used and old collection..

oh yeah!!

old and used fashion maximizer triumph bra,no more in production

Infrared converted Sony A6000 with Sony E 16mm F2.8 mounted with the Sony Ultra Wide Converter. HDR AEB +/-2 total of 3 exposures at F8, 16mm, auto focus and processed with Photomatix HDR software. Blue and red color channels swapped.

 

High Dynamic Range (HDR)

 

High-dynamic-range imaging (HDRI) is a high dynamic range (HDR) technique used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of luminosity than is possible with standard digital imaging or photographic techniques. The aim is to present a similar range of luminance to that experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through adaptation of the iris and other methods, adjusts constantly to adapt to a broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a wide range of light conditions.

 

HDR images can represent a greater range of luminance levels than can be achieved using more 'traditional' methods, such as many real-world scenes containing very bright, direct sunlight to extreme shade, or very faint nebulae. This is often achieved by capturing and then combining several different, narrower range, exposures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, referred to as LDR, resulting in the loss of detail in highlights or shadows.

 

The two primary types of HDR images are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple low-dynamic-range (LDR) or standard-dynamic-range (SDR) photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image sensors, such as an oversampled binary image sensor.

 

Due to the limitations of printing and display contrast, the extended luminosity range of an HDR image has to be compressed to be made visible. The method of rendering an HDR image to a standard monitor or printing device is called tone mapping. This method reduces the overall contrast of an HDR image to facilitate display on devices or printouts with lower dynamic range, and can be applied to produce images with preserved local contrast (or exaggerated for artistic effect).

 

In photography, dynamic range is measured in exposure value (EV) differences (known as stops). An increase of one EV, or 'one stop', represents a doubling of the amount of light. Conversely, a decrease of one EV represents a halving of the amount of light. Therefore, revealing detail in the darkest of shadows requires high exposures, while preserving detail in very bright situations requires very low exposures. Most cameras cannot provide this range of exposure values within a single exposure, due to their low dynamic range. High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard-exposure images, often using exposure bracketing, and then later merging them into a single HDR image, usually within a photo manipulation program). Digital images are often encoded in a camera's raw image format, because 8-bit JPEG encoding does not offer a wide enough range of values to allow fine transitions (and regarding HDR, later introduces undesirable effects due to lossy compression).

 

Any camera that allows manual exposure control can make images for HDR work, although one equipped with auto exposure bracketing (AEB) is far better suited. Images from film cameras are less suitable as they often must first be digitized, so that they can later be processed using software HDR methods.

 

In most imaging devices, the degree of exposure to light applied to the active element (be it film or CCD) can be altered in one of two ways: by either increasing/decreasing the size of the aperture or by increasing/decreasing the time of each exposure. Exposure variation in an HDR set is only done by altering the exposure time and not the aperture size; this is because altering the aperture size also affects the depth of field and so the resultant multiple images would be quite different, preventing their final combination into a single HDR image.

 

An important limitation for HDR photography is that any movement between successive images will impede or prevent success in combining them afterwards. Also, as one must create several images (often three or five and sometimes more) to obtain the desired luminance range, such a full 'set' of images takes extra time. HDR photographers have developed calculation methods and techniques to partially overcome these problems, but the use of a sturdy tripod is, at least, advised.

 

Some cameras have an auto exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from the 3 EV of the Canon EOS 40D, to the 18 EV of the Canon EOS-1D Mark II. As the popularity of this imaging method grows, several camera manufactures are now offering built-in HDR features. For example, the Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode that captures an HDR image and outputs (only) a tone mapped JPEG file. The Canon PowerShot G12, Canon PowerShot S95 and Canon PowerShot S100 offer similar features in a smaller format.. Nikon's approach is called 'Active D-Lighting' which applies exposure compensation and tone mapping to the image as it comes from the sensor, with the accent being on retaing a realistic effect . Some smartphones provide HDR modes, and most mobile platforms have apps that provide HDR picture taking.

 

Camera characteristics such as gamma curves, sensor resolution, noise, photometric calibration and color calibration affect resulting high-dynamic-range images.

 

Color film negatives and slides consist of multiple film layers that respond to light differently. As a consequence, transparent originals (especially positive slides) feature a very high dynamic range

 

Tone mapping

Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of an entire image while retaining localized contrast. Although it is a distinct operation, tone mapping is often applied to HDRI files by the same software package.

 

Several software applications are available on the PC, Mac and Linux platforms for producing HDR files and tone mapped images. Notable titles include

 

Adobe Photoshop

Aurora HDR

Dynamic Photo HDR

HDR Efex Pro

HDR PhotoStudio

Luminance HDR

MagicRaw

Oloneo PhotoEngine

Photomatix Pro

PTGui

 

Information stored in high-dynamic-range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors as they should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called scene-referred, in contrast to traditional digital images, which are device-referred or output-referred. Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called gamma encoding or gamma correction. The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges.

 

HDR images often don't use fixed ranges per color channel—other than traditional images—to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. For that purpose, they don't use integer values to represent the single color channels (e.g., 0-255 in an 8 bit per pixel interval for red, green and blue) but instead use a floating point representation. Common are 16-bit (half precision) or 32-bit floating point numbers to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with a color depth that has as few as 10–12 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.

 

History of HDR photography

The idea of using several exposures to adequately reproduce a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard methods, as the luminosity range was too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two into one picture in positive.

 

Mid 20th century

Manual tone mapping was accomplished by dodging and burning – selectively increasing or decreasing the exposure of regions of the photograph to yield better tonality reproduction. This was effective because the dynamic range of the negative is significantly higher than would be available on the finished positive paper print when that is exposed via the negative in a uniform manner. An excellent example is the photograph Schweitzer at the Lamp by W. Eugene Smith, from his 1954 photo essay A Man of Mercy on Dr. Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa. The image took 5 days to reproduce the tonal range of the scene, which ranges from a bright lamp (relative to the scene) to a dark shadow.

 

Ansel Adams elevated dodging and burning to an art form. Many of his famous prints were manipulated in the darkroom with these two methods. Adams wrote a comprehensive book on producing prints called The Print, which prominently features dodging and burning, in the context of his Zone System.

 

With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods.

 

Color film capable of directly recording high-dynamic-range images was developed by Charles Wyckoff and EG&G "in the course of a contract with the Department of the Air Force". This XR film had three emulsion layers, an upper layer having an ASA speed rating of 400, a middle layer with an intermediate rating, and a lower layer with an ASA rating of 0.004. The film was processed in a manner similar to color films, and each layer produced a different color. The dynamic range of this extended range film has been estimated as 1:108. It has been used to photograph nuclear explosions, for astronomical photography, for spectrographic research, and for medical imaging. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of Life magazine in the mid-1950s.

 

Late 20th century

Georges Cornuéjols and licensees of his patents (Brdi, Hymatom) introduced the principle of HDR video image, in 1986, by interposing a matricial LCD screen in front of the camera's image sensor, increasing the sensors dynamic by five stops. The concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras by a group from the Technion in Israel led by Dr. Oliver Hilsenrath and Prof. Y.Y.Zeevi who filed for a patent on this concept in 1988.

 

In February and April 1990, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the first real-time HDR camera that combined two images captured by a sensor3435 or simultaneously3637 by two sensors of the camera. This process is known as bracketing used for a video stream.

 

In 1991, the first commercial video camera was introduced that performed real-time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image, by Hymatom, licensee of Georges Cornuéjols.

 

Also in 1991, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the HDR+ image principle by non-linear accumulation of images to increase the sensitivity of the camera: for low-light environments, several successive images are accumulated, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.

 

In 1993, another commercial medical camera producing an HDR video image, by the Technion.

 

Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic-range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping the result. Global HDR was first introduced in 19931 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard.

 

On October 28, 1998, Ben Sarao created one of the first nighttime HDR+G (High Dynamic Range + Graphic image)of STS-95 on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. It consisted of four film images of the shuttle at night that were digitally composited with additional digital graphic elements. The image was first exhibited at NASA Headquarters Great Hall, Washington DC in 1999 and then published in Hasselblad Forum, Issue 3 1993, Volume 35 ISSN 0282-5449.

 

The advent of consumer digital cameras produced a new demand for HDR imaging to improve the light response of digital camera sensors, which had a much smaller dynamic range than film. Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Laboratory. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: (1) generate one floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods); and then (2) convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a lightspace image, lightspace picture, or radiance map. Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.

 

21st century

In 2005, Adobe Systems introduced several new features in Photoshop CS2 including Merge to HDR, 32 bit floating point image support, and HDR tone mapping.

 

On June 30, 2016, Microsoft added support for the digital compositing of HDR images to Windows 10 using the Universal Windows Platform.

 

HDR sensors

Modern CMOS image sensors can often capture a high dynamic range from a single exposure. The wide dynamic range of the captured image is non-linearly compressed into a smaller dynamic range electronic representation. However, with proper processing, the information from a single exposure can be used to create an HDR image.

 

Such HDR imaging is used in extreme dynamic range applications like welding or automotive work. Some other cameras designed for use in security applications can automatically provide two or more images for each frame, with changing exposure. For example, a sensor for 30fps video will give out 60fps with the odd frames at a short exposure time and the even frames at a longer exposure time. Some of the sensor may even combine the two images on-chip so that a wider dynamic range without in-pixel compression is directly available to the user for display or processing.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-dynamic-range_imaging

 

Infrared Photography

 

In infrared photography, the film or image sensor used is sensitive to infrared light. The part of the spectrum used is referred to as near-infrared to distinguish it from far-infrared, which is the domain of thermal imaging. Wavelengths used for photography range from about 700 nm to about 900 nm. Film is usually sensitive to visible light too, so an infrared-passing filter is used; this lets infrared (IR) light pass through to the camera, but blocks all or most of the visible light spectrum (the filter thus looks black or deep red). ("Infrared filter" may refer either to this type of filter or to one that blocks infrared but passes other wavelengths.)

 

When these filters are used together with infrared-sensitive film or sensors, "in-camera effects" can be obtained; false-color or black-and-white images with a dreamlike or sometimes lurid appearance known as the "Wood Effect," an effect mainly caused by foliage (such as tree leaves and grass) strongly reflecting in the same way visible light is reflected from snow. There is a small contribution from chlorophyll fluorescence, but this is marginal and is not the real cause of the brightness seen in infrared photographs. The effect is named after the infrared photography pioneer Robert W. Wood, and not after the material wood, which does not strongly reflect infrared.

 

The other attributes of infrared photographs include very dark skies and penetration of atmospheric haze, caused by reduced Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering, respectively, compared to visible light. The dark skies, in turn, result in less infrared light in shadows and dark reflections of those skies from water, and clouds will stand out strongly. These wavelengths also penetrate a few millimeters into skin and give a milky look to portraits, although eyes often look black.

 

Until the early 20th century, infrared photography was not possible because silver halide emulsions are not sensitive to longer wavelengths than that of blue light (and to a lesser extent, green light) without the addition of a dye to act as a color sensitizer. The first infrared photographs (as distinct from spectrographs) to be published appeared in the February 1910 edition of The Century Magazine and in the October 1910 edition of the Royal Photographic Society Journal to illustrate papers by Robert W. Wood, who discovered the unusual effects that now bear his name. The RPS co-ordinated events to celebrate the centenary of this event in 2010. Wood's photographs were taken on experimental film that required very long exposures; thus, most of his work focused on landscapes. A further set of infrared landscapes taken by Wood in Italy in 1911 used plates provided for him by CEK Mees at Wratten & Wainwright. Mees also took a few infrared photographs in Portugal in 1910, which are now in the Kodak archives.

 

Infrared-sensitive photographic plates were developed in the United States during World War I for spectroscopic analysis, and infrared sensitizing dyes were investigated for improved haze penetration in aerial photography. After 1930, new emulsions from Kodak and other manufacturers became useful to infrared astronomy.

 

Infrared photography became popular with photography enthusiasts in the 1930s when suitable film was introduced commercially. The Times regularly published landscape and aerial photographs taken by their staff photographers using Ilford infrared film. By 1937 33 kinds of infrared film were available from five manufacturers including Agfa, Kodak and Ilford. Infrared movie film was also available and was used to create day-for-night effects in motion pictures, a notable example being the pseudo-night aerial sequences in the James Cagney/Bette Davis movie The Bride Came COD.

 

False-color infrared photography became widely practiced with the introduction of Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film and Ektachrome Infrared EIR. The first version of this, known as Kodacolor Aero-Reversal-Film, was developed by Clark and others at the Kodak for camouflage detection in the 1940s. The film became more widely available in 35mm form in the 1960s but KODAK AEROCHROME III Infrared Film 1443 has been discontinued.

 

Infrared photography became popular with a number of 1960s recording artists, because of the unusual results; Jimi Hendrix, Donovan, Frank and a slow shutter speed without focus compensation, however wider apertures like f/2.0 can produce sharp photos only if the lens is meticulously refocused to the infrared index mark, and only if this index mark is the correct one for the filter and film in use. However, it should be noted that diffraction effects inside a camera are greater at infrared wavelengths so that stopping down the lens too far may actually reduce sharpness.

 

Most apochromatic ('APO') lenses do not have an Infrared index mark and do not need to be refocused for the infrared spectrum because they are already optically corrected into the near-infrared spectrum. Catadioptric lenses do not often require this adjustment because their mirror containing elements do not suffer from chromatic aberration and so the overall aberration is comparably less. Catadioptric lenses do, of course, still contain lenses, and these lenses do still have a dispersive property.

 

Infrared black-and-white films require special development times but development is usually achieved with standard black-and-white film developers and chemicals (like D-76). Kodak HIE film has a polyester film base that is very stable but extremely easy to scratch, therefore special care must be used in the handling of Kodak HIE throughout the development and printing/scanning process to avoid damage to the film. The Kodak HIE film was sensitive to 900 nm.

 

As of November 2, 2007, "KODAK is preannouncing the discontinuance" of HIE Infrared 35 mm film stating the reasons that, "Demand for these products has been declining significantly in recent years, and it is no longer practical to continue to manufacture given the low volume, the age of the product formulations and the complexity of the processes involved." At the time of this notice, HIE Infrared 135-36 was available at a street price of around $12.00 a roll at US mail order outlets.

 

Arguably the greatest obstacle to infrared film photography has been the increasing difficulty of obtaining infrared-sensitive film. However, despite the discontinuance of HIE, other newer infrared sensitive emulsions from EFKE, ROLLEI, and ILFORD are still available, but these formulations have differing sensitivity and specifications from the venerable KODAK HIE that has been around for at least two decades. Some of these infrared films are available in 120 and larger formats as well as 35 mm, which adds flexibility to their application. With the discontinuance of Kodak HIE, Efke's IR820 film has become the only IR film on the marketneeds update with good sensitivity beyond 750 nm, the Rollei film does extend beyond 750 nm but IR sensitivity falls off very rapidly.

  

Color infrared transparency films have three sensitized layers that, because of the way the dyes are coupled to these layers, reproduce infrared as red, red as green, and green as blue. All three layers are sensitive to blue so the film must be used with a yellow filter, since this will block blue light but allow the remaining colors to reach the film. The health of foliage can be determined from the relative strengths of green and infrared light reflected; this shows in color infrared as a shift from red (healthy) towards magenta (unhealthy). Early color infrared films were developed in the older E-4 process, but Kodak later manufactured a color transparency film that could be developed in standard E-6 chemistry, although more accurate results were obtained by developing using the AR-5 process. In general, color infrared does not need to be refocused to the infrared index mark on the lens.

 

In 2007 Kodak announced that production of the 35 mm version of their color infrared film (Ektachrome Professional Infrared/EIR) would cease as there was insufficient demand. Since 2011, all formats of color infrared film have been discontinued. Specifically, Aerochrome 1443 and SO-734.

 

There is no currently available digital camera that will produce the same results as Kodak color infrared film although the equivalent images can be produced by taking two exposures, one infrared and the other full-color, and combining in post-production. The color images produced by digital still cameras using infrared-pass filters are not equivalent to those produced on color infrared film. The colors result from varying amounts of infrared passing through the color filters on the photo sites, further amended by the Bayer filtering. While this makes such images unsuitable for the kind of applications for which the film was used, such as remote sensing of plant health, the resulting color tonality has proved popular artistically.

 

Color digital infrared, as part of full spectrum photography is gaining popularity. The ease of creating a softly colored photo with infrared characteristics has found interest among hobbyists and professionals.

 

In 2008, Los Angeles photographer, Dean Bennici started cutting and hand rolling Aerochrome color Infrared film. All Aerochrome medium and large format which exists today came directly from his lab. The trend in infrared photography continues to gain momentum with the success of photographer Richard Mosse and multiple users all around the world.

 

Digital camera sensors are inherently sensitive to infrared light, which would interfere with the normal photography by confusing the autofocus calculations or softening the image (because infrared light is focused differently from visible light), or oversaturating the red channel. Also, some clothing is transparent in the infrared, leading to unintended (at least to the manufacturer) uses of video cameras. Thus, to improve image quality and protect privacy, many digital cameras employ infrared blockers. Depending on the subject matter, infrared photography may not be practical with these cameras because the exposure times become overly long, often in the range of 30 seconds, creating noise and motion blur in the final image. However, for some subject matter the long exposure does not matter or the motion blur effects actually add to the image. Some lenses will also show a 'hot spot' in the centre of the image as their coatings are optimised for visible light and not for IR.

 

An alternative method of DSLR infrared photography is to remove the infrared blocker in front of the sensor and replace it with a filter that removes visible light. This filter is behind the mirror, so the camera can be used normally - handheld, normal shutter speeds, normal composition through the viewfinder, and focus, all work like a normal camera. Metering works but is not always accurate because of the difference between visible and infrared refraction. When the IR blocker is removed, many lenses which did display a hotspot cease to do so, and become perfectly usable for infrared photography. Additionally, because the red, green and blue micro-filters remain and have transmissions not only in their respective color but also in the infrared, enhanced infrared color may be recorded.

 

Since the Bayer filters in most digital cameras absorb a significant fraction of the infrared light, these cameras are sometimes not very sensitive as infrared cameras and can sometimes produce false colors in the images. An alternative approach is to use a Foveon X3 sensor, which does not have absorptive filters on it; the Sigma SD10 DSLR has a removable IR blocking filter and dust protector, which can be simply omitted or replaced by a deep red or complete visible light blocking filter. The Sigma SD14 has an IR/UV blocking filter that can be removed/installed without tools. The result is a very sensitive digital IR camera.

 

While it is common to use a filter that blocks almost all visible light, the wavelength sensitivity of a digital camera without internal infrared blocking is such that a variety of artistic results can be obtained with more conventional filtration. For example, a very dark neutral density filter can be used (such as the Hoya ND400) which passes a very small amount of visible light compared to the near-infrared it allows through. Wider filtration permits an SLR viewfinder to be used and also passes more varied color information to the sensor without necessarily reducing the Wood effect. Wider filtration is however likely to reduce other infrared artefacts such as haze penetration and darkened skies. This technique mirrors the methods used by infrared film photographers where black-and-white infrared film was often used with a deep red filter rather than a visually opaque one.

 

Another common technique with near-infrared filters is to swap blue and red channels in software (e.g. photoshop) which retains much of the characteristic 'white foliage' while rendering skies a glorious blue.

 

Several Sony cameras had the so-called Night Shot facility, which physically moves the blocking filter away from the light path, which makes the cameras very sensitive to infrared light. Soon after its development, this facility was 'restricted' by Sony to make it difficult for people to take photos that saw through clothing. To do this the iris is opened fully and exposure duration is limited to long times of more than 1/30 second or so. It is possible to shoot infrared but neutral density filters must be used to reduce the camera's sensitivity and the long exposure times mean that care must be taken to avoid camera-shake artifacts.

 

Fuji have produced digital cameras for use in forensic criminology and medicine which have no infrared blocking filter. The first camera, designated the S3 PRO UVIR, also had extended ultraviolet sensitivity (digital sensors are usually less sensitive to UV than to IR). Optimum UV sensitivity requires special lenses, but ordinary lenses usually work well for IR. In 2007, FujiFilm introduced a new version of this camera, based on the Nikon D200/ FujiFilm S5 called the IS Pro, also able to take Nikon lenses. Fuji had earlier introduced a non-SLR infrared camera, the IS-1, a modified version of the FujiFilm FinePix S9100. Unlike the S3 PRO UVIR, the IS-1 does not offer UV sensitivity. FujiFilm restricts the sale of these cameras to professional users with their EULA specifically prohibiting "unethical photographic conduct".

 

Phase One digital camera backs can be ordered in an infrared modified form.

 

Remote sensing and thermographic cameras are sensitive to longer wavelengths of infrared (see Infrared spectrum#Commonly used sub-division scheme). They may be multispectral and use a variety of technologies which may not resemble common camera or filter designs. Cameras sensitive to longer infrared wavelengths including those used in infrared astronomy often require cooling to reduce thermally induced dark currents in the sensor (see Dark current (physics)). Lower cost uncooled thermographic digital cameras operate in the Long Wave infrared band (see Thermographic camera#Uncooled infrared detectors). These cameras are generally used for building inspection or preventative maintenance but can be used for artistic pursuits as well.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_photography

 

Maximize for better detail and resolution

Ilene S. Gordon, Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer,.Ingredion, USA at the Annual Meeting 2017 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 19, 2017

Copyright by World Economic Forum / Christian Clavadetscher

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesus_macaque

  

The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), is one of the best-known species of Old World monkeys. It is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and its tolerance of a broad range of habitats. Native to South, Central and Southeast Asia, troops of Macaca mulatta inhabit a great variety of habitats from grasslands to arid and forested areas, but also close to human settlements

  

Characteristics

  

The rhesus macaque is brown or grey in color and has a pink face, which is bereft of fur. Its tail is of medium length and averages between 20.7 and 22.9 cm (8.1 and 9.0 in). Adult males measure approximately 53 cm (21 in) on average and weigh about 7.7 kg (17 lb). Females are smaller, averaging 47 cm (19 in) in length and 5.3 kg (12 lb) in weight. Rhesus macaques have on average 50 vertebrae. Their intermembral index (ratio of arm length to leg length) is 89%. They have dorsal scapulae and a wide rib cage.

 

The rhesus macaque has 32 teeth with a dental formula of 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 and bilophodont molars. The upper molars have four cusps: paracone, metacone, protocone and hypocone. The lower molars also have four cusps: metaconid, protoconid, hypoconid and entoconid.

  

Distribution and habitat

  

Rhesus macaques are native to northern India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Afghanistan, Vietnam, southern China, and some neighboring areas. They have the widest geographic ranges of any nonhuman primate, occupying a great diversity of altitudes throughout Central, South and Southeast Asia. Inhabiting arid, open areas, rhesus macaques may be found in grasslands, woodlands and in mountainous regions up to 2,500 m (8,200 ft) in elevation. They are regular swimmers. Babies as young as a few days old can swim, and adults are known to swim over a half mile between islands, but are often found drowned in small groups where their drinking waters lie. Rhesus macaques are noted for their tendency to move from rural to urban areas, coming to rely on handouts or refuse from humans.[3]

 

The southern and the northern distributional limits for rhesus and bonnet macaques, respectively, currently run parallel to each other in the western part of India, are separated by a large gap in the center, and converge on the eastern coast of the peninsula to form a distribution overlap zone. This overlap region is characterized by the presence of mixed-species troops, with pure troops of both species sometimes occurring even in close proximity to one another. The range extension of rhesus macaque – a natural process in some areas and a direct consequence of introduction by humans in other regions – poses grave implications for the endemic and declining populations of bonnet macaques in southern India.[4]

  

Distribution of subspecies and populations

  

The name "rhesus" is reminiscent of the Greek mythological king Rhesus. However, the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Audebert, who applied the name to the species, stated: "it has no meaning".[5]

 

According to Zimmermann’s first description of 1780, the rhesus macaque is distributed in eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, as far east as the Brahmaputra Valley in peninsular India, Nepal and northern Pakistan. Today, this is known as the Indian rhesus macaque M. m. mulatta, which includes the morphologically similar M. rhesus villosus described by True in 1894 from Kashmir and M. m. mcmahoni described by Pocock in 1932 from Kootai, Pakistan. Several Chinese subspecies of rhesus macaques have been described between 1867 and 1917. The molecular differences identified among populations, however, are alone not consistent enough to conclusively define any subspecies.[6]

The Chinese subspecies can be divided in:

 

M. m. mulatta is found in western and central China, in the south of Yunnan and southwest of Guangxi;[7]

M. m. lasiota (Gray, 1868), the west Chinese rhesus macaque, is distributed in the west of Sichuan, northwest of Yunnan, and southeast of Qinghai;[7] it is possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis (Swinhoe, 1867), if not with M. m. mulatta.[6]

M. m. tcheliensis (Milne-Edwards, 1870), the north Chinese rhesus macaque, lives in the north of Henan, south of Shanxi and near Beijing. Some consider it as the most endangered subspecies.[8] Others consider it possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta.[6]

M. m. vestita (Milne-Edwards, 1892), the Tibetan rhesus macaque, lives in the southeast of Tibet, northwest of Yunnan (Deqing), and perhaps including Yushu;[7] it is possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta.[6]

M. m. littoralis (Elliot, 1909), the south Chinese rhesus macaque, lives in Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, northwest of Guangdong, north of Guangxi, northeast of Yunnan, east of Sichuan and south of Shaanxi;[7] it is possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta.[6]

M. m. brevicaudus, also referred to as Pithecus brevicaudus (Elliot, 1913), lives on the Hainan Island and Wanshan Islands in Guangdong, and the islands near Hong Kong;[7] it may be synonymous with M. m. mulatta.[6]

M. m. siamica (Kloss, 1917), the Indochinese rhesus macaque, is distributed in Myanmar, in the north of Thailand and Vietnam, in Laos and in the Chinese provinces of Anhui, northwest Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, central and eastern Sichuan, and western and south-central Yunnan; possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta.[6]

Feral colonies in the United States[edit]

Main article: feral rhesus macaque

Around the spring of 1938, a colony of rhesus macaques called "the Nazuri's" was released in around Silver Springs in Florida by a tour boat operator known locally as "Colonel Tooey" to enhance his "Jungle Cruise". A traditional story that the monkeys were released for scenery enhancement in the Tarzan movies that were filmed at that location is false, as the only Tarzan movie filmed in the area, 1939's Tarzan Finds a Son! does not contain rhesus macaques.[9] In addition, various colonies of rhesus and other monkey species are speculated to be the result of zoos and wildlife parks destroyed in hurricanes, most notably Hurricane Andrew.[10]

 

A notable colony of rhesus macaques on Morgan Island, one of the Sea Islands in the South Carolina Lowcountry, was imported in the 1970s for use in local labs and are by all accounts thriving.[11]

  

Ecology and behavior

  

Although they are infamous as urban pests, which are quick to steal not only food, but also household items, it is not certain if the pair of jeans draped over the wall on the right is their handiwork.

Rhesus macaques are diurnal animals, and both arboreal and terrestrial. They are quadrupedal and, when on the ground, they walk digitigrade and plantigrade. They are mostly herbivorous, feeding on mainly fruit, but also eating seeds, roots, buds, bark, and cereals. They are estimated to consume around 99 different plant species in 46 families. During the monsoon season, they get much of their water from ripe and succulent fruit. Macaques living far from water sources lick dewdrops from leaves and drink rainwater accumulated in tree hollows.[12] They have also been observed eating termites, grasshoppers, ants and beetles.[13] When food is abundant, they are distributed in patches and forage throughout the day in their home ranges. They drink water when foraging and gather around streams and rivers.[14] Rhesus macaques have specialized pouch-like cheeks, allowing them to temporarily hoard their food.

 

In psychological research, rhesus macaques have demonstrated a variety of complex cognitive abilities, including the ability to make same-different judgments, understand simple rules, and monitor their own mental states.[15] [16] They have even been shown to demonstrate self-agency,[17] an important type of self-awareness.

  

Group structure

  

Like other macaques, rhesus troops comprise a mixture of 20–200 males and females.[18] Females may outnumber the males by a ratio of 4:1. Males and females both have separate hierarchies. Females have highly stable matrilineal hierarchies in which a female’s rank is dependent on the rank of her mother. In addition, a single group may have multiple matrilineal lines existing in a hierarchy, and a female outranks any unrelated females that rank lower than her mother.[19] Rhesus macaques are unusual in that the youngest females tend to outrank their older sisters.[20] This is likely because young females are more fit and fertile. Mothers seem to prevent the older daughters from forming coalitions against her. The youngest daughter is the most dependent on the mother, and would have nothing to gain from helping her siblings in overthrowing their mother. Since each daughter had a high rank in her early years, rebelling against her mother is discouraged.[21] Juvenile male macaques also exist in matrilineal lines, but once they reach four to five years of age, they are driven out of their natal groups by the dominant male. Thus, adult males gain dominance by age and experience.[14]

 

In the group, macaques position themselves based on rank. The "central male subgroup" contains the two or three oldest and most dominant males which are codominant, along with females, their infants and juveniles. This subgroup occupies the center of the group and determines the movements, foraging and other routines.[14] The females of this subgroup are also the most dominant of the entire group. The farther to the periphery a subgroup is, the less dominant it is. Subgroups on the periphery of the central group are run by one dominant male which ranks lower than the central males, and maintains order in the group and communicates messages between the central and peripheral males. A subgroup of subordinate, often subadult males occupy the very edge of the groups and have the responsibility of communicating with other macaque groups and making alarm calls.[22]

  

Communication

  

Rhesus macaques interact using a variety of facial expressive, vocalizations and body postures, and gestures. Perhaps the most common facial expression the macaque makes is the "silent bared teeth" face.[23] This is made between individuals of different social ranks with the lower ranking one giving the expression to its superior. A less dominant individual will also make a "fear grimace" accompanied by a scream to appease or redirect aggression.[24] Another submissive behavior is the "present rump", where an individual raises its tail and exposes its genitals to the dominant one.[23] A dominant individual will threaten another individual standing quadrupedally making a silent "open mouth stare" accompanied by the tail sticking straight.[25] During movements, macaques will make "coos" and "grunts". These are also made during affiliative interactions and approaches before grooming.[26] When they find rare food of high quality, macaques will emit "warbles," "harmonic arches", or "chirps." When in threatening situations, macaques will emit a single loud, high-pitched sound called a "shrill bark".[27] "Screeches," "screams", "squeaks", "pant-threats", "growls", and "barks" are used during aggressive interactions.[27] Infants "gecker" to attract their mother's attention.[28]

  

Reproduction

  

Adult male macaques try to maximize their reproductive success by entering into consort pairs with females, both in and outside the breeding period. Females prefer to mate with males that will increase the survival of their young. Thus, a consort male provides resources for his female and protects her from predators. Larger, more dominant males are more likely to provide for the females. The breeding period can last up to 11 days, and a female usually mates with four males during that time. Male rhesus macaques have not been observed to fight for access to sexually receptive females, although they suffer more wounds during the mating season.[29] Female macaques first breed when they are four years old, and reach menopause at around 25 years of age.[30] When mating, a male rhesus monkey usually ejaculates less than 15 seconds after sexual penetration.[31] Male macaques generally play no role in raising the young, but do have peaceful relationships with the offspring of their consort pairs.[14]

 

Mothers with one or more immature daughters in addition to their infants are in contact with their infants less than those with no older immature daughters, because the mothers may pass the parenting responsibilities to her daughters. High-ranking mothers with older immature daughters also reject their infants significantly more than those without older daughters, and tend to begin mating earlier in the mating season than expected based on their dates of parturition the preceding birth season.[32] Infants farther from the center of the groups are more vulnerable to infanticide from outside groups.[14] Some mothers abuse their infants, which is believed to be the result of controlling parenting styles.[33]

  

In science

  

The rhesus macaque is well known to science. Due to its relatively easy upkeep in captivity, wide availability and closeness to humans anatomically and physiologically, it has been used extensively in medical and biological research on human and animal health-related topics. It has given its name to the rhesus factor, one of the elements of a person's blood group, by the discoverers of the factor, Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener. The rhesus macaque was also used in the well-known experiments on maternal deprivation carried out in the 1950s by controversial comparative psychologist Harry Harlow. Other medical breakthroughs facilitated by the use of the rhesus macaque include:

 

development of the rabies, smallpox, and polio vaccines

creation of drugs to manage HIV/AIDS

understanding of the female reproductive cycle and development of the embryo and the propagation of embryonic stem cells.[34]

The U.S. Army, the U.S. Air Force, and NASA launched rhesus macaques into outer space during the 1950s and 1960s, and the Soviet/Russian space program launched them into space as recently as 1997 on the Bion missions. One of these primates ("Able"), which was launched on a suborbital spaceflight in 1959, was one of the two first living beings (along with "Miss Baker" on the same mission) to travel in space and return alive.[citation needed]

 

On October 25, 1994, the rhesus macaque became the first cloned primate with the birth of Tetra. January 2001 saw the birth of ANDi, the first transgenic primate; ANDi carries foreign genes originally from a jellyfish.[citation needed]

 

Though most studies of the rhesus macaque are from various locations in northern India, some knowledge of the natural behavior of the species comes from studies carried out on a colony established by the Caribbean Primate Research Center of the University of Puerto Rico on the island of Cayo Santiago, off Puerto Rico.[citation needed] There are no predators on the island, and humans are not permitted to land except as part of the research programmes. The colony is provisioned to some extent, but about half of its food comes from natural foraging.

 

Rhesus macaques, like many macaques, carry the Herpes B virus. This virus does not typically harm the monkey but is very dangerous to humans in the rare event that it jumps species, for example in the 1997 death of Yerkes National Primate Research Center researcher Elizabeth Griffin.[35][36][37]

  

Sequencing the genome

  

Genomic information

NCBI genome ID 215

Ploidy diploid

Genome size 3,097.37 Mb

Number of chromosomes 21 pairs

Year of completion 2007

  

Work on the genome of the rhesus macaque was completed in 2007, making the species the second nonhuman primate to have its genome sequenced.[38] Humans and macaques apparently share about 93% of their DNA sequence and shared a common ancestor roughly 25 million years ago.[39] The rhesus macaque has 21 pairs of chromosomes.[40]

 

Comparison of rhesus macaques, chimpanzees and humans revealed the structure of ancestral primate genomes, positive selection pressure and lineage-specific expansions and contractions of gene families.

 

"The goal is to reconstruct the history of every gene in the human genome," said Evan Eichler, University of Washington, Seattle. DNA from different branches of the primate tree will allow us "to trace back the evolutionary changes that occurred at various time points, leading from the common ancestors of the primate clade to Homo sapiens," said Bruce Lahn, University of Chicago.[41]

 

After the human and chimpanzee genomes were sequenced and compared, it was usually impossible to tell whether differences were the result of the human or chimpanzee gene changing from the common ancestor. After the rhesus macaque genome was sequenced, three genes could be compared. If two genes were the same, they are presumed to be the original gene.[42]

 

The chimpanzee and human genome diverged 6 million years ago. They have 98% identity and many conserved regulatory regions. Comparing the macaque and human genomes, which diverged 25 million years ago and had 93% identity, further identified evolutionary pressure and gene function.

 

Like the chimpanzee, changes were on the level of gene rearrangements rather than single mutations. There were frequent insertions, deletions, changes in the order and number of genes, and segmental duplications near gaps, centromeres and telomeres. So macaque, chimpanzee, and human chromosomes are mosaics of each other.

 

Surprisingly, some normal gene sequences in healthy macaques and chimpanzees cause profound disease in humans. For example, the normal sequence of phenylalanine hydroxylase in macaques and chimpanzees is the mutated sequence responsible for phenylketonuria in humans. So humans must have been under evolutionary pressure to adopt a different mechanism.

 

Some gene families are conserved or under evolutionary pressure and expansion in all three primate species, while some are under expansion uniquely in human, chimpanzee or macaque.

 

For example, cholesterol pathways are conserved in all three species (and other primate species). In all three species, immune response genes are under positive selection, and genes of T cell-mediated immunity, signal transduction, cell adhesion, and membrane proteins generally. Genes for keratin, which produce hair shafts, were rapidly evolving in all three species, possibly because of climate change or mate selection. The X chromosome has three times more rearrangements than other chromosomes. The macaque gained 1,358 genes by duplication.

 

Triangulation of human, chimpanzee and macaque sequences showed expansion of gene families in each species.

 

The PKFP gene, important in sugar (fructose) metabolism, is expanded in macaques, possibly because of their high-fruit diet. So are genes for the olfactory receptor, cytochrome P450 (which degrades toxins), and CCL3L1-CCL4 (associated in humans with HIV susceptibility).

 

Immune genes are expanded in macaques, relative to all four great ape species. The macaque genome has 33 major histocompatibility genes, three times that of human. This has clinical significance because the macaque is used as an experimental model of the human immune system.

 

In humans, the preferentially expressed antigen of melanoma (PRAME) gene family is expanded. It is actively expressed in cancers, but normally is testis-specific, possibly involved in spermatogenesis. The PRAME family has 26 members on human chromosome 1. In the macaque, it has eight, and has been very simple and stable for millions of years. The PRAME family arose in translocations in the common mouse-primate ancestor 85 million years ago, and is expanded on mouse chromosome 4.

 

DNA microarrays are used in macaque research. For example, Michael Katze of University of Washington, Seattle, infected macaques with 1918 and modern influenzas. The DNA microarray showed the macaque genomic response to human influenza on a cellular level in each tissue. Both viruses stimulated innate immune system inflammation, but the 1918 flu stimulated stronger and more persistent inflammation, causing extensive tissue damage, and it did not stimulate the interferon-1 pathway. The DNA response showed a transition from innate to adaptive immune response over seven days.[43][44]

 

The full sequence and annotation of the Macaque genome is available on the Ensembl genome browser.

FangruidaWorks：

 

Fangruida's natural philosophy: super-spinning super-rotating cosmic structural system and multi-dimensional multi-directionality of natural philosophy. The original theory of "three sexes" (intensive reading)

************************************************** *****************************************

(Original: Fangruida May 2012 in Athens, Bonn, London, revised finalized in New York)

Edit Translation: Cole Susan 2012 electronic version 2012V1.1 version

************************************************** ****************************************

Key words: ██ Multidimensionality of philosophy

█ The three principles of philosophy

● Three-dimensional multidimensional theory

Absolute relativity of the natural world

Abstract macro concrete microscopic concrete macro abstract ultramicro

The breadth and limitations of human wisdom

Natural Revolution, Cosmic Revolution and Social Revolution

Assimilation or alienation of super-smart humans and super-bio-smart players

The end of life, the multi-spin system of the universe

The structure of thinking: convergence and divergence

The chemical abundance of the universe, homogeneity, heterogeneity

Substance-Species-Organics-Inorganics Life Macromolecules Life and Wisdom Human Life ▲▲

  

Philosophy and history

Studying world history, studying human history, including natural science research, such as the structure and evolution of the universe, the ultra-microsystems of particles, the evolution of life, the future of the universe, the developmental variation of the human world and the future, etc., are a big end. The philosophical thoughts, the colorful flowers, can be described as colorful and magnificent. History of philosophy, history of thought, history of civilization, history of religion, and various research works are full of enthusiasm. Masters of world philosophy, masters of thought, and masters of science have left us with an extremely precious cultural heritage, which is worthy of repeated study and in-depth study. For example, the question of thinking and existence, consciousness and material as the source: cosmic structure, particle structure, origin of life, the future of man and the universe, the society of the planet and the universe, the end of the universe and humanity, the pioneering and limitations of science and technology Sex, human brain thinking structure and highly intelligent biological robots, the existence and destruction of the Earth and the solar system, the large-scale structure of the universe and the homogeneity of the universe, the advanced intelligent animals and life macromolecules, matter and species, the space and time of the universe, black holes And dark matter, big bang and steady state, initial, normal ground state and final state, super-spin and super-spin, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics, evolutionary structure of human society, and so on. Of course, philosophy and natural science and technology are inseparable. Here we mainly discuss natural philosophy. Therefore, there are not many discussions on physical mechanics, etc., mainly in the basic categories of philosophy and natural philosophy. Natural science research papers refer to the author's related works.

  

The history of world philosophy and the history of thought have an extremely important position and extremely important guiding role in human history. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, with the substantial growth and leap of the world economy, the development of human society and new Civilized rationality has reached a new milestone. Economic history, civilization history, social history, political history, military history, cultural history, religious history, intellectual history, philosophy history, and history of the universe are very grand and complex. Here, we mainly study and discuss the history of human understanding, the history of thought, and the history of philosophy. . The big end, the clear veins and trajectories of the world, all kinds of doctrines, all kinds of academics, all kinds of thoughts, various schools, flowers and flowers, quite new. Of course, it is not possible to talk about things, but to involve in-depth research and exploration in the field of natural science and technology, as well as other important areas of research, in order to profoundly understand and understand, what is the great revolution of modern philosophy. Otherwise, there is no way to talk about it, or to go biased and extreme. Western philosophy, Eastern philosophy, religious philosophy, etc.

European Philosophy and Western Philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophy school

The early four universities in ancient Greece were the Ionian, Pythagoras, Elia, and the elemental school; the late four-school school: the cynicism school, the Stoic school, the Epicurean school, New Platon School

 

Ionian

 

Miletus School

(Thales, etc.) (to attribute the world to a specific phenomenon or substance of nature, such as water and gas)

Pythagoras School

(Pythagoras) (everything is counted)

Heraclitus

(The universe is a changing fire, dominated by logos (laws))

Democritus

(propose atomism)

Elijah

(Parmenid) (the origin of all things, is the eternal "consciousness of existence", denying change and movement

Socrates

(emphasizes access to knowledge by introspection)

Plato

(The concrete behind everything is the eternal prototype concept)

Aristotle

(The distinction between material and form, the universe consists of five elements: earth, water, gas, fire, and ether, presenting the existence of the first promoter "God", etc., the most comprehensive early philosophy)

Neo-Platonicism

(Protino) ("Taiyi" is the foundation of the world, rational laws, souls, and specific things are too super-existing)

Epicurean school

(Ibi-Ji-lu) (everything and soul are atoms, happiness is the purpose of life)

Cynic school

(Diogenes) (contempt for external utilitarianism, advocates poverty-stricken life)

Stoia

(Marco Aurelius, Abigail Ted) (emphasis on the "goodness" and "de" of human beings, advocating obedience to fate while grasping self)

Medieval Christian philosophy

Augustine

(In the philosophical theory to explain the existence of God, the Trinity, the salvation of the soul)

(Scholastic philosophy)

Aristotle

(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)

Willism

(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)

Aokangism

(

Modern western philosophy

Early natural philosophy

(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)

Rationalism (rationalism)

(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)

(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)

(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)

Empiricism (empiricalism)

(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)

(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)

(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)

Transcendental idealism

(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.

Absolute idealism

(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)

(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)

(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)

Young Hegelian

(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.

Modern western philosophy

Early irrationalism

(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)

Voluntarism

(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)

(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)

Philosophy of life

(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)

New hegelism

(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)

Neo-Kantianism

(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)

utilitarianism

(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)

pragmatism

(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)

Early analytic philosophy

(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)

Post-analytic philosophy

(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)

Falsificationist philosophy of science

(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)

Historic philosophy of science

(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)

Freudianism

(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)

Western Marxism

The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)

Phenomenology / European Philosophy

(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)

Existentialism

(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence

Hermeneutics

(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)

Structuralism

(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)

Deconstruction

(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)

Essentials of philosophy science

The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.

Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.

 

Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.

 

Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).

Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.

 

Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.

 

Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.

 

Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.

  

Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."

 

Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."

 

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, with the book "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia"

(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)

Willism

(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)

Aokangism

(

Modern western philosophy

Early natural philosophy

(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)

Rationalism (rationalism)

(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)

(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)

(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)

Empiricism (empiricalism)

(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)

(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)

(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)

Transcendental idealism

(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.

Absolute idealism

(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)

(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)

(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)

Young Hegelian

(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.

Modern western philosophy

Early irrationalism

(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)

Voluntarism

(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)

(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)

Philosophy of life

(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)

New hegelism

(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)

Neo-Kantianism

(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)

utilitarianism

(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)

pragmatism

(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)

Early analytic philosophy

(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)

Post-analytic philosophy

(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)

Falsificationist philosophy of science

(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)

Historic philosophy of science

(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)

Freudianism

(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)

Western Marxism

The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)

Phenomenology / European Philosophy

(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)

Existentialism

(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence

Hermeneutics

(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)

Structuralism

(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)

Deconstruction

(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)

Essentials of philosophy science

The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.

Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.

 

Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.

 

Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).

Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.

 

Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.

 

Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.

 

Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.

  

Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."

 

Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."

 

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, is entitled "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia".

 

Bruno (1548-1600) Italian materialist philosopher and natural scientist. Propagating Copernicus's heliocentric theory, that the universe has no center, the sun is just an ordinary planet, the solar system is just a celestial system, and matter is the common common essence of all things in the universe. The main work: "On the reasons, the essence and one."

 

Hobbes (1588-1679) was a British materialist philosopher who used to be the secretary and assistant of Bacon. He systematically embodies Bacon's philosophical ideas and advocates the use of mechanics and mathematics to illustrate the world. He is the founder of mechanical materialism. The main works: "On matter", "On the people."

 

Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the ancestor of British empiricism, and the "New Tools".

 

René Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher, founder of modern philosophy, the founder of the theory, is the "Method Discussion", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophy Principles".

 

Benedicus de Spinoza (1632-1677), a Dutch philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, with "Ethics" and so on.

 

John Locke (1632-1704), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Reason."

 

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, is entitled "Single Theory" and "New Theory of Human Reason."

 

George Berkeley (1685-1753), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Principles of Human Knowledge."

 

David Hume (1711-1776), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Nature" and "The Study of Human Reason."

 

Montesquieu (1689-1755), a French enlightenment thinker, with the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Law.

 

Voltaire (1694-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, and author of "Philosophy Communication."

 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, entitled "The Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", "Social Contract Theory", "Emil", and "Confessions".

  

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the founder of German classical philosophy, is entitled "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of Judgment".

 

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), a master of German classical philosophy, is known for his dialectic in the world, and he is the author of "Psychophenomenology", "Logic" and "Philosophy of Philosophy".

 

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher, founder of positivism, and the "Experimental Philosophy Course".

 

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, one of the representatives of positivism, is entitled "Conde and positivism", "system of logic", "utilitarianism".

 

"Arther Schopenhauer (1788-1860), a German philosopher, a voluntarist, has a "world of will and appearance."

 

Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - 1883, 3, 1)

 

Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law (1843), on Jewish Nationality (1843), Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844), Feuerbach (1845), Poverty of Philosophy (1845), Employment Labor With Capital (1847), Louis Bonaparte's Misty Moon 18th (1852), Capital Theory Volume 2 (1893), Capital Theory Volume III (1894), etc.

  

William James (1842-1910), an American philosopher, one of the main representatives of pragmatism, is the "Psychology Principles", "Pragmatism", "Complete Empiricism Proceedings".

 

Friedrich Willhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher, with "The Other Side of Good and Evil", "Zarathustra", "Strong Will".

  

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, founder of structuralism, and a course in General Linguistics.

 

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, founder of phenomenology, with "Logical Studies", "Phenomenon of Phenomenology", "The Contemplation of Descartes" and "The Crisis of European Science and Transcendental Phenomenology, etc.

 

Sigmund Freud (1865-1939), an Austrian psychologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school, with "An Analysis of Dreams" and "Introduction to Psychoanalysis."

 

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) British philosopher and educator wrote "The History of Western Philosophy", "Education", "Philosophy Problems", etc., won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.

  

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher, founder of existential philosophy, with "Existence and Time", "Introduction to Metaphysics", "Lin Zhong Lu" and so on.

 

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), one of the founders of Austrian-American philosophy, linguistic philosophy or analytic philosophy, is the author of The Philosophy of Logic and Philosophical Studies.

 

Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of logical positivism, is entitled "The Logical Structure of the World" and "The Logical Syntax of Language."

Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) is a British philosopher, one of the representatives of the everyday language school, and has the concept of "heart".

 

Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-), the German philosopher, the founder of philosophical hermeneutics, is the author of The Truth and Method.

 

Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), a German philosopher and founder of the Frankfurt School, is the author of Critical Theory, Research in Social Philosophy, and Dialectics of Enlightenment (co-authored with Adorno).

 

Theoder Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, is entitled "Negative Dialectics".

 

Herbert Marcuse (1895-1979), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, with "Ration and Revolution", "Eros and

Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of existentialism, with "existence and nothingness", "existentialism is a kind of humanitarianism" and "criticism of dialectical reason".

 

Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), French philosopher, anthropologist, one of the main representatives of structuralism, is entitled "Structural Anthropology" and "Wild Thinking."

 

Willard van Orman Quine (1908-), one of the main representatives of analytic philosophy, "from a logical point of view", "logic philosophy."

 

Tomas Kuhn (1922-), an American scientific philosopher, a historian of science, a representative of the Historic School, and the "Structure of the Scientific Revolution" and "Necessary Tension."

  

Michel Foucault (1926-1984), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of post-structuralism and post-modernism, is entitled "Knowledge Archaeology", "Discipline and Punishment" and so on.

 

Jacques Derrida (1931-), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, with "writing and difference", "casting", "the edge of philosophy", "the ghost of Marx" and so on.

 

Richard. M. Rorty (1931-), an American philosopher, one of the representatives of post-modern philosophy, is the Mirror of Philosophy and Nature and Post-Philosophy Culture.

 

Fredric Jamason (1931-), an American philosopher and literary critic, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, is entitled "Marxism and Form", "Political Unconsciousness", and "Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism".

  

John Rawls (1921-), an American political philosopher, is the author of The Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism.

 

Robert Nozick (1938-), an American political philosopher, is entitled "Anarchy, State, and Utopia."

 

Western philosophy European and American philosophy has a huge influence on the world. Of course, philosophy and thought are often inseparable. Philosophers also mean thinkers.

 

Philosophers, thinkers, schools of thought, and main ideology

  

Ancient Greek period: 7th century BC - 2nd century BC

Thales (about 624-about 547, the first philosopher of ancient Greece, the founder of the Miletus School)

Anaximandros (about 610-before 546, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)

Anaximenes (about 588-about 525, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)

Pythagoras (about 580 - about 500 before, ancient Greek mathematician, idealist philosopher)

Xenophanes (about 565-about 473, the ancient Greek philosopher, the first representative of the Elia school)

Herakleitos (between 540 and about 480 and 470 before, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher, the founder of the Efes school)

Kratylos (former fifth century, ancient Greek Efesian philosopher, Heraclitus student)

Parmenides (before the end of the sixth century - about the middle of the first half of the fifth century, the idealist philosopher of the Elia school of ancient Greece) Leukippos (about 500-about 440, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher , the atom said one of the founders)

Anaxagoras (about 500 before - 428 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)

Zeno Eleates (about 490 - about 436 before, ancient Greek idealist philosopher, student of Parmenides) Empedokles (Em. 490 - about 430, Ancient Greek materialist philosopher, founder of rhetoric)

Gorgias (about 483 - about 375, the ancient Greek wise philosopher)

Protagoras (formerly 481-about 411, ancient Greek wise philosopher)

Socrates (formerly 469-before 399, ancient Greek idealist philosopher)

Demokratos (Demokritos, 460- 370 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher, and the founder of the atomic theory of Rebecca) Antisthenes (about 435-about 370, ancient Greece Philosopher, founder of the cynic school

Aristippos (about 435-front 360?, ancient Greek philosopher, founder of the Cyrene School, disciple of Socrates)

Plato (Plato, former 427-before 347, ancient Greek objective idealist philosopher, founder of the school, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle) ​​- "Ideology", "politician", "Bammenides" and "Plato Dialogues"

Diogenes o Sinopeus (about 404-about 323, ancient Greek cynic philosopher)

Aristotles (Aristotles, 384- 322 BC, Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist, Plato's student, Alexander the Great's teacher, the founder of the Happy School) - Metaphysics, Tool Theory, Nigma Ethics, Physics, Politics

, "The Complete Works of Aristotle"

Pyrrhon (about 365-about 275, ancient Greek philosopher, skeptic)

Epikouros (formerly 341-pre-270, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)

Zeno (Zionon Kitieus), about 336-about 264, founder of the ancient Greek Stoic school

 

Roman period: the second century BC - the fifth century AD

Cousero (Marcus Tullius Cicero, former 106-43, ancient Roman politician, eloquent, philosopher, philosophically representative of eclecticism)

Titus Lucretius Carus (about 99-about 55, ancient Roman poet, materialist philosopher) - "The Theory of Materiality"

  

Tertullianus (between 150 and 160 - about 222, one of the Christian godfathers)

Aurelius Augustinus (354-430, the Roman Empire Christian thinker, the main representative of the godfather philosophy) - "Confessions", "On Free Will", "The Monologue", "The City of God", "The Handbook of Doctrine"

Hypatia (about 370-about 415, female mathematician, astronomer, neo-Platonic philosopher of the Roman Empire)

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, 480-524 or 525, the idealist philosopher in late Roman times

Medieval: 5th century AD - end of the 14th century

Johannes Scotus Erigena (circa 810-877, a philosopher of the pre-European medieval scholasticism) - "On God's Presupposition", "On the Division of Nature"

Anselmus (1033-1109, a medieval Christian thinker in Europe, the main representative of realism, known as "the last godfather and the first scholastic philosopher")

Roscellinus (about 1050 - about 1112, medieval French philosopher, nominalist)

Guillaume de Champeaux (circa 1070-1121, medieval French philosopher, realist)

Abel (Petrus Abailardus, 1079-1142, philosopher of the medieval French Academy, "concept theory")

Albertus Magnus (1193 or 1206 or 1207-1280, Medieval German philosopher, theologian, Catholic Dominican monk)

Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274, Medieval Theologian and scholastic philosopher, Catholic Dominican Fellow) - Theological Encyclopedia and Anti-Beast Encyclopedia

Sigerus de Brantia (circa 1240-1281 to 1284, Netherland philosopher, Averroist)

Meister Johannes Eckhart (circa 1260-1327, medieval German theologian and mystic philosopher) Johannes Duns Scotus (circa 1265-1308, medieval Scottish scholastic philosopher, nominalist ) - "On Oxford", "Paris on"

William of Occam (or Ockham), about 1300 - about 1350, philosopher of the medieval Soviet scholastic philosopher, nominalist) Jan Hus (circa 1369-1415, Czech patriot and religious reformer)

Dante Alighièri (1265-1321, Italian poet.

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374, Italian poet, one of the pioneers of humanism in the European Renaissance) - "Secret"

Geovanni Boccàccio (1313-1375, Italian writer of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism) - "Ten Days"

Paul (John Ball, ?-1381, British folk missionary, one of the leaders of the Wat Taylor Uprising)

John Wycliffe (circa 1320-1384, British, pioneer of the European Reformation Movement)

Nikola (Kusa's) (Nicolaus Cusanus, 1401-1464, Renaissance German philosopher, cardinal, pantheist)

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519, Renaissance Italian artist, natural scientist, engineer, philosopher)

Pietro Pomponazzi (1462-1524 or 1525, the Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism)

Desiderius Erasmus (circa 1469-1536, the Renaissance Netherland humanist, formerly known as Gerhard Gerhards, born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands) - "The Fools"

Thomas More (1478-1535, Renaissance British Utopian Communist)

Martin Luther (1483-1546, the founder of the 16th century German Reformation, Christian (Protestant) Road

 

Thomas Münzer (about 1490-1525, leader of the German peasant war of 1524-1525, German peasant and religious reformer of urban civilians)

Calvin (1509-1564, French, European Reformer, founder of Christian Calvin) - "On Benevolence", "Christian Essentials", "Faith Guide", "Christian Masterpieces Integration", From the Renaissance to the Selected Works of Humanitarian Humanity in the 19th Century by Bourgeois Literati Artists, Selected Works of Western Ethical Masterpieces, and History of Medieval Philosophy in Western Europe (Bernardino Telesio, 1509-1588, Renaissance Italy philosopher)

Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592, a translation of Montagne, French thinkers and prose writers during the Renaissance) - "Meng Tian Wenxuan"

Pierre Charron (1541-1603, French philosopher of the Renaissance)

Giordano Bruno (1548-1600, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance) - "On Reason, Primitive and Taiyi", "On Infinity, Universe and Worlds", "Basting the Beast", "On Heroic Passion" 》

Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639, Renaissance Italian Utopian Communist)

Jakob B?hme, 1575-1624, Renaissance German mystic philosopher

Grouseus (Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645, Dutch bourgeois jurist, early theorist of the natural law school, studied law, theology, history, literature, and natural sciences, with international law Research is well known)

Lucilio Vanini (1584-1619, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance)

 

Francis Bacon (1561-1626, "-"Chongxue", "New Tools", "Bacon's Anthology", "New Daxi"

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679, British materialist philosopher) - "Leviathan", "On Objects", "On Man", "On Freedom, Inevitability and Accident"

Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655, a translation of garrison, French materialist philosopher, physicist, astronomer) Descartes (1596-1650, French philosopher, physicist, mathematician) , physiologist, founder of analytic geometry) - "Methodology", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophical Principles", "On the Passion of the Soul"

Hendrik van Roy (French name Henri Le Roy, Latin name Henricus Regius, 1598-1679, Dutch doctor, philosopher, representative of early mechanical materialism)

Gerrard Winstanley (circa 1609-about 1652, the leader of the bourgeois revolutionary movement in the British bourgeois revolution, the imaginary communist)

John Lilburne (circa 1614-1657, petty bourgeois democrat of the British bourgeois revolution, average leader)

Arnold Geulincx (1625-1669, the Dutch Descartes idealist philosopher, he and Malebranches are also called the causemen)

Spinoza (later renamed Benedictus) Spinoza, 1632-1677, Dutch materialist philosopher) - "Ethics", "Intellectual Improvement", "Theological Politics", "The Principles of Descartes"

Locke (John Locke, 1632-1704, British materialist philosopher) - "Human Understanding", "On the Government", "The Rationality of Christianity"

Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715, French idealist philosopher) - "The Search for Truth", "Dialogue on Metaphysics"

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716, German natural scientist, mathematician, idealist philosopher) - "Theory of God", "New Theory of Human Reason", "Son Theory", "metaphysical conversation"

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "The Letter about Comet", "General Critique of the History of Calvinism" by Manbull, "Dictionary of Historical Criticism"

 

Christian Wolff (1679-1754, German idealist philosopher)

George Berkeley (1685-1753, British idealist philosopher) - "New Theory of Vision", "Principles of Human Knowledge" Charles Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689-1755, French Enlightenment Thinker, Jurist ) - "Persian Letters", "The Causes of the Rise and Fall of Rome", "The Spirit of the Law", "On the Interests of Nature and Art"

Voltaire (1694-1778, French enlightenment thinker, writer, philosopher. Formerly known as François Marie Arouet) - "Oedipus the King", "Philosophy Communication ", Metaphysics", "Philosophy Dictionary"

David Hartley (1705-1757, British materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the psychological association, the deism) Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, 1709-1785, French imaginary communist, Kong Brother of Diak

Ramien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-1751, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "Man is a machine", "The work of Penelope", "The soul Natural History, "Man is a plant"

Thomas Reid (1710-1796, British philosopher, founder of the Scottish school, the common sense school)

Lomonosov (Миxaил Вacильевич Ломoносοв1711-1765, Russian scholar, poet, founder of Russian materialistic philosophy and natural science)

Hume (David Hume, 1711-1776, British idealist philosopher, agnostic, historian, economist) - "The Theory of Human Nature", "Human Understanding", "Ethics and Politics"

Rousseau (Jean Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1778, French enlightenment thinker, philosopher, educator, writer) - "Confessions", "Fashionable Muse", "Village Wizard", "On the Origin of Human Inequality" And Foundation, "Social Contract Theory", "Ai Mier" ("On Education")

Denis Diderot (1713-1784, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist, writer, editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia) - "Philosophy of Thought", "Stroll of Skeptics", "For The letter of the blind person, the book on the book of deaf and dumb, the interpretation of nature, the conversation of D'Alembert and Diderot, The Continuation of the Talk, The Deaf of Rama Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762, German philosopher, advocate of the Wolff philosophy system) Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "On the spirit "On the rationality and education of human beings", "The Tablet of Love Knowledge", "The Tablet of Happiness", "The Tablet of Rational Pride and Laziness"

Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780, French enlightenment thinker, sensory theorist, Marbury's brother) - "Sensory Theory", "The Origin of Human Knowledge", "System Theory"

Jean Le Rond d' Alembert (1717-1783, a translator of Lambert, French mathematician, enlightenment thinker, philosopher, former deputy editor of the Encyclopedia)

Paul Heinrich Dietrich d' Holbach (1723-1789, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist) - "Debunked Christianity", "Pocket Theology", "Sacred Plague", "Sound Thought, Natural System, Social System, Universal Ethics

Kanman (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804, the founder of German classical idealism) - "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason", "Critique of Judgment", "Introduction to Future Metaphysics", "Principles of Moral Metaphysics", On Perpetual Peace and the Collection of Critical Criticism of History

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781, thinker, literary theorist, playwright of the German Enlightenment) Henry Dodwell (-1784, British deism)

Jean Baptiste René Robinet (1735-1820, French philosopher)

Jean Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist)

Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819, German idealist philosopher)

Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803, German literary theorist, philosopher, arrogant movement (the theory of the German bourgeois literary movement in the 1970s and 1980s))

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832, British ethicist, jurist, main representative of bourgeois utilitarianism) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832, German poet, playwright, thinker)

William Godwin (1756-1836, British writer, social thinker, pastor, and later supported atheism and enlightenment)

Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (1757-1808, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist, physiologist, vulgar materialist)

 

Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, 1760-1825, French utopian socialist

Filippo Michele Buonarrotti (1761-1837, French imaginary communist. Originally from Italy, participated in the French Revolution of 1789, won the title of "Citizen of the French Republic")

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814, German classical idealist philosopher) - "The Foundation of All Knowledge", "The Foundation of Natural Law under the Principles of Knowledge", "The Moral System under the Principles of Knowledge", "On the Mission of Scholars" and "The Mission of Man" Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, 1770-1831, the master of German classical idealism) - "Psychiatry Phenomenology", "Logic", "Little Logic" , Principles of Legal Philosophy, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Nature, Philosophy of Spirit, Philosophy of Art, Lectures on History of Philosophy, Hegel Letters

Robert Owen (1771-1858, British Utopian Socialist)

Charles Fourier (1772-1837, French Utopian Socialist)

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854, German idealist philosopher) - "Transcendental Idealism System", "On the World Soul"

Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848, Czech mathematician, philosopher, logician)

Etienne Cabet (1788-1856, French Utopian Communist)

Schopenhauer (1788-1860, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)

Victor Cousin (1792-1867, French idealist philosopher, professing his philosophical system as eclecticism)

Heinrich Heine (1797-1856, German poet, political commentator, thinker)

Auguste Comte (1798-1857, French positivist philosopher)

Théodore Dézamy (1803-1850, French Utopian Communist)

Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872, German materialist philosopher) - "The selection of Feuerbach's philosophical works", "The Essence of Christianity", "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy", "Principles of Future Philosophy" Herzen (1812-1870): "Nature Research Newsletter", "Scientific Tastes", "To Old Friends"

Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881, French Revolutionary, Utopian Communist)

Max Stirner (1806-1856, Kaspar Schmidt's pseudonym, German idealist philosopher, one of the young Hegelian representatives, the so-called theorists, the anarchist's forerunner By)

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873, British idealist philosopher, economist, logician, son of James Muller)

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865, French petty bourgeois economist and sociologist, one of the founders of anarchism)

Powell (Bruno Bauer, 1809-1882, German idealist philosopher, the main representative of the young Hegelian)

Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский,1811-1848, Russian revolutionary democrat, literary critic, philosopher) - "Selection of Bilinsky's Philosophical Works"

Jean Josehp Charles Louis Blanc (1811-1882, French petty bourgeois socialist, historian)

Herzen (Александр Иванович Герцен, 1812-1870, Russian revolutionary democrat, materialist philosopher, writer)

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855, Danish idealist philosopher, his thought became one of the theoretical basis of modern bourgeois philosophical genre existentialism)

Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881, German idealist philosopher, professing his philosophy as "the teleological idealism")

Grünn (1817-1887, German petty bourgeois socialist)

Karl Vogt (1817-1895, German naturalist, vulgar materialist, professing his philosophy as "physiology

 

Marx (1818.5.5-1883.3.14, - "Capital", "Economic Manuscript", "The Outline of Feuerbach", "German Ideology"

Spencer (Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903, British sociologist, agnostic, idealist philosopher)

Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893, a Dutch physiologist, philosopher, one of the representatives of vulgar materialism) Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899, German doctor, one of vulgar materialist representatives)

Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864, leader of the opportunistic faction in the German workers' movement)

Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895, British naturalist) - "Beautiful New World"

Friedrich überweg (1826-1871, German philosopher) - "Introduction to the History of Philosophy"

Friedrich Albert Lange (1828-1875, German idealist philosopher, early neo-Kantian) Joseph Dietzgen (1828-1888, German socialist writer and philosopher, tanner) Chernyshevsky (Николай Гаврилович Чернышевский,

1828-1889, Russian revolutionary democrats, materialist philosophers, literary critics, writers) - "The Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality", "An Overview of the Gothic Period in the Russian Literature Circle", "Philosophy Humanism Principles" 》

Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893, a translation of Dana, French literary theorist, historian, one of the heirs of Conde's empirical philosophy)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920, German psychologist, philosopher, one of the founders of structural psychology)

Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911, a German idealist philosopher who originally belonged to neo-Kantianism and later turned to philosophy of life)

Karl Eugen Dühring (1833-1921, German philosopher, vulgar economist)

Harris Torrey Harris (1835-1909, American educator, idealist philosopher, the earliest communicator of Hegelian philosophy in the United States)

Green Hill (Thomas Hill Green, 1836-1882, British idealist philosopher)

Wilhelm Schuppe (1836-1913, German idealist philosopher, founder of internalism)

Ernst Mach (1838-1916, Austrian physicist, idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism) Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914, American idealist philosopher, founder of pragmatism)

James (William James, 1842-1910, American idealist philosopher, psychologist, pragmatist, founder of functional psychology)

Eduart Hartmann (1842-1906, German idealist philosopher)

Richard Avenarius (1843-1896, German subjective idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism)

Nietzsche (Friedrich Nietzsche, 1844-1900, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)

Merlin (Franz Mehring, 1846-1919, one of the left-wing leaders of the German Social Democratic Party, political commentator, historian)

Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924, British idealist philosopher, new Hegelian) R (Rudolf Eucken, 1846-1926, German idealist philosopher)

Richard Schubert-Soldern (1852-1935, German idealist philosopher, representative of internalism

Karl Pearson (1857-1936, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, one of the advocates of eugenics) Samuel Alexander (1859-1938, British idealist philosopher, new realist)

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938, German idealist philosopher, founder of modern phenomenology)

Henri Bergson (1859-1941, French idealist philosopher, life philosophy and the main representative of modern irrationalism)

John Dewey (1859-1952, American idealist philosopher, sociologist, educator, pragmatist) Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947, British idealist philosopher, mathematician)

Josef Petzoldt (1862-1929, German idealist philosopher, empirical critic)Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936, German idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the New Kant's Freiburg School)

Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (1864-1937, British philosopher, pragmatist, called his pragmatic philosophy "humanism")

Benedetto Croce (1866-1952, a translation of Croce, Italian idealist philosopher, historian, new Hegelian)

Hans Driesch (1867-1941, German idealist philosopher, biologist, new vitalist)

 

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, logician)

Bogdanov (Александр Александрович Богданов, 1873-1928, Russian idealist philosopher)

George Edward Moore (1873-1958, British idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the new realism)

Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944, Italian idealist philosopher, new Hegelian)

Oswald Spengler (1880-1936, German idealist philosopher, historian)

Deborin (Абрам Моиесевич Деборин, 1881-1963, Soviet philosopher,

Moritz Schlick (1882-1936, idealist philosopher, born in Germany, taught at the University of Vienna, Austria, one of the founders of the Vienna School, one of the founders of logical positivism)

Jalques Maritain (1882-1973, French theologian, idealist philosopher, main representative of new Thomasism) Karl Jaspers (1883-1969, German existentialist philosopher)

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, Austrian idealist philosopher, logician. After Hitler annexed Austria in 1838, he entered British nationality and taught at Cambridge University)

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976, a German existentialist philosopher who served as university president and professor during Hitler's reign, and supported Nazism)

Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980, French existentialist philosopher.) - "Imagination", "Existence and Nihility", "Existentialism is a Humanism", "Critique of Dialectical Reason", Several Issues in Methodology

Beauvoir Simone de (1908-1986, French existentialist scholar, writer)

Merleau Ponty (1908-1961, French existentialist philosopher)

Of course, philosophy and religion, politics, literature, etc. are also closely related. If you want to know the avenue, you must know the history. Repeated reading of the history of philosophy, world history, benefited a lot, and imagination came together.

  

Eastern philosophy Arabic philosophy Indian philosophy

  

In the history of the world, the East and the Arab countries also have important status and influence. Countries such as India, China, and Arabia are particularly important.

The great wise man of life

(The legend is about 600 years ago - about 470 years ago), surnamed Li Ming Er, the word Bo Yang, Han nationality, Chu State Bian County, is a great ancient Chinese philosopher, thinker, Taoist school founder, and in the Valley It was written in the ethics of the Five Thousand Words.

 

Confucius

Confucius (September 28th, 551th to April 11th, 479th) Mingqiu, the word Zhongni, Lu Guoyu, Han nationality at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. English: Confucius, Kung Tze. Confucius was a great educator and thinker in ancient China, the founder of the Confucian school, and a world cultural celebrity. Confucius's thoughts and doctrines have had a profound impact on later generations.

  

Zhuangzi (about 369 years ago - 286 years ago), Han nationality. A famous thinker, philosopher, and writer is the representative of the Taoist school, the successor and developer of Laozi's philosophy, and the founder of the pre-Qin Zhuangzi school. His doctrine covers all aspects of social life at that time, but the fundamental spirit is still dependent on Laozi's philosophy. Later generations will call him and Laozi "Laozhuang", and their philosophy is "Lao Zhuang philosophy."

 

Mencius, the pioneer of the people-oriented thinking

Mencius (from 372 to 289) Han nationality, Zoucheng, Shandong. The great thinker of ancient China. One of the representative figures of Confucianism during the Warring States Period. He is the author of "Meng Zi", a collection of essays. "The Book of Mencius" is a compilation of Mencius's remarks, written by Mencius and his disciples, and records the Confucian classics of Mencius' words and deeds.

 

Xunzi (Xunzi 313 years ago - 238 years ago), the name of the famous thinker, writer, politician, representative of the Confucian school, - Han Fei, Li Si is his disciple.

  

Dong Zhongshu (before 179~104), Dong Zi, Han Dynasty thinker, politician. Great contribution to the orthodox status of Confucianism. It is a thinker of the Western Han Dynasty who is advancing with the times. He is a famous idealist philosopher in the Western Han Dynasty and a master of modern Chinese studies. When Emperor Jingdi was a Ph.D., he taught "The Ram Spring and Autumn." In the first year of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (134 BC), Dong Zhongshu put forward the basic points of his philosophical system in the famous "Measures for Raising the Virtue," and suggested that "the slogan of 100 schools and the unique Confucianism" should be adopted by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Later generations have different opinions on this.

 

Master of Science

Zhu Xi was a master of Song's agency studies. He inherited the science of Cheng Song and Cheng Wei of the Northern Song Dynasty and completed the system of objective idealism. It is said that reason is the essence of the world, "reasonable first, gas is behind", and puts forward "preserving the heavens, destroying human desires." Zhu Xi has a profound knowledge of the study of Confucian classics, history, literature, music, and even the natural sciences.

 

The development of Indian philosophy can be roughly divided into ancient philosophy (about 3000 BC ~ 750 AD), medieval philosophy (750 to 18th century AD), modern philosophy (about 18th century to 1947), modern philosophy (after 1947) ) Four periods.

 

Ancient

India has emerged as the bud of the worldview in the era of the Rigveda in the end of the original commune. After entering the slavery society, it began to form a systematic philosophy. The earliest philosophical book "The Upanishads."

 

middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, religion dominated, and the philosophy of the ruling class was included in the Hindu theology system. India traditionally recognized the Vatican’s authoritative figures, the Yoga School, the Victory School, the Orthodox School, and the Vedanta School. The Six-sect philosophy, such as the Miman sentiment, is called the orthodox school, and the Shunshi, Buddhism, Jainism, etc., which deny the authority of the Vedic, are called unorthodox.

  

Islam Arabia

 

The main differences between the Moor Taiqilai and the Hadith in philosophy are: the nature of Allah and the relationship between Allah and the world. MooreThe Taiqilai faction denies that Allah has all kinds of unfounded virtues such as knowledge, energy, sight, hearing, speech, life, etc., because these are considered to be the beginning of virtue and the personalization of Allah, and the true The uniqueness is incompatible; the Hadith is recognized as the virtue of Allah. Secondly, the debate about "freedom of will" and "pre-determination", that is, the relationship between man and Allah, the Hadith believes that the good and evil of man is the premise of Allah, and the act of man is created by Allah. The Moor Taiqilai faction believes that people have unlimited freedom of will, and that human behavior is created by themselves. Allah is rewarded and punished according to his good and evil, thus proving that Allah is fair.

 

After the 10th century, the Sunni philosophical system, the "New Kailam", the doctrine of Islam, was formed. The founder, Ashley, and his disciples reconciled the doctrines of “pre-determination” and “freedom of will”, emphasizing the all-powerfulness of Allah, and there is no causal connection between all things in the world, created by Allah. They try to show that all actions of human beings are determined by Allah, but people have the ability to "reach" their own actions, so people are responsible for their actions before Allah. The faction was supported by the ruling class and was regarded as an orthodox official creed.

Philosophy-theologians and their schools In the 9th and 12th centuries, there were numerous famous philosophers in the vast areas under the caliphate state, and there were also groups and factions of philosophers. These philosophers and factions, called "Hokma" by the Arabs, formed the main body of Arab medieval philosophy at that time, divided into two things, centered on Baghdad and Córdoba. Many of these philosophers are engaged in secular affairs (doctors, natural scientists, etc.), attaching importance to empirical knowledge and emphasizing theoretical understanding. Although they still have not got rid of the control of orthodox theology, they have largely accepted the influence of Greek-Roman philosophy, especially Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism and Eastern traditional ideas.

The philosopher Lacy and the sincere brothers. They attempted to reconcile Greek natural philosophy (including mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music, alchemy, medicine, etc.) and Islamic teachings to create a religious philosophy. Lacy's medical theory begins with the recognition of the close connection between the body and the soul, asserting that matter is eternal, that movement is an inseparable property of objects, and that feelings cause people to have an understanding of the object. The sincere Brothers Society was originally a politically-religious group of religious and philosophical groups in the Basra area in the 10th century. They collectively compiled an encyclopedic collection of essays. Their cosmology is Islam Shiite, New Pythago The combination of lasism and neo-Platonicism.

Philosophers Kendi, Farabi, and Ibn Sina, influenced by Greek Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism. Kendy is known as an Arab philosopher. He systematically studied Greek philosophy and tried to combine it with Islamic teachings, arguing that matter is a form of “flowing out” from the spirit of Allah, and that the soul can leave the body and be independent. Faraby is recognized as the "first philosopher" after Aristotle. His philosophical system is a mixture of Plato, Aristotle and Sufism, propagating the immortal "ration of Allah" . I think that the world is made up of many elements, and people can know the world through feelings. Ibn Sinah proposed the "dual truth theory" of religion and science. He is arrogant between materialism and idealism. He believes that the material world is eternal. They are not created by Allah, but they also think that the spirit overflows from Allah. The spirit gives form to the material and then forms everything. It is also claimed that the soul and the body are different and are a special ability that goes beyond the physical properties of ordinary things. On the issue of commonality, it is believed that the common phase exists before things, as the idea of ​​creation, exists in things; as the essence of things, after things, is the form of existence of concepts.

Sufism and orthodox theology - philosopher Ansari. The Sufism faction appeared at the end of the 7th century and has undergone significant development since the end of the 8th century. Influenced by Neo-Platonicism and the Indian Yoga School, they promoted the "oneness of man and God" and "the connection between man and God" and advocated the doctrine of abstinence, perseverance, self-restraint, and was suppressed by the orthodox Islam. The orthodox school of the famous theology-philosopher Ansari, who was the master of

Howard Fillit, Co-Founder and Chief Science Officer, Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation

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Photographed in the Serengeti, Tanzania, Africa

  

=======================

From Wikipedia: The Kirk's dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) is a small antelope native to Eastern Africa and one of four species of dik-dik antelope. It is believed to have six subspecies and possibly a seventh existing in southwest Africa. Dik-diks are herbivores, typically of a fawn color that aids in camouflaging themselves in savannah habitats. According to MacDonald (1985), they are also capable of reaching speeds of up to 42 kilometers per hour. The lifespan of Kirk's dik-dik in the wild is typically 5 years, but may surpass 10 years. In captivity males have been known to live up to 16.5 years, while females have lived up to 18.4 years.

 

Etymology:

The dik-dik's name is derived from its call. When they feel threatened, dik-dik lie low to prevent detection. If they are discovered they run in a swift zigzag like pattern until they reach refuge in a nearby thicket. During this ‘flight’ they emit trumpet-like "zik-zik" calls to raise an alarm or to harass predators and publicize the presence of a mated pair.

 

Physical characteristics:

"Dik-diks are some of the world's smallest antelopes, with the largest, the Kirk's dik-dik, standing between 14 and 18 inches tall and weighing no more than 7.2 kg (16 lb). Female dik-diks tend to be 1 to 2 pounds heavier than males. Dik-diks are dainty creatures with a pointed, mobile snout, large eyes and ears, prominent preorbital glands, pipestem legs, hare-like hind limbs that are significantly larger than their forelimbs, and a vestigial tail. Their coats, depending upon their habitat, range from grey to gray-brown with tan flanks, limbs, and an erectile head crest and whitish eye rings, ear lining, underparts, and rump".

 

Only male dik-diks sport horns, which are approximately 3 inches long, corrugated, and backward-slanted. Horns of male Kirk's dik-dik may be straight or curved backwards from the profile of the face and the basal half of the horns have seven to nine annular ridges, that are frequently covered by the crest. Kirk's dik-dik are sexually dimorphic: females are larger and lack horns, while males sport a more developed muzzle, a longer crest, and tend to be lighter in color. Though physically very similar the Kirk's dik-dik can be distinguished from Guenthers’ dik-dik due to its longer nasals and premaxillae and shorter proboscis, which gives the head a more wedged-shaped profile than that of Guenther's dik-dik.

 

Adaptations:

Kirk's dik-diks are highly adapted to surviving in the arid regions of eastern Africa. They have a hairy proboscis with tiny slit-like nostrils, a feature that is most pronounced in the Guenther's dik-dik. This proboscis contains an enlarged nasal chamber that is supplied with a rich amount of blood that is cooled via rapid nasal panting. Panting through their snouts leads to airflow and evaporation that cools the blood before it is pumped back into the body. This process is also efficient, because it results in a minimal loss of water in the exhaled air. Water and energy conserving methods, such as fluctuating body temperatures, lowered metabolic rates, concentrated urine, and dry feces all contribute to the ability of the dik-dik to survive harsh arid climates. Further, as observed by Hoppe 1977b, Kamau 1988, and Maloiy et al., 1988, they also conserve fluids by licking dew from their nose and reabsorbing water from their feces. When compared to cattle, dik-dik have a significantly lower density of sweat glands.

 

Behaviorally, dik-diks are highly nocturnal and during the daytime seek shade to rest throughout the hottest parts of the day to help avoid the loss of valuable fluids. Dik-diks are also highly selective when browsing on succulents, herbs, and foliage as to maximize fluid acquisition. The hind legs of the Kirk's dik-dik are longer and are structurally more uniform, than the forelegs. Hopwood 1936 suggests that, this helps the hind legs propel the dik-dik forward, as the relatively short forelegs of dik-diks are more efficient at ascending broken terrain".

 

Habitat and territoriality:

 

Females, Etosha National Park, Namibia

"Kirk's dik-dik are endemic to savanna areas of eastern and southwestern Africa, occurring primarily in the Somali and Southwest arid biotic zones, but encroaching into the Southern savanna biotic zone". Their distribution can be described as discontinuous and as a result they often occur in dispersed patches due to their unique habitat requirements. In Namibia, Kirk's dik-dik occur in isolated areas along the Fish River and do not reside in the Namib desert, though they may traverse desert thickets along sources of water. They prefer habitats with good cover but lacking tall vegetation. Ideal habitats contain a variety of browse, extensive shade, and an open understory at their eye level. (Tinley, 1969) As a result, they move to different ranges when grass grows too high and obstructs their view. As noted by Tinley (1969), typical habitats of Kirk's dik-dik consist of thicket mosaics characterized by well-developed shrub layers and scant short grass cover. Dik-diks live in pairs on territories of 2–86 acres, depending on cover and resources. If no unfavorable events occur a pair of Kirk's dik-dik may reside within the same territory for life. Males are the main defenders of territories, as females are unable to maintain territories themselves. ] (Kingdon 1982) According to MacDonald (1985), territorial conflicts over quality habitat are not frequent, however, when do they occur, males charge one another, stopping just short of physical contact, before repeating the process by running from a longer distance. Furthermore, the encounter ends when one male surrenders, which results in both males scratching at the ground, urinating, and defecating".

 

Diet:

Dik-dik are herbivorous and their diets consist mainly of foliage, fruits, shoots, and berries. ] Due to their adaptations dik-dik are water independent and rely on vegetation as a source of water. Kirk's dik-diks are concentrate selectors, feeding selectively on dicotyledonous plants that can be rapidly fermented and digested. This includes leaves and fruit high in nutrients and water but low in fiber and cellulose. According to Hofmann (1973) and Hoope et al. (1983), grasses are only consumed when they are germinating and Kirk's dik-dik have stomach capacities and mass that consist of 8.5–10.0% of body mass when full and 2.2% when empty". As further explained by Hofmann (1973), because of the aforementioned facts and their high food requirements, Kirk's dik-dik feed and ruminate periodically throughout day and nighttime. Hendrichs (1975) stated that, they consume roughly 3.8% of their body mass daily.

 

Reproduction and behavior:

Similar to other dwarf antelopes, Kirk's dik-diks exist in monogamous pairs on territories. Territories are marked with dung and urine that are deposited in a ritual that is performed to help helps maintain pair bonds. During the ritual, the female will excrete, followed by the male, which samples the female's urine stream to check her reproductive capacity. He paws over and then marks his dung and urine over her deposit. Finally, the pair marks nearby twigs with secretions from their pre-orbital glands. Kingon 1982 states that, "The male courts the female by running up behind her with his head and neck stretched and his muzzle pointing out in front. Copulation begins with the male standing on his hind legs behind the female and waving his forelegs at an acute angle to his own body in the air over her back". Copulation typically occurs anywhere between three and five times within a 9-hour period.

 

Kirk's dik-dik have a gestation period of 5–6 months, and may produce up to two offspring per year. Females reach sexual maturity between 6 and 8 months of age, while this occurs for males between 8 and 9 months. Dik-dik produce one offspring per gestation. Most births occur between November and December and April through May, which coincides with the timing of the rainy seasons. Dik-diks differ from other ruminants in that offspring are born with their forelegs along the body, rather than extended forward. "After birth, the offspring lie concealed away from their mother 2-3 weeks and survival rates for fawns are roughly around fifty percent. Once offspring reach a certain age, they also begin to participate in the bonding ritual, and will remain with the parents until another offspring is born. At this point, the parents will chase the older sibling out of their territory. The older offspring then seeks out its own territory and mate.

  

AB2A5127-1fCA_

Spaceflight (or space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.

 

Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.

 

A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft – both when unpropelled and when under propulsion – is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.

  

History

Main articles: History of spaceflight and Timeline of spaceflight

Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist

 

The first theoretical proposal of space travel using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch, in an 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space".[1] More well-known (though not widely outside Russia) is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, "Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами" (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), published in 1903.

 

Spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddard's publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for interplanetary travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space;[specify] nonetheless, his work was not taken seriously by the public. His attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11, 1918 armistice with Germany. Working with private financial support, he was the first to launch a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Goddard's paper was highly influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, employed by Adolf Hitler. Von Braun's V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers (102 nautical miles) on a June 1944 test flight.[2]

 

Tsiolkovsky's rocketry work was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but he influenced Sergey Korolev, who became the Soviet Union's chief rocket designer under Joseph Stalin, to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles to carry nuclear weapons as a counter measure to United States bomber planes. Derivatives of Korolev's R-7 Semyorka missiles were used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and later the first human to orbit the Earth, Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1, on April 12, 1961.[3]

 

At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, and were expatriated to work on American missiles at what became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. This work on missiles such as Juno I and Atlas enabled launch of the first US satellite Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, and the first American in orbit, John Glenn in Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. As director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Von Braun oversaw development of a larger class of rocket called Saturn, which allowed the US to send the first two humans, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, to the Moon and back on Apollo 11 in July 1969. Over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon.

Phases

Launch

Main article: Rocket launch

See also: List of space launch system designs

 

Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond. Other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. A rocket launch for a spaceflight usually starts from a spaceport (cosmodrome), which may be equipped with launch complexes and launch pads for vertical rocket launches, and runways for takeoff and landing of carrier airplanes and winged spacecraft. Spaceports are situated well away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities.

 

A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.

 

A launch pad is a fixed structure designed to dispatch airborne vehicles. It generally consists of a launch tower and flame trench. It is surrounded by equipment used to erect, fuel, and maintain launch vehicles. Before launch, the rocket can weigh many hundreds of tonnes. The Space Shuttle Columbia, on STS-1, weighed 2,030 tonnes (4,480,000 lb) at take off.

Reaching space

 

The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth's surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.

 

Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.

 

For manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.

Alternatives

Main article: Non-rocket spacelaunch

 

Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.

Leaving orbit

 

This section possibly contains original research. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Spaceflight. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Main articles: Escape velocity and Parking orbit

Launched in 1959, Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth.[4] (replica pictured)

 

Achieving a closed orbit is not essential to lunar and interplanetary voyages. Early Russian space vehicles successfully achieved very high altitudes without going into orbit. NASA considered launching Apollo missions directly into lunar trajectories but adopted the strategy of first entering a temporary parking orbit and then performing a separate burn several orbits later onto a lunar trajectory. This costs additional propellant because the parking orbit perigee must be high enough to prevent reentry while direct injection can have an arbitrarily low perigee because it will never be reached.

 

However, the parking orbit approach greatly simplified Apollo mission planning in several important ways. It substantially widened the allowable launch windows, increasing the chance of a successful launch despite minor technical problems during the countdown. The parking orbit was a stable "mission plateau" that gave the crew and controllers several hours to thoroughly check out the spacecraft after the stresses of launch before committing it to a long lunar flight; the crew could quickly return to Earth, if necessary, or an alternate Earth-orbital mission could be conducted. The parking orbit also enabled translunar trajectories that avoided the densest parts of the Van Allen radiation belts.

 

Apollo missions minimized the performance penalty of the parking orbit by keeping its altitude as low as possible. For example, Apollo 15 used an unusually low parking orbit (even for Apollo) of 92.5 nmi by 91.5 nmi (171 km by 169 km) where there was significant atmospheric drag. But it was partially overcome by continuous venting of hydrogen from the third stage of the Saturn V, and was in any event tolerable for the short stay.

 

Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet "instantaneous" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.

 

Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference.[5] This is another way to explain the performance penalty associated with establishing the safe perigee of a parking orbit.

 

Plans for future crewed interplanetary spaceflight missions often include final vehicle assembly in Earth orbit, such as NASA's Project Orion and Russia's Kliper/Parom tandem.

Astrodynamics

Main article: Orbital mechanics

 

Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.

 

Non-rocket orbital propulsion methods include solar sails, magnetic sails, plasma-bubble magnetic systems, and using gravitational slingshot effects.

Ionized gas trail from Shuttle reentry

Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule by a C-119 airplane

Transfer energy

 

The term "transfer energy" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.[6][7]

Reentry

Main article: Atmospheric reentry

 

Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.

Landing

 

The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules all splashed down in the sea. These capsules were designed to land at relatively low speeds with the help of a parachute. Russian capsules for Soyuz make use of a big parachute and braking rockets to touch down on land. The Space Shuttle glided to a touchdown like a plane.

Recovery

 

After a successful landing the spacecraft, its occupants and cargo can be recovered. In some cases, recovery has occurred before landing: while a spacecraft is still descending on its parachute, it can be snagged by a specially designed aircraft. This mid-air retrieval technique was used to recover the film canisters from the Corona spy satellites.

Types

Uncrewed

See also: Uncrewed spacecraft and robotic spacecraft

Sojourner takes its Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer measurement of Yogi Rock on Mars

The MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury (artist's interpretation)

 

Uncrewed spaceflight (or unmanned) is all spaceflight activity without a necessary human presence in space. This includes all space probes, satellites and robotic spacecraft and missions. Uncrewed spaceflight is the opposite of manned spaceflight, which is usually called human spaceflight. Subcategories of uncrewed spaceflight are "robotic spacecraft" (objects) and "robotic space missions" (activities). A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe.

 

Uncrewed space missions use remote-controlled spacecraft. The first uncrewed space mission was Sputnik I, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are considered uncrewed missions.

Benefits

 

Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.

Telepresence

 

Telerobotics becomes telepresence when the time delay is short enough to permit control of the spacecraft in close to real time by humans. Even the two seconds light speed delay for the Moon is too far away for telepresence exploration from Earth. The L1 and L2 positions permit 400-millisecond round trip delays, which is just close enough for telepresence operation. Telepresence has also been suggested as a way to repair satellites in Earth orbit from Earth. The Exploration Telerobotics Symposium in 2012 explored this and other topics.[8]

Human

Main article: Human spaceflight

ISS crew member stores samples

 

The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[9] Currently, the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. The U.S. Space Shuttle fleet operated from April 1981 until July 2011. SpaceShipOne has conducted two human suborbital spaceflights.

Sub-orbital

Main article: Sub-orbital spaceflight

The International Space Station in Earth orbit after a visit from the crew of STS-119

 

On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.

 

The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Kármán line 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than 50 miles (80 km) above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Kármán line is only about 3% of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible Earth orbit (a circular orbit just above the Kármán line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for the first privately funded human spaceflight.

Point-to-point

 

Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour.[10] While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle.[11] Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit.[12] If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.

Orbital

Main article: Orbital spaceflight

Apollo 6 heads into orbit

 

A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.

Interplanetary

Main article: Interplanetary spaceflight

 

Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.

Interstellar

Main article: Interstellar travel

 

Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[13] In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.

Intergalactic

Main article: Intergalactic travel

 

Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.

Spacecraft

Main article: Spacecraft

An Apollo Lunar Module on the lunar surface

 

Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space.

 

The first 'true spacecraft' is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module,[14] since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.

Propulsion

Main article: Spacecraft propulsion

 

Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.

Launch systems

Main article: Launch vehicle

 

Launch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.

Expendable

Main article: Expendable launch system

 

Most current spaceflight uses multi-stage expendable launch systems to reach space.

 

Reusable

Main article: Reusable launch system

Ambox current red.svg

 

This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2019)

 

The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger, which was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.

 

The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition on mission STS-1

 

Columbia landing, concluding the STS-1 mission

 

Columbia launches again on STS-2

 

The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the US Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran.

 

Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of the program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2021. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.

 

Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company has built its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers (space tourists) in 2008, but this was delayed due to an accident in the propulsion development.[15]

 

Challenges

Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body

Space disasters

Main article: Space accidents and incidents

 

All launch vehicles contain a huge amount of energy that is needed for some part of it to reach orbit. There is therefore some risk that this energy can be released prematurely and suddenly, with significant effects. When a Delta II rocket exploded 13 seconds after launch on January 17, 1997, there were reports of store windows 10 miles (16 km) away being broken by the blast.[16]

 

Space is a fairly predictable environment, but there are still risks of accidental depressurization and the potential failure of equipment, some of which may be very newly developed.

 

In 2004 the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety was established in the Netherlands to further international cooperation and scientific advancement in space systems safety.[17]

Weightlessness

Main article: Weightlessness

Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.

 

In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of "weightlessness." Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues.

Radiation

 

Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and the health threat from cosmic radiation significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.[18]

Life support

Main article: Life support system

 

In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions.[19] The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.

Space weather

Main article: Space weather

Aurora australis and Discovery, May 1991.

 

Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in outer space. It is distinct from the concept of weather within a planetary atmosphere, and deals with phenomena involving ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space (generally close to Earth but also in interplanetary, and occasionally interstellar medium). "Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the Solar System."[20]

 

Space weather exerts a profound influence in several areas related to space exploration and development. Changing geomagnetic conditions can induce changes in atmospheric density causing the rapid degradation of spacecraft altitude in Low Earth orbit. Geomagnetic storms due to increased solar activity can potentially blind sensors aboard spacecraft, or interfere with on-board electronics. An understanding of space environmental conditions is also important in designing shielding and life support systems for manned spacecraft.

Environmental considerations

 

Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.

 

In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.

I must admit to initial surprise, and disappointment, on stepping into the exhibition room. The event was scheduled to open to the public at 9:00 a.m., and I was concerned that by arriving at 10:30 a.m. I would find the venue overcrowded.

 

My fears were unfounded. Instead, I found myself in a largely empty room with maybe a couple of dozen model cars arranged along a series of tables, leaving ample room to display each model to its fullest potential. At least, that's one way to look at it. Quite frankly, I was saddened to see such a scarcity of displays and an even lower number of visitors.

 

I had the distinct impression that I was perhaps the only person attending the event during the nearly two hours I lingered who was not either an exhibitor or a friend or family member of an exhibitor.

 

I failed to factor in "Hawaii time," however. Shortly after -- after -- my late arrival at 10:30 a.m. (remember, the event opened to the public at 9:00 a.m., and an hour earlier for exhibitors to set up), several more exhibitors showed up carrying cardboard boxes loaded with additional display pieces. Several of my favorite pieces in the show arrived nearly and hour after I showed up at the event as a mere spectator.

 

Having driven an hour from the North Shore to get here, I maximized my time by looking carefully at all the exhibits, and trying to take representative photographs of some of the modeling work. While the number of exhibits was smaller than expected, I must say that the quality of the workmanship exceeded my expectations. A number of different craftsmen (or women) had put together some impressively detailed model vehicles. There were fewer dioramas than I had hoped to see (in total: three), but they were each quite good. The military dioramas, in particular, were astonishingly detailed.

 

Photography was challenging due to the strongly greenish cast of the fluorescent lighting. Neither of the two "fluorescent" settings on my camera white balance were of much help in getting accurate lighting. I eventually settled on "auto white balance" and have attempted, with disappointing results, to color-correct after the fact.

 

I suppose Hawaii, with year-round good weather and expensive prices on hobby and craft supplies, is not the most conducive environment for scale modeling, whether it be kit building, railroading, or similar "indoor" pursuits. A local RC (radio control) club had a small display at this event. RC cars are popular in Hawaii as an outdoor hobby.

 

I was not entirely surprised by the age range of most of the participants. The "junior" category of displays was particularly sparse, with only two models on display when I arrived, and perhaps five by the time I left. Most of the attendees, other than a few kids running around and demonstrating practically no interest in the models, were between the ages of 30 and 70, I would estimate, with the most "interested" demographic appearing to fall between ages 35 and 60. Males outnumbered females easily ten to one or more, and the few women or girls in attendance appeared to be there with family members.

 

Is this age-group spread among scale modelers exclusive to Hawaii, or is model building in general falling out of favor with younger people? It has become an expensive hobby. It is a hobby which requires patience. It is a largely individual pursuit, unlike "Facebook-based" social networking activities or online gaming where interaction and immediate feedback are part of the experience. Some of the supplies, like glues and paints, have become so rampantly abused that they are kept under lock and key at the few shops which even bother to stock them anymore.

 

I found the entire experience both fascinating and ultimately somewhat depressing. It's sad to me that what should be a fun, lively event fails to attract interest or generate enthusiasm.

 

Despite the quiet, almost somber tone of the event, I found myself becoming quite excited, because among the models present, few though they were, I saw not one but two of my FAVORITE KITS OF ALL TIME on display at the show. First was a quasi-military model called "Rommel's Rod," which I built (badly) as a kid, and which as a kid I thought was the absolute coolest model car I had ever seen. Even more surprising and inspiring was seeing a Model-T Hot Rod called "The Black Widow." I remember "The Black Widow" as being the first model kit I ever saw. I remember watching my dad build that kit when I was perhaps five years old, far too young to build model cars myself. I talked to the guy who built "The Black Widow" that was on display at the show. He was the same guy who put together a beach scene diorama based on a modified "Beverly Hillbillies" jalopy.

 

This builder's enthusiasm inspired me, and that evening after returning home I spent some time online looking at model car kits. I was never much of a model car fan as a kid, preferring to build models of battleships, airplanes, and tanks. Still, I started looking at car kits, found a couple that looked like fun (at reasonable prices -- sorry, local vendors, but I can't pay $40 for a plastic model kit), and then... to my surprise, I was able to track down a model kit of "The Black Widow" online! I ordered one. We'll see if the enthusiasm lasts until it arrives.

 

I wonder where I can get plastic model cement?

 

Anyway, the display was small but interesting. Who knows, maybe I'll be a part of it next year, if it happens again.

 

Hawaii NNL Model Car Show, a non-competitive exhibition sponsored in part by Model Cars Magazine.

 

Ala Moana Hotel, Honolulu, Hawaii.

13 March 2011

  

NNL, for the curious, stands for Nameless National Luminaries, and refers to scale-model car exhibitions which are non-juried and not judged. "Viewers' Choice" awards are sometimes offered. At the Hawaii show, attendees were invited to fill out a "non-ordered list" of ten favorite exhibits.

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Billy Ocean (born Leslie Sebastian Charles, 21 January 1950, Fyzabad, Trinidad) is a Grammy Award-winning British-based popular music performer who had a string of rhythm and blues-tinged international pop hits in the 1970s and 1980s. He was the main British-based R&B singer / songwriter of the 1980s. He waited seven years after scoring his first four UK top 20 successes, before accumulating a series of transatlantic successes, including three U.S. number ones.

   

Biography

  

He was born in Fyzabad, Trinidad and Tobago to Grenadian parents, and moved to England with his family at the age of eight. Oceans' musical influence came at an early age of his life, as his father was a musician, and realised he was inline to follow those ambitions as he was growing up. During his teenage years, he sang regularly in London clubs while also working as a tailor in London's Savile Row. He released his first single in 1972 on Spark Records as Les Charles.

   

When in Trinidad as a boy he adopted the name Billy Ocean, taking the surname from the local football team 'Ocean's Eleven', who had gotten the name from the famous film of the same name. The next year, 1976, was when he recorded his first album, Billy Ocean, with its first single release, "Love Really Hurts Without You," charting at number 2 in the UK Singles Chart and number 22 in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. More successes ensued, including "L.O.D. (Love On Delivery)". He also wrote songs for other artists, such as La Toya Jackson. In 1981, he scored the U.S. R&B chart with "Nights (Feel Like Getting Down)".

   

Ocean's period of greatest success began with Suddenly during 1984, and its main single, "Caribbean Queen". The song's title and lyrics were changed for different regions, such that the song is also known as "African Queen" or "European Queen". The song won Ocean the Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance at the 1985 Grammy Awards. The album's title track also became a success, its score maximizing at #4 in both the US and the UK; and the song "Loverboy", while also being a #2 US success during 1985, from the album, was also the background music for the first scene of the popular UK BBC One TV series, Casualty, during 1986.

   

Ocean appeared at Live Aid in 1985, singing "Caribbean Queen" and "Loverboy", from the JFK Stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

   

His 1986 album Love Zone also sold well. It included the successful singles "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" (the theme from the film The Jewel of the Nile); this was a number one success in the UK and a number two in the U.S.; and "There'll Be Sad Songs (To Make You Cry)" (a U.S. number one, and also a major UK success). Also included were the title track and "Love Is Forever", which were #10 and #16 U.S. successes for Ocean, respectively.

   

In February 1986, Ocean's video of "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" was banned by the BBC, owing to non-union members (including Michael Douglas, Kathleen Turner and Danny DeVito) miming to backing vocals.

   

Ocean's next album, Tear Down These Walls (1988) featured another number one single, "Get Outta My Dreams, Get into My Car", while the album was certified platinum.

   

His 1993 album Time to Move On failed to produce any major successes, but his 1989 Greatest Hits collection has been a steady seller over the years, and his 1997 compilation Love Is For Ever made #7 on the UK album chart. Ocean's last studio album for Jive Records was Time to Move On, which he recorded in Chicago with R&B star R. Kelly. It turned out that R. Kelly had been a long-time admirer of the way Ocean was able to mix the more emotive soul style with a crossover popular style.

   

In 2002, the University of Westminster awarded Ocean an honorary doctorate of music. The awards ceremony took place in the Barbican Centre, in London. He continues to tour and record in Europe. He lives in Sunningdale, Berkshire with his wife of 27 years, Judy; and their three children Cherie, Antony and Rachel. Ocean is now a patron for Tech Music Schools in London, made up of Drumtech, Vocaltech, Guitar-X and Keyboardtech. He regularly visits to hold clinics and seminars for the students.

   

In 2004, "Caribbean Queen" was re-released as a digital single for its 20th anniversary, shooting up to #25 on the Billboard digital singles chart and garnering radio play across the US and UK. A remix of the single by Will.I.Am was released in 2005, and it later appeared on Pitchfork's "Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s" countdown, at #87.

   

In October 2007, Ocean commenced his first British tour in over 15 years. In February and March 2008 he toured Australia and the Far East. His new album, Because I Love You was released on 2 February 2009. To coincide with this new tour and album launch, Ocean has been working with Adoseof Design on a website revision which is due March 2009.

   

Ocean is mentioned many times by the character Tonya Rock as her celebrity idol and crush on the CW sitcom Everybody Hates Chris.

   

Karate For Kids

 

Karate for kids classes in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona are taught in a method to develop life skills such as respects, enhanced self-discipline, greater confidence and respect in children. The karate for kids programs with the local ATA martial arts schools doesn’t only teach how to kick and punch. The karate classes will teach kids the valuable life lessons of self-control and the ability to defend themselves. All of the Karate Kids classes teach the attributes necessary to be a confident individual within our community.

 

Our Local ATA Martial Art schools in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona have carefully designed the karate programs for the youth within the community- age appropriate programs that are specifically aimed at the child’s development both physically and mentally. These karate lessons are taught through a top ranked and nationally recognized “Karate For Kids” program, that has a well established training curriculum designed school aged students.

 

bullying seminars, martial arts business coaching mesa karate, chandler karate, cave creek karate,

 

#1 with parents in the ATA Karate Schools in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is the renowned Karate for Kids character development “ATA Life Skills” program designed for personal Victory in Martial Arts with skills such as perseverance, integrity, courtesy, self-esteem and the respect for others while incorporating social life skills that develops naturally within the group.

 

It is always a good time to start a program at one our three locations as the #1 Karate For Kids schools in Las Vegas and Henderson. Together with kids their own age, every youngster can mature and grow with the self confidence that a karate kids program develops within them.

  

Martial Arts Classes For Women

 

In today’s world of fitness, women are looking for a structured and interesting workout in a manner to stay fit that breaks away from their traditional daily routine. Repeating the same exercise every day can be draining and break ones motivation and is rarely goal oriented. It isn’t the normal daily gym workout. ATA Martial Arts of Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is a training facility that women are finding the variety of goal oriented conditioning that is exciting. While the physical nature of martial arts is rewarding and a personal martial arts victory, it also teaches the self defense and survival tactics that is needed in todays ever changing world.

 

There are many important mental and physical health benefits in our women’s martial art classes in Las Vegas and Henderson. While toning vital muscles and building coordination will enhance self-confidence, awareness and increase cardiovascular is health. Women who Attend ATA karate classes will improve balance, flexibility, increase exercise stamina levels while developing a greater sense of self-esteem, hence the term… “Victory” in Martial Arts.

Martial Arts have been known to provide much needed stress relief, promote self-control, concentration, and boost the ability to remain calm under stress. ATA Martial Arts routines are even helping women keep their memory sharp on a day-to-day basis!

 

Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona ATA Martial Arts facilities are the community martial arts experts that provide rigorous karate classes for women of all ages to develop their strength of body and mind.

 

It’s a fact! Women are breaking away from their traditional exercise routines such as gym workouts and finding balance, freedom and motivation at ATA Martial Arts. It’s time for you to experience the benefits of karate classes designed for women with the community Martial Art experts in Las Vegas and Henderson.

   

Adult Martial Arts Classes for Men

 

Martial Arts classes for men in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is more then just kicking and punching. ATA Karate Classes create a stronger self awareness, enhanced confidence, greater focus, and a true Victory in Martial Arts for men of all ages.

 

In an adult class a karate student will train will practical concepts in a safe, clean and enjoyable facility, while incorporating life skills to de-stress from life’s everyday challenges. Las Vegas ATA Martial Arts and Henderson ATA Martial arts offers three location to serve our community. Learning a skill set that will stick with you for life, no matter what age, allowing you to gain the self confidence desired so that you can feel comfortable with confrontation in any real life situation.

 

As one of the top martial arts training facilities in the community our Martial Arts programs such as Karate for Kids, Taekwondo and MMA and Fitness is a key method of enhancing the body’s functions, including flexibility, coordination, and balance with strength and endurance. Yes! It relieves stress while having some fun as well as meeting new people. As an adult, you do not need to have prior training before you get into a Martial Arts class. ATA Martial Arts has a defined teaching curriculum designed to take each student to the peak of their performance while greatly enhancing their skills creating a personal “Martial Arts Victory”.

    

KRAV MAGA & MMA FITNESS

Krav Maga and ATA’s MMA and athletic training is combined to provide a diverse full body workout while incorporating real life scenario drills for self defense.

This class features a structured curriculum that is in continuous motion utilizing all levels of MMA and Krav Maga skills with self defense drills in a manner to enhance cardio-respiratory for your cardiovascular system. Krav Maga students don’t’ just perform blocks, punches, kicks and movements you would find at a gym to music or in the mirror, students train in an environment that is preparing them for real life conditions.

 

The Krav Maga & MMA Fitness in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is a true Conditioning Program that specializes in a Total Body Workout that doesn’t feel like to boring fitness class you may have taken before. Krav Maga Conditioning Program brings a fresh experience and keeps each and every student motivated in class on a day to day basis.

With a strong dedication and commitment to the Krav Maga and MMA Fitness Training student, Krav Instructors teach a combination of strength training, combatives, flexibility skills, and workouts with our top notch academy training facility. There is a emphasize on muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance for Krav students in Henderson and Las Vegas while instilling the distinctive awareness and self defense techniques needed for street survival in our ever changing world.

Correct body alignment to maximize efficiency can be key, our team of professional instructors will work on refining Krav Maga technique through exciting repetition drills and training.

All levels of Krav Maga, MMA & Fitness from the beginner to the experienced can train at anyone of our three locations. Call today and don’t delay.

 

www.karatebuilt.com

   

name: Dawn Lagerstedt

school: Washington Elementary 4th and 5th Grade

town:Schiller Park

state: Illinois

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Maximize your browser window, then click the image to see it large.

 

Another Rotundiary Illusion. This image contains two diametrically-opposed polar panoramas.

 

A rotunda (round room) in a full 360x360-degrees.

A Sandia team is collaborating with Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore national labs and Intel Federal LLC to optimize DRAM packages, pictured here and found in many consumer laptops, to increase compute platform performance.

 

Learn more at bit.ly/3H1R4Wv

 

Photo by Craig Fritz.

What used to be office spaces on three floors of the Bureau of Fire Protection building have been converted into wards and

private rooms for patients. For now, the CCMC has only about one-third of the beds it used to contain. On some days, two to three newborn babies have to share a bed.

Forest Edwards built and flew scale-model airplanes and engineered miniature engines. He wanted to produce a small, lightweight and powerful miniature engine for the large-scale model-aircraft racing circuit. To maximize the horsepower, Edwards equipped his twin-cylinder engine with his own custom-engineered supercharger, a device for raising the pressure in an internal combustion engine.

 

This one-of-a-kind prototype runs on unleaded gasoline with spark ignition and a dry sump lubrication system. With its 1 3/4-inch bore and 1 1/4-inch stroke, the supercharged twin produces approximately 15 horsepower at 7500 revolutions per minute using a 24-16 propeller.

 

See More Forest Edwards Engine Photos at: www.flickr.com/photos/15794235@N06/sets/72157603556449257/

 

See More Two-Cylinder Engines at: www.flickr.com/photos/15794235@N06/sets/72157649352645204/

 

See Our Model Engine Collection at: www.flickr.com/photos/15794235@N06/sets/72157602933346098/

 

Visit Our Photo Sets at: www.flickr.com/photos/15794235@N06/sets

 

Courtesy of Forest Edwards

Paul and Paula Knapp

Miniature Engineering Museum

www.engine-museum.com

 

Maximize your location to tell the story.

Model : Nadine.

 

Often we forget to also incorporate the location by only focussing on the model. By "mixing" the two together and adding some props. You can really enhance the shot.

  

Saturday : July 14

Workshop fashion to the max.

www.fotografie-workshops.nl

Tara Schwetz, Acting Principal Deputy Director, National Institutes of Health

 

Susan Monarez, Acting Deputy Director, Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H)

 

Howard Fillit, Co-Founder and Chief Science Officer, Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Grumman F8F Bearcat is an American single-engine carrier-based fighter aircraft introduced in late World War II and it was Grumman Aircraft's last piston-engine fighter aircraft.

The Bearcat concept began during a meeting between Battle of Midway veteran F4F Wildcat pilots and Grumman Vice President Jake Swirbul at Pearl Harbor on 23 June 1942. At the meeting, Lieutenant Commander Jimmie Thach emphasized one of the most important requirements in a good fighter plane was "climb rate". Climb performance is strongly related to the power-to-weight ratio and is maximized by wrapping the smallest and lightest possible airframe around the most powerful available engine. Another goal was that the G-58 (Grumman's design designation for the aircraft) should be able to operate from escort carriers, which were then limited to the obsolescent F4F Wildcat as the Grumman F6F Hellcat was too large and heavy. A small, lightweight aircraft would make this possible. After intensively analyzing carrier warfare in the Pacific Theater of Operations for a year and a half, Grumman began development of the G-58 Bearcat in late 1943.

 

In 1943, Grumman was in the process of introducing the F6F Hellcat, powered by the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine which provided 2,000 horsepower (1,500 kW). The R-2800 was the most powerful American engine available at that time, so it would be retained for the G-58. This meant that improved performance would have to come from a lighter airframe. To meet this goal, the Bearcat's fuselage was about 5 feet (1.5 m) shorter than the Hellcat and was cut down vertically behind the cockpit area. This allowed the use of a bubble canopy, the first to be fitted to a US Navy fighter. The vertical stabilizer was the same height as the Hellcat's, but increased aspect ratio, giving it a thinner look. The wingspan was 7 feet (2.1 m) less than the Hellcat's. Structurally the fuselage used flush riveting as well as spot welding, with a heavy gauge 302W aluminum alloy skin suitable for carrier landings. Armor protection was provided for the pilot, engine and oil cooler.

 

The Hellcat used a 13 ft 1 in (3.99 m) three-bladed Hamilton Standard propeller. A slight reduction in size was made by moving to a 12 ft 7 in (3.84 m) Aeroproducts four-bladed propeller. Keeping the prop clear of the deck required a long landing gear, though, which, combined with the shortened fuselage, gave the Bearcat a significant "nose-up" profile on the ground. The hydraulically operated undercarriage used an articulated trunnion which extended the length of the oleo legs when lowered; as the undercarriage retracted the legs were shortened, enabling them to fit into a wheel well which was entirely in the wing. An additional benefit of the inward retracting units was a wide track, which helped counter propeller torque on takeoff and gave the F8F good ground and carrier deck handling.

 

The design team had set the goal that the G-58 should weigh 8,750 pounds (3,970 kg) fully loaded. As development continued it became clear this was impossible to achieve as the structure of the new fighter had to be made strong enough for aircraft carrier landings. Ultimately much of the weight-saving measures included restricting the internal fuel capacity to 160 US gallons (610 l) (later 183 US gallons [690 l]) and limiting the fixed armament to just four .50 cal Browning M2/AN machine guns, two in each wing. The limited range due to the reduced fuel load would mean it would be useful in the interception role but meant that the Hellcat would still be needed for longer range patrols. A later role was defending the fleet against airborne kamikaze attacks. Compared to the Hellcat, the Bearcat was 20% lighter, had a 30% better rate of climb and was 50 mph (80 km/h) faster.

 

Another weight-saving concept the designers came up with was detachable wingtips. The wings were designed to fold at a point about 2⁄3 out along the span, reducing the space taken up on the carrier. Normally, the hinge system would have to be built very strong to transmit loads from the outer portions of the wing to the main spar in the inner section, which adds considerable weight. Instead of building the entire wing to be able to withstand high-g loads, only the inner portion of the wing was able to do this. The outer portions were more lightly constructed, and designed to snap off at the hinge line if the g-force exceeded 7.5 g. In this case the aircraft would still be flyable and could be repaired after returning to the carrier. This saved 230 pounds (100 kg) of weight.

 

The F8F prototypes were ordered in November 1943 and first flew on 21 August 1944, a mere nine months later. The first production aircraft was delivered in February 1945 and the first squadron, Fighter Squadron 19 (VF-19), was operational by 21 May 1945, but World War II was over before the aircraft saw combat service.

 

Postwar, the F8F became a major U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps fighter, equipping 24 fighter squadrons in the Navy and a smaller number in the Marines. Often mentioned as one of the best-handling piston engine fighters ever built, its performance was sufficient to outperform many early jets. However, in United States service the F9F Panther and McDonnell F2H Banshee soon replaced the Bearcat as their performance and other advantages eclipsed piston-engine fighters. Therefore, many Bearcats with low flying hours were put in storage and/or sold to other nations.

 

One of these post-war operators became Uruguay, even though only with few aircraft. In 1942, Uruguay had received Grumman J4F Widgeon, Vought OS2U Kingfisher and Fairchild PT-23A trainers from the US under Lend-Lease, and after the war these were returned. A fundamental modernization of the Uruguayan Navy’s aviation branch started directly after WWII, though. During the years 1949 to 1957, a large supply of American aircraft was delivered. Among these were North American SNJ-4, Grumman Avenger, Martin Mariner and a mixed bunch of 12 old Grumman F6F Hellcats (-3, -5, -5N), delivered in 1952, even though not without trouble: to avoid the appearance of the United States supporting a small South American country, the planes were indirectly sold by a private company, Cobell Industries, and this meant that the planes came without armament to make the deal legal. However, after arriving in Uruguay, the planes were retrofitted with armament and other military hardware, while the pilots received training in the United States.

 

Attrition among the Hellcats was high and several F6Fs were soon lost in accidents. To fill these operational gaps, Uruguay closed a similar private deal, but this time for ten F8F Bearcat airframes, once more without armament and other military equipment. These arrived disassembled in crates in 1959 by ship. Upon re-assembly the former, all-blue USN aircraft were re-armed with 20 mm cannon instead of the original 0.5” (12.7 mm) machine guns, and they received new radio and navigational equipment. An additional oil cooler was mounted, too, visibly protruding from the cowling in front of the windscreen. When the Bearcats became operational in 1960, only six F6F had survived so far, and the Hellcats were soon withdrawn from service and fully replaced by the Bearcats.

 

During the mid-1960s, most of the ANU’s WWII-era planes reached the end of their operational lives and were written off. The Bearcats remained the only dedicated fighter aircraft of the Uruguayan Naval Aviation, and to expand the ANU’s ranks and build a stock of spare airframes to cannibalize, four more F8Us were ordered in late 1960. During this period, more aircraft from U.S. stock arrived and Beechcraft T-34 A, Beechcraft C-45, Grumman S-2A Tracker, Bell TH-13 and Sikorsky CH-34J were incorporated. Some more T-34A/B Mentors were exchanged from the Uruguayan Air Force for SNJ spare parts. During this phase, the Uruguayan Navy aircraft adopted a new high-visibility livery that had been introduced by the U.S. Navy in 1955, consisting of light gull grey over white. It replaced the former common overall dark sea blue paint scheme (sometimes with light grey undersides, as on the F6Fs).

The former tactical codes and large national insignia in four positions on the wings were initially retained, but this later changed into smaller wing roundels and “Armada” lettering replaced the large tactical codes on the fuselage – these were replaced with smaller markings on cowling and fin, now without the typical “A-“ (for Armada = Navy) prefix. The codes superficially resembled USN modex style codes now, but they were still just consecutive numbers as before. Another detail all ANU aircraft retained after their general livery update was the Uruguayan flag on the fin instead of a stylized banner version of the roundels, which were carried by the air force.

 

Towards the late Sixties, Uruguay was caught by political turmoil. In the late 1950s, partly because of a worldwide decrease in demand for Uruguayan agricultural products, Uruguayans suffered from a steep drop in their standard of living, which led to student militancy and labor unrest. An armed group, known as the Tupamaros, emerged in the 1960s, engaging in activities such as bank robbery, kidnapping and assassination, in addition to attempting an overthrow of the government.

President Jorge Pacheco declared a state of emergency in 1968, followed by a further suspension of civil liberties in 1972. In 1973, amid increasing economic and political turmoil, the armed forces, asked by the President Juan María Bordaberry, disbanded Parliament and established a civilian-military regime. The CIA-backed campaign of political repression and state terror involving intelligence operations and assassination of opponents was called Operation Condor. The Uruguayan Naval Aviation did not get directly involved in the inner tensions and the F8Fs saw only sporadic use during this phase, primarily in “show of force” appearances. They did not fire in anger, though, and served on well into the Seventies, even though maintenance became more and more complicated and expensive. In consequence, more and more machines had to be grounded or even fully retired and cannibalized to keep the small fleet flightworthy.

 

In 1979 nine North American T-28D Fennec and three C-45 were donated by the Argentinian Navy, and in 1980 the ANU’s F8Fs, which were now primarily used as attack aircraft, were retired, after only five of the original fourteen aircraft had been left operational. The Fennecs were used as a light attack platform until 2000.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 28 ft 3 in (8.61 m)

Wingspan: 35 ft 10 in (10.92 m)

Height: 13 ft 10 in (4.22 m)

Wing area: 244 sq ft (22.7 m²)

Aspect ratio: 5.02

Airfoil: root: NACA 23018; tip: NACA 23009

Empty weight: 7,650 lb (3,470 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 13,460 lb (6,105 kg)

 

Powerplant:

1× Pratt & Whitney R-2800-30W Double Wasp 18-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engine,

with 2,250 hp (1,680 kW), driving an Aeroproducts 4-bladed constant-speed propeller

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 455 mph (732 km/h, 395 kn)

Range: 1,105 mi (1,778 km, 960 nmi)

Service ceiling: 40,800 ft (12,400 m)

Rate of climb: 4,465 ft/min (22.68 m/s)

Wing loading: 42 lb/sq ft (210 kg/m²)

Power/mass: 0.22 hp/lb (0.36 kW/kg)

 

Armament:

4× 20 mm (.79 in) AN/M3 cannon with a total of 820 rounds

1× ventral (1.600 lb /725 kg) plus 2× underwing hardpoints (1.000 lb /454 kg each)

for a total ordnance of 3.600 lb (1.600 kg), including 150 and 200 gal. drop tanks,

4× 5” (127 mm) and/or bombs of up to 1,000 lb (454 kg) caliber

  

The kit and its assembly:

This rather simple what-if project is #2 in my current “Uruguayan What-if Series”. I had a surplus FROG 1:72 F8F in the Stash™ that I had bought in a cheap lot a while ago, but never had – beyond tentatively switching the engine to a Centaurus and painting it in Royal Navy colors – a good plan for it. This changed when I came across the Mistercraft F6F-5, a re-boxed Heller kit that comes with a vast decal set for no less than eight aircraft that also includes the exotic Uruguayan Navy markings from the Fifties. The idea: couldn’t the nimble F8F be a good complement or even a replacement for the ill-fated Uruguayan Hellcats?

 

Therefore, this became a simple “re-badging” of an unmodified Bearcat, just with some minor cosmetic twists. These included cockpit implants like a tub with side consoles (IIRC from a Heller Me 262) and a dashboard (of uncertain origin), some additional antennae (including a scratched IDF loop antenna fairing) on the back as well as a small pitot under the left wing. As a pure fighter I outfitted the Bearcat just with its OOB ventral drop tank (the bombs and HVARs that come with the kit look rather fishy). The propeller was replaced, too, with a (much) better alternative left over from an ArtModel F8F-2, the (by far) best kit of the Bearcat I have come across yet. It was mounted on a plastic rod which perfectly matched the opening/channel in the engine block, spinning free.

 

The FROG F8F is a simple, if not primitive and crude, affair, and fit is only mediocre – especially the wing/fuselage intersection did not fit at all. There are huge trenches around the flaps on the lower wing surfaces, and the landing gear is rather massive – just like anything else about the model. You get raised panel lines, but they are rather fine and there are not too many of them.

After having built the FROG kit I think it’s (even) weaker than the vintage Monogram kit, which is riddled with rivets and panel lines, but leaves overall a better impression. Gotta try the relatively new Hobby Boss 1:72 F8F someday, too – it looks like a compromise between all other kits.

  

Painting and markings:

A secondary factor behind this build was the plan to paint an F8F in the later USN grey-over-white high-viz livery, which some very late USMC AUs carried in real life. Since many aircraft of the Uruguayan Navy adopted this livery style in the late Sixties, too (e. g. the S-2 Trackers), it would look very natural on an ANU Bearcat.

 

The model was molded in dark-blue plastic and applying white was quite challenging. I relied upon a special, highly opaque white acrylic paint (rattle can) as a primer, Light Gull Grey (FS 36440, Humbrol 40) was added with a brush later. A dirty black (Revell 06) anti-glare panel was added in front of the windscreen. As an individual detail the propeller boss was painted red – inspired by a USN F8F I saw in literature with such a marking, and the real ANU Hellcats had their propeller bosses painted red, too.

 

The cockpit interior as well as the inside of the cowling were painted in chromate green (I used Humbrol 150), while the landing gear and its respective wells became, after long consideration, white. Being former USN aircraft, the F8Fs would certainly have had green bays with dark blue landing gear struts and wheel discs upon delivery – but I referred to pictures from the real ANU F6Fs as benchmark, and these had apparently all-white landing gear surfaces, matching their undersides, so I adopted this style for the Bearcat, too.

 

The kit received a light overall washing with black ink and some post-panel shading. As mentioned above, the decals came from a Mistercraft F6F (roundels and fin flash), while an Croco Models aftermarket sheet with decals for south American T-34s provided the basis for the tactical codes. The unit emblems on the cowling were taken from the same sheet, even though the actually belong to a Uruguayan Air Force T-34.

 

After some detail painting (exhaust stubs, oil cooler, position lights) and weathering (exhaust and gun soot with graphite) the model was sealed with matt acrylic varnish. Because the Bearcat would have been rather freshly painted, I omitted oil stains around the engine and the oil cooler.

  

Not a complex project, and the FROG Bearcat was a bit of a disappointment – but what could I expect from a mold dating back to 1975? Well, it found a good use – and in the Sixties’ USN high-viz livery the compact F8F looks a bit like a juvenile Douglas AD/A-1 Skyraider?

Designed to Maximize "Parking Ticket" Revenue for City

Mitch Barns, Chief Executive Officer, Nielsen, USA and Tonye Cole, Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer, Sahara Group,.Nigeria and Ilene S. Gordon, Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer,.Ingredion, USA and Peter T. Grauer, Chairman, Bloomberg, USA and Linda A. Hill, Wallace Brett Donham Professor of Business Administration, Harvard Business School, USA at the Annual Meeting 2017 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 19, 2017

Copyright by World Economic Forum / Christian Clavadetscher

b>Supra Ride System

The Supra Ride System (SRS) integrates features and design to maximize wake riding performance in the 2014 SC350-550.

  

ProEdge Wakeboard Tower: Starting with your connection to this professional wake maker, the ProEdge Tower is a Supra system in and of itself. Complete with an adjustable weightless folding mechanism, Bridge and Garage Block fold stops, Swivel Board Racks, 4 Spin Speakers and an integrated bimini, this tower is way beyond better. It also features thoughtful details like LED tower accent lighting, upholstery-matched hand-covered panels, rope spool posts to keep excess rope from hanging down into the lounge or storing your rope when you're just cruising and a pull strap to elevate your boat cover for optimum runoff. New for this year the ProEdge Tower is available with the Contrast option that offers 13 color choices on tower base farings and bimini arms to further customize your Supra SC350-550.  

Wake Enhancement and Speed Control: The Supra SC's 900-pound Liquid Lead Ballast and optional 1300-pound expandable Flex system with the wake-shaping SmartPlate can create ideal wakes for every level of rider. Zero Off speed control with GPS mapping and the unaffected wakes under Supra’s PURE Surf swim platform finish this perfect ride. The VISION Touch dash brings all of this function to your finger tips with 16 available Supra Rider Profiles that house speed, ballast and SmartPlate position information. Also at your finger tips is the redundancy of manual wake enhancement and speed controls with simple toggle switches. This includes two quick bump sticks on either side of the steering wheel for SmartPlate and Zero Off speed control without wasted distracting motion.  

Designed to Ride.: The Supra SC is not only designed to create large sculpted wakes, it's built to perform beyond better while making them. The running attitude of the SC, even at full ballast, does not impede the driver's view. SC handling does not degrade with weight or slow speeds. You can turn around to get a fallen rider with ease and not have to worry about taking water over the transom or the bow in the process. The SC is a deep boat and because of that you feel safe on the inside whether your surfing, riding or cruising. 

 

Tonye Cole, Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer, Sahara Group, Nigeria at the Annual Meeting 2017 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 19, 2017

Copyright by World Economic Forum / Christian Clavadetscher

Making the most of your floor area. Seurasaari, Helsinki

Maximize your investment in high-speed continuous digital color printing. The Zero Speed Roll 40 automatically changes input rolls, thus eliminating printer stoppages for roll changes and keeping your printer running at full speed and full productivity.

 

Printer stoppages due to roll changeover can last up to fifteen minutes. With today’s fast printers running through a roll as quickly as one hour, percentage downtime due to roll changes can approach 25%. With the Zero Speed Splicer Roll 40, this percentage drops to zero. Significantly, the Roll 40 also virtually eliminates the lengthy paper waste associated with printer stoppages due to roll depletion.

 

Zero Speed Splicer Roll 40 offers a high degree of flexibility to your operation, accommodating a broad variation in paper weights in successive rolls, and even accommodating variation in successive roll widths. The web may be justified to the left, right or center, allowing the Roll 40 to work with varying digital production printers.

 

www.tecnau.com/product/splicer-roll-40/

Model: Rebeca Florêncio

Cliente: Alysson Lorena Design

Beauty and Hair: Rosângela Augusta

Fotografia e tratamento: Jackson Carvalho

www.artedigitalstudio.com.br

Maximize/full screen for better res.

The back cover of the new social media book Maximizing LinkedIn for Sales and Social Media Marketing by Neal Schaffer.

b>Supra Ride System

The Supra Ride System (SRS) integrates features and design to maximize wake riding performance in the 2014 SC350-550.

  

ProEdge Wakeboard Tower: Starting with your connection to this professional wake maker, the ProEdge Tower is a Supra system in and of itself. Complete with an adjustable weightless folding mechanism, Bridge and Garage Block fold stops, Swivel Board Racks, 4 Spin Speakers and an integrated bimini, this tower is way beyond better. It also features thoughtful details like LED tower accent lighting, upholstery-matched hand-covered panels, rope spool posts to keep excess rope from hanging down into the lounge or storing your rope when you're just cruising and a pull strap to elevate your boat cover for optimum runoff. New for this year the ProEdge Tower is available with the Contrast option that offers 13 color choices on tower base farings and bimini arms to further customize your Supra SC350-550.  

Wake Enhancement and Speed Control: The Supra SC's 900-pound Liquid Lead Ballast and optional 1300-pound expandable Flex system with the wake-shaping SmartPlate can create ideal wakes for every level of rider. Zero Off speed control with GPS mapping and the unaffected wakes under Supra’s PURE Surf swim platform finish this perfect ride. The VISION Touch dash brings all of this function to your finger tips with 16 available Supra Rider Profiles that house speed, ballast and SmartPlate position information. Also at your finger tips is the redundancy of manual wake enhancement and speed controls with simple toggle switches. This includes two quick bump sticks on either side of the steering wheel for SmartPlate and Zero Off speed control without wasted distracting motion.  

Designed to Ride.: The Supra SC is not only designed to create large sculpted wakes, it's built to perform beyond better while making them. The running attitude of the SC, even at full ballast, does not impede the driver's view. SC handling does not degrade with weight or slow speeds. You can turn around to get a fallen rider with ease and not have to worry about taking water over the transom or the bow in the process. The SC is a deep boat and because of that you feel safe on the inside whether your surfing, riding or cruising. 

 

Underneath the desk surface are a couple of slide out drawers, as well as shelves on either side of the workstation. This is where the CPU, router, etc. sits, as well as the flatbed scanner.

It is that age when a simple quick run to go touch the gate makes you happy

Christopher Austin, CEO and Partner, Flagship Pioneering

 

Margaret Anderson, Managing Director, Deloitte

Participants in the Nairobi Summit: Maximizing Impact of Women, Peace and Security Policies in Africa at the Crown Plaza Hotel in Nairobi, Kenya on Wednesday, July 23, 2014. The symposium was organized by the Institute for Inclusive Security and the University of Nairobi. (Pete Muller for the Institute for Inclusive Security)

Some of the attendees of the job search workshop. Taken right before I gave my talk about www.howigotmyjob.com, which was actually captured in video by Amelia Pauley Louden and will be uploaded at that website.

"1. Zephyr - With a pale green bottom half, Zephyr squash are the gorgeously colored cousins of the more common Yellow Crookneck.

 

2. Costada Romanesco - Known for its distinctive ribs and pale green-dark green stripes, Costada Romanesco is an Italian variety said to be much sweeter and more flavorful than other zucchini.

 

3. Golden and Black - When you think of "zucchini," these plain-old yellow and green squash are probably what first springs to mind. Cut thinly and layered in ratatouille, they're classic, dependable, and familiar.

 

4. Floridor/Geode/Eight Ball - These yellow, light green, and dark green (respectively) squash all share a spherical shape. This does mean that they maximize their inner volume, so be sure to pick these very young -- the insides become tough and woody quickly.

 

5. Madga - Speckled pale green with a bell-like shape, Magda squash are mild, sweet, and Middle Eastern in origin.

 

6. Pattypan - The scalloped edges of these squash are adorable, but can be difficult to chop up for cooking. Try buying them small and roasting them whole to make the most of their pretty shape."

 

— Food 52

Down & Dirty: Summer Squash

  

Tonye Cole, Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer, Sahara Group, Nigeria at the Annual Meeting 2017 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 19, 2017

Copyright by World Economic Forum / Christian Clavadetscher