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Adult with fully developed, cylindrical, digitiform rhinophores (1) and insignificant anterior ribs. Size when fully developed varies between individuals.
Length 3.7 mm. North Anglesey, Wales. 2013.
Full SPECIES DESCRIPTION BELOW
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PDF available at www.researchgate.net/publication/353218914_Limapontia_sen...
Limapontia senestra (Quatrefages, 1844).
Current taxonomy; World Register of Marine Species www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=140231
Synonyms: Actaeonia senestra Quatrefages, 1844; Actaeonia corrugata Alder & Hancock, 1848; Cenia cocksi Alder & Hancock, 1848.
GLOSSARY below.
Description
L. senestra grows up to 6 mm long. The smooth body has no tubercles but is occasionally wrinkled, which gave rise to the synonymous A. corrugata of A&H, 1848 (fig. 1 flic.kr/p/2maFS2M ). The body is black (fig. 1 flic.kr/p/2maFS2M ) or brown (fig. 2 flic.kr/p/2maCbHV ) and occasionally translucent, showing the colours of the internal organs (fig. 3 flic.kr/p/2maFS2g & fig. 24 flic.kr/p/2mdjDmv ). There is often a small, pale greyish or yellowish mark on the dorsum and two (fig. 4 flic.kr/p/2maFS21 ) or more marks (fig. 5 flic.kr/p/2maFS1K ), sometimes merging into a line (fig. 6 flic.kr/p/2maHkYc ), on each flank, or the marks may be obscure/absent (fig. 7 flic.kr/p/2maFS1j ). Quincunx pattern of five dots is regarded as typical (fig. 4 flic.kr/p/2maFS21 ). There may also be scattered opaque white flecks, especially on the protruding metapodium (tail) (fig. 4 flic.kr/p/2maFS21 ) and edge of the foot (fig. 3 flic.kr/p/2maFS2g ).
The anus is a short distance behind the mid-point of the body, but is difficult to see when not defecating, unless the specimen is translucent (fig. 24 flic.kr/p/2mdjDmv ). The yellow-orange ovotestes and dark green digestive gland can be seen through the translucent foot (fig. 8 flic.kr/p/2maFS14 ) or occasionally translucent body (fig. 24 flic.kr/p/2mdjDmv ). The penis is white with a sharp, curved stylet at the tip (fig. 9 flic.kr/p/2maCbFL ). There is a small swelling over the bursa copulatrix (fig. 10 flic.kr/p/2maDaUW ).
The head can extend forwards to almost horizontal, or contract to vertical (fig. 11 flic.kr/p/2maFRYW ). It has a slit at the anterior for holding filaments of alga while feeding (fig. 12 flic.kr/p/2maFRYA ). There is a medial band of black or brown, varying in intensity with extension. The rhinophores and eye patches are translucent whitish with varying amounts of opaque white flecking (fig. 12 flic.kr/p/2maFRYA ). When more than 2 mm long, L. senestra has spatulate rhinophores (fig. 1 flic.kr/p/2maFS2M ). They become cylindrical, digitiform only when fully developed (fig. 13 flic.kr/p/2maHkWD ); size when this is achieved varies between individuals. “Ridges run forwards from the rhinophores to the front of the head” (Eliot, 1910). They are shown on Eliot’s image and more prominently in the original species description by Quatrefages (1844) who called them thick ridges, “crêtes épaisses” (fig. 15 flic.kr/p/2maym8f ). (Roginskaya, 2000, opined that Quatrefages’ image was of an abnormal specimen). The ridges are usually more prominent on young adults (fig. 1 flic.kr/p/2maFS2M ) than those with fully developed digitiform rhinophores (fig. 2 flic.kr/p/2maCbHV & fig. 16 flic.kr/p/2maCbEd ). The ridge prominence varies on individuals and is often slight or absent when an animal is not fully extended (fig. 11 flic.kr/p/2maFRYW ). Rhinophores start to develop when L. senestra is about 1.5 mm long (fig. 12 flic.kr/p/2maFRYA & fig. 3 flic.kr/p/2maFS2g ). Smaller early juveniles have low ridges but no rhinophores (fig. 14 flic.kr/p/2maDaSM ) and are easily mistaken for L. capitata or L. depressa.
The anterior of the foot is concave centrally and slightly swollen laterally but has no propodial tentacles or extensions (fig. 10 flic.kr/p/2maDaUW ). Apart from opaque white flecks around the periphery, the sole is translucent showing the colours of viscera (fig. 8 flic.kr/p/2maFS14 ). The extended pale metapodium is about 13-18.5% of the fully extended slug’s length (fig. 4 flic.kr/p/2maFS21 ); shorter than on L. capitata (c. 19-25%) and longer than the negligible one on L. depressa.
Key identification features
Limapontia senestra
1) Spatulate rhinophores on head when 2 mm long or larger, with or without anterior ridge, becoming cylindrical digitiform when fully developed (fig. 13 flic.kr/p/2maHkWD ). Juveniles have only ridges above the eyes (fig. 14 flic.kr/p/2maDaSM ) or slightly developed rhinophores and are easily mistaken for L. capitata or L. depressa.
2) Extended pale metapodium (tail) is about 13-18.5% of extended body length (fig. 4 flic.kr/p/2maFS21 ).
3) Often a small pale dorsal spot and lateral spots form a quincunx or similar; missing on translucent specimens with visible pale viscera (fig. 24 flic.kr/p/2mdjDmv ).
4) Eye patches and rhinophores whitish.
5) Anus a short distance behind midpoint of body (difficult to see when not defecating).
6) Full salinity, lagoons perhaps with salinity c. 20‰, and rock pools up to MHW on exposed coasts.
Similar species
Limapontia depressa Alder & Hancock, 1862 (fig. 17 flic.kr/p/2maHkVw )
1) No digitiform rhinophores but many have raised ribs/sharp edges to recessed eye-area.
2) Pale metapodium (tail) absent or negligible.
3) Often very small, random, light freckles but no distinct, pale, central mark on dorsum.
4) Pale eye patches.
5) Dorsal anus close to posterior.
6) On saltings with very low salinity, 3‰, to fully marine salinity (though slow to adapt to change in salinity). Sublittoral in inner Baltic.
Limapontia capitata (O. F. Müller, 1774) (fig. 18 flic.kr/p/2maym6X )
1) Rhinophoral crest above each eye, no digitiform rhinophore.
2) Substantial pale metapodium (tail) c. 19-25% of extended body length.
3) Usually a large pale mark on the dorsum; visible pale viscera in translucent L. senestra (fig. 24 flic.kr/p/2mdjDmv ) and faded patch on some L. depressa can be mistaken for the dorsal mark of L. capitata.
4) Eye areas and head-crests whitish.
5) Anus a short distance behind midpoint of body.
6) Sublittoral and all levels of the shore in pools and moist positions. Usually on Cladophora attached to hard substrate. Optimum salinity 30‰, can survive 5 to over 40‰, but sustainable population improbable below 10‰, the lower limit for spawning.
Ecology and behaviour
In Britain, L. senestra is found on its food algae, Cladophora spp. ( fig. 19 flic.kr/p/2maFRWm ), and sometimes on other nearby filamentous species (fig. 20 flic.kr/p/2maDaMS ), in shaded positions and in rock pools. In the Barents and White Seas, it is frequently on Acrosiphonia (Roginskaya, 200). It lives in the shallow sublittoral and on shores with wave exposure varying from sheltered lagoons to pools on exposed rocks (fig. 21 flic.kr/p/2maDaGb ). It is usually found in full marine salinity often on exposed coasts in pools at MHW. It lives in the Fleet lagoon, Dorset, at possibly c. 20‰ salinity (Kluijver et al.) (fig. 16 flic.kr/p/2maCbEd ), but most of the Fleet has fully saline conditions (JNCC).
L. senestra consumes Cladophora spp. by holding a filament vertically in a groove at the front of its head (fig. 12 flic.kr/p/2maFRYA ) while it punctures it and sucks the cytoplasm from, preferentially, the terminal cells leaving them colourless (fig. 22 flic.kr/p/2maHkBk ). Its single row of radular teeth, adapted to only slitting and cutting, restricts L. senestra to suctorial feeding. The leading tooth is used to puncture algal cell walls and the newer, unused teeth function as a spear shaft. Worn out older teeth are retained in an ascus sac (Thompson, 1976).
Cladophora spp. have large, coenocytic, multinucleate cells (fig. 19 flic.kr/p/2maFRWm ) so there are few internal cell walls subdividing the cytoplasm, which is consequently easily extracted by suction. ’Enteromorpha’, currently genus Ulva, is sometimes mentioned as a food alga (Miller, 1962 and Hayward & Ryland, 2009) but, though it is often found on or near filamentous spp. of Ulva, this is unlikely to be eaten as all species in the order Ulvales, having uninucleate cells (Wichard et al. 2015), are not coenocytic, so unsuitable for suctorial feeding (fig. 20 flic.kr/p/2maDaMS ). Jensen (1975) observed the related L. capitata to hold filamentous Ulva in the feeding position but fail in its efforts to extract any food.
Like other Sacoglossa, L. senestra is a simultaneous hermaphrodite. Its vaginal opening is closed by the bursa copulatrix which forms a swelling on the right side of the body (fig. 10 flic.kr/p/2maDaUW ). Mutual impregnation is by each partner piercing the other with a sharp hypodermic stylet on the end of the penis (fig. 9 flic.kr/p/2maCbFL ) (Gascoigne, 1976). Spawning in Britain is from February to September. Each spawn mass contains up to 40 ova; an unusually small number for British sea slugs, but containing unusually large eggs (diameter 0.4 mm); spawn masses observed in captivity had 7-13 ova per mass (IFS pers. obs.) Initially, ova have a bright yellow yolk surrounded by white albumen, the white part becoming colourless as the albumen is consumed (fig. 23 flic.kr/p/2maDaya ). The yellow disappears as the embryos develop within the egg mass, and tiny black slugs with black eyes in white eye patches can be seen before they emerge when c. 0.7 mm long. Unlike the other two species of Limapontia in Britain, there is no planktonic veliger larval stage. L. senestra is the only European sea slug, apart from Runcina coronata which is sometimes found in the same pools (fig. 21 flic.kr/p/2maDaGb ), to have no trace of a shell at any stage of its embryonic development (Thompson, 1976).
Distribution and status
L. senestra occurs from the White and Barents seas, Arctic Russia, to Bretagne, France. It appears to be absent from the Baltic and continental coast of the southern North Sea; GBIF map www.gbif.org/species/2298917 . It is one of the commonest sea slugs of the littoral zone in the White Sea and the Murman coast, Russia, where it is locally so abundant that sometimes the tufts of algae are turned almost black from the swarms of L. senestra (Roginskaya, 2000). It is widespread around Britain and Ireland, but varies locally and seasonally in abundance. In some places, it is scarcer than L. capitata but in others, such as Orkney, L. senestra is very much the commoner species UK map NBN species.nbnatlas.org/species/NHMSYS0021056303
Acknowledgements
I thank Kathe Jensen and Cynthia D. Trowbridge for their help concerning Sacoglossa species. I am grateful for the use of images by Keith Alexander, Helen Marshall and Malcolm Storey. Any errors or omissions are my (IFS) responsibility.
References and links
Eliot, C.N.E. (1910). A monograph of the British nudibranchiate mollusca. London, Ray Society. Supplementary Volume. archive.org/details/british_nudibranchiate_mollusca_pt8_l...
Gascoigne, T. (1973). A taxonomic note on the genus Acteonia Quatrefages 1844. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 40: 395–398. doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.mollus.a065236
Gascoigne, T. 1975. A field guide to the British Limapontidae and Alderia modesta. J. Conch. Lond. 28: 359 – 364.
Gascoigne, T. 1976. The reproductive systems and classification of the stiligeridae (Opisthobranchia : Sacoglossa). J. Malac. Soc. Aust. 3 (3-4): 157-172.
Hayward, P.J. & Ryland, J.S. (eds.) 1995 and reprints to 2009. Handbook of the marine fauna of North-West Europe. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Jeffreys, J.G. (1869). British Conchology, vol. 5 London, John Van Voorst. [as Acteonia cocksii]. archive.org/details/britishconcholog05jeffr/page/30/mode/1up
JNCC, Special Areas of Conservation, Chesil and the Fleet, Annex 1: 1150 sac.jncc.gov.uk/site/UK0017076 accessed 11 July 2021.
Kluijver, M.J. de, Ingalsuo S.S. & Bruyne, R.H. de. Mollusca of the North Sea, Limapontia senestra. Marine Species Identification Portal. www.species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=... accessed 11 July 2021.
Miller, M.C. 1962. Annual cycles of some Manx nudibranchs, with a discussion of the problem of the migration. J. Anim. Ecol. 31(3): 545-569 www.jstor.org/stable/2053?seq=1
National Biodiversity Network Atlas,
species.nbnatlas.org/species/NHMSYS0021056303
Quatrefages, A. De. (1844). Sur les gastéropodes phlébentérés. Annls Sci. nat. (Zool.) 1 (3) (First description, as Acteonia senestra, page 142, first illustration fig. iv, plate 3.) www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13407269#page/148/mode/1up & www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13407269#page/403/mode/1up
Roginskaya, I. 2000. Russian opisthobranchs. Notes on Limapontia senestra (Quatrefages,1844) in White Sea and Barents Sea. (Sacoglossa, Limapontiidae) Nudibranch news 2(12): 56-58. www.seaslugforum.net/pdf/annews2-12.pdf
Smith, I.F. 2014. Rearing and breeding the sacoglossan sea slug, Limapontia senestra (Quatrefages, 1844). Mollusc World 34: 16-18. Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. www.researchgate.net/publication/352982521_Limapontia_sen...
Smith, I.F. 2021. Limapontia capitata (O. F. Müller, 1774) Identification and Biology flic.kr/s/aHsmVLYE4o
Thompson, T.E. (1976). Biology of opisthobranch molluscs 1. London, Ray Society.
Current taxonomy; World Register of Marine Species www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=140231
Glossary
bursa copulatrix = spermatozoa receiving organ.
coenocytic = (of algae) with parts made up of large, multinucleate masses of cytoplasm enclosed by the wall of each large cell.
cytoplasm = gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell; ‘cell sap’.
digitiform = shaped like a finger.
hermaphrodite, simultaneous = individual acts as both male and female at the same time with similar partner.
metapodium = hind part of the foot.
multinucleate = (of cells) having more than one nucleus per cell, i.e., multiple nuclei share one common cytoplasm.
ovotestis = (pl. ovotestes) hermaphrodite organ serving as both ovary and testis.
propodial = at the front of the foot.
quincunx = pattern of five as on dominoes or dice.
radula = usually a chitinous ribbon with rows of teeth to rasp food, but on Sacoglossa a line of single, fused teeth used like a scalpel to pierce algal cells.
radular = of the radula.
rhinophoral = of a rhinophore or in the usual position of a rhinophore.
rhinophore = chemo-receptor tentacle on the head
spatulate = flattened with a blunt, rounded apex like a spatula.
stylet = hard, sharp, slender piercing structure.
uninucleate = (of cells) having one nucleus per cell.
veliger = mollusc larva, usually with a shell, but not on L. senestra, which moves by action of cilia on a velum (bilobed flap). Stage may be passed in plankton or, as in the case of L. senestra, within liquid-filled egg-capsule.
Sihanoukville (Khmer: ក្រុងព្រះសីហនុ, Krong Preah Sihanouk), also known as 'Kompong Som' (Khmer: កំពង់សោម), is a coastal city in Cambodia and the capital city of Sihanoukville Province, located at the tip of an elevated peninsula in the country's south-west at the Gulf of Thailand. The city is flanked by an almost uninterrupted string of beaches along its entire coastline and coastal marshlands bordering the Ream National Park in the East. A number of thinly inhabited islands - under Sihanoukville's administration - are in the city's proximity, where in recent years moderate development has helped to attract a sizable portion of Asia's individual travelers, young students and back-packers.
The city, which was named in honour of former king Norodom Sihanouk, had a population of around 89.800 people and approximately 66.700 in its urban center in 2008. Sihanoukville city encompasses the greater part of four of the five communes (Sangkats) of Sihanoukville provinces' Mittakpheap District. A relatively young city, it has evolved parallel to the construction of the Sihanoukville Autonomous Port, which commenced in June 1955, as the country's gateway to direct and unrestricted international sea trade. The only deep water port in Cambodia includes a mineral oil terminal and a transport logistics facility. As a consequence, the city grew to become a leading national center of trade, commerce, transport and process manufacturing.
Sihanoukville's many beaches and nearby islands make it Cambodia's premier seaside resort with steadily rising numbers of national visitors and international tourists since the late 20th century. As a result of its economic diversity, the region's natural beauty and the considerable recreational potential, a constantly increasing number of seasonal and permanent foreign residents make Sihanoukville one of the culturally most varied and dynamic population centers in Cambodia. As of 2014 the tourism sector remains insignificant in comparison with neighboring Thailand. Sihanoukville's future will largely be defined by the authorities' capability of a successfully balanced management in order to protect and conserve natural resources on the one hand and the necessities of island - and urban development, increasing visitor numbers, expanding infrastructure, the industrial sector and population growth on the other.
Despite being the country’s premier sea side destination, after decades of war and upheaval the town and its infrastructure remain very much disjointed and architecturally unimpressive. Infrastructure problems persist, in particular related to water and power supply, while international standard health facilities remain limited.
ETYMOLOGY
The official name of the city in Khmer is: Krong (city) Preah (holy) Sihanouk (name of the former king), which adds up to: "City of the holy Sihanouk" or "Honorable Sihanouk City". King Norodom Sihanouk (reigned 1941-1955, 1993-2004) was and still is revered as father of the (modern) nation. The name "Sihanouk" is derived from Sanskrit through two Pali words: Siha (lion), and Hanu (jaws).
The alternative name, Kompong Saom (also romanized as Kompong Som and Kampong Som), (Khmer: កំពង់សោម) means "Port of the Moon" or "Shiva's Port". Saom is derived from the Sanskrit word "saumya", the original (Rig Vedic) meaning of which was "Soma, the juice or sacrifice of the moon-god", but evolved into Pali "moon", "moonlike" "name of Shiva". The word Kampong or Kompong is of Malayan origin and means village or hamlet. Its meaning underwent extension towards pier or river landing bridge.
HISTORY
CLASSICAL PERIOD (BEFORE 1700)
Prior to the ports' and city's foundation works of 1955, the port of Kompong Som must have been only of regional significance - due to the absence of navigable waterways that connect the port with the kingdom's settlement centers. During the many centuries of pre-Angkorian and Angkorian history – from Funan to Chenla and during the Khmer Empire, regional trade was centered at O Keo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in the Mekong Delta, now the province of Rạch Giá in Vietnam. The township of Prei Nokor (Saigon) was a commercial center of the Khmer Empire. The Chronicle of Samtec Cauva Vamn Juon - one of the 18th and 19th century Cambodian Royal Chronicles - briefly mentions the region as the country was split into 3 parts during a 9-year civil war from 1476 to 1485: "In 1479, Dhammaraja took on the throne at Catumukh (Phnom Penh) and controlled the provinces of Samraong Tong, Thbong, Kompong Saom, Kampot up to the Bassak, Preah Trapeang, Kramuon Sah, Koh Slaket and Peam"[mouth of the Mekong].
EARLY MODERN PERIOD (AROUND 1700-1863)
From the end of the seventeenth century, Cambodia lost control of the Mekong River route as Vietnamese power expanded into the lower Mekong. During the Nguyen-Siamese War (1717–18) a Siamese fleet burned the port of Kompong Som in 1717 but was defeated by the Vietnamese at Banteay Meas/Ha Tien.[20] A Cambodian king of the late eighteenth century, Outey-Reachea III allied with a Chinese pirate, Mac-Thien-Tu, who had established an autonomous polity based in Ha Tien and controlled the maritime network on the eastern part of the Gulf of Thailand. Ha Tien was located at a point where a river linking to the Bassac River flows into the Gulf of Thailand. Landlocked Cambodia tried to keep its access to maritime trade through Ha Tien. In 1757 Ha Tien acquired the ports of Kampot and Kompong Som as a reward for Mac's military support to the King of Cambodia. Until its destruction in 1771 the port developed into an independent duty-free entrepot - linked with several Chinese trading networks.
Alexander Hamilton, who traveled on the Gulf of Thailand in 1720, wrote that "Kompong Som and Banteay Meas (later Ha Tien) belonged to Cambodia, as Cochin-China was divided from Cambodia by a river (Bassac river) of three leagues broad." and "King Ang Duong constructed a road from his capital of Oudong to Kampot". Kampot remained the only international seaport of Cambodia. "The traveling time between Udong and Kampot was eight days by oxcart and four days by elephants." French Résident Adhemard Leclère wrote: "...Until 1840s, the Vietnamese governed Kampot and Péam [Mekong Delta], but Kompong Som belonged to Cambodia. The Vietnamese constructed a road from Ha Tien to Svai village - on the border with Kompong-Som - via Kampot."
The British Empire followed a distinct policy by the 1850s, seeking to consolidate its influence. Eye witness reports give rare insights, as Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston's agent John Crawfurd reports: "Cambodia was...the Keystone of our policy in these countries, - the King of that ancient Kingdom is ready to throw himself under the protection of any European nation...The Vietnamese were interfering with the trade at Kampot, and this would be the basis of an approach..." Palmerston concluded: "The trade at Kampot - one of the few remaining ports, could never be considerable, in consequence of the main entrance to the country, the Mekong, with all its feeders flowing into the Sea through the territory of Cochin China The country, too, had been devastated by recent Siam - Vietnam wars. Thus, without the aid of Great Britain, Kampot or any other port in Cambodia, can never become a commercial Emporium." Crawfurd later wrote: "The Cambodians... sought to use intervals of peace in the Siam - Vietnam wars to develop intercourse with outside nations. The trade at Kampot which they sought to foster was imperiled by pirates. Here is a point where the wedge might be inserted, that would open the interior of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula to British Commerce, as the great River of the Cambodians traverses its entire length and even affords communication into the heart of Siam".
FRENCH RULE (1863-1954)
Under French rule Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia became a single administrative and economic unit. The coastal region Circonscription Résidentielle with Kampot as its capital contained the Arrondissements of Kampot, Kompong Som, Trang and Kong-Pisey. The establishment of another international trading center near the existing city of Saigon was not considered necessary. Focus remained the Mekong and the idea to establish an alternative route to Chinese and Thai internal markets along an uninterrupted navigable waterway from the Red River to the Mekong Delta.
INSURRECTION
An insurrection that took place from 1885 to 1887 further discouraged French ambition. It started in Kampot and quickly spread to Veal Rinh, Kampong Seila, and Kompong Som, where the insurgents were led by a Chinese pirate named Quan-Khiem. He managed to control the northern part of Preah Sihanouk for some time until he - an old man - was arrested by Preah Sihanouk's governor.
The most notable infrastructural improvements of this period were the construction of Route Coloniale No.17, later renamed National Road No.3 and the national railway system, although work on the "Southern Line" - from Phnom Penh to Sihanoukville - only began in 1960.
AFTER INDIPENDENCE (SINCE 1954)
The city's and province's alternative name Kampong som (Kampong Som) was adopted from the local indigenous community. After the dissolution of French Indochina in 1954, it became apparent that the steadily tightening control of the Mekong Delta by Vietnam required a solution to gain unrestricted access to the seas. Plans were made to construct an entirely new deep-water port. Kompong Saom (Kampong Som) was selected for water depth and ease of access. In August 1955, a French/Cambodian construction team cut a base camp into the unoccupied jungle in the area that is now known as Hawaii Beach. Funds for construction of the port came from France and the road was financed by the USA.
During the Vietnam War the port became an intensive military facility on both sides, in the service of National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam and after 1970, under the government of Lon Nol, in the service of the United States.
The port was the last place to be evacuated by the US Army, only days before Khmer Rouge guerrillas took control of the government in April 1975. The events surrounding the taking of the US container ship SS Mayaguez and its crew on 12 May by the Khmer Rouge and the subsequent rescue operation by US Marines played out on the waters of Koh Tang off the coast of Sihanoukville. During the two days of action, the US commenced air strikes on targets on the mainland of Sihanoukville including the port, the Ream Naval Base, an airfield, the railroad yard and the petroleum refinery in addition to strikes and naval gun fire on several islands.
After the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime in 1979 and the subsequent opening of the economy, the port of Sihanoukville resumed its importance in the development and recovery of the country. With the further opening of new markets in 1999, the city regained its role in the economic growth of Cambodia.
In 1993, the Ream National Park was established per royal decree of former King Sihanouk.
The Sihanoukville Municipality was elevated to a regular province on 22 December 2008 after King Norodom Sihamoni signed a Royal Decree converting the municipalities of Kep, Pailin and Sihanoukville into provinces.
In 2006 the Koh Puos (Cambodia) Investment Group submitted an application, planning to invest $276 million in converting the 116-hectare Koh Puos - Snake island into a luxury residential - and resort complex. After the completion of certain elements of the infrastructure, the investor announced alterations of the original blueprints, as "Reapplying for permission will happen in 2014..." according to the Council of the Development of Cambodia.
On 26 May 2011 Preah Sihanouk area joined the Paris-based club Les Plus Belles Baies Du Monde (The most Beautiful Bays in the World). The organisation officially accepts the Bay of Cambodia as one of its members at the 7th General Assembly.
BEACHES
Sihanoukville's beaches are one of the city's most valuable ecological and economic resource with varying degrees of commercial exploitation. The beaches listed in this section do not include any of the island's beaches.
- Ochheuteal Beach, ឆ្នេរអូរឈើទាល: is a 3.3 km long strip of white sand beach and although the name translates to "Creek/Estuary of the Tiel tree" it is lined with Casuarina and Tamarisk trees. Grass umbrellas, rental chairs in front of around 30 standardized beach huts serve meals, drinks and entertainment. Well established middle class hotels and high-profile residences flank the beach along its Northern part. The sustainability of Ochheuteal beach was a primary consideration of various stakeholders, which brought about the development of a tourism development and management plan in 2005. The Southern half remains - apart from some hotels at its far end - essentially undeveloped.
- Serendipity Beach: Technically the western end (roughly one fifth or 600 m) of Ochheuteal beach, is very popular with Western tourists and has a few small guesthouses right on the beach. It has been named by an American fellow, who came here in the Nineties. Struck by its (then) unspoiled beauty and pristine condition, he came up with the term, which quickly entered common vocabulary.
- Otres Beach, ្នេរអូរត្រេស: is around 4.6 km long and beyond the small "Queen hill" headland at the southern end of Ochheuteal Beach. Its long white sand strip, also completely lined with Casuarina and Tamarisk trees, is far less developed and commercialized than Ochheuteal Beach and has developed into a preferred lodging place for Western visitors. From 2004 to 2011 this beach was occupied by numerous bungalows and dormitories, run by Western people. Due to the element of illegality of on-beach accommodation, among other reasons, police cleaned up the area in May 2011, removing the greater part of the beach-side bungalows. Permanent structures beyond the beach road supplement the remaining places since 2012. It is a very popular, well established holiday retreat – where prices have risen considerably over the course of the last years.
- Sokha Beach: Sokha Beach is around 1.2 km long and located west of Serendipity Beach. The beach is privately owned by - and its southern half occupied by the Sokha Beach Hotel, the first five-star luxury beach hotel in Cambodia. While the beach is well kept and many facilities are provided, visitors have to pay for their use and beach vendors are not allowed.
- Independence Beach: Independence Beach is around 1.3 km long and located north-west of Sokha Beach. The beach is named after the Independence Hotel, another example of New Khmer Architecture, towering on top of a rock at the beaches northern end.
- Victory Beach: Victory beach is around 300 m long and situated at the furthest north of the peninsula of Sihanoukville. It was heavily used by backpackers and is still popular with budget travelers. The deep water port is located at the northern end of the beach. A consortium of Russian business people undertook large scale development here. The beach is regularly maintained.
- Lamherkay/Hawaii Beach: is the southern succession of Victory Beach, situated north of Independence Beach. It is a strip of similar length as Victory Beach - around 300 m. Here is the very place where the French/Cambodian construction team's groundwork began for the construction of the Sihanoukville Autonomous Port in 1955.
- Treasure Island Beach south of Lamherkay/Hawaii Beach is less than 50 m long and its entire length is fringed with concrete steps and wooden pavilions of a big Cambodian seafood restaurant.
- Hun Sen (Prek Treng) Beach, ឆ្នេរព្រែកត្រែង: is the northernmost beach of the city with a length of around 1.5 km, situated behind the local port and essentially empty without beach huts and bars, it sees only weekend - and holiday visitors. The water is very shallow, but the area is lacking favorable infrastructure and is not regularly cleaned.
WIKIPEDIA
The detail in something as small and insignificant as a snow flake is proof to me that God is truly amazing. He has created everything in this world with such detail and complexity that it is impossible for us to understand or comprehend because we are not Him. Sorry, but when I'm out photographing nature I can't help but realize that we don't live a world of coinsidences or chances, just a well thought out plan.
The world is shrinking as we see more and more of it in the media, and the more we see of the world, the smaller we are, the more aware we are of how insignificant any one of us is. ~ Jock Sturges
Skin: League - Sia * Hair: CaTwa - Nada
Ruffle Blouse, Shorts, Hair Pouf, & Tote - Mon Tissu
Bracelet: Donna Flora - Lia
Pose: !Bang
Skin: Belleza - Melissa * Hair: LeLutka - Rain
Glasses: Miel - Bella Peepers * Coat: R.icielli - Donna
Pose: Glitterati - Jewelled
LEGOLAND Billund
Billund was once an insignificant small village. But in 1932 Ole Kirk Christiansen founded a toy factory in the town. His company came to be called “LEGO“. Today the company has grown into the world's largest toy company and Billund has became an important town. LEGOLAND Billund opened in 1968. Since the opening more than 50 million guests have visited the park. This makes LEGOLAND the largest tourist attraction in Denmark outside of Copenhagen.
My first visit to Mt. St. Helens. This is a place that has been on my bucket list for a very long time.
The magnitude of this event truly made me feel quite insignificant.
Insignificant to the actual photo, I just wanted to set up & try out my new reflector holder. PHOTOGRAPHERS: Don't forget to re-set the clock in your camera, depending on where you live of course.
The first 2 pages inside a Revolutionary War period German language diary. I can't wait to get it translated. It was used by two different people nearly 80 years apart. The first was Andreas Adam Jacob in 1768-1785, and the second was Hannah (something) the granddaughter of Johann Michael Bach, and Maria Katherine Bach. Those Bachs sure liked the name Johann. One of them was named Johann Sebastian Bach.
How puny and insignificant does poor Shovel Knight look toe to toe with this immense bastard'
His long, massive arms give the Not A Chance Knight a huge advantage over any combatant who foolishly steps too close, swinging his 12 ton sword at the range of, about, 30 Shovel Knights, surely no tool wielding knight could ever get close....
Not A Chance Knight PROs;
One hit killing machine
Range of a bad ass
Not A Chance Knight CONs;
Very Slow attacks
Weakness underneath his legs (sack attack)
We held hands for the first time
on his deathbed, which would have been
insignificant had we at least shared
a fist bump, some dap, or a ritual
handshake during any of our times together.
The distance between us always felt
wider because of the unspoken rule
about unsolicited touching. According
to his sister, people always thought
he was a loner, but he was just “private.”
So in his hospital room, surrounded
by unblended families,
I leaned in close and whispered,
then he squeezed and I squeezed back.
It was the loudest conversation
we had ever had. My warm breath in his ear,
our large twin hands entwined and grappling,
inventing our own Morse Code,
shouting all the things
we never found words for.
We held hands for the first time
on his deathbed, but I imagine an infant me,
wrapping all my tiny digits around the expanse
of one of his massive thumbs, like my son
is doing now.
Dwarfed by its surroundings, 61994 approaches the Horseshoe Curve between Bridge of Orchy and Tyndrum with the Great Britain V railtour.
(further information about the world of the Habsburg you can get by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
The Hall of the Muses
The Hall of the Muses, the spatial and ceremonial center of the state apartments, served as a dining room and offered the prestigious setting for glamorous soirees and splendid balls.
Five gorgeous crystal chandeliers enlighted the room in light brightness, 258 additional candles that were additionally anchored in the running rosette frieze, plunged it in a sea of lights.
Hall of the Muses © Albertina, Vienna (Photo: Alexander Ch Wulz)
Musensaal
To the splendid appearance of the hall also contribute the precious stucco marble panelings of the wall panels and pilasters as well as the gilded doors and decorative elements.
The name of the hall is derived from the cycle of figures "Apollo and the Nine Muses". The life-size, with a marble imitating polishing white surface provided sandstone figures come from Joseph Klieber (1773-1859), who drew inspiration for this work from the oeuvres of the sculptor Antonio Canova.
www.albertina.at/das_palais/prunkraeume/musensaal
The Albertina
The architectural history of the Palais
(Pictures you can see by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
Image: The oldest photographic view of the newly designed Palais Archduke Albrecht, 1869
"It is my will that the expansion of the inner city of Vienna with regard to a suitable connection of the same with the suburbs as soon as possible is tackled and at this on Regulirung (regulation) and beautifying of my Residence and Imperial Capital is taken into account. To this end I grant the withdrawal of the ramparts and fortifications of the inner city and the trenches around the same".
This decree of Emperor Franz Joseph I, published on 25 December 1857 in the Wiener Zeitung, formed the basis for the largest the surface concerning and architecturally most significant transformation of the Viennese cityscape. Involving several renowned domestic and foreign architects a "master plan" took form, which included the construction of a boulevard instead of the ramparts between the inner city and its radially upstream suburbs. In the 50-years during implementation phase, an impressive architectural ensemble developed, consisting of imperial and private representational buildings, public administration and cultural buildings, churches and barracks, marking the era under the term "ring-street style". Already in the first year tithe decided a senior member of the Austrian imperial family to decorate the facades of his palace according to the new design principles, and thus certified the aristocratic claim that this also "historicism" said style on the part of the imperial house was attributed.
Image: The Old Albertina after 1920
It was the palace of Archduke Albrecht (1817-1895), the Senior of the Habsburg Family Council, who as Field Marshal held the overall command over the Austro-Hungarian army. The building was incorporated into the imperial residence of the Hofburg complex, forming the south-west corner and extending eleven meters above street level on the so-called Augustinerbastei.
The close proximity of the palace to the imperial residence corresponded not only with Emperor Franz Joseph I and Archduke Albert with a close familial relationship between the owner of the palace and the monarch. Even the former inhabitants were always in close relationship to the imperial family, whether by birth or marriage. An exception here again proves the rule: Don Emanuel Teles da Silva Conde Tarouca (1696-1771), for which Maria Theresa in 1744 the palace had built, was just a close friend and advisor of the monarch. Silva Tarouca underpins the rule with a second exception, because he belonged to the administrative services as Generalhofbaudirektor (general court architect) and President of the Austrian-Dutch administration, while all other him subsequent owners were highest ranking military.
In the annals of Austrian history, especially those of military history, they either went into as commander of the Imperial Army, or the Austrian, later kk Army. In chronological order, this applies to Duke Carl Alexander of Lorraine, the brother-of-law of Maria Theresa, as Imperial Marshal, her son-in-law Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen, also field marshal, whos adopted son, Archduke Charles of Austria, the last imperial field marshal and only Generalissimo of Austria, his son Archduke Albrecht of Austria as Feldmarschalil and army Supreme commander, and most recently his nephew Archduke Friedrich of Austria, who held as field marshal from 1914 to 1916 the command of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Despite their military profession, all five generals conceived themselves as patrons of the arts and promoted large sums of money to build large collections, the construction of magnificent buildings and cultural life. Charles Alexander of Lorraine promoted as governor of the Austrian Netherlands from 1741 to 1780 the Academy of Fine Arts, the Théâtre de Ja Monnaie and the companies Bourgeois Concert and Concert Noble, he founded the Academie royale et imperial des Sciences et des Lettres, opened the Bibliotheque Royal for the population and supported artistic talents with high scholarships. World fame got his porcelain collection, which however had to be sold by Emperor Joseph II to pay off his debts. Duke Albert began in 1776 according to the concept of conte Durazzo to set up an encyclopedic collection of prints, which forms the core of the world-famous "Albertina" today.
Image : Duke Albert and Archduchess Marie Christine show in family cercle the from Italy brought along art, 1776. Frederick Henry Füger.
1816 declared to Fideikommiss and thus in future indivisible, inalienable and inseparable, the collection 1822 passed into the possession of Archduke Carl, who, like his descendants, it broadened. Under him, the collection was introduced together with the sumptuously equipped palace on the Augustinerbastei in the so-called "Carl Ludwig'schen fideicommissum in 1826, by which the building and the in it kept collection fused into an indissoluble unity. At this time had from the Palais Tarouca by structural expansion or acquisition a veritable Residenz palace evolved. Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen was first in 1800 the third floor of the adjacent Augustinian convent wing adapted to house his collection and he had after 1802 by his Belgian architect Louis de Montoyer at the suburban side built a magnificent extension, called the wing of staterooms, it was equipped in the style of Louis XVI. Only two decades later, Archduke Carl the entire palace newly set up. According to scetches of the architect Joseph Kornhäusel the 1822-1825 retreaded premises presented themselves in the Empire style. The interior of the palace testified from now in an impressive way the high rank and the prominent position of its owner. Under Archduke Albrecht the outer appearance also should meet the requirements. He had the facade of the palace in the style of historicism orchestrated and added to the Palais front against the suburbs an offshore covered access. Inside, he limited himself, apart from the redesign of the Rococo room in the manner of the second Blondel style, to the retention of the paternal stock. Archduke Friedrich's plans for an expansion of the palace were omitted, however, because of the outbreak of the First World War so that his contribution to the state rooms, especially, consists in the layout of the Spanish apartment, which he in 1895 for his sister, the Queen of Spain Maria Christina, had set up as a permanent residence.
Picture: The "audience room" after the restoration: Picture: The "balcony room" around 1990
The era of stately representation with handing down their cultural values found its most obvious visualization inside the palace through the design and features of the staterooms. On one hand, by the use of the finest materials and the purchase of masterfully manufactured pieces of equipment, such as on the other hand by the permanent reuse of older equipment parts. This period lasted until 1919, when Archduke Friedrich was expropriated by the newly founded Republic of Austria. With the republicanization of the collection and the building first of all finished the tradition that the owner's name was synonymous with the building name:
After Palais Tarouca or tarokkisches house it was called Lorraine House, afterwards Duke Albert Palais and Palais Archduke Carl. Due to the new construction of an adjacently located administration building it received in 1865 the prefix "Upper" and was referred to as Upper Palais Archduke Albrecht and Upper Palais Archduke Frederick. For the state a special reference to the Habsburg past was certainly politically no longer opportune, which is why was decided to name the building according to the in it kept collection "Albertina".
Picture: The "Wedgwood Cabinet" after the restoration: Picture: the "Wedgwood Cabinet" in the Palais Archduke Friedrich, 1905
This name derives from the term "La Collection Albertina" which had been used by the gallery Inspector Maurice von Thausing in 1870 in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts for the former graphics collection of Duke Albert. For this reason, it was the first time since the foundation of the palace that the name of the collection had become synonymous with the room shell. Room shell, hence, because the Republic of Austria Archduke Friedrich had allowed to take along all the movable goods from the palace in his Hungarian exile: crystal chandeliers, curtains and carpets as well as sculptures, vases and clocks. Particularly stressed should be the exquisite furniture, which stems of three facilities phases: the Louis XVI furnitures of Duke Albert, which had been manufactured on the basis of fraternal relations between his wife Archduchess Marie Christine and the French Queen Marie Antoinette after 1780 in the French Hofmanufakturen, also the on behalf of Archduke Charles 1822-1825 in the Vienna Porcelain Manufactory by Joseph Danhauser produced Empire furnitures and thirdly additions of the same style of Archduke Friedrich, which this about 1900 at Portois & Ffix as well as at Friedrich Otto Schmidt had commissioned.
The "swept clean" building got due to the strained financial situation after the First World War initially only a makeshift facility. However, since until 1999 no revision of the emergency equipment took place, but differently designed, primarily the utilitarianism committed office furnitures complementarily had been added, the equipment of the former state rooms presented itself at the end of the 20th century as an inhomogeneous administrative mingle-mangle of insignificant parts, where, however, dwelt a certain quaint charm. From the magnificent state rooms had evolved depots, storage rooms, a library, a study hall and several officed.
Image: The Albertina Graphic Arts Collection and the Philipphof after the American bombing of 12 März 1945.
Image: The palace after the demolition of the entrance facade, 1948-52
Worse it hit the outer appearance of the palace, because in times of continued anti-Habsburg sentiment after the Second World War and inspired by an intolerant destruction will, it came by pickaxe to a ministerial erasure of history. In contrast to the graphic collection possessed the richly decorated facades with the conspicuous insignia of the former owner an object-immanent reference to the Habsburg past and thus exhibited the monarchial traditions and values of the era of Francis Joseph significantly. As part of the remedial measures after a bomb damage, in 1948 the aristocratic, by Archduke Albert initiated, historicist facade structuring along with all decorations was cut off, many facade figures demolished and the Hapsburg crest emblems plunged to the ground. Since in addition the old ramp also had been cancelled and the main entrance of the bastion level had been moved down to the second basement storey at street level, ended the presence of the old Archduke's palace after more than 200 years. At the reopening of the "Albertina Graphic Collection" in 1952, the former Hapsburg Palais of splendour presented itself as one of his identity robbed, formally trivial, soulless room shell, whose successful republicanization an oversized and also unproportional eagle above the new main entrance to the Augustinian road symbolized. The emocratic throw of monuments had wiped out the Hapsburg palace from the urban appeareance, whereby in the perception only existed a nondescript, nameless and ahistorical building that henceforth served the lodging and presentation of world-famous graphic collection of the Albertina. The condition was not changed by the decision to the refurbishment because there were only planned collection specific extensions, but no restoration of the palace.
Image: The palace after the Second World War with simplified facades, the rudiment of the Danubiusbrunnens (well) and the new staircase up to the Augustinerbastei
This paradigm shift corresponded to a blatant reversal of the historical circumstances, as the travel guides and travel books for kk Residence and imperial capital of Vienna dedicated itself primarily with the magnificent, aristocratic palace on the Augustinerbastei with the sumptuously fitted out reception rooms and mentioned the collection kept there - if at all - only in passing. Only with the repositioning of the Albertina in 2000 under the direction of Klaus Albrecht Schröder, the palace was within the meaning and in fulfillment of the Fideikommiss of Archduke Charles in 1826 again met with the high regard, from which could result a further inseparable bond between the magnificent mansions and the world-famous collection. In view of the knowing about politically motivated errors and omissions of the past, the facades should get back their noble, historicist designing, the staterooms regain their glamorous, prestigious appearance and culturally unique equippment be repurchased. From this presumption, eventually grew the full commitment to revise the history of redemption and the return of the stately palace in the public consciousness.
Image: The restored suburb facade of the Palais Albertina suburb
The smoothed palace facades were returned to their original condition and present themselves today - with the exception of the not anymore reconstructed Attica figures - again with the historicist decoration and layout elements that Archduke Albrecht had given after the razing of the Augustinerbastei in 1865 in order. The neoclassical interiors, today called after the former inhabitants "Habsburg Staterooms", receiving a meticulous and detailed restoration taking place at the premises of originality and authenticity, got back their venerable and sumptuous appearance. From the world wide scattered historical pieces of equipment have been bought back 70 properties or could be returned through permanent loan to its original location, by which to the visitors is made experiencable again that atmosphere in 1919 the state rooms of the last Habsburg owner Archduke Frederick had owned. The for the first time in 80 years public accessible "Habsburg State Rooms" at the Palais Albertina enable now again as eloquent testimony to our Habsburg past and as a unique cultural heritage fundamental and essential insights into the Austrian cultural history. With the relocation of the main entrance to the level of the Augustinerbastei the recollection to this so valuable Austrian Cultural Heritage formally and functionally came to completion. The vision of the restoration and recovery of the grand palace was a pillar on which the new Albertina should arise again, the other embody the four large newly built exhibition halls, which allow for the first time in the history of the Albertina, to exhibit the collection throughout its encyclopedic breadh under optimal conservation conditions.
Image: The new entrance area of the Albertina
64 meter long shed roof. Hans Hollein.
The palace presents itself now in its appearance in the historicist style of the Ringstrassenära, almost as if nothing had happened in the meantime. But will the wheel of time should not, cannot and must not be turned back, so that the double standards of the "Albertina Palace" said museum - on the one hand Habsburg grandeur palaces and other modern museum for the arts of graphics - should be symbolized by a modern character: The in 2003 by Hans Hollein designed far into the Albertina square cantilevering, elegant floating flying roof. 64 meters long, it symbolizes in the form of a dynamic wedge the accelerated urban spatial connectivity and public access to the palace. It advertises the major changes in the interior as well as the huge underground extensions of the repositioned "Albertina".
Christian Benedictine
Art historian with research interests History of Architecture, building industry of the Hapsburgs, Hofburg and Zeremonialwissenschaft (ceremonial sciences). Since 1990 he works in the architecture collection of the Albertina. Since 2000 he supervises as director of the newly founded department "Staterooms" the restoration and furnishing of the state rooms and the restoration of the facades and explores the history of the palace and its inhabitants.
Makes you feel rather insignificant in the 'Grand Scheme' of the Universe, doesn't it ? Well, it's meant to make you feel that way . . ;)
Birdsfoot trefoil - Lotus corniculatus
“Everything has more to show us than we have yet perceived. The commonplace is only the self-constructed wall that separates us from the marvelous.”
- Tom Brown, Jr
One of the many reasons I love macro / close up photography, is that you can find subjects virtually anywhere. What looks commonplace and insignificant from a standing viewpoint, can (and usually does) look absolutely stunning when viewed closely.
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Matthew
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Matthew
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- MRS_20150829_039_LM_web_v1_700h_iwm
I was photographing this very small insignificant Kangaroo Lizard (Otocryptis weigmanni) in a very close distance; suddenly it expanded its neck skin and performed a dance. Back-light illuminated the skin creating a beautiful effect.
It's 1977, and the weather has produced no major rainfall anywhere in California for two years, and skateboarding has suddenly exploded as a sport. Turns out the drought had everything to do with that. A proliferation of drained swimming pools everywhere led to the half-pipe, a new form of skateboarding so radical, the skateboard was the coolest thing you could get your hands on in California.
Looking rather insignificant, Northern single unit 153352 working in tandem with 150206, was passing signal PN319 as they got underway from Todmorden with the 09.54 Wigan North Western to Leeds service (2I09) on January 29th 2020. The large stone building dominating the scene is the grade I listed Todmorden Town Hall dating from 1875.