia. See later editions of circa 1859 and 1881 by same author, as well as Randolph Greenfield Adams, A Translation of the Rosetta Stone (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925.) The Philomathean Society holds relevant archival material as well as an original casting.
• ^ Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner (2003-07-20). "Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1436606/Egypt-demands-return-of-the-Rosetta-Stone.html. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
• ^ Henry Huttinger (2005-07-28). "Stolen Treasures: Zahi Hawass wants the Rosetta Stone back—among other things". Cairo Magazine. http://www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=html. Retrieved 2006-10-06. [dead link]
• ^ "The rose of the Nile". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2005-11-30. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/770/he1.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
• ^ [1] "Rosetta Stone row 'would be solved by loan to Egypt'" BBC News 8 December 2009
• ^ "Translation of the Greek section of the Rosetta Stone". Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/rosettastone.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
• ^ "Text of the Rosetta Stone". http://pw1.netcom.com/~qkstart/rosetta.html. Retrieved 2006-11-26.
• ^ The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2000-09-06). "International Team Accelerates Investigation of Immune-Related Genes". http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
• ^ Gordon G. Simpson, Caroline Dean (2002-04-12). "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of Flowering Time?". http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5566/285?ijkey=zlwRiv/qSEivQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
External links
• Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rosetta Stone
• Wikisource has original text related to this article: Text on the Rosetta Stone in English
• Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Greek Text from the Rosetta Stone
• The Rosetta Stone in The British Museum
• More detailed British Museum page on the stone with Curator's comments and bibliography
• The translated text in English – The British Museum
• The Finding of the Rosetta Stone
• The 1998 conservation and restoration of The Rosetta Stone at The British Museum
• Champollion's alphabet – The British Museum
• people.howstuffworks.com/rosetta-stone.htm
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone"
Categories: 196 BC | 2nd century BC | 2nd-century BC steles | 2nd-century BC works | 1st-millennium BC steles | Ancient Egyptian objects in the British Museum | Ancient Egyptian texts | Ancient Egyptian stelas | Antiquities acquired by Napoleon | Egyptology | Metaphors referring to objects | Multilingual texts | Ptolemaic dynasty | Stones | Nile River Delta | Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions | Archaeological corpora documents
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OGGI LUNEDI' 29 AGOSTO - MARTIRIO DI S. GIOVANNI BATTISTA.
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The Behistun Inscription (copy in Drents museum) is a multilingual inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran. It was crucial to the decipherment of cuneiform script.
Authored by Darius the Great sometime between his coronation as king of the Persian Empire in the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage. Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the deaths of Cyrus the Great and Cambyses II in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending in December 521 BC) to put down multiple rebellions throughout the Persian Empire. The inscription states in detail that the rebellions, which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great and his son Cambyses II, were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed kinghood during the upheaval following Cyrus's death.
Darius the Great proclaimed himself victorious in all battles during the period of upheaval, attributing his success to the "grace of Ahura Mazda". The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a variety of Akkadian). The inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the decipherment of a previously lost script.
The inscription is approximately 15 metres high by 25 metres wide and 100 metres up a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon and Ecbatana, respectively). The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 593 lines in eight columns, and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius I, the Great, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying on his back before him. The supine figure is reputed to be the pretender Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and nine one-meter figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. A Faravahar floats above, giving its blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was Darius's beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and lead.
This shot was taken while walking in the street. The guy walking in front of me had this text on the back of his coat or shirt.
IL SANTO E LA LITURGIA DEL GIORNO
OGGI 13 SETTEMBRE S.GIOVANNI CRISOSTOMO
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MULTILINGUAL DADA PICTURE POEM
pourquoi les casseurs français
manifestent-ils dans les rues
contre les macarons de ce monde
maybe they mixed up their
macarons with their macaroons
per fortuna in Italia abbiamo
i nostri amatissimi amaretti.
und dank der Konfederation
mir händ eusi Guetzli
Weilburg Palace (Baden, Austria) – Multilingual Descriptions & Insights
English
Weilburg Palace was a Neoclassical summer residence in Baden bei Wien, built between 1820 and 1823 by architect Joseph Kornhäusel as a gift from Archduke Charles of Teschen to his wife, Princess Henrietta of Nassau Weilburg Stretching approximately 201 meters along its front facade, it stood opposite the ruins of Rauheneck Castle and marked one of the most significant Biedermeier era buildings in Austria.
Tragically, Weilburg Palace was largely destroyed by fire in April 1945—likely set by retreating Wehrmacht troops, and extinguishing efforts were prevented by the advancing Red. The remaining ruins deteriorated and were eventually demolished in 1964, leaving only the reconstructed coat of arms (wappenstein) in the park, popularly known as the “Tombstone of Weilburg”.
Although the palace no longer exists, it was once celebrated as “a stone poem, an epic built by a hero”, a tribute to the former governor’s military legacy and deep affection for his wife
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German (Deutsch)
Das Weilburg Schloss war eine neoklassizistische Sommerresidenz in Baden bei Wien, errichtet zwischen 1820 und 1823 vom Architekten Joseph Kornhäusel. Es war ein Geschenk von Erzherzog Karl von Teschen an seine Gattin, Prinzessin Henriette von Nassau Weilburg. Mit einer Fassadenlänge von etwa 201 Metern zählte es zu den bedeutendsten Bauten im Biedermeierstil in Österreich und lag am Eingang des Helenentals gegenüber der Ruine Rauheneck.
Im April 1945 wurde das Schloss fast vollständig durch Feuer zerstört—vermutlich durch zurückziehende Wehrmachtseinheiten gelegt, und ein Löschversuch wurde durch die heranrückende Rote Armee verhindert. Die verbliebenen Ruinen zerfielen allmählich und wurden 1964 gesprengt, erhalten geblieben ist lediglich der rekonstruierte Wappenstein im Park, im Volksmund als „Grabstein der Weilburg“ bekannt
Früher wurde das Schloss bewundernd als „ein steinernes Gedicht, ein Epos, das ein Held erbaut“ beschrieben—eine Hommage an Karl als Feldherr und Liebender.
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Interesting Facts
•Architectural significance: Ranked among the largest and most important Neoclassical/Biedermeier palaces in Austria at its time.
•Symbolic Love: Erected as an expression of affection from Archduke Charles to Henrietta of Nassau Weilburg.
•Tragic End: Destroyed in WWII and completely demolished by the 1960s, with only the coat of arms enduring as a tangible connection to the past.
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•Croatian
•Dvorac Weilburg bio je neoklasična ljetna rezidencija u Badenu kod Beča, izgrađen između 1820. i 1823. godine prema nacrtima arhitekta Josepha Kornhäusela, a podigao ga je nadvojvoda Karlo Tesenski kao poklon svojoj supruzi, princezi Henrietti od Nassau Weilburga. S prekrasnim pročeljem duljine oko 201 metar, dvorac se uzdizao na ulazu u Helenental, nasuprot ruševinama dvorca Rauheneck, te je bio jedan od najznačajnijih Biedermeier građevina u Austriji.
•Nažalost, dvorac je gotovo potpuno uništen u travnju 1945., najvjerojatnije izazvan požarom koje su podmetnuli njemački vojnici pri povlačenju, a gašenje je onemogućeno dolaskom Crvene armije. Preostale ruševine propadale su sve dok nisu sravnjene sa zemljom 1964., a jedini spomenik koji je sačuvan jest rekonstruirani vapski kamen (wappenstein) u palačanskom parku, poznat kao “Grobnica Weilburga”.
•Kad je postavljen, dvorac je opisan kao „kamena poema, ep koji je izgradio junak“, što je bila počast vojnom naslijeđu nadvojvode i njegovoj ljubavi prema supruzi.
1184 R Baden Schloss Weilburg ~ 1888. , Le château de Weilburg en 1888 Das Schloss Weilburg, oder kurz: die Weilburg, war ein Schloss in Baden in Niederösterreich, an dessen Hauptgebäude nur noch ein Wappenstein an der Weilburgstraße in Baden erinnert.
The following other wikis use this file:
Usage on de.wikipedia.org
Maria Theresia von Österreich (1816–1867)
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schloss_Weilburg_(Baden)
Usage on en.wikipedia.org
Weilburg Palace
Usage on fr.wikipedia.org
Château de Weilburg (Baden)
Usage on nl.wikipedia.org
Weilburg (paleis)
Multilingual safety sign at the disused (but still officially open) Newhaven Marine station. 29th April 2009.
(Al-Thukair's guests) From right to left: Maurice Richard, Cartier's sales assistant, Yusuf Kanoo, Jacques Cartier, host Mugbil Al-Thukair, and an unknown guest at Al Thukair's house in Manama, according to Jacques Cartier's travel diary, this luncheon occurred before Cartier and his assistants, accompanied by their host Al-Thukair and his trusted friend Kanoo, who acted as an interpreter, paid a courtesy visit to the ruler of Bahrain, Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa (r. 1869-1932) on Muharraq island, the country's capital back then, on Thursday afternoon, 16 March 1912.
(In this luncheon, Cartier and his companions experienced traditional Arabian hospitality, typified by the customary dish of pot-roasted whole lamb known as ''Quzi'' stuffed with several well-cooked chickens, which in turn are stuffed with hard-boiled peeled eggs, blanched almonds, cashews, raisins, and black peppercorns, as the slow-roasted lamb marinated both inside and out with seasonings such as turmeric and cumin, served on top of a bed of saffron and cardamom rice infused with rose water and garnished with tender cooked dried chickpeas, golden raisins, blanched almonds and cashews, along with a variety of classic Bahraini dishes, including lamb and chicken stews, chickpea flour dumplings filled with lamb mince and dried prawns cooked in a savoury light tamarind sauce, and egg-battered flat round-shaped fried lean lamb Kofta seasoned with fine herbs and spices, among other mouthwatering delicacies)
The two long excerpts below are firsthand accounts of Jacques Cartier's visit to the Gulf in March of 1912, obtained from two separate letters written during his second extended Gulf exploratory pearl-purchasing trip, with Bahrain as the focal point, taken from a series of declassified British archival personal letters written by the Anglo-Irish Dublin-born Oxford-educated multilingual, multidiscipline journalist, linguist, political analyst, writer, editor and translator, Emily Overend Lorimer (1881-1949) to her parents, Thomas George Overend and Hannah Kingsbury the letters describe the lives of Emily and her husband, David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer (1876-1962) (referred to by the pet name 'Lock' in the said letters) when the couple were living in Bahrain from October 1911 until November 1912 during her civil servant husband's tenure as a British Political Agent, there is also a reference to Samuel Marinus Zwemer (1867-1952), the well-funded American missionary and internationally recognised legal and religious scholar, who arrived in Bahrain in December 1892 as a young missionary imbued with evangelistic zeal, he set out almost immediately after arrival with the establishment of a small clinic, dispensary, English school and Christian bookshop in a modest rented building by the sea in Manama, eventually leading up to the opening of the first fully-fledged modern hospital in Bahrain, the American Mission Hospital, and the first English school in the country on the 26th of January 1903, both were built on two nearby medium-sized separate plots of land purchased from the ruler of Bahrain, Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa (r. 1869-1932) and pearl merchant Abdulaziz Bin Hassan Algosaibi (1876-1953) in Manama, the former commercial capital and the bustling current political and commercial capital within a decade of his arrival in the tiny archipelago British protectorate regardless of the ulterior missionary motives behind their creation these institutions have played significant roles in improving the lives of Bahrainis to the present in particular in the pre-oil era nevertheless, it is worth noting that neither the hospital nor the school was intended to be philanthropic enterprises from the outset and this has remained the case ever since; in any case the Lorimer mentioned earlier should not be confused with his elder brother, civil servant John Gordon Lorimer (1870-1914) the esteemed diplomat and historian author of the declassified seminal encyclopaedic work "The Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia" who was also a colonial officer as his younger brother the noted linguist since the Scottish Lorimer family was renowned for producing numerous high-calibre civil servants who primarily served as colonial military officers and administrators, a clear testament to the dedication this family had to the British imperial enterprise and colonial service however, readers of these excerpts should be cognisant of the racist casual undertones and sentiments of their author and those of the other major Western characters involved in the amusing, gossipy, nonchalant and witty anecdotal events that Emily Lorimer is recounting whether tacitly or explicitly including Jacques Cartier, the young inquisitive self-assured French bourgeoisie jeweller with the keen anthropological eye who serves as the centrepiece of the excerpts, her reserved colonial officer husband David Lorimer and the Protestant theologian missionary Dr. Samuel Zwemer from the then racially segregated United States of America who was closely cooperating with British colonial authorities in Bahrain, the Arabian Gulf and Egypt on his so-called holy mission to civilise the wayward Muslims by preaching the true gospel of Jesus Christ to them in every way possible preferably through the printed word ultimately leading to the abandonment of their errant notion of monotheism and towards embracing the doctrine of the Trinity as manifested in Jesus Christ the son of God as their saviour and redeemer and her parents the recipients of these detailed letters, a clear reflection of the prevalent attitudes in Europe and the West as a whole towards non-white peoples of the Orient, Africa and other parts of the world who were predominantly living under the yoke of Western colonialism at the time when such attitudes were considered culturally normal and widely accepted among ordinary Westerners let alone among the colonial officer class, such as the Lorimers who intrinsically espoused colonial ideology in its purest form, an ideology theorised and promulgated by some of the most brilliant minds in modern Western thought, among them two of the greatest German philosophers Kant and Hegel, the French orientalist and Aryan racial theorist Renan, and the eminent French aristocratic imperialist politician and nationalist liberal thinker Tocqueville who advocated for the cultural assimilation of the Algerian people through invasive and passively abusive social engineering in a manner more brutal than typical of French colonialism, resulting in the death of well over a million Algerians from the start of the military invasion of Algeria in 1830 and throughout the subsequent long genocidal pacification of the sprawling spans of the Algerian terrain lasting until the turn of the twentieth century Algeria became legally part of France when it was officially annexed by the French National Assembly (Parliament) in 1848 with France thereafter seeing Algeria as a natural southern Mediterranean extension of itself, paving the way for over one and a half million French and European colonists to settle and cultivate the confiscated large swathes of Algeria's fertile arable plains alongside its long coastal area until the end of the occupation, thereupon hundreds of thousands of settlers fled the country in droves in the wake of the hard-won independence of Algeria in 1962 after one hundred and thirty-two years of settler colonial occupation following an eight-year bloody guerrilla war of independence starting in 1954 after nine years of uneasy abeyance as a result of the Sétif and Guelma punitive massacres these began shortly after the announcement of the end of World War Two on the 8th of May 1945 when tens of thousands of Algerians took to the streets in peaceful demonstrations celebrating the end of the war and calling for independence from France in the cities of Sétif and Guelma as Algeria was one of the major battlefields of the North African allies' campaign and instead of allowing demonstrators to proceed peacefully they were mown down in a hail of bullets when French police and colonial forces opened fire indiscriminately killing thousands, together with savage reprisals meted out against native villages by French and European settlers in the Algerian countryside so by the end of the bloody crackdown between fifty and seventy thousand natives lost their lives according to independent sources creating an irreconcilable rift between the Algerian people and colonial France, it was evident to the French and other worn-out European colonial powers that their days as colonial powers were numbered in the post-World War Two new bipolar world order where the real victors of the war, the United States of America and the Soviet Union were keen on liquidating European obsolete classical colonialism for their own ambitions of world dominance however, the French ferocity in dealing with the demonstrations illustrates the sacrosanct uniqueness of French Algeria in the collective French consciousness by juxtaposing the insignificance of Algerian lives to the inviolable French whose entire existence as people was to be in service of their French masters, sending a clear message to all concerned parties internally and externally of France's unwillingness to give up Algeria at any cost as an indivisible part of the French nation, setting it apart from any other colony in the French Colonial Empire, expressing the French unwavering resolve after the humiliating four-year German occupation of France during the war, in addition to being a stark rebel deterrent for the infantilised wayward natives who should be content with the status quo realities of French colonial rule as these massacres were preliminary exercises for future transgressions in the Algerian war of independence witnessing the so-called civilised French commit untold atrocities consisting of bombing villages, summary executions of combatants and civilians alike and systematic torture intended as a collective punishment for Algerians, whom the French had frequently portrayed patronisingly in official documents as ungrateful indolent capricious childlike barbaric Muslims, inherently monolithic in nature unwilling to adopt the auspicious civilising methods imparted to them by their highly civilised French colonisers, were also regurgitated in numerous French civilian narratives and reports throughout the colonial period further these degrading stereotypes, tropes and cliches were consistently invoked in French orientalist racist discourse in unison with the prevailing European orientalist discourse of the time despite contradictory accounts from the two opposing sides of the disproportionate armed struggle, Algerian death toll estimates of the conflict plausibly indicate more than one and a half million Algerians perished on the altar of freedom considering the French bloody track record since their first landing on Algerian soil in 1830 while the just Algerian armed independence struggle was officially branded as a terrorist insurrection against France by the French state and media but also by the vast majority of French people at the time whose prosperity had relied for generations on the extracted natural riches of their colonial Empire particularly after industrialisation in the mid-nineteenth century and on as with other European imperial powers, conspicuously Britain, the largest Empire in history and last but not least, the reactionary to a fault white supremacist French diplomat, scholar, anthropologist and aristocratic royalist Gobineau whose writings on Aryan racial supremacy became an inspirational beacon for his contemporary American white supremacist counterparts, to mention a few, in addition to prominent nineteenth-century English polymaths, biologist Thomas Huxley, Francis Galton, the father of eugenics and polymath philosopher Herbert Spencer as the trio utilised and co-opted the cutting-edge scientific revolution in natural biology, the Malthusian theory of population, attributed to influential English economist Thomas Malthus, and the groundbreaking evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, coupled with the pseudo-science of scientific racism falsely informed via the prevalence of human comparative Craniometry measurements embraced and disseminated by several Western thinkers and scientists to various extents, giving rise to the development and circulation of the coined term "Social Darwinism" in Britain in the 1870s soon percolating throughout Europe and the rest of the Western world including the United States to rationalise the frantic unyielding concurrent European colonial rush and in many cases the enslavement and genocide of tens of millions of native populations in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australia at the peak of European global colonial expansion, one of the best examples of this colonial rapacity is the louche "Opium Wars," when Britain at last succeeded in tipping the long-contentious issue of the trade imbalance with China in its favour by the devious, unethical state-sponsored trafficking of industrially processed mass-produced Indian-grown opium to China via the stupendous opium factories and warehouses of the piracy-rooted origins of the far-reaching long colonial arm of the British East India Company, with disastrous repercussions for tens of millions of Chinese, resulting in two uneven wars in which the pre-industrial self-isolated and proud old China was humiliatingly routed by the modern technologically advanced industrial Britain in the first between 1839-1842 and later by the combined might of Europe's two major maritime powers, Britain and France, in the second between 1856-1860 leaving an indelible mark on the Chinese collective psyche to the present, concurrently, a malevolent uniquely British Ménage à Trois of Social Darwinism, Malthusian economics and free market dynamics was formulating in the minds of the British ruling class, gradually becoming part and parcel of their worldview, demonstrating the profound influence of these ideas on broad sectors of the public schooled Oxbridge-educated British ruling elite back then, where they were regarded as widely held axioms and what a better place to put these ideas into practice than the heavily populated British India, the jewel in the crown of the British Empire in the second half of the nineteenth century during a series of famines that hit India claiming the lives of nearly thirty million people as a result of natural environmental and manmade causes, the latter are mostly attributed to the self-serving highly specialised cash crop agricultural policies of the British Raj government as these cash crops, namely sugarcane, cotton, rice, wheat, indigo and jute, were mainly intended for export to Britain and its global Empire, North America and the rest of the world, putting an end to thousands of years of indigenous agricultural diversity in India, to the detriment of ordinary Indians, especially amid one of the worst purposefully concealed famines in Indian history, the devastating Great Indian Famine between 1876 and 1878 coinciding with the start of the tenure of the ruthless Social Darwinian poet and diplomat Lord Lytton (1831-1891) who served as Viceroy (The Governor-General of India) from 1876 to 1880 and whose insensate handling of the famine could not be more revealing than in his unapologetic statements of complete disregard and dismissal of calls to alleviate the suffering of millions of starving Indians, exhibiting a glaringly shocking colonial sense of entitlement, for Lytton a quintessentially imperialist byproduct of Britain's fully developed industrial revolution overwhelming free market capitalism in the second half of the nineteenth century any form of intervention would be an attempt to derail the natural order of things through the basic evolutionary mechanisms of natural selection by displaying irrational sympathies towards expandable racially inferior overbreeding peasants, of course from a Malthusian-Darwinian dynamic economic perspective, however in a sardonic twist of fate while millions of Indians were dying of starvation, Viceroy Lytton and British Raj state officials were up to their ears in overseeing the undertaking of the colossal "Delhi Durbar" (lit. "Court of Delhi") possibly one of the largest formal banqueting celebratory parties in recorded history where over sixty thousand Indian guests from the highest echelons of the British Raj society were served the best foods and beverages the British Empire had to offer in an extraordinary feat of refined catering beginning on the 1st of January 1877 and lasting for a whole week, this lavish pomp and circumstance celebration was organised to proclaim Queen Victoria as Empress of India and as a stunning tribute to British imperial power in India, the centrepiece of the British Empire, nearly twenty years after quashing the great Indian rebellion of 1857 and less than three years after the dissolution of the odious East India Company in 1874 where Lord Lytton as Viceroy (representative of the British sovereign) seated on his lofty throne basking superciliously in an air of impervious imperial confidence, presided over the event receiving homage from Indian princes and maharajahs representing the Princely states of India on behalf of the Queen as the newly crowned absent overseas Empress of India, succeeding the majestic centuries-old Indian Mughal Emperors, underscoring the status of Britain as the undisputed world power in the second half of the nineteenth century arguably Lord Lytton's actions, or more accurately, inactions, may have contributed to the deaths of about ten million Indians in less than two years, given that these terrible events were a small part of the global European colonial expansion which intensified in the second half of the eighteenth century and continued sporadically in force until the early part of the twentieth century in the aftermath of the First World War and the division of the near-eastern legacy of the vanquished Ottoman Turkish Empire in the secret 1916 infamous Anglo-French Sykes-Picot Agreement, with the consent of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in exchange for a share of the Anatolian spoils, especially for the Russians who had been yearning for a sea outlet on the Mediterranean since the reign of Tsar Peter the Great (1672-1725) but were thwarted by the ignominious defeat of their Pré-industrial feudal Russian Empire in the Crimean War (1853-56) at the hands of the technologically and socially advanced industrial powers of Britain and France, thereby finally resolving the "Eastern question" of the feeble Ottoman Empire, the "Sick Man of Europe" once and for all, however, the Russian popular revolution in March 1917 and the subsequent Bolshevik coup in October of the same year altered the primarily Anglo-French Sykes-Picot Agreement by reneging on the British and French allies' promises to Tsarist Russia, refusing to grant the new revolutionary hostile communist regime in Russia the previously agreed-upon Anatolian access to the Mediterranean anyhow, the Anatolian section of this secret agreement did not see the light of day due to the valiant efforts of the Turkish national military commander and World War One military hero and statesman, the father of the Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938) (it should be noted that Mustafa Kemal was conferred with the revered surname "Atatürk" or "Father of the Turks" by the Turkish parliament in 1934 for his monumental role in foiling the Western allies' insidious plans for the Turkish people), leading the remnants of the Ottoman imperial army to victory over the Western allies, despite the fact that Western colonial expansion reached its zenith with the Sykes-Picot Agreement, the industrial West's incessant need for raw materials of all sorts has continued unabated in varying forms from subtle to insidious to outwardly aggressive as evidenced by Western efforts to undermine any attempts at economic independence by some of the postcolonial non-corrupt patriotic regimes in Africa, Asia and other parts of the world by fomenting societal unrest and political instability using covert subversive operations fronted by loyalist local actors, prolonged debilitating economic sanctions and a series of staged mostly bloody military coups in Latin America, Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia from the second half of the twentieth century to the present, such as Iran in 1953, Guatemala in 1954, the Congo in 1960, and Chile in 1973, to name a few and in some cases direct military interventions, as the Suez crisis of 1956, and the more recent unprovoked catastrophic invasion of Iraq in 2003, this Western gluttony for natural resources was the impetus for the surge of Western colonialism in the second half of the eighteenth century to fuel the burgeoning under way industrial revolution in Europe, principally in Britain the first modern industrial capitalist economy in the world, followed gradually but surely in industrialisation in subsequent decades by the other continental European nations of France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Austria and backward Russia, in addition to the newly formed nations of Germany and Italy, among others, succeeded by the resources-rich United States of America on the other side of the Atlantic in the second half of the nineteenth century which would continue in a more potent force throughout the ever-changing socioeconomic landscape of the early unregulated labour market, characterised by the harsh and exploitative working and living conditions of unfettered industrial capitalism, as child labour was a common and abhorrent practice in all major Western industrial nations, where children as young as three were employed in low-paying, often dangerous jobs, this situation was exacerbated by the severe societal implications of increasing technological advancements in mechanisation within industrial workplaces from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth centuries, setting the stage for the gradual implementation of the foundational great ideas of the rationalist philosophy of Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, Leibniz, and Locke and its more concrete and practical successor thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment decidedly Voltaire, Hume, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau and Kant immensely influencing the highly learned founding fathers of the United States of America, chiefly Jefferson, Franklin, Adams and Madison as the first three were members of the committee of five that drafted the United States Declaration of Independence on the 4th of July 1776 leading to the independence of the united principal thirteen colonies from Britain on the 3rd of September 1783 after seven years of a ferocious revolutionary war of independence against the might of the British Empire, meanwhile forging a distinct American Protestant Anglo-Saxon English speaking white identity in its wake, excluding Native Americans entirely from the white mainstay of the nascent republic who would be displaced from their expansive lands in the Midwest of the United States of America more aggressively than before and, to a great extent, exterminated in their millions in the following century as an annoying obstacle standing in the path of the divinely preordained "Manifest Destiny" of the English-speaking Old Testament Protestant-steeped racially indoctrinated gun-toting Pacific westward expanding white American settlers on their long horse-hauled rickety waggon trains, epitomised in the famous mid-nineteenth-century proverb, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian" driving the vast majority of natives to the brink of extinction as a nation where they would end up on the out-of-sight fringes of America, in a few designated secluded economically deprived reservation pockets akin to those of endangered species and, to a lesser degree, the forcefully converted to Christianity African emancipated slaves who were both pagan and Muslim in their African homeland prior to being sold into chattel slavery in America who suffered beyond measure from the moment of bondage in Africa through the abominable conditions of the high mortality slave trade flagrant middle Atlantic passage journeys of unimaginable cruelty on the special purpose slave ships where human beings of all genders and ages were shackled and stacked as inanimate goods without the ability to move or relieve themselves as the dead were disposed of at sea with the survivors embarking on a lifelong of servitude and for almost a century of limited emancipation after the end of the American Civil War under Jim Crow enforced racial segregation laws whereas whites frequently used various intimidation methods of terror to instil fear in the hearts of African Americans most commonly through the extrajudicial killing of grisly mob lynchings (public hangings) spectacles intentionally staged for large crowds of spectators including children where souvenir mementos of the victims were taken as well as photographs, sometimes professionally taken and collected as postcards as these macabre tactics were meant as a form of subjugation and deterrence to prevent former slaves and their African American descendants from demanding equal rights, with the American Anglo-Saxon whites as previously stated, regarding themselves as the godly chosen people with the sole right to populate the promised land of the entire North American continent passed down to them from the first devout Calvinist Protestant Puritan English settlers in the New England colonies during the Jacobean and Caroline eras of the sixteenth century as a divinely sanctioned Manifest Destiny, not dissimilar to how the Israelites viewed Canaan in the Old Testament until the end of legal segregation in 1964 and the granting of voting rights the following year despite this the majority of African Americans remain a disenfranchised racial minority to this day, with the spectre of law enforcement violence looming over their heads, replacing the preceding common old tactics of white mob violence of white terror supremacy organisations such as the Ku Klux Klan to maintain white racial and economic hegemony for as long as possible while those momentous events of the American Revolution were taking place on the other side of the Atlantic, the French monarchy under the ineffective and weak Louis XVI and his equally inept unfairly demonised consort Queen Marie Antoinette, was rushing to exact revenge on the British by supporting the American revolutionary government in full strength militarily and financially, in its republican democratic struggle to achieve independence from France's imperial adversary Britain, even though it was in diametric opposition to the French absolutist monarchy political doctrine as it was part of the traditional age-long protracted Anglo-French animosity and world dominance rivalry particularly after the Seven Years' War which the French decisively lost to the British, resulting in France ceding most of its North American colonies to Britain, making Britain the unequalled world naval superpower for the better part of the next two centuries, putting insurmountable pressure on the already exhausted French economy owing to the crushing defeat of the Seven Years' War over a quarter century earlier, contestably the first war on a global scale, financially bankrupting France in the process, compounded by the chronic wealth inequality of the French absolutist monarchy's mediaeval feudal three-estate system, helmed by the aloof and typically unsympathetic uncompromising aristocratic nobility who lived self-absorbed decadent and parasitic idle lives in their rural opulent châteaux, a far cry from the mostly impoverished lives of the peasants working on their extensive lands, causing widespread discontent among the toiling peasants who comprised the vast majority of the rapidly growing French population along with the expanding self-made energetic urban dwelling bourgeoisie middle-classes who were trying to carve out a niche for themselves in eighteenth-century France whose salon culture was one of the primary sources for the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas among the young educated bourgeoisie and reformist elements within the old aristocracy as those salons were originally incepted by the aristocracy to fulfil their cultural recreational needs before being taken over by the emerging bourgeoisie as a clear expression of the acute awareness of their self-important new socioeconomic position in society in contrast to the landed aristocracy who traditionally acquired their inherited wealth and titles through royal favour and patronage of considerable land grants for their allegiance via rendering a sundry of services to the sovereign as the rest of Europe then including military services in some instances dating back to mediaeval times interestingly the tremendous success of the American Revolution's principles of republican democracy across the Atlantic which the French monarchy unwittingly supported sowed the seeds of revolution among notable French figures from the bourgeoisie and aristocracy alike who cooperated with their American revolutionary counterparts indirectly through being assigned as part of the French military assistance to the American revolution leading to its triumph in 1783 in the restive five years preceding the official outbreak of the French Revolution on the 5th of May 1789 as attested by the participation of two giant revolutionary figures from both sides of the Atlantic, the scholarly Thomas Jefferson, one of the founding fathers of the United States of America and its third president and the Marquis de Lafayette, the French aristocratic military commander and highly respected revolutionary in the formulation of "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" on the 26th of August 1789 followed by a number of key historic milestones most significantly the abolition of slavery in the French colonies on the 4th of February 1794 and also in the adoption of secularism principles of separation of state and church and the dissolution of feudalism inspired by the Age of Reason ideas of Voltaire, Locke and Rousseau as opposed to the symbiotic association reactionary French Catholic Church's, theological doctrine advocating the legitimacy of the divine right of Kings, contradicting Locke's and Rousseau's social contract theory and Montesquieu's conclusive theory of the separation of powers in government which was enthusiastically applied as the pivotal foundation of the revolutionary founding fathers of the United States of America's fledgling democracy and was conducive to democratic proliferation in the West at large and the unfolding of abolitionism in the early nineteenth century and inevitably the rest of the world as well as the emergence of the great progressive socialist ideas of utopian socialism represented by its most prominent proponents Saint-Simon (1760-1825), Fourier (1772-1837) and Owen (1771-1858) and the more comprehensive, highly developed and practically applicable socialist theories of their successors Karl Marx (1818-1883) and his close friend Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) and yet despite all of this as centuries of European colonialism, enslavement and genocide of non-white peoples since the Christian devout Columbus and his brutal conquistador holy warrior successors enslaved and exterminated Central and South American Indigenous peoples ostensibly in the name of Christianity, those conquistadors and the state's official Spanish Catholic clergy for the most part dehumanised and treated Indigenous natives as nonhuman animal-like beasts of burden or at best, heathen primitive savages as their French and British successors would in the following centuries in North America intertwined with the generational condensed accumulation of distinctly Franco-Germanic European racist thought in the West significantly reinforced the falsely vindicated rampant white racial supremacy hypothesis mainly during the scramble for Africa and the mass exploitation of the natural resources of the hitherto unexplored interior of the immense continent following the ill-boding Berlin conference of 1884-1885 to officially partition Africa between Western powers, initiating grotesquely unheard-of levels of atrocities of senseless cruelty in the Congo River basin by Leopold II (r. 1865-1909) of Belgium's ruthless voracious greed in plundering the untapped abundant natural riches of his massive central African privately owned dominion by giving it the ridiculously ironic euphemistic name "The Congo Free State" under the spurious ruse of bringing Western civilisation and modernity to the allegedly primitive savages of the African hinterlands through Christian missionary work and the purported stamping out of local indigenous African slavery controlled by local leaders and chieftains in collaboration with Arab slave traders from the East African coast, Leopold was given free rein with the implicit approval of the major Western powers at the said conference who benefited the most from this scandalous arrangement where Leopold II transformed it into the largest privately held slave colony in modern history complete with its own private murderous mercenary army "Force Publique" (Public Force) with Leopold remaining its legally designated sole owner from 1885 to 1908 a year before his death when he finally considered loosening his tenacious grip on his African fiefdom in the face of mounting international pressure, owing to the undeniable harrowing photographic evidence of the ongoing Congolese genocide victims' charred human remains and the mutilated living survivors with dismembered mangled limbs including those of young children, brought to the fore in numerous press reports and various other official reports, namely the decisive Casement British report of 1904 as the severity of the report was instrumental in Leopold II's relinquishing control of the Congo paradoxically this grisly chapter of Congolese colonial history became a veritably shameful embarrassment to other European colonial powers particularly Britain; it was even immortalised in literature in the lauded semi-autobiographical novella "Heart of Darkness" by Polish-English novelist Joseph Conrad, hailed ever since as an early anticolonial modernist masterpiece, all the while when these reports began to surface, the population of the Congo was declining at an alarming rate from approximately twenty million prior to Leopold II's Congo blithe appropriation to around eight million by the time of his death at which point he was understandably the richest man in the world, it was obvious by democratic Western standards at the turn of the twentieth century that it was untenable for a monarch of a constitutional parliamentary European monarchy to retain an overseas bloodstained, immensely lucrative private colony of such vast expanse he had never visited in his life, so he reluctantly ceded its ownership to the Belgian government, to become known henceforth as the Belgian Congo until its independence in 1960 aside from the arrival on the African scene of a slew of staunchly imperialist adventurous fortune-seeking explorers, such as Leopold II of Belgium's African agent, the Welsh-American Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904) who claimed the huge Congo basin region as private property for the Belgian king, the wily Italian-French Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza (1852-1905) the French colonialist founder of the city of Brazzaville (named after its colonialist founder) the capital of the French Congo (Republic of the Congo) and the controversial Oxford-educated British-born maverick imperialist industrious businessman and South African politician Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) where he was involved through his British South Africa Company in founding the southern African territory of Rhodesia which bore his name (now Zimbabwe and Zambia) and also founded the internationally famous De Beers Diamond Consortium in South Africa in 1888 the largest diamond company in the world until the early twenty-first century and to some arguably the architect of the notorious institutionalised system of racism "Apartheid" a modern reinvention of slavery in South Africa, underpinning existing forms of racial segregation since the late eighteenth century in the country, one of several milder similar variances in other European-controlled parts of the world after the abolition of colour-based slavery in the West but his most enduring legacy is the reputable Oxford Rhodes postgraduate scholarship as many Rhodes Scholars have gone on to become heads of state, heads of government, or distinguished in their respective fields, moreover as for the Germans who were among the newcomers on the global imperial stage, as their similarly brutal Belgians and Italians, under the direct orders of the German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918) the German Empire committed appalling atrocities in Africa, in line with its other Western counterparts around the globe, specifically the 1904-1908 "Herero and Namaqua genocide" the first ethnic genocide in the twentieth century intended as a form of collective punishment and ethnic extermination for the Herero and Namaqua peoples of German South West Africa (present-day Republic of Namibia) for their insurgency against German settler-colonial rule which subjected them to intolerable relentless pressure for nearly two decades to wrest control of their arable agricultural lands, pastoral grounds and water resources, coupled with a viciously disproportionate racially discriminatory judicial system, leaving them with little choice but to rise up against their German colonial overlords since the Germans first set foot in Namibia in 1884 as part of their newly carved large oversees Empire in Africa as a consequence of the earlier alluded to Berlin conference of 1884 under the astute tutelage of master statesman Imperial German "Iron Chancellor" Otto Von Bismarck, the armed uprising represented a golden opportunity for the Germans to implement "Lebensraum" or "living space" to create a living space for the superior German people to thrive and prosper to the detriment of lesser races, an inspired distortion of Darwin's survival of the fittest theory, coined and popularised by the German geographer and ethnographer Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904) who introduced concepts contributing to Lebensraum and Social Darwinism, Ratzel's theories would become an integral component of Nazi ideology in the two decades following his death, in particular with regard to the predominantly Slavic-populated Eastern Europe as German South West Africa became a testing ground for all of these various forms of racist theories, a mishmash of Lebensraum, scientific racism, eugenics and ableism, emerged principally engendered by Darwin's seminal game-changing theory of evolution as this theory became the gift that keeps on giving to all Western European colonial powers including Tsarist Eurasian Imperial Russia, with ramifications reaching to the present in some Western academic circles in a quest to subtly justify white racial hegemony over other races as part of the German imperial authorities' attempt to permanently resolve the vexing issue of a racially inferior African population therefore following the inevitable conclusion of the grossly asymmetrical conflict, influenced by breakthroughs in biology, notably Darwin's evolutionary theory and the apathetic determinism of its evil spawn "Social Darwinism" as previously referred to, German imperial colonial authorities saw it as an invaluable platform for German doctors and scientists to test hitherto untested pseudo-scientific racial theories on living human beings for the first time where deadly medical experiments on expendable resistance prisoner fighters and their families were carried out in the Shark Island concentration camp, the first death camp of its kind in the world by a select team of doctors under the direct supervision of celebrated professor of medicine, anthropology and eugenics, Eugen Fischer (1874-1967) an ardent future member of the Nazi party (acronym for the National Socialist German Workers' Party) and one of the main influencers of Hitler on Germanic racial superiority as clearly manifested in Hitler's manifesto Mein Kampf (My Struggle) with a special focus on Fischer's role in studying the mixed-race offspring "Basters" (a derogatory Dutch term for mixed-race Afrikaners) of early German and Boer (Dutch) settlers to highlight the risks of interbreeding with perceived inferior races, pushing for the sterilisation of their progeny to avert the transmission of undesirable traits to future generations as these proposals regarding the prohibition of interracial unions, euthanasia of the handicapped, mentally ill and sterilisation of racial inferiors would form the basis of the Nuremberg race laws in 1935 as would the deliberate starvation to death of the non-combatant civilian population including children in the arid Namib coastal desert by denying them access to drinking water on the direct orders of extermination by General von Trotha, on top of working many others to death as forced labour, encompassing men, women and children as young as six in public works projects such as railway construction and so on, the fortunate few thousand survivors were offered up as slaves to German settlers on the confiscated lands of the enslaved themselves as this horrific and until the early twenty-first century remained deliberately obscured, premeditated genocide in Africa served as a rough draft precursor to the colossal Nazi atrocities of death camps monstrosities a quarter-century later, conducted by Fischer's and his African team colleagues' apt students, such as the exonerated of war crimes due to a lack of evidence Otmar Freiherr von (Baron of) Verschuer (1896-1969) the human biologist and eminent geneticist and the Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Münster until his retirement in 1965 and the close mentor to the fiendish young Nazi ideologue physician Dr. Josef Mengele (1911-1979) who was given the appellation "Angel of Death" by his victims as the unrepentant Mengele was one of a handful of senior Nazi war criminals who managed to evade justice for the remainder of their lives, similar yet far less publicised ethnic cleansing atrocities were committed by both the Kingdom of Italy at the onset of the Italian colonial invasion of Libya in October 1911 and Mussolini's subsequent brutal Fascist settler colonialism in Libya where nearly all of the Libyan urban population of the five major Libyan urban centres along with their livestock were forcibly displaced to sixteen massive death camps in the Libyan desert to be starved to death in just one of these documented genocidal operations from 1929 to 1934 almost seventy thousand Libyans perished as these camps served as another source of inspiration and a prelude for the German Nazis' dreadful concentration camps, in addition to Germany's own previously mentioned African imperial experience, many in the West still tentatively perceive Italian fascism as moderately less dogmatic in comparison to the horrors of German Nazism, most likely owing to the fact that the majority of Italian Fascist victims were North African Arabs and Ethiopians fortunately for the Libyans these genocidal operations ended in 1943 with the Axis's North African defeat in World War Two, ending thirty-two years of Italian settler colonial occupation during which the Libyan population was reduced from around one and a half million prior to 1911 to less than half in 1943 as it was quite plausible for the Fascist dictatorship of Mussolini to endure with the undeclared acquiescence and cooperation of the American-led capitalist liberal democratic West had Italy remained neutral as Franco's Spain, with fascism acting as a necessary evil bulwark against Soviet communism by staving off the powerful Italian left, analogous to that of Spain, from democratically gaining power through tyranny and oppression under the pretext of the ensuing Cold War, while Mussolini's genocidal demographic replacement plans for Libya would have been fully realised, with Libya becoming a southern Mediterranean extension of Italy, with at least fifteen million Italian settlers replacing the decimated Indigenous population thus as referred to earlier, over four centuries of European overseas colonialism, racial slavery and genocide in the Americas, Asia, Australia and Africa, aided by apologetic reasoning, apathetic pragmatic rational thought, scientific racism pseudo-science and eugenics and in earlier cases Christian religious justifications, as Western imperialist powers employed these justifications on multiple occasions to lend meaning to their largely insatiable imperialist projects and in other instances to assuage their gnawing consciences, forging the catalyst that paved the way for the emergence of German Nazi Aryan racist ideology in the aftermath of World War One, German defeat and the humiliating Treaty of Versailles by giving rise to the rowdy racially suffused polemics of the charismatic insubstantial Austrian corporal demagogue Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) and his cohorts, a multifaceted Fascist totalitarian ideology affecting the lives of everyone living under its scourge, resulting in the unleashing of atrocities of unparalleled proportions, reflecting the unique vile extremism of this spartan-like militaristic ableist racial hierarchical ideology by perfecting the callous technology of mass murder embodied in the state-of-the-art, highly methodical and extremely efficient Nazi concentration and death camp killing machine apparatus of the gruesome gas chamber and crematorium ovens, along with the mostly lethal medical human experiments on prisoners of all ages and genders, in tandem with extermination by starvation of prisoners, the Nazis were able to massacre more than twenty million people, roughly six million of whom were European Jews, in what became known as "The Jewish Holocaust" or the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" a crime exemplifying the centuries-long deep-seated anti-Semitism in Europe and across the Christian West in general from the time of Constantine the Great (r. 306-337) the first Christian Roman Emperor, until Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-395) made Christianity the only official religion of the Empire in the year 380 AD onwards, to the mediaeval period when Jewish people in Christian Europe were viewed with suspicion as interloping enemies of Jesus Christ these sentiments reached their highest point during the Crusades where entire Jewish communities were wiped out and their properties and valuables looted and confiscated in England, France and Germany and also as fair game easy targets in the Balkans for the self-proclaimed holy Christian warriors on their way to the Levant and the Biblical Holy Land in the east before facing the Saracen (Muslim) enemy, while Jews suffered the most in both England and France under the tacit orders of Richard I (r. 1189-1199) known as Richard the Lionheart of England and his cousin Philip II (r. 1180-1223) of France, both Kings were motivated by expediency rather than religious zealotry in dealing with their respective mounting fiscal crises, specifically the French monarch who targeted defenceless French Jews for their material wealth under the guise of religion by rallying unruly mobs of his Christian subjects as in England against their fellow Jewish neighbours who were designated as a non-citizen restricted special status community using Christian traditional anti-Jewish polemic tropes despite these horrendous events, the English Jewish community continued to exist and prosper, albeit in smaller numbers, for another century until another unscrupulous warrior Crusader king, Edward I, byname Edward Longshanks (r. 1272-1307) came along in the final stages of the Crusades and issued an edict of expulsion on the 18th of July 1290 expelling all Jews from the Kingdom of England and sequestering all of their property, the plight of English Jews could not have been more aptly symbolised than by its tragic conclusion whereby a chartered ship laden with valuables belonging to wealthy Jews was craftily seized by its English captain at the behest of the King leaving the Jewish passengers stranded at low tide at the mouth of the river Thames estuary to drown once high tide arrived, it would take almost four centuries for Jews to be allowed back into England under Cromwell's fanatical Puritan Old Testament-inspired ascetic commonwealth dictatorship in 1657 and two centuries after their expulsion from England another tragedy awaited them when Granada the last Muslim Kingdom in Iberia, fell to the Catholic Castilians in 1492 both Muslims and Jews became the target of merciless terror under the newly established Spanish Inquisition in 1478 by the officially devoutly married Catholic joint sovereigns of their respective kingdoms, Monarchs Ferdinand II King of Aragon and Isabella I Queen Regnant of Castile whose marriage union in 1469 resulted in the birth of the last major political and territorial union in the Iberian Peninsula since Visigothic Spain in 1479 and in their quest to establish a socially and religiously homogeneous national identity in the newly united Catholic Spanish Kingdom after the removal of the last tolerant Andalusian multicultural multi-ethnic Arab Muslim polity hurdle represented by the culturally vibrant centre of learning of the Kingdom of Granada, effectively ending nearly eight centuries of "Dhimmi" (people of the covenant or the book) Islamic jurisdiction where Christians, Jews and other minorities lived in relative harmonious peace with very little friction under Muslim jurisprudence protection by unleashing an unmatched systematic wave of persecution by the Inquisition court as hundreds of thousands of Muslim and Jewish Spaniards were forced to convert to Catholicism over the next two centuries and an equal number fled for their lives to North Africa and Ottoman-held territories, with some Jews opting to flee to the more tolerant progressive protestant Dutch Republic after it declared independence from the Spanish Empire in 1581 and last but not least the recurring pogroms (massacres in Russian) of Jews in the Russian Empire from the early nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries, accumulating about sixteen centuries of virulent anti-Semitism in Christian Europe's collective consciousness, engendering this inveterate hatred for Jews to reveal itself in myriads of ways throughout all Nazi-occupied Europe where most of those occupied European countries witnessed some level of complicity with the Nazis in facilitating and perpetrating the heinous crime of the Holocaust genocide of nearly six million Jews by some of the local officials and ordinary citizens alike acting of their own free will, without being enticed by materialistic monetary reward or subjected to duress as in Vichy Fascist France under Marshal Petain, Romania under Antonescu's military dictatorship and Hungary, accompanied by more than fourteen million other victims who were largely overlooked, forgotten and unaccounted for until recently, merely treated as a collateral footnote in history, consisting of an amalgamation of disparate peoples, many of whom the Nazis considered racial inferiors, as Romani people (Roma Gypsies), Slavs, mixed-race Germans, or those with severe physical disabilities, chronic mental illnesses, carriers of hereditary diseases and anyone else who defied Nazi ideology, for example political opponents, intellectuals and others regardless of racial background, or was deemed incompatible with the Nazis' exceedingly narrow and dull uniform exclusionary vision of the world, a brutal conflagration villainy on an unprecedented industrial scale, utilising all of Germany's advanced technological and industrial capabilities to its nefarious goals beginning soon after the ominous Nazi party with its feared paramilitary divisions the SA and SS, hijacked power to which it was elected in free democratic elections in the midst of Germany's quite hard-hitting remorseless economic throes of the Great Depression in 1933, transforming Germany into a despotic one-party state dictatorship led by the self-proclaimed Führer (Leader) Adolf Hitler with a personality-worshipping cult dedicated to him as an infallible leader, lasting until the end of the Second World War and the unlamented downfall of the Third Reich in 1945, it is important to bear in mind that had Nazi Germany won the war the world as we know it today would have been unrecognisable, with meticulously selected fair-haired fair-skinned Germanic European Aryans as the dominant master race, leading inexorably to the steady systematic enslavement and annihilation of all other human races on the planet, ironically it took tens of millions of deaths mostly of white Europeans by the Nazis, for scientific racism and eugenics to fade from popular consciousness in the West furthermore the Emily Lorimer letters provide a glimpse into the mindset of some of the highly educated middle-class members of both genders of the rapidly growing socially mobile industrialised British society particularly women, in pre-World War One as some of these well-educated but partially enfranchised restless women became involved to varying degrees in women's emancipation activism initially in the less successful decades-long struggle of the miscellaneous peaceful women's suffrage movements since the first woman suffrage committee saw the light in Manchester in 1865 and later in its more successful radically violent militant famous offshoot the suffragette movement, founded and led in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) and her shrewd organisationally skilled 23-year-old daughter Christabel as those movements and their numerous splintered groups collectively fought for the inalienable equal right of women to vote in public elections, until it finally bore fruit in the aftermath of the First World War through consecutive acts of Parliament in 1918 and 1928 after the enormous sacrifices made by the staunch and courageous suffragist heroines, ranging from being verbally abused, physically roughed up and sexually assaulted by police during demonstrations to imprisonment, hunger strikes and the mounting to torture cruel response of police authorities forcefully feeding female imprisoned hunger strikers and for some even paying with their lives to advance such a noble cause as the iron-willed and highly committed Emily Davison (1872-1913) the first martyr of the movement, though not the conservative intransigent British imperialist ideologue well-off empowered woman, Emily Lorimer who unsurprisingly was adamantly opposed to granting women the vote, deeming such a move as a subversive attempt against the traditional ruling establishment as was her legendary contemporary the solitary, steely, upper-class, conventional gender role-challenging and perhaps the first stalwart heroine of the British Empire in modern times, Gertrude Bell (1868-1926) a fierce opponent of British female suffrage and emancipation the multifaceted, remarkably industrious, Oxford-educated, highly empowered, extremely privileged Arabist political and intelligence officer, administrator, and grand and military strategist, to name a few of her many preoccupations and interests, and the de facto ruler of Iraq until her sudden most likely suicide drug-induced death after being informally delegated to her by Iraq's High Commissioner Percy Cox an admirer of her who held her wise judgement in high regard, ruling the country via her formal position as the advisor and mentor to the newly British-appointed Hashemite King of Iraq Faisal I in 1921 who was under her total tutelage wielding immense power and influence through him as the real power behind the throne and thus garnering such status among the Iraqi elite that she was given the Turkic female honorary title "Al-Khatun" (The Queen) strikingly she was the first female to hold such positions within the merit-based male-dominated British administrative system including the army, Bell unexpectedly became a champion of women's rights in Iraq, playing an important role in the enfranchisement of Iraqi women by lending her support to already existing local Iraqi women's emancipation initiatives in accordance with the forcibly imposed British colonial grafting process policy in the colonies once the necessity arose to apply urgent reforms to create needed stability as in Bahrain and also to establish an Indigenous popular power base for Britain among marginalised Iraqi women and liberal educated Iraqi elites particularly in Baghdad and other urban centres following the partial granting of the vote to British women in 1918 not to mention her significant contribution to the successful execution of the inextricably linked Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Balfour Declaration on the ground, against her justified reservations on the latter begetting future geopolitical tumultuous changes with unremitting disastrous consequences for the peoples of the region until now at the 1921 Cairo conference, alongside T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), Herbert Samuel, Percy Cox, Field Marshal Allenby, among others along with the aristocratic resolute colonialist Winston Churchill who masterminded, convened and chaired the conference as the then colonial secretary, other than her above-mentioned anti-suffrage stance, Emily Lorimer was naturally opposed to Arab independence despite her fondness for Arabic literature and language as a British imperialist advocate and the wife of a colonial officer, she firmly believed in the British Empire as a benevolent global force for good, a provider of civilisation and modernity as was the case with other European colonial powers in a world riddled with ignorance and backwardness to say the least as one would expect from a Eurocentric perspective back then, giving Arabs independence was an unthinkable travesty and even more so to a limited form of Irish self-government, falling short of full independence for the freedom-hungry Irish people who had endured in excess of seven centuries of foreign Anglo-British oppressive feudal exploitation since the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 until independence from Britain in 1922 a relentlessly demeaning and humiliating discriminatory colonial and partially settler multi-layered occupation where the Irish had to bear the brunt of the cultural and socioeconomic changes and upheavals occurring in their English overlords' homeland throughout the long occupation, most notably the so-called "Tudor conquest of Ireland" during the volatile and violent Tudor epoch of Henry VIII's (r. 1509-1547) dramatic religious cataclysms of English reformation and those of his fickle Tudor successors' sixteenth century English monarchs particularly his religiously opposing daughters and equally ruthless half-sisters Mary I (r. 1553-1558) the short reigning devotedly raised Catholic dubbed "Bloody Mary" for her persecution of English Protestants and Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) the strong independent-minded, highly intelligent, multilingual, unwed, long reigning Protestant the founder of the maritime piracy-based English Empire what would become known more than a century later in the early eighteenth century as the British Empire, Cromwell's grim Puritan Anti-Catholic draconian conquest of Catholic Ireland and culminating in the partly British-incurred and exacerbated devastating Great Famine also known as the Irish Potato Famine which occurred from 1845 to 1852 due to the unbridled, industrial liberal-driven free market economics of the British ruling liberal (Whig) party cabinet in the mid-nineteenth century, Britain treated the famine afflicting their colonised Catholic white Gaelic Irish neighbours no differently than the series of famines that struck their brown Indian counterparts thousands of kilometres away in the earlier part of the nineteenth century where the British were equally just in being unjust in their indignities towards both colonised peoples, with the only advantage the Irish had was an escape route through the Atlantic since the Biblical-like seven-year Irish famine resulted in over a million fatalities and nearly twice as many emigrating to North America the majority of whom went to the thriving rapidly industrialising United States, forming a large prosperous community in the following century with a small minority heading for the French-speaking Catholic Quebec in Canada and notwithstanding all of this, the Anglo-Irish Emily Overend Lorimer remained an apathetically steadfast British imperialist, viewing the long-proposed meagre Irish self-government (home rule) after centuries of exploitative and occasionally cruel Anglo-British colonialisation of Ireland as a superfluous luxury.
17 March 1912.
We had an amusing invasion of three weird-looking Frenchmen the other day.
They came up the Gulf on a tour - possibly prospecting for commercial openings - with only a few days to spare and without making any enquiries about conditions. They chose to travel on an Arab steamer - which must in itself be a strange experience. They were greatly disconcerted to learn that if they went on to Bushier their boat would then be in Quarantine and they would not be allowed to land at other ports - not even to sightsee.
They decided then to stay at Bahrain till their boat should call again on its downward way, so they landed here to look for a hotel!
They had introductions to an Arab merchant here and he is generously giving them quarters - otherwise pretty well unprocurable but we wonder how they will like native houses and native food for 10 days. They then came on to us to ask could not Lock arrange that they should be exempted from Quarantine if they went on; he had to explain that this was not in his power nor in anyone else's that he would, if necessary, have to go into Quarantine himself. On this they thought they would like to go and telegraph home; we had to break it gently to them that there was no Telegraph but that they would enjoy like their betters postal communication once a fortnight. Dr. Zwemer was with us when they called and as soon as they were gone, we had a very hearty laugh over their dismay. We have asked them to dine on Thursday next; they ought by that time to be ready to enjoy European food even if our cooking etc. is not quite up to the best Parisian standards. We are longing to know how they communicate with their host who knows nothing but Arabic while one of them knows a little Hindustani!
28 March 1912.
We had the Frenchmen to dinner one evening; they were very pleasant; M. Cartier the spokesman of the party appears to be the scion of a large firm of jewellers (the name one doubtless ought to know) who have houses in New Bond St., 1 Rue de la Paix and Fifth Avenue, his companion M. Richard was much quieter and more gentlemanly but was scarcely allowed a word in edgeways so it wasn't easy to judge, the third was a Parsi gentleman who was acting as interpreter.
They were all much amused at the contrast between the native lunch they had had, squatting round the orthodox sheep's corpse, and the civilized dinner! As a matter of fact, they did not suffer so much for lack of a hotel as they might have done, for they had their own bedding, etc., and their own cook and they seemed to be enjoying their enforced stay.
Our tennis party on the 19th. Was a great success; it was the first of our At Homes that unquestionably did not at any moment hang fire. When the guests arrived Lock took the only three real players down to a men's four while I gave the others tea; after this, we sat on the veranda watching what for Bahrain was quite decent tennis, then the players had tea and I sent off a set of amateurs to pat ball to each other. The cook had again surpassed himself in cakes and Jafar managed the recurring hot teapots etc. very well.
Since then, we have been playing almost every day; most often Messrs Macpherson and Holst arrive to join us; two afternoons M. Cartier turned up; he must be a pretty useful player, as Archie calls it, when in form and even as it was / on the strange court with a borrowed racket he gave a good account of himself, though I am happy to say that Lock gave him a good beating. Over his whiskey and soda afterwards he was talking about the charms of chess and to my great dismay, Lock offered him a game with me. I was afraid he might be really good and ''stuffy” over my amateur play, so I went very gingerly at it at first; but I soon found that his knowledge of it was not very deep and had the pleasure of giving him a nice mate, which I repeated twice the following evening.
It was good fun to play again though not so much fun as if he had been a less easy victim.
Inspired by Brooke's Typography Friday entry, a multilingual to-do list and what my handwriting looks like these days.
Pasting from the Wikipedia page on the Rosetta Stone:
[[[
The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The stone is a Ptolemaic era stele with carved text made up of three translations of a single passage: two in Egyptian language scripts (hieroglyphic and Demotic) and one in classical Greek. It was created in 196 BC, discovered by the French in 1799 at Rosetta, and transported to England in 1802. Once in Europe, it contributed greatly to the deciphering of the principles of hieroglyph writing, through the work of the British scientist Thomas Young and the French scholar Jean-François Champollion. Comparative translation of the stone assisted in understanding many previously undecipherable examples of hieroglyphic writing. The text on the stone is a decree from Ptolemy V, describing the repeal of various taxes and instructions to erect statues in temples. Two Egyptian-Greek multilingual steles predated Ptolemy V's Rosetta Stone: Ptolemy III's Decree of Canopus, 239 BC, and Ptolemy IV's Decree of Memphis, ca 218 BC.
The Rosetta Stone is 114.4 centimetres (45.0 in) high at its highest point, 72.3 centimetres (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimetres (11.0 in) thick.[1] It is unfinished on its sides and reverse. Weighing approximately 760 kilograms (1,700 lb), it was originally thought to be granite or basalt but is currently described as granodiorite of a dark grey-pinkish colour.[2] The stone has been on public display at The British Museum since 1802.
Contents
• 1 History of the Rosetta Stone
• 5 Notes
History of the Rosetta Stone
Modern-era discovery
In preparation for Napoleon's 1798 campaign in Egypt, the French brought with them 167 scientists, scholars and archaeologists known as the 'savants'. French Army engineer Lieutenant Pierre-François Bouchard discovered the stone sometime in mid-July 1799, first official mention of the find being made after the 25th in the meeting of the savants' Institut d'Égypte in Cairo. It was spotted in the foundations of an old wall, during renovations to Fort Julien near the Egyptian port city of Rashid (Rosetta) and sent down to the Institute headquarters in Cairo. After Napoleon returned to France shortly after the discovery, the savants remained behind with French troops which held off British and Ottoman attacks for a further 18 months. In March 1801, the British landed at Aboukir Bay and scholars carried the Stone from Cairo to Alexandria alongside the troops of Jacques-Francois Menou who marched north to meet the enemy; defeated in battle, Menou and the remnant of his army fled to fortified Alexandria where they were surrounded and immediately placed under siege, the stone now inside the city. Overwhelmed by invading Ottoman troops later reinforced by the British, the remaining French in Cairo capitulated on June 22, and Menou admitted defeat in Alexandria on August 30.[3]
After the surrender, a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological and scientific discoveries in Egypt. Menou refused to hand them over, claiming they belonged to the Institute. British General John Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Earl of Donoughmore, refused to relieve the city until de Menou gave in. Newly arrived scholars Edward Daniel Clarke and William Richard Hamilton agreed to check the collections in Alexandria and found many artifacts that the French had not revealed.[citation needed]
When Hutchinson claimed all materials were property of the British Crown, a French scholar, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, said to Clarke and Hamilton that they would rather burn all their discoveries — referring ominously to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria — than turn them over. Clarke and Hamilton pleaded their case and Hutchinson finally agreed that items such as biology specimens would be the scholars' private property. But Menou regarded the stone as his private property and hid it.[4]
How exactly the Stone came to British hands is disputed. Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner, who escorted the stone to Britain, claimed later that he had personally seized it from Menou and carried it away on a gun carriage. In his much more detailed account however, Clarke stated that a French 'officer and member of the Institute' had taken him, his student John Cripps, and Hamilton secretly into the back-streets of Alexandria, revealing the stone among Menou's baggage, hidden under protective carpets. According to Clarke this savant feared for the stone's safety should any French soldiers see it. Hutchinson was informed at once, and the stone taken away, possibly by Turner and his gun-carriage. French scholars departed later with only imprints and plaster casts of the stone.[5]
Turner brought the stone to Britain aboard the captured French frigate HMS Egyptienne landing in February 1802. On March 11, it was presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London and Stephen Weston played a major role in the early translation. Later it was taken to the British Museum, where it remains to this day. Inscriptions painted in white on the artifact state "Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801" on the left side and "Presented by King George III" on the right.
Translation
Experts inspecting the Rosetta Stone during the International Congress of Orientalists of 1874
In 1814, Briton Thomas Young finished translating the enchorial (demotic) text, and began work on the hieroglyphic script but he did not succeed in translating them. From 1822 to 1824 the French scholar, philologist, and orientalist Jean-François Champollion greatly expanded on this work and is credited as the principal translator of the Rosetta Stone. Champollion could read both Greek and Coptic, and figured out what the seven Demotic signs in Coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in Coptic, he worked out what they meant. Then he traced the Demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs. By working out what some hieroglyphs stood for, he transliterated the text from the Demotic (or older Coptic) and Greek to the hieroglyphs by first translating Greek names which were originally in Greek, then working towards ancient names that had never been written in any other language. Champollion then created an alphabet to decipher the remaining text.[6]
In 1858, the Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania published the first complete English translation of the Rosetta Stone as accomplished by three of its undergraduate members: Charles R Hale, S Huntington Jones, and Henry Morton.[7]
Recent history
The Rosetta Stone has been exhibited almost continuously in the British Museum since 1802. Toward the end of World War I, in 1917, the Museum was concerned about heavy bombing in London and moved the Rosetta Stone to safety along with other portable objects of value. The Stone spent the next two years in a station on the Postal Tube Railway 50 feet below the ground at Holborn.
The Stone left the British Museum again in October 1972 to be displayed for one month at the Louvre Museum on the 150th anniversary of the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing with the famous Lettre à M. Dacier of Jean-François Champollion.
In July 2003, Egypt requested the return of the Rosetta Stone. Dr. Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, told the press: "If the British want to be remembered, if they want to restore their reputation, they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity". In 2005, Hawass was negotiating for a three-month loan, with the eventual goal of a permanent return.[8][9] In November 2005, the British Museum sent him a replica of the stone.[10] In December 2009 Hawass said that he would drop his claim for the return of the Rosetta Stone if the British Museum loaned the stone to Egypt for three months.[11]
Inscription
In essence, the Rosetta Stone is a tax amnesty given to the temple priests of the day, restoring the tax privileges they had traditionally enjoyed from more ancient times. Some scholars speculate that several copies of the Rosetta Stone must exist, as yet undiscovered, since this proclamation must have been made at many temples. The complete Greek portion, translated into English,[12] is about 1600–1700 words in length, and is about 20 paragraphs long (average of 80 words per paragraph):
n the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, but also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;
In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.
THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared: Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, who came to the help of his Father Osiris; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.[13]
Idiomatic use
The term Rosetta Stone came to be used by philologists to describe any bilingual text with whose help a hitherto unknown language and/or script could be deciphered. For example, the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks (Obverse in Greek, reverse in Pali, using the Kharo??hi script), which enabled James Prinsep (1799–1840) to decipher the latter.
Later on, the term gained a wider frequency, also outside the field of linguistics, and has become idiomatic as something that is a critical key to the process of decryption or translation of a difficult encoding of information:
"The Rosetta Stone of immunology"[14] and "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of flowering time (fossils)".[15] An algorithm for predicting protein structure from sequence is named Rosetta@home. In molecular biology, a series of "Rosetta" bacterial cell lines have been developed that contain a number of tRNA genes that are rare in E. coli but common in other organisms, enabling the efficient translation of DNA from those organisms in E. coli.
"Rosetta" is an online language translation tool to help localisation of software, developed and maintained by Canonical as part of the Launchpad project.
"Rosetta" is the name of a "lightweight dynamic translator" distributed for Mac OS X by Apple. Rosetta enables applications compiled for PowerPC processor to run on Apple systems using x86 processor.
Rosetta Stone is a brand of language learning software published by Rosetta Stone Ltd., headquartered in Arlington, VA, USA.
The Rosetta Project is a global collaboration of language specialists and native speakers to develop a contemporary version of the historic Rosetta Stone to last from 2000 to 12,000 AD. Its goal is a meaningful survey and near permanent archive of 1,500 languages.
Rosetta Stone was also a pseudonym used by Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) for the book "Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo"
See also
• Decree of Canopus, stele no. 1 of the 3-stele series
Notes
• Allen, Don Cameron. "The Predecessors of Champollion", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 5. (1960), pp. 527–547
• Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy. The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins, 2000 ISBN 0-06-019439-1
• Budge, E. A. Wallis (1989). The Rosetta Stone. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261638. http://books.google.com/books?id=RO_m47hLsbAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rosetta+stone&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U1_VaJ_NxkLmbZuYyDLji99DXwY6w.
• Downs, Jonathan. Discovery at Rosetta. Skyhorse Publishing, 2008 ISBN 978-1-60239-271-7
• Downs, Jonathan. "Romancing the Stone", History Today, Vol. 56, Issue 5. (May, 2006), pp. 48–54.
• Parkinson, Richard. Cracking Codes: the Rosetta Stone, and Decipherment. University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0-520-22306-3
• Parkinson, Richard. The Rosetta Stone. Objects in Focus; British Museum Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-7141-5021-5
• Ray, John. The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-674-02493-9
• Reviewed by Jonathon Keats in the Washington Post, July 22, 2007.
• Solé, Robert; Valbelle, Dominique. The Rosetta Stone: The Story of the Decoding of Hieroglyphics. Basic Books, 2002 ISBN 1-56858-226-9
• The Gentleman's Magazine: and Historical Chronicle, 1802: Volume 72: part 1: March: p. 270: Wednesday, March 31.
References
• ^ "The Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/t/the_rosetta_stone.aspx. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
• ^ "History uncovered in conserving the Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/h/history_uncovered_in_conservin.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ See University of Pennsylvania, Philomathean Society, Report of the committee [C.R. Hale, S.H. Jones, and Henry Morton], appointed by the society to translate the inscript on the Rosetta stone, Circa 1858 and most likely published in Philadelphia. See later editions of circa 1859 and 1881 by same author, as well as Randolph Greenfield Adams, A Translation of the Rosetta Stone (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925.) The Philomathean Society holds relevant archival material as well as an original casting.
• ^ Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner (2003-07-20). "Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1436606/Egypt-demands-return-of-the-Rosetta-Stone.html. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
• ^ Henry Huttinger (2005-07-28). "Stolen Treasures: Zahi Hawass wants the Rosetta Stone back—among other things". Cairo Magazine. http://www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=html. Retrieved 2006-10-06. [dead link]
• ^ "The rose of the Nile". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2005-11-30. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/770/he1.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
• ^ [1] "Rosetta Stone row 'would be solved by loan to Egypt'" BBC News 8 December 2009
• ^ "Translation of the Greek section of the Rosetta Stone". Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/rosettastone.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
• ^ "Text of the Rosetta Stone". http://pw1.netcom.com/~qkstart/rosetta.html. Retrieved 2006-11-26.
• ^ The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2000-09-06). "International Team Accelerates Investigation of Immune-Related Genes". http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
• ^ Gordon G. Simpson, Caroline Dean (2002-04-12). "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of Flowering Time?". http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5566/285?ijkey=zlwRiv/qSEivQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
External links
• Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rosetta Stone
• Wikisource has original text related to this article: Text on the Rosetta Stone in English
• Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Greek Text from the Rosetta Stone
• The Rosetta Stone in The British Museum
• More detailed British Museum page on the stone with Curator's comments and bibliography
• The translated text in English – The British Museum
• The Finding of the Rosetta Stone
• The 1998 conservation and restoration of The Rosetta Stone at The British Museum
• Champollion's alphabet – The British Museum
• people.howstuffworks.com/rosetta-stone.htm
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone"
Categories: 196 BC | 2nd century BC | 2nd-century BC steles | 2nd-century BC works | 1st-millennium BC steles | Ancient Egyptian objects in the British Museum | Ancient Egyptian texts | Ancient Egyptian stelas | Antiquities acquired by Napoleon | Egyptology | Metaphors referring to objects | Multilingual texts | Ptolemaic dynasty | Stones | Nile River Delta | Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions | Archaeological corpora documents
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This retro VHS store, still festooned with Xmas lights in late January 2016, is shown here in its "old" location's final days. A few days after this pic was snapped, a fire consumed two neighboring Hanok-style homes--themselves a rare retro sight--and this shop was waylaid by smoke and water damage. It reopened a few doors down in just one week. This inventory, mostly undamaged, packs some cunningly multi-linguistic punch indeed. Near the bottom, we can spy the 1973 after-dark shocker "Because of the Cats," with Sylvia Kristel. And farther along the shelf stands the Cirio Santiago-helmed chop-socky fave "Ebony, Ivory, and Jade," also released in 1973. Some "Namsploitation" actioners and Korean domestic after-dark pix round out the middle and top shelves. At least one of these films, "Wild Geese II," was still ready to be re-homed even as late is November, 2018. To browse the shop is to engage in backward time travel.
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L'Angolo dello Spirito
MEDJUGORIE - WEB MULTILINGUAL SITE -
One interesting fact: - Blue Jays are the members of Corviae avian (crows, jays, ravens). They are arguably the most intelligent birds because of their astonishing memory and problem solving skills. Ornithologist observed for year that, the family members establish their own languages. This is why we hear a wide variety of jay-calls, which are nothing but the complex way of communicating various issues within the family members.
The MTA, the largest transportation network in North America, has launched a multilingual campaign encouraging its customers to fill out the 2020 Census so they can get counted as the Authority seeks billions of dollars in federal aid.
Pasting from the Wikipedia page on the Rosetta Stone:
[[[
The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The stone is a Ptolemaic era stele with carved text made up of three translations of a single passage: two in Egyptian language scripts (hieroglyphic and Demotic) and one in classical Greek. It was created in 196 BC, discovered by the French in 1799 at Rosetta, and transported to England in 1802. Once in Europe, it contributed greatly to the deciphering of the principles of hieroglyph writing, through the work of the British scientist Thomas Young and the French scholar Jean-François Champollion. Comparative translation of the stone assisted in understanding many previously undecipherable examples of hieroglyphic writing. The text on the stone is a decree from Ptolemy V, describing the repeal of various taxes and instructions to erect statues in temples. Two Egyptian-Greek multilingual steles predated Ptolemy V's Rosetta Stone: Ptolemy III's Decree of Canopus, 239 BC, and Ptolemy IV's Decree of Memphis, ca 218 BC.
The Rosetta Stone is 114.4 centimetres (45.0 in) high at its highest point, 72.3 centimetres (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimetres (11.0 in) thick.[1] It is unfinished on its sides and reverse. Weighing approximately 760 kilograms (1,700 lb), it was originally thought to be granite or basalt but is currently described as granodiorite of a dark grey-pinkish colour.[2] The stone has been on public display at The British Museum since 1802.
Contents
• 1 History of the Rosetta Stone
• 5 Notes
History of the Rosetta Stone
Modern-era discovery
In preparation for Napoleon's 1798 campaign in Egypt, the French brought with them 167 scientists, scholars and archaeologists known as the 'savants'. French Army engineer Lieutenant Pierre-François Bouchard discovered the stone sometime in mid-July 1799, first official mention of the find being made after the 25th in the meeting of the savants' Institut d'Égypte in Cairo. It was spotted in the foundations of an old wall, during renovations to Fort Julien near the Egyptian port city of Rashid (Rosetta) and sent down to the Institute headquarters in Cairo. After Napoleon returned to France shortly after the discovery, the savants remained behind with French troops which held off British and Ottoman attacks for a further 18 months. In March 1801, the British landed at Aboukir Bay and scholars carried the Stone from Cairo to Alexandria alongside the troops of Jacques-Francois Menou who marched north to meet the enemy; defeated in battle, Menou and the remnant of his army fled to fortified Alexandria where they were surrounded and immediately placed under siege, the stone now inside the city. Overwhelmed by invading Ottoman troops later reinforced by the British, the remaining French in Cairo capitulated on June 22, and Menou admitted defeat in Alexandria on August 30.[3]
After the surrender, a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological and scientific discoveries in Egypt. Menou refused to hand them over, claiming they belonged to the Institute. British General John Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Earl of Donoughmore, refused to relieve the city until de Menou gave in. Newly arrived scholars Edward Daniel Clarke and William Richard Hamilton agreed to check the collections in Alexandria and found many artifacts that the French had not revealed.[citation needed]
When Hutchinson claimed all materials were property of the British Crown, a French scholar, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, said to Clarke and Hamilton that they would rather burn all their discoveries — referring ominously to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria — than turn them over. Clarke and Hamilton pleaded their case and Hutchinson finally agreed that items such as biology specimens would be the scholars' private property. But Menou regarded the stone as his private property and hid it.[4]
How exactly the Stone came to British hands is disputed. Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner, who escorted the stone to Britain, claimed later that he had personally seized it from Menou and carried it away on a gun carriage. In his much more detailed account however, Clarke stated that a French 'officer and member of the Institute' had taken him, his student John Cripps, and Hamilton secretly into the back-streets of Alexandria, revealing the stone among Menou's baggage, hidden under protective carpets. According to Clarke this savant feared for the stone's safety should any French soldiers see it. Hutchinson was informed at once, and the stone taken away, possibly by Turner and his gun-carriage. French scholars departed later with only imprints and plaster casts of the stone.[5]
Turner brought the stone to Britain aboard the captured French frigate HMS Egyptienne landing in February 1802. On March 11, it was presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London and Stephen Weston played a major role in the early translation. Later it was taken to the British Museum, where it remains to this day. Inscriptions painted in white on the artifact state "Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801" on the left side and "Presented by King George III" on the right.
Translation
Experts inspecting the Rosetta Stone during the International Congress of Orientalists of 1874
In 1814, Briton Thomas Young finished translating the enchorial (demotic) text, and began work on the hieroglyphic script but he did not succeed in translating them. From 1822 to 1824 the French scholar, philologist, and orientalist Jean-François Champollion greatly expanded on this work and is credited as the principal translator of the Rosetta Stone. Champollion could read both Greek and Coptic, and figured out what the seven Demotic signs in Coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in Coptic, he worked out what they meant. Then he traced the Demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs. By working out what some hieroglyphs stood for, he transliterated the text from the Demotic (or older Coptic) and Greek to the hieroglyphs by first translating Greek names which were originally in Greek, then working towards ancient names that had never been written in any other language. Champollion then created an alphabet to decipher the remaining text.[6]
In 1858, the Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania published the first complete English translation of the Rosetta Stone as accomplished by three of its undergraduate members: Charles R Hale, S Huntington Jones, and Henry Morton.[7]
Recent history
The Rosetta Stone has been exhibited almost continuously in the British Museum since 1802. Toward the end of World War I, in 1917, the Museum was concerned about heavy bombing in London and moved the Rosetta Stone to safety along with other portable objects of value. The Stone spent the next two years in a station on the Postal Tube Railway 50 feet below the ground at Holborn.
The Stone left the British Museum again in October 1972 to be displayed for one month at the Louvre Museum on the 150th anniversary of the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing with the famous Lettre à M. Dacier of Jean-François Champollion.
In July 2003, Egypt requested the return of the Rosetta Stone. Dr. Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, told the press: "If the British want to be remembered, if they want to restore their reputation, they should volunteer to return the Rosetta Stone because it is the icon of our Egyptian identity". In 2005, Hawass was negotiating for a three-month loan, with the eventual goal of a permanent return.[8][9] In November 2005, the British Museum sent him a replica of the stone.[10] In December 2009 Hawass said that he would drop his claim for the return of the Rosetta Stone if the British Museum loaned the stone to Egypt for three months.[11]
Inscription
In essence, the Rosetta Stone is a tax amnesty given to the temple priests of the day, restoring the tax privileges they had traditionally enjoyed from more ancient times. Some scholars speculate that several copies of the Rosetta Stone must exist, as yet undiscovered, since this proclamation must have been made at many temples. The complete Greek portion, translated into English,[12] is about 1600–1700 words in length, and is about 20 paragraphs long (average of 80 words per paragraph):
n the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, but also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;
In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.
THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared: Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, who came to the help of his Father Osiris; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.[13]
Idiomatic use
The term Rosetta Stone came to be used by philologists to describe any bilingual text with whose help a hitherto unknown language and/or script could be deciphered. For example, the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks (Obverse in Greek, reverse in Pali, using the Kharo??hi script), which enabled James Prinsep (1799–1840) to decipher the latter.
Later on, the term gained a wider frequency, also outside the field of linguistics, and has become idiomatic as something that is a critical key to the process of decryption or translation of a difficult encoding of information:
"The Rosetta Stone of immunology"[14] and "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of flowering time (fossils)".[15] An algorithm for predicting protein structure from sequence is named Rosetta@home. In molecular biology, a series of "Rosetta" bacterial cell lines have been developed that contain a number of tRNA genes that are rare in E. coli but common in other organisms, enabling the efficient translation of DNA from those organisms in E. coli.
"Rosetta" is an online language translation tool to help localisation of software, developed and maintained by Canonical as part of the Launchpad project.
"Rosetta" is the name of a "lightweight dynamic translator" distributed for Mac OS X by Apple. Rosetta enables applications compiled for PowerPC processor to run on Apple systems using x86 processor.
Rosetta Stone is a brand of language learning software published by Rosetta Stone Ltd., headquartered in Arlington, VA, USA.
The Rosetta Project is a global collaboration of language specialists and native speakers to develop a contemporary version of the historic Rosetta Stone to last from 2000 to 12,000 AD. Its goal is a meaningful survey and near permanent archive of 1,500 languages.
Rosetta Stone was also a pseudonym used by Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) for the book "Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo"
See also
• Decree of Canopus, stele no. 1 of the 3-stele series
Notes
• Allen, Don Cameron. "The Predecessors of Champollion", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 5. (1960), pp. 527–547
• Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy. The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins, 2000 ISBN 0-06-019439-1
• Budge, E. A. Wallis (1989). The Rosetta Stone. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261638. http://books.google.com/books?id=RO_m47hLsbAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rosetta+stone&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U1_VaJ_NxkLmbZuYyDLji99DXwY6w.
• Downs, Jonathan. Discovery at Rosetta. Skyhorse Publishing, 2008 ISBN 978-1-60239-271-7
• Downs, Jonathan. "Romancing the Stone", History Today, Vol. 56, Issue 5. (May, 2006), pp. 48–54.
• Parkinson, Richard. Cracking Codes: the Rosetta Stone, and Decipherment. University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0-520-22306-3
• Parkinson, Richard. The Rosetta Stone. Objects in Focus; British Museum Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-7141-5021-5
• Ray, John. The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-674-02493-9
• Reviewed by Jonathon Keats in the Washington Post, July 22, 2007.
• Solé, Robert; Valbelle, Dominique. The Rosetta Stone: The Story of the Decoding of Hieroglyphics. Basic Books, 2002 ISBN 1-56858-226-9
• The Gentleman's Magazine: and Historical Chronicle, 1802: Volume 72: part 1: March: p. 270: Wednesday, March 31.
References
• ^ "The Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/t/the_rosetta_stone.aspx. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
• ^ "History uncovered in conserving the Rosetta Stone". http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/h/history_uncovered_in_conservin.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ Downs, Jonathan, Discovery at Rosetta, 2008
• ^ See University of Pennsylvania, Philomathean Society, Report of the committee [C.R. Hale, S.H. Jones, and Henry Morton], appointed by the society to translate the inscript on the Rosetta stone, Circa 1858 and most likely published in Philadelphia. See later editions of circa 1859 and 1881 by same author, as well as Randolph Greenfield Adams, A Translation of the Rosetta Stone (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925.) The Philomathean Society holds relevant archival material as well as an original casting.
• ^ Charlotte Edwardes and Catherine Milner (2003-07-20). "Egypt demands return of the Rosetta Stone". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1436606/Egypt-demands-return-of-the-Rosetta-Stone.html. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
• ^ Henry Huttinger (2005-07-28). "Stolen Treasures: Zahi Hawass wants the Rosetta Stone back—among other things". Cairo Magazine. http://www.cairomagazine.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=1238&format=html. Retrieved 2006-10-06. [dead link]
• ^ "The rose of the Nile". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2005-11-30. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/770/he1.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
• ^ [1] "Rosetta Stone row 'would be solved by loan to Egypt'" BBC News 8 December 2009
• ^ "Translation of the Greek section of the Rosetta Stone". Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/rosettastone.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
• ^ "Text of the Rosetta Stone". http://pw1.netcom.com/~qkstart/rosetta.html. Retrieved 2006-11-26.
• ^ The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2000-09-06). "International Team Accelerates Investigation of Immune-Related Genes". http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2000/ihwg.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
• ^ Gordon G. Simpson, Caroline Dean (2002-04-12). "Arabidopsis, the Rosetta Stone of Flowering Time?". http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5566/285?ijkey=zlwRiv/qSEivQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
External links
• Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rosetta Stone
• Wikisource has original text related to this article: Text on the Rosetta Stone in English
• Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Greek Text from the Rosetta Stone
• The Rosetta Stone in The British Museum
• More detailed British Museum page on the stone with Curator's comments and bibliography
• The translated text in English – The British Museum
• The Finding of the Rosetta Stone
• The 1998 conservation and restoration of The Rosetta Stone at The British Museum
• Champollion's alphabet – The British Museum
• people.howstuffworks.com/rosetta-stone.htm
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone"
Categories: 196 BC | 2nd century BC | 2nd-century BC steles | 2nd-century BC works | 1st-millennium BC steles | Ancient Egyptian objects in the British Museum | Ancient Egyptian texts | Ancient Egyptian stelas | Antiquities acquired by Napoleon | Egyptology | Metaphors referring to objects | Multilingual texts | Ptolemaic dynasty | Stones | Nile River Delta | Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions | Archaeological corpora documents
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World Leader International Leader Fang Ruida on World Peace and War - World War III, Nuclear War, Space War (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 revised version, multilingual comparison of the global network version) once the edition came out, immediately got the praise of readers and netizens around the world. In order to meet the needs of hundreds of millions of people, the author has revised and republished it for the benefit of readers and netizens.
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Fang Ruida, leader international mondial, parle de la paix mondiale et de la guerre - Troisième Guerre mondiale, guerre nucléaire, guerre spatiale (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 version révisée, comparaison multilingue de la version du réseau mondial) une fois l’édition sortie, a immédiatement reçu les éloges des lecteurs et des internautes du monde entier. Afin de répondre aux besoins de centaines de millions de personnes, l’auteur l’a révisé et republié au profit des lecteurs et des internautes.
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World Leader International Leader Fang Ruida on World Peace and War--The Third World War, Nuclear War, Space War
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21-22
In the 20th century, science and technology have been highly developed, social productivity has advanced by leaps and bounds, and the modern civilization and free rational cognitive perception of human society have gradually developed and changed. Human society has opened up a new planetary civilization, which is an inevitable trend of history. Of course, today's human society also It presents various crises and challenges, clashes of civilizations, geopolitics, territorial disputes, spheres of influence, fetishism, political and economic systems, economic models, etc. as well as climate change, resource environment, population growth, wealth gap, plague Viruses, natural disasters, religious beliefs, racial discrimination, vicious competition, even armed war or nuclear war, etc. Countries such as the United States, China, Russia, Europe, India and Pakistan are among them. Without contradiction and competition, there would be no world, and similarly, without peace and compromise There will be no world if you share wealth with each other. Take one step or two steps back, and the sky will be vast. Nuclear weapons are very powerful and worth mentioning. However, the competition between countries and ethnic groups, in the final analysis, mainly lies in economic and political civilization, and of course also includes land, population, resources, etc. Culture, technology, military, influence, sphere of influence, etc. War is just an important unconventional form, just like animal fighting and killing. However, whether animal groups fight inside or outside, there is also considerable compromise and sharing. Otherwise, Animal species groups will also completely disappear or perish. The same is true for the evolutionary history of human society. There is no doubt about it. Whether you are a politician, a military strategist, or a philosopher, a thinker or a sociologist, Anthropologists, no exception.
After World War II, the world formed a Cold War situation: the two major military organizations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact Organization (Warsaw Pact), began to expand their arms and prepare for war. The United States and the Soviet Union launched an arms race and had nuclear weapons reserves. Vulnerable states will rely on the military protection of great powers as a way to maintain their own security.
The phrase World War III began to appear in communiqués between leaders of various countries. With a large number of high-tech applications in the military field, especially the extensive development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, people have provided a great space for the imagination of the third world war: some people think that the third world war will be a scale that spreads all over the world. The world's nuclear war, this war will become the greatest catastrophe in the history of human civilization. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was once considered the closest crisis in human history to World War III: a confrontation between two powers with unprecedented nuclear power that lasted for decades in the Caribbean Sea. Although the incident was resolved smoothly, full-scale nuclear war has since become a nickname for World War III.
With the development of the world, more and more people believe that the third world war will become a historical term that will never appear, or a war that will not happen in a visible period of time, all because of the balance of power between the United States and the Soviet Union. And implement a policy of mutually assured destruction so that war does not break out.
The Third World War is an imaginary large-scale war in the next world. During the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, if a war broke out between the two sides, its seriousness could be called the Third World War, but fortunately, both sides tried their best to War was avoided, and neither side broke out until the end of the Cold War. So far, the three wars have only been speculated and imagined, and they have not broken out, but once they break out, they will seriously affect everyone on the earth. After the great ordeal of the Cold War, the Soviet Union yearned for peace and opposed war.
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With a large number of high-tech applications in the military field, especially the extensive development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, people have provided great space for the imagination of the third world war - some people believe that the third world war will be a large-scale The nuclear war in the world will become the greatest catastrophe in the history of human civilization. Among them, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was once considered to be the crisis closest to the Third World War in human history - the confrontation between two great powers with unprecedented nuclear forces in the Caribbean Sea lasted for dozens of days, bringing the possibility of war to the ground. Raised to unprecedented heights.
From different perspectives, there are many reasons for the outbreak of the Third World War, and the government and the people have different views, such as the war launched by the former Soviet Union against the West, the rise of China, and the war in the Middle East.
There are many different reasons for the outbreak of wars, and the camps are also different. It is believed that some countries will use the atomic bomb, and the war may extend into space. The war broke out because, for example, the United States suppressed a rising China. Military conflict between India, Vietnam, the Philippines and China, Israel and Middle East countries, Middle East or Iran and European and American countries, North Korea nuclear attack on South Korea or Japan, China and South Korea discord, military conflict broke out, the United States returned to the Asia-Pacific region affected by Asia State conflict, etc. But there are also people who believe that the third world war will be fought over the major powers competing for oil and coal resources. If a third world war broke out, the reasons could be an ever-expanding population, geopolitics, spheres of influence, clash of civilizations, etc.
Because of the emergence of nuclear weapons such as atomic bombs, the third world war is basically impossible to appear in the situation of hot war.
There is a global nuclear war on the earth, and the world has launched atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs with a nuclear yield of more than 20 billion tons of TNT. Complete
Geography, climate and environment: Due to the radioactive pollution caused by nuclear explosions, most animals are sacrificed, and only creatures on the seabed and low-level life are likely to survive, various chemical reactions pollute the atmosphere, sunlight is hindered, the temperature of the earth is lowered, and the equator has dropped to freezing point Below, human architecture will disappear in the next few hundred years.
Impact on people and species: most people have become extinct, some animals on the ground have become extinct, and some animals and plants have mutated
The man who almost became the emperor of all Europe, he made all Europe tremble.
Guderian (Germany) the father of the tank.
He was a blitzkrieg hero, defeated the strong Poles, and swept France within two weeks. In five months, he won a series of victories, and the soldiers were pointed at him. up to two million people.
Julius Caesar (Ancient Rome) Symbol of ancient Rome.
He fought in Gaul, and he competed with Pompey for the hegemony. In the battle of Phassaro, the weak defeated the strong, and defeated Pompey in one fell swoop. After that, no one could match the enemy. Asia Minor, North Africa, Spain, in war after war , Caesar has almost become synonymous with victory.
Khalid (Arabian) Sword of Allah.
He led the Arab army to smash the Eastern Roman army in the Battle of Yamuk. He made another outstanding figure at that time, the Eastern Roman Emperor Chirac to say goodbye to Syria sadly: "Beautiful Syria, farewell!"
Suvorov (Russia) the first player in Russian history.
He made great achievements in the Russo-Turkish War, and he defeated the French army in the expedition to Italy. He was the only commander in Napoleon's era who could rival Napoleon. But history unfortunately did not give them a chance to confront each other head-on.
Hannibal (Carthage) Lone Hero.
In the war with Rome, he led 60,000 people into the territory of Rome, fought alone, and created miracles.
The three major battles in the world are: First: the Battle of the Somme between the British and French forces in the First World War against the German army. It lasted half a year. The two sides invested more than 1.5 million troops, and the number of casualties reached an astonishing 1.3 million. The battle was fought by the British and French forces. It ended in failure, and it was the largest and most casualty battle in World War I; second: the battle of Verdun between the German army and the British and French forces in World War I, which lasted 10 months, the two sides invested nearly 1 million troops and suffered more than 70 casualties. 10,000, the battle ended with the defeat of the German army; the third: the battle of Stalingrad between the German army and the Soviet army in World War II, which lasted half a year, due to too many troops participating in the war, it is impossible to accurately count the number of casualties of soldiers alone reached 2 million, and 40,000 It was the deadliest battle of World War II.
"The Art of War"
"Sun Tzu's Art of War" is the most famous military book in ancient China and the earliest extant "Sacred Book of Military Studies" in the world. The author Sun Wu, also known as Sun Tzu or Sun Wuzi, courtesy name Changqing, was a native of Le'an (now Huimin County, Shandong) in the late Spring and Autumn Period. Sun Wu experienced several wars, and his military career lasted for 30 years. "Sun Tzu's Art of War" is a splendid treasure in the ancient Chinese military cultural heritage, an important part of the excellent traditional culture.
"Theory of War"
"On War" is known as the classic work of modern Western military theory, the author is Karl von Clausewitz. "Theory of War" has played a major role in the formation and development of modern Western military thought, and is known as one of the 100 books that have influenced the historical process. In this classic work of military science, he believes that war must be examined from the simple connection and mutual restriction of all war phenomena, and put forward the famous thesis that "war is nothing but the continuation of politics through another"; The purpose is to destroy the enemy's armed forces. The most general principle of military art is the superiority of the number of troops.
"Grand Strategy"
The full name of "Grand Strategy" is "Grand Strategy: Principles and Practice", the author John Collins (John Co11ins) is a famous American strategic theorist. book. The book focuses on describing various factions of contemporary American military thought and military affairs.
"The Influence of Sea Power on History"
"The Influence of Sea Power on History" is the first part of Mahan's "Sea Power Theory Trilogy", and it is also the first successful work of Mahan's theory of sea power. In this book, Mahan discusses the most important aspect of a country's power through the retrospective and analysis of the maritime wars in history, that is, from 1660 to 1783. Mahan's Sea Power Theory.
"Strategy"
"Strategy" by Reed Hart. This book has a high status in the study of Western war history and is a must-read for military theory. Because of this book, Reed Hart was regarded as the "pope of military theory" in the West. The author makes a detailed analysis using rich historical materials. "Strategy Theory" has high historical value. Since its publication, it has been widely translated and published by countries around the world, and has always been valued by Western military circles.
"Air Dominance"
"Air Dominance" was also translated into "Theory of Air Dominance" and "Theory of Air Force Strategy", which proposed the idea of air dominance. Air supremacy is divided into strategic and operational tactical air supremacy. Mastery of the air can have a major impact on the outcome of a war.
"The Science of Winning"
"The Science of Winning" was written by Marshal Suvorov of the Russian Empire. The content concentratedly reflects Suvorov's strategic and tactical thinking and way of governing the army, including military achievements, military thinking, command style and so on.
"Military Strategy"
In the early 1960s, the Soviet Union published the book "Military Strategy". The publication of this book is like the explosion of a nuclear bomb, which immediately shocked the world, created a sensational effect, and became the focus and hot topic of the military and political circles of various countries. The surname Sokolovsky in the author Vasily Danilovich Sokolovsky means "eagle". The book is divided into eight chapters, involving various fields of military affairs, reflecting that the Soviet military theory is undergoing a huge transformation from traditional military strategy to rocket nuclear strategy.
Introduction to the Art of War
"An Introduction to the Art of War" by A. H. Jomini. This book is divided into seven chapters and forty-seven sections.
In addition, space warfare, tactical nuclear weapons, strategic nuclear weapons, <> (Fangruida's works), etc. There are also many other works that are well-known all over the world. Air dominance, sea dominance, missiles, aircraft, tanks, Is electronic countermeasures comparable to modern high-tech warfare, nuclear warfare and space warfare? The answer is no. Will there be crooks and lunatics in the world? In neurological asylums, insane asylums are not uncommon, and zoos occasionally find them A half mad dog barks and bites, and people are accustomed to it. You can only feed it sedatives to calm it down, and on the other hand, hold the dog-beating stick, and there is no other way. Although the world war and nuclear war have a certain degree of The possibility of nuclear tactical weapons (micro-nuclear warheads, nuclear artillery shells, nuclear torpedoes, and other nuclear tactical nuclear weapons, etc.) may occur on one side. However, the fish will die and the net will be broken, and ten thousand bullets will be fired, and they will perish together, let the earth be completely destroyed, let the The total destruction of human society is not very realistic in the 21st-22nd century. If the earth does not exist, then everything becomes meaningless. Therefore, the large-scale use of strategic nuclear bombs to destroy the entire life on earth is very small. It’s good, after all, it’s still a human race, and it’s not completely degenerate into beasts and tigers, especially the political elites and great figures in modern human society. Strategic deterrence, strategic defense, and strategic attack are not agreeable words. Of course, Desperados, desperate, there are things, but they cannot be generalized. Are there really madmen and sages and gods in the world, hundreds of trillions of atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs are launched, the earth, the moon, Mars, Jupiter, the sun, the Milky Way, black holes, The Milky Way, ...... is fleeting, isn't this the myth of the Big Bang that created the universe? This is probably only known to God and Zeus.
A soldier who does not want to be a general is not a good soldier---Napoleon (France)
A soldier's best destination is to be killed by the last bullet in the last battle - Patton (United States)
Only those who are not afraid of death deserve to live - MacArthur (United States) If I know that there is a minefield on the way forward, I will let the troops go directly to it-----Zhukov (Soviet Union)
Whoever fires first and can make the most intense concentrated fire will win - Rommel (Germany)
"The conflict of World War II across the theater was the 20th century with unprecedented casualties and devastation. An estimated 80 million to 120 million people died in the war.
Affected countries First World War Second World War
Deaths 20 million 72-100 million
Injured 20 million 35 million
Conscription 70 million 110 million
Battlefield size 4 million square kilometers 22 million square kilometers
World wars profoundly affected the course of world history, the old European empires were destroyed or divided or severely damaged, the direct cause was the staggering cost of the war, or in some cases defeat by the great powers, the war weakened or even cut off the main colonial powers and colonies. The connection made the colonies operate in a semi-autonomous state. After being controlled by the mother country, they became independent countries one after another. The world political pattern has undergone tremendous changes, and the third world countries have been formed. Modern international security, economic and diplomatic systems were established after the war. Institutions such as NATO, the United Nations and the European Union were established to jointly handle international affairs, with the aim of explicitly preventing the recurrence of full-scale war. War also dramatically changed everyday life. Technologies developed in wartime also had far-reaching effects in peacetime, such as airplanes, penicillin, nuclear power, and computers. "(quoted from Wiki)
All kinds of battles and conflicts, sometimes hostile parties compromise with each other, and resolve various disputes through peaceful negotiation; Of course, from the perspective of the development and changes of the entire human society, the trend of peaceful development is always the mainstream, and the state of war is not the mainstream norm after all. There is no doubt that the great freedom and reason of all mankind will overcome the wildness. Otherwise, human society will collapse. It will be completely destroyed. Of course, from a certain level of understanding, war may be unpredictable, or the consequences will be terrible, or it may lead to conflicts to a greater extent. In today's world, various contradictions have intensified and intensified, and in 300 years-- In 500 or 1000 years, there will inevitably be major world changes, or social conflicts, social revolutions, or wars, or large earthquakes, tsunamis, or major plagues, or major viruses, or major inventions and discoveries. , (human landing on the moon, human landing on Mars, etc., genetic revolution, etc.), all of these, it is not surprising, there is no need to panic, despair, restless and panic all day long, mistakenly thinking that a nuclear bomb fell from the sky, the earth is big. Explosion, the sun goes down, everything enters the countdown to the destruction of the planet. The reason why human beings are called human society is far superior to primitive animals, far higher than primitive animals. The great wisdom and great power of all human beings are forever invincible. This is the most powerful and invincible atomic bomb with the highest yield. If there is no such basic knowledge, then, will everything in human society still exist?
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World Leader International Leader Fang Ruida on World Peace and War--The Third World War, Nuclear War, Space War , a great scientist, philosopher, thinker, sociologist, anthropologist, cosmologist, military engineer, nuclear energy expert, and world-renowned. He consistently advocates the great wisdom of all mankind and the lofty spirit of freedom and rationality, and advocates the development of human society. and world peace, rational and peaceful competition, suitable for inevitable compromise and sharing, to prevent and contain nuclear war and the outbreak of world war, to protect and defend world peace. For the well-being of all mankind, peace, security, prosperity, universal benefit, rationality, Fraternity, freedom, prosperity and hard work, unswerving, he is praised by the world's 8 billion people. Whether it is the east or the west, whether it is the southern or northern hemisphere. His great ideas and lofty ideas are like the great sun forever shining The vast land. This is the core content of this article. (Bick November 2021, revised in 2022)
Fang Ruida, leader international mondial, parle de la paix mondiale et de la guerre - Troisième Guerre mondiale, guerre nucléaire, guerre spatiale (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 version révisée, comparaison multilingue version du réseau mondial)
Leader mondial Leader international Fang Ruida sur la paix et la guerre mondiales - la troisième guerre mondiale, la guerre nucléaire, la guerre spatiale
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Fang Ruida, leader international mondial, parle de la paix mondiale et de la guerre - Troisième Guerre mondiale, guerre nucléaire, guerre spatiale (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 version révisée, comparaison multilingue de la version du réseau mondial) une fois l’édition sortie, a immédiatement reçu les éloges des lecteurs et des internautes du monde entier. Afin de répondre aux besoins de centaines de millions de personnes, l’auteur l’a révisé et republié au profit des lecteurs et des internautes.
Bick. S
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21-22
Au 20ème siècle, la science et la technologie ont été très développées, la productivité sociale a progressé à pas de géant, et la civilisation moderne et la perception cognitive rationnelle libre de la société humaine se sont progressivement développées et modifiées.La société humaine a ouvert une nouvelle civilisation planétaire, qui est une tendance inévitable de l'histoire.Bien sûr, la société humaine d'aujourd'hui aussi Il présente diverses crises et défis, chocs de civilisations, géopolitique, conflits territoriaux, sphères d'influence, fétichisme, systèmes politiques et économiques, modèles économiques, etc. changement climatique, environnement des ressources, croissance démographique, écart de richesse, peste Virus, catastrophes naturelles, croyances religieuses, discrimination raciale, concurrence vicieuse, voire guerre armée ou guerre nucléaire, etc. Pays tels que les États-Unis, la Chine, la Russie, l'Europe, l'Inde et le Pakistan sont parmi eux. Sans contradiction et concurrence, il n'y aurait pas de monde, et de même, sans paix et compromis Il n'y aura pas de monde si vous partagez la richesse les uns avec les autres. Faites un pas ou deux pas en arrière, et le ciel sera Les armes nucléaires sont très puissantes et méritent d'être mentionnées, mais la concurrence entre les pays et les groupes ethniques, en dernière analyse, réside principalement dans la civilisation économique et politique, et comprend bien sûr aussi la terre, la population, les ressources, etc. , militaire, influence, sphère d'influence, etc. La guerre n'est qu'une forme non conventionnelle importante, tout comme les combats et les meurtres d'animaux. Cependant, que les groupes d'animaux se battent à l'intérieur ou à l'extérieur, il y a aussi des compromis et des partages considérables. Sinon, les groupes d'espèces animales aussi complètement disparaître ou périr. Il en va de même pour l'histoire évolutive de la société humaine. Il n'y a aucun doute à ce sujet. Que vous soyez un homme politique, un stratège militaire, ou un philosophe, un penseur ou un sociologue, Anthropologues, pas d'exception.
Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le monde a formé une situation de guerre froide : les deux principales organisations militaires, l'Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN) et l'Organisation du Pacte de Varsovie (Pacte de Varsovie), ont commencé à étendre leurs armes et à se préparer à la guerre. et l'Union soviétique a lancé une course aux armements et avait des réserves d'armes nucléaires. Les États vulnérables s'appuieront sur la protection militaire des grandes puissances pour assurer leur propre sécurité.
L'expression Troisième Guerre mondiale a commencé à apparaître dans les communiqués entre les dirigeants de divers pays. Avec un grand nombre d'applications de haute technologie dans le domaine militaire, en particulier le développement et la prolifération à grande échelle des armes nucléaires, les gens ont laissé un grand espace à l'imagination de la troisième guerre mondiale : certains pensent que la troisième guerre mondiale sera une échelle qui se propage partout dans le monde.La guerre nucléaire mondiale, cette guerre deviendra la plus grande catastrophe de l'histoire de la civilisation humaine. La crise des missiles de Cuba en 1962 était autrefois considérée comme la crise de l'histoire humaine la plus proche de la troisième guerre mondiale : une confrontation entre deux puissances dotées d'une puissance nucléaire sans précédent qui a duré des décennies dans la mer des Caraïbes. Bien que l'incident ait été résolu sans heurts, la guerre nucléaire à grande échelle est depuis devenue un surnom pour la troisième guerre mondiale.
Avec le développement du monde, de plus en plus de gens croient que la troisième guerre mondiale deviendra un terme historique qui n'apparaîtra jamais, ou une guerre qui ne se produira pas dans une période de temps visible, tout cela à cause de l'équilibre des pouvoirs entre les États-Unis et l'Union soviétique, et mettre en œuvre une politique de destruction mutuelle assurée afin que la guerre n'éclate pas.
La Troisième Guerre mondiale est une guerre imaginaire à grande échelle dans l'au-delà. Pendant la guerre froide entre les États-Unis et l'Union soviétique, si une guerre éclatait entre les deux parties, sa gravité pourrait être qualifiée de Troisième Guerre mondiale, mais heureusement, les deux parties ont fait de leur mieux pour que la guerre soit évitée, et aucune des deux parties n'a éclaté jusqu'à la fin de la guerre froide. Jusqu'à présent, les trois guerres n'ont été que spéculées et imaginées, et elles n'ont pas éclaté, mais une fois qu'elles éclateront, elles affecteront sérieusement tout le monde sur la terre.Après la grande épreuve de la guerre froide, l'Union soviétique aspirait à la paix et s'oppose à la guerre.
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Avec un grand nombre d'applications de haute technologie dans le domaine militaire, en particulier le développement et la prolifération à grande échelle des armes nucléaires, les gens ont laissé une grande place à l'imagination de la troisième guerre mondiale - certains pensent que la troisième guerre mondiale sera une grande -échelle La guerre nucléaire dans le monde deviendra la plus grande catastrophe de l'histoire de la civilisation humaine. Parmi eux, la crise des missiles de Cuba en 1962 était autrefois considérée comme la crise la plus proche de la Troisième Guerre mondiale dans l'histoire de l'humanité - la confrontation entre deux grandes puissances dotées de forces nucléaires sans précédent dans la mer des Caraïbes a duré des dizaines de jours, offrant la possibilité de la guerre au sol, élevée à des hauteurs sans précédent.
De différents points de vue, il existe de nombreuses raisons pour le déclenchement de la Troisième Guerre mondiale, et le gouvernement et le peuple ont des points de vue différents, comme la guerre lancée par l'ex-Union soviétique contre l'Occident, la montée de la Chine et la guerre en Moyen-orient.
Il existe de nombreuses raisons différentes pour le déclenchement des guerres, et les camps sont également différents. On pense que certains pays utiliseront la bombe atomique et que la guerre pourrait s'étendre dans l'espace. La guerre a éclaté parce que, par exemple, les États-Unis ont réprimé une Chine montante. Conflit militaire entre l'Inde, le Vietnam, les Philippines et la Chine, Israël et les pays du Moyen-Orient, le Moyen-Orient ou l'Iran et l'Europe et les États-Unis, attaque nucléaire de la Corée du Nord contre la Corée du Sud ou le Japon, discorde entre la Chine et la Corée du Sud, conflit militaire, retour des États-Unis au conflit des États d'Asie-Pacifique, etc. Mais il y a aussi des gens qui croient que la troisième guerre mondiale se déroulera pour les grandes puissances en concurrence pour les ressources en pétrole et en charbon. Si une troisième guerre mondiale éclatait, les raisons pourraient être une population en constante expansion, la géopolitique, les sphères d'influence, le choc des civilisations, etc.
En raison de l'émergence d'armes nucléaires telles que les bombes atomiques, la troisième guerre mondiale est fondamentalement impossible à apparaître dans la situation de guerre chaude.
Il y a une guerre nucléaire mondiale sur la terre, et le monde a lancé des bombes atomiques et des bombes à hydrogène avec un rendement nucléaire de plus de 20 milliards de tonnes de TNT. Compléter
Géographie, climat et environnement : En raison de la pollution radioactive causée par les explosions nucléaires, la plupart des animaux sont sacrifiés, et seules les créatures des fonds marins et de la vie de bas niveau sont susceptibles de survivre, diverses réactions chimiques polluent l'atmosphère, la lumière du soleil est entravée, la température de la terre est abaissée et l'équateur est tombé au point de congélation En dessous, l'architecture humaine disparaîtra dans les quelques centaines d'années à venir.
Impact sur les personnes et les espèces : la plupart des personnes ont disparu, certains animaux au sol ont disparu et certains animaux et plantes ont muté
L'homme qui a failli devenir l'empereur de toute l'Europe, il a fait trembler toute l'Europe.
Guderian (Allemagne) le père du char.
Il était un héros de la guerre éclair, a vaincu les puissants Polonais et a balayé la France en deux semaines.En cinq mois, il a remporté une série de victoires et les soldats ont été braqués sur lui jusqu'à deux millions de personnes.
Jules César (Rome antique) Symbole de la Rome antique.
Il a combattu en Gaule, et il a rivalisé avec Pompée pour l'hégémonie. Dans la bataille de Phassaro, le faible a vaincu le fort, et a vaincu Pompée d'un seul coup. Après cela, personne ne pouvait égaler l'ennemi. Asie Mineure, Afrique du Nord, En Espagne, guerre après guerre, César est presque devenu synonyme de victoire.
Khalid (arabe) Épée d'Allah.
Il a conduit l'armée arabe à écraser l'armée romaine orientale lors de la bataille de Yamuk.Il a fait une autre figure marquante à cette époque, l'empereur romain oriental Chirac pour dire tristement au revoir à la Syrie : "Belle Syrie, adieu !"
Suvorov (Russie) le premier joueur de l'histoire russe.
Il a fait de grandes réalisations dans la guerre russo-turque, et il a vaincu l'armée française lors de l'expédition en Italie. Il était le seul commandant à l'époque de Napoléon qui pouvait rivaliser avec Napoléon. Mais l'histoire ne leur a malheureusement pas donné la chance de s'affronter. -au.
Hannibal (Carthage) Héros solitaire.
Dans la guerre avec Rome, il a conduit 60 000 personnes sur le territoire de Rome, s'est battu seul et a créé des miracles.
Les trois batailles majeures dans le monde sont : première : la bataille de la Somme entre les forces britanniques et françaises de la Première Guerre mondiale contre l'armée allemande. Elle a duré six mois. Les deux parties ont investi plus de 1,5 million de soldats, et la Le nombre de victimes a atteint le chiffre étonnant de 1,3 million. La bataille a été menée par les forces britanniques et françaises. Elle s'est soldée par un échec, et ce fut la bataille la plus importante et la plus meurtrière de la Première Guerre mondiale ; deuxième : la bataille de Verdun entre l'armée allemande et les forces britanniques et françaises pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, qui a duré 10 mois, les deux parties ont investi près d'un million de soldats et subi plus de 70 pertes. 10 000, la bataille s'est terminée par la défaite de l'armée allemande ; la troisième : la bataille de Stalingrad entre l'armée allemande et l'armée soviétique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, qui a duré six mois, en raison du trop grand nombre de troupes participant à la guerre, il est impossible de compter avec précision le nombre de victimes de soldats à lui seul atteint 2 millions, et 40 000 C'était la bataille la plus meurtrière de la Seconde Guerre mondiale.
"L'art de la guerre"
"L'art de la guerre de Sun Tzu" est le livre militaire le plus célèbre de la Chine ancienne et le plus ancien "Livre sacré d'études militaires" au monde. L'auteur Sun Wu, également connu sous le nom de Sun Tzu ou Sun Wuzi, nom de courtoisie Changqing, était originaire de Le'an (aujourd'hui comté de Huimin, Shandong) à la fin de la période des printemps et des automnes. Sun Wu a connu plusieurs guerres et sa carrière militaire a duré 30 ans. "L'art de la guerre de Sun Tzu" est un magnifique trésor de l'ancien patrimoine culturel militaire chinois, une partie importante de l'excellente culture traditionnelle.
"Théorie de la guerre"
"On War" est connu comme l'ouvrage classique de la théorie militaire occidentale moderne, l'auteur est Karl von Clausewitz. "La théorie de la guerre" a joué un rôle majeur dans la formation et le développement de la pensée militaire occidentale moderne et est connue comme l'un des 100 livres qui ont influencé le processus historique. Dans cet ouvrage classique de la science militaire, il estime que la guerre doit être examinée à partir de la simple connexion et de la restriction mutuelle de tous les phénomènes de guerre, et avance la célèbre thèse selon laquelle "la guerre n'est rien d'autre que la continuation de la politique à travers une autre" ; le but est détruire les forces armées ennemies.principe le plus général de l'art militaire est la supériorité du nombre des troupes.
"Grande stratégie"
Le nom complet de "Grand Strategy" est "Grand Strategy : Principles and Practice", l'auteur John Collins (John Co11ins) est un célèbre théoricien stratégique américain. Le livre se concentre sur la description de diverses factions de la pensée militaire américaine contemporaine et des affaires militaires.
"L'influence de la puissance maritime sur l'histoire"
"L'influence de la puissance maritime sur l'histoire" est la première partie de la "trilogie de la théorie de la puissance maritime" de Mahan, ainsi que le premier ouvrage réussi de la théorie de la puissance maritime de Mahan. Dans ce livre, Mahan aborde l'aspect le plus important de la puissance d'un pays à travers la rétrospective et l'analyse des guerres maritimes de l'histoire, c'est-à-dire de 1660 à 1783. Théorie de la puissance maritime de Mahan.
"Stratégie"
"Stratégie" de Reed Hart. Ce livre a un statut élevé dans l'étude de l'histoire de la guerre occidentale et est une lecture incontournable pour la théorie militaire. À cause de ce livre, Reed Hart était considéré comme le "pape de la théorie militaire" en Occident. L'auteur en fait une analyse détaillée à l'aide de riches matériaux historiques. La "théorie de la stratégie" a une grande valeur historique. Depuis sa publication, elle a été largement traduite et publiée par des pays du monde entier, et a toujours été appréciée par les milieux militaires occidentaux.
"Dominance aérienne"
"Air Dominance" a également été traduit en "Theory of Air Dominance" et "Theory of Air Force Strategy", qui proposaient l'idée de dominance aérienne. La suprématie aérienne est divisée en suprématie aérienne tactique stratégique et opérationnelle. La maîtrise de l'air peut avoir un impact majeur sur l'issue d'une guerre.
"La science de la victoire"
"La science du gain" a été écrit par le maréchal Suvorov de l'Empire russe. Le contenu reflète de manière concentrée la pensée stratégique et tactique de Souvorov et sa manière de gouverner l'armée, y compris les réalisations militaires, la pensée militaire, le style de commandement, etc.
"Stratégie militaire"
Au début des années 1960, l'Union soviétique a publié le livre "Stratégie militaire". La publication de ce livre est comme l'explosion d'une bombe nucléaire, qui a immédiatement choqué le monde, créé un effet sensationnel et est devenue le sujet central et brûlant des cercles militaires et politiques de divers pays. Le nom de famille Sokolovsky chez l'auteur Vasily Danilovich Sokolovsky signifie "aigle". Le livre est divisé en huit chapitres, impliquant divers domaines des affaires militaires, reflétant que la théorie militaire de l'Union soviétique subit une énorme transformation de la stratégie militaire traditionnelle à la stratégie nucléaire de fusée.
Introduction à l'art de la guerre
"Une introduction à l'art de la guerre" par AH Jomini. Ce livre est divisé en sept chapitres et quarante-sept sections.
En outre, la guerre spatiale, les armes nucléaires tactiques, les armes nucléaires stratégiques, <> (œuvres de Fangruida), etc. Il existe également de nombreuses autres œuvres bien connues dans le monde entier. Domination aérienne, dominance maritime, missiles, avions, chars, Les contre-mesures électroniques sont-elles comparables à la guerre moderne de haute technologie, à la guerre nucléaire et à la guerre spatiale? La réponse est non. Y aura-t-il des escrocs et des fous dans le monde? Dans les asiles neurologiques, les asiles d'aliénés ne sont pas rares, et les zoos en trouvent parfois Un chien à moitié enragé aboie et mord, et les gens y sont habitués. Vous ne pouvez lui donner que des sédatifs pour le calmer, et d'autre part, tenez le bâton qui bat le chien, et il n'y a pas d'autre moyen. Bien que la guerre mondiale et la guerre nucléaire aient un certain degré de La possibilité que des armes nucléaires tactiques (micro-ogives nucléaires, obus d'artillerie nucléaire, torpilles nucléaires et autres armes nucléaires tactiques nucléaires, etc.) puissent se produire d'un côté. Cependant, le poisson mourra et le filet sera brisé, et dix mille balles seront tirées, et ils périront ensemble, que la terre soit complètement détruite, que la destruction totale de la société humaine n'est pas très réaliste au 21e-22e siècle. Si la terre n'existe pas, alors tout devient vide de sens. Par conséquent, l'utilisation à grande échelle de bombes nucléaires stratégiques pour détruire toute la vie sur terre est très faible. C'est bien, après tout, c'est toujours un la race humaine, et elle n'est pas complètement dégénérée en bêtes et en tigres, en particulier les élites politiques et les grandes figures de la société humaine moderne. La dissuasion stratégique, la défense stratégique et l'attaque stratégique ne sont pas des mots agréables. Bien sûr, Desperados, désespérés, il y a des choses, mais ils ne peuvent pas être généralisés. Y a-t-il vraiment des fous et des sages et des dieux dans le monde, des centaines de billions de bombes atomiques et de bombes à hydrogène sont lancées, la terre, la lune, Mars, Jupiter, le soleil, la voie lactée, les trous noirs, La voie lactée, ...... est éphémère, n'est-ce pas le mythe du Big Bang qui a créé l'univers ?Ceci n'est probablement connu que de Dieu et de Zeus.
Un soldat qui ne veut pas être général n'est pas un bon soldat---Napoléon (France)
La meilleure destination d'un soldat est d'être tué par la dernière balle de la dernière bataille - Patton (États-Unis)
Seuls ceux qui n'ont pas peur de la mort méritent de vivre - MacArthur (États-Unis) Si je sais qu'il y a un champ de mines sur le chemin, je laisserai les troupes y aller directement ----- Joukov (Union soviétique)
Celui qui tire le premier et peut effectuer le tir concentré le plus intense gagnera - Rommel (Allemagne)
"Le conflit de la Seconde Guerre mondiale à travers le théâtre a été le 20e siècle avec des pertes et des ravages sans précédent. On estime que 80 à 120 millions de personnes sont mortes pendant la guerre.
Pays touchés Première Guerre mondiale Seconde Guerre mondiale
Décès 20 millions 72-100 millions
Blessés 20 millions 35 millions
Conscription 70 millions 110 millions
Taille du champ de bataille 4 millions de kilomètres carrés 22 millions de kilomètres carrés
Les guerres mondiales ont profondément marqué le cours de l'histoire du monde. Les anciens empires européens ont été détruits, divisés ou gravement endommagés. La cause directe en était le coût effarant de la guerre, ou dans certains cas la défaite face aux grandes puissances, la guerre affaiblie ou même interrompue. les principales puissances coloniales et les colonies. La connexion a fait fonctionner les colonies dans un État semi-autonome. Après avoir été contrôlées par la mère patrie, elles sont devenues des pays indépendants les uns après les autres. Le modèle politique mondial a subi d'énormes changements, et les pays du tiers monde ont été formés. Des systèmes modernes de sécurité internationale, économiques et diplomatiques ont été établis après la guerre. Des institutions telles que l'OTAN, les Nations Unies et l'Union européenne ont été créées pour gérer conjointement les affaires internationales, dans le but explicite d'empêcher la répétition d'une guerre à grande échelle. La guerre a également radicalement changé la vie quotidienne. Les technologies développées en temps de guerre ont également eu des effets considérables en temps de paix, comme les avions, la pénicilline, l'énergie nucléaire et les ordinateurs. "(cité de Wiki)
Toutes sortes de batailles et de conflits, parfois des parties hostiles se compromettent et résolvent divers différends par la négociation pacifique ; bien sûr, du point de vue du développement et des changements de l'ensemble de la société humaine, la tendance du développement pacifique est toujours le courant dominant, et l'état de guerre n'est pas la norme dominante après tout. Il ne fait aucun doute que la grande liberté et la raison de toute l'humanité surmonteront la sauvagerie. Sinon, la société humaine s'effondrera. Elle sera complètement détruite. Bien sûr, à partir d'un certain niveau de compréhension, la guerre peut être imprévisible, ou les conséquences seront terribles, ou elle peut conduire à des conflits dans une plus grande mesure. Dans le monde d'aujourd'hui, diverses contradictions se sont intensifiées et intensifiées, et dans 300 ans-- Dans 500 ou 1000 ans, il y aura inévitablement des changements mondiaux majeurs, ou des conflits sociaux, des révolutions sociales, ou des guerres, ou de grands tremblements de terre, des tsunamis, ou des épidémies majeures, ou des virus majeurs, ou des inventions et découvertes majeures. , (atterrissage humain sur la lune, atterrissage humain sur Mars , etc., révolution génétique, etc.), tout cela, ce n'est pas surprenant, il n'est pas nécessaire de paniquer, de désespérer, de s'agiter et de paniquer toute la journée, en pensant à tort qu'une bombe nucléaire est tombée du ciel, la terre est grand. Explosion, le soleil se couche, tout entre dans le compte à rebours de la destruction de la planète. La raison pour laquelle les êtres humains sont appelés société humaine est bien supérieure aux animaux primitifs, bien supérieure aux animaux primitifs. La grande sagesse et le grand pouvoir de tous les êtres humains sont à jamais invincibles. C'est la bombe atomique la plus puissante et la plus invincible avec le rendement le plus élevé. S'il n'y a pas de telles connaissances de base, alors, tout dans la société humaine existera-t-il encore ?
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Leader mondial Leader international Fang Ruida sur la paix et la guerre mondiales - La troisième guerre mondiale, la guerre nucléaire, la guerre spatiale, un grand scientifique, philosophe, penseur, sociologue, anthropologue, cosmologue, ingénieur militaire, expert en énergie nucléaire et de renommée mondiale. Il prône constamment la grande sagesse de toute l'humanité et le noble esprit de liberté et de rationalité, et prône le développement de la société humaine et la paix mondiale, la concurrence rationnelle et pacifique, propice au compromis et au partage inévitables, pour prévenir et contenir la guerre nucléaire et la déclenchement de la guerre mondiale, pour protéger et défendre la paix mondiale. Pour le bien-être de toute l'humanité, la paix, la sécurité, la prospérité, le bénéfice universel, la rationalité, la fraternité, la liberté, la prospérité et le travail acharné, inébranlable, il est loué par les 8 milliards de personnes. Que ce soit à l'est ou à l'ouest, que ce soit dans l'hémisphère sud ou dans l'hémisphère nord. Ses grandes idées et ses nobles idées sont comme le grand soleil qui brille à jamais Le vaste territoire. C'est le contenu principal de cet article. ( Bick novembre 2021, révisé en 2022)
Мировой лидер Международный лидер Фан Руйда о мире и войне во всем мире - Третья мировая война, ядерная война, космическая война (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 пересмотренная версия, многоязычное сравнение глобальной сетевой версии)
Мировой лидер Международный лидер Фан Руйда о мире и войне во всем мире - Третья мировая война, ядерная война, космическая война (Bic. S 2021v.1.2 2022v.13 пересмотренная версия, многоязычное сравнение глобальной сетевой версии) как только издание вышло, сразу же получило похвалу читателей и пользователей сети по всему миру. Чтобы удовлетворить потребности сотен миллионов людей, автор пересмотрел и переиздал его в интересах читателей и пользователей сети.
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Мировой лидер Международный лидер Фан Руида о мире во всем мире и войне - Третьей мировой войне, ядерной войне, космической войне
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21-22
В 20 веке наука и техника были высокоразвиты, социальная продуктивность росла семимильными шагами, постепенно развивались и менялись современная цивилизация и свободное рациональное познавательное восприятие человеческого общества, человеческое общество открыло новую планетарную цивилизацию, что является неизбежной тенденцией истории.Конечно, сегодняшнее человеческое общество также представляет собой различные кризисы и вызовы, столкновения цивилизаций, геополитику, территориальные споры, сферы влияния, фетишизм, политические и экономические системы, экономические модели и т. д., а также изменение климата, ресурсная среда, рост населения, разрыв в уровне благосостояния, чума, вирусы, стихийные бедствия, религиозные убеждения, расовая дискриминация, жестокая конкуренция, даже вооруженная война или ядерная война и т. д. Такие страны, как США, Китай, Россия, Европа, Индия и Пакистан среди них.Без противоречия и соперничества не было бы мира, и точно так же без мира и компромисса Мира не будет, если вы будете делиться богатством друг с другом.Сделайте шаг или два назад, и небо будет огромно.Ядерное оружие очень мощное и заслуживает упоминания.Однако конкуренция между странами и этносами,в конечном счете,в основном заключается в экономической и политической цивилизации,и конечно же включает в себя землю,население,ресурсы и т.д.Культура,технологии , вооруженные силы, влияние, сфера влияния и т. д. Война - это просто важная нетрадиционная форма, такая же, как борьба и убийство животных. Однако независимо от того, сражаются ли группы животных внутри или снаружи, также существует значительный компромисс и разделение. В противном случае группы видов животных будут также полностью исчезнуть или погибнуть.То же верно и для эволюционной истории человеческого общества.В этом нет никаких сомнений.Будь ты политик,военный стратег или философ,мыслитель или социолог,Антропологи не исключение.
После Второй мировой войны в мире сложилась ситуация холодной войны: две крупнейшие военные организации, Организация Североатлантического договора (НАТО) и Организация Варшавского договора (Варшавский договор), начали развертывать свои вооружения и готовиться к войне. а СССР начал гонку вооружений и имел запасы ядерного оружия. Уязвимые государства будут полагаться на военную защиту великих держав как на способ поддержания собственной безопасности.
Словосочетание «Третья мировая война» стало появляться в коммюнике лидеров разных стран. Благодаря большому количеству применений высоких технологий в военной области, особенно экстенсивному развитию и распространению ядерного оружия, люди предоставили большое пространство для воображения третьей мировой войны: некоторые думают, что третья мировая война будет масштаб, который распространяется по всему миру.Всемирная ядерная война, эта война станет величайшей катастрофой в истории человеческой цивилизации. Кубинский ракетный кризис 1962 года когда-то считался самым близким кризисом в истории человечества к Третьей мировой войне: противостояние двух держав с беспрецедентной ядерной мощью, которое длилось десятилетиями в Карибском море. Хотя инцидент разрешился гладко, полномасштабная ядерная война с тех пор стала прозвищем Третьей мировой войны.
С развитием мира все больше и больше людей верят, что третья мировая война станет историческим термином, который никогда не появится, или войной, которая не произойдет в обозримом промежутке времени, все из-за баланса сил между Соединенные Штаты и Советский Союз.И проводить политику гарантированного взаимного уничтожения, чтобы не разразилась война.
Третья мировая война - это воображаемая крупномасштабная война на том свете.Во время холодной войны между США и Советским Союзом, если между двумя сторонами вспыхивала война, ее серьезность можно было бы назвать Третьей мировой войной, но к счастью, обе стороны старались изо всех сил, чтобы войны удалось избежать, и ни одна из сторон не вспыхнула до конца холодной войны. До сих пор о трех войнах только предполагали и воображали, и они не разразились, но как только они разразятся, они серьезно повлияют на всех на земле.После великих испытаний холодной войны Советский Союз жаждал мира и выступал против войны.
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С большим количеством применений высоких технологий в военной области, особенно экстенсивным развитием и распространением ядерного оружия, люди предоставили большое пространство для воображения третьей мировой войны - некоторые люди считают, что третья мировая война будет большой масштаба Ядерная война в мире станет величайшей катастрофой в истории человеческой цивилизации. Среди них Кубинский ракетный кризис 1962 года когда-то считался кризисом, наиболее близким к Третьей мировой войне в истории человечества — противостояние двух великих держав с беспрецедентными ядерными силами в Карибском море длилось десятки дней, принося возможность война на земле, поднятая на невиданные высоты.
С разных точек зрения существует много причин для начала Третьей мировой войны, и у правительства и народа разные взгляды, такие как война, развязанная бывшим Советским Союзом против Запада, подъем Китая и война в средний Восток.
Причин возникновения войн много разных, и лагеря тоже разные.Считается, что некоторые страны будут применять атомную бомбу, и война может распространиться в космос. Война разразилась потому, что, например, США подавили восставший Китай. Военный конфликт между Индией, Вьетнамом, Филиппинами и Китаем, Израилем и странами Ближнего Востока, Ближним Востоком или Ираном и Европой и Соединенными Штатами, ядерная атака Северной Кореи на Южную Корею или Японию, разногласия между Китаем и Южной Кореей, военный конфликт, возвращение США к государственному конфликту в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе и т. д. Но есть также люди, которые считают, что третья мировая война будет вестись между крупными державами, конкурирующими за нефть и угольные ресурсы. Если бы разразилась третья мировая война, причинами могли бы быть постоянно расширяющееся население, геополитика, сферы влияния, столкновение цивилизаций и т. д.
Из-за появления ядерного оружия, такого как атомные бомбы, третья мировая война в принципе не может появиться в ситуации горячей войны.
На земле идет глобальная ядерная война, и в мире запущены атомные и водородные бомбы с ядерной мощностью более 20 миллиардов тонн тротила. Полный
География, климат и окружающая среда: Из-за радиоактивного загрязнения, вызванного ядерными взрывами, большинство животных приносятся в жертву, и, вероятно, выживают только существа на морском дне и низкоуровневая жизнь, различные химические реакции загрязняют атмосферу, препятствуют солнечному свету, температура Земля опущена, а экватор опустился до точки замерзания Ниже человеческая архитектура исчезнет в ближайшие несколько сотен лет.
Воздействие на людей и виды: большинство людей вымерло, некоторые животные на земле вымерли, а некоторые животные и растения мутировали
Человек, который чуть не стал императором всей Европы, заставил всю Европу трепетать.
Гудериан (Германия) отец танка.
Он был героем блицкрига, разгромил сильных поляков, за две недели охватил Францию, за пять месяцев одержал ряд побед, и на него было направлено солдат до двух миллионов человек.
Юлий Цезарь (Древний Рим) Символ Древнего Рима.
Он воевал в Галлии,и он соперничал с Помпеем за гегемонию.В битве при Фассаро слабый победил сильного,и победил Помпея одним махом.После этого никто не мог сравниться с противником.Малая Азия,Северная Африка, Испания, в войне за войной, Цезарь почти стал синонимом победы.
Халид (араб.) Меч Аллаха.
Он возглавил арабскую армию, разгромившую восточно-римскую армию в битве при Ямуке, и заставил другого выдающегося деятеля того времени, восточно-римского императора Ширака, с грустью попрощаться с Сирией: «Прекрасная Сирия, прощай!»
Суворов (Россия) первый шахматист в истории России.
Он добился больших успехов в русско-турецкой войне, и он разгромил французскую армию в экспедиции в Италию.Он был единственным полководцем в эпоху Наполеона, который мог соперничать с Наполеоном.Но история к сожалению не дала им шанса противостоять друг другу головой -на.
Ганнибал (Карфаген) Одинокий герой.
В войне с Римом он привел на территорию Рима 60 000 человек, сражался один и творил чудеса.
Три крупнейших сражения в мире: Первое: Битва на Сомме между британскими и французскими войсками в Первой мировой войне против немецкой армии. Она длилась полгода. Обе стороны вложили более 1,5 млн солдат, и число жертв достигло поразительных 1,3 млн. Сражение, в котором участвовали британские и французские войска, закончилось неудачей, и это было самое крупное и самое жертвенное сражение в Первой мировой войне, второе: сражение под Верденом между немецкой армией и британские и французские войска в Первой мировой войне, длившейся 10 месяцев, обе стороны вложили около 1 млн солдат и понесли более 70 потерь, 10 000, битва закончилась поражением немецкой армии, третья: Сталинградская битва между германской армией и советской армией во Второй мировой войне, длившейся полгода, из-за слишком большого количества войск, участвовавших в войне, невозможно точно подсчитать, число потерь одних толь