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The Dallas Arts District's "Spotlight Sunday" on October 18
Festivities to celebrate the opening of the new AT&T Performing Arts Center include a day of free admission and extended hours. Enjoy performances in the exhibition All the World’s a Stage, tours family experiences, and much more.
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The Dallas Arts District
2200 Ross Ave
Dallas, TX 75201
(214) 744-6642
The Dallas Arts District is a unique, 68-acre, 19-block neighborhood in the heart of the city. A rare jewel that is the centerpiece of the region’s cultural life, the District is home to some of the finest architecture in the world. Enhancing the downtown Dallas skyline are buildings by Pritzker Prize winners I.M. Pei, Renzo Piano, Norman Foster, Rem Koolhaas and AIA “Gold Medal” recipient Edward Larrabee Barnes.
Our neighborhood is a center for innovative architecture, world-class exhibits, exemplary cultural programming and much more. We are restaurants, hotels, churches, residences and even the world headquarters of 7-Eleven.
This website is designed to help you explore the many facets of the district. And whether you are coming from around the corner or from around the world, we hope you will find your trip enjoyable and your experience unparalleled.
We look forward to sharing with you the works of art, the performances, the cuisine and the vibrancy of the Dallas Arts District.
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Dallas Museum of Art
The Dallas Museum of Art ranks among leading art institutions in the country and is distinguished by its innovative exhibitions and groundbreaking educational programs.
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Nasher Sculpture Center
The Nasher Sculpture Center opened in 2003 as the first institution in the world dedicated exclusively to the exhibition of modern and contemporary sculpture with a collection of global significance at its foundation.
www.nashersculpturecenter.org/
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Trammell Crow Center and Crow Collection of Asian Art
The Trammell and Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art is nestled like a small jewel in Dallas’ Arts District, offering visitors a glimpse of a world possessing serene beauty and spirituality in the heart of a bustling city.
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Belo Mansion
The current home of the Dallas Bar Association, the Belo Mansion was built c. 1890 by Coleonel A. H. Belo, founder of the Dallas Morning News.
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Cathedral Shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe
The city’s oldest Catholic parish, this High Victorian Gothic cathedral is the second busiest Catholic cathedral in the nation.
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Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center
Since its grand opening celebration, the legendary rich sound of the Meyerson’s Eugene McDermott Concert Hall has made it a premier destination for the world’s finest soloists and conductors.
www.dallasculture.org/meyersonSymphonyCenter/
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AT&T Performing Arts Center Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House
With transparent, soaring 60-foot glass walls revealing views of the Grand Lobby and a café open throughout the day, the Winspear Opera House is a destination for all.
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AT&T Performing Arts Center Dee and Charles Wyly Theatre
The world’s only vertical theatre, the innovative design of the Wyly Theatre creates ultimate performance flexibility.
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Booker T. Washington High School for the Visual and Performing Arts
The school’s dual emphasis on arts and academics has produced a stellar list of famous graduates including Grammy Award®-winners Norah Jones, Erykah Badu and jazz trumpeter Roy Hargrove.
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St. Paul United Methodist Church
St. Paul United Methodist Church was founded in 1873 by freed slaves from Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.
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One Arts Plaza
One Arts Plaza is a multiuse structure comprised of residences, corporate offices and retail, the first of three buildings on over 10 acres at the eastern edge of the Dallas Arts District.
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Dallas Black Dance Theatre
Dallas Black Dance Theatre is the city’s oldest continuously operating dance company.
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AT&T Performing Arts Center Elaine D. and Charles A. Sammons Park
Weaving together the Winspear Opera House, Wyly Theatre, Strauss Square and City Performance Hall, the ten-acre park stretches from Woodall Rodgers Freeway to Ross Avenue, and is the first public park in the Dallas Arts District.
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Chelsea 2, Club America 1
By Greg Beacham, AP Sports Writer
STANFORD, Calif. — Jose Mourinho got exactly what he wanted out of Chelsea's preseason opener. Thanks to a bold debut by Florent Malouda, the manager even got a victory as well.
John Terry and Malouda scored late second-half goals, leading Chelsea to a 2-1 win over Mexico's Club America in the Disney Friendship Cup on Saturday night.
Malouda, who joined the Blues in a $27 million transfer from French champion Lyon on Tuesday, was the unlikely catalyst. He got an equalizing goal in the 76th minute, and Terry then headed home Malouda's free kick for the winner 7 minutes from time.
But Mourinho has no interest in results during this West Coast tour, which includes a meeting with the Los Angeles Galaxy and David Beckham next weekend. Chelsea is instead using its fourth annual U.S. training camp to build teamwork and fitness for next month's Premiership schedule.
"I'm pleased totally," said Mourinho, who made nine substitutions at halftime. "I think it was a very good training session. Club America, they gave us exactly what we need: competition, but competition with quality. We played a good game with good passing, good movement."
Juan Carlos Mosqueda scored in the third minute for America, which put on a strong first-half showing before Chelsea's newest player and its stalwart captain earned a win in the Blues' first match of the summer.
"The side we played was very different than what we're used to," said midfielder Joe Cole, also citing the springy pitch as an added degree of difficulty. "I think it took us a while to get going. ... It was just good to get out of the game with no injuries."
The match at Stanford's renovated stadium against the storied Mexico City side is expected to be the most competitive of Chelsea's three matches during the California swing for England's richest club, which arrived in Los Angeles on Tuesday. The Blues then had much of their thunder stolen when Beckham arrived in Los Angeles.
Chelsea will face Korea's Samsung Bluewings on Tuesday back in Southern California in the second Friendship Cup match before next Saturday's much-anticipated meeting with the Galaxy, when Beckham is expected to debut.
"I'm looking forward to seeing him," Cole said of his England teammate. "I know there's going to be a lot of hype around the game. I hope he does well over here and helps soccer grow in America."
The 22-year-old Mosqueda, who scored three goals last year in his debut season with America, found the net early when his right-footed shot from the top of the penalty box deflected off Terry, catching goalie Petr Cech going the wrong way.
Chelsea tied it when America goalie Armando Navarrete bobbled a long ball straight onto Malouda's foot. The winger adroitly tipped it between two stumbling defenders.
Terry then put Chelsea ahead with an exceptional header off Malouda's free kick, diving away from the net before whipping a shot past Navarrete.
Chelsea booster clubs from throughout the U.S. filled the south stands at Stanford Stadium, waving banners and singing. Two sections of the north stands were packed with America's famously enthusiastic fans, who lit firecrackers and released confetti throughout the match.
New transfers Steve Sidwell and Tal Ben-Haim made their first appearances for Chelsea in the first half, along with 18-year-old defender Jack Cork. Mourinho then left only Terry and defender Glen Johnson - back in blue after a year on loan to Portsmouth - in the lineup while bringing on 17-year-old defender Sam Hutchinson and Malouda among the changes.
"You can say we played two good teams," Mourinho said. "Everybody has to fight for a place, and I think they have a difficult task, because everybody is really good."
Santiago Fernandez's goal in the 15th minute was ruled offside as America carried most of the action in a slow first half. The Chelsea substitutes applied much more pressure on America's defense, with Didier Drogba putting a shot just over the crossbar in the 65th minute.
"I think you saw the way we can play," said Drogba, who scaled a small hillside near Chelsea's locker room after the match to greet a cheering group of fans from his native Ivory Coast. "There's a lot of quality on this team."
The Associated Press
(See links). Junior Banks has spent over 25 years building the castle he calls the Fortress Of Faith, on the land owned by Banks on Lee Shirley Road. Junior Banks has lived all of his life in Greenback.
Fortress Of Faith - Roadside America (the story)
Fortress Of Faith - Roadside America (tip)
An incomplete castle hand-built by one man, and later blessed by the Lord. Themed rooms include a throne room and dungeon. The edifice dominates the scenery on the land owned by Banks on Lee Shirley Road in Greenback. The structure is over 20 feet high and around 200 feet long.
Fortress Of Faith - The Carpetbagger (You Tube)
The work on the Fortress began in December 1993. Banks, known by family and friends as the “Castle Man,” said he started the endeavor out of pride. “I was selfish and built the castle for myself,” he said. “In 2003, I discovered I had been wrong. God wanted me to build the Fortress for (divine) reasons. The construction is His will.”
Bobby Long, 70, is a friend to Banks. Both graduated from Lanier High School in 1964. Long lost contact with Banks until he began looking for him for the 50-year high school reunion in 2014. “I found Junior, and we have renewed our friendship,” Long said. “I asked Junior about the blueprints for the Fortress. He told me the plans were from the Almighty.”
Fortress Of Faith - Facebook
Long helps Banks by providing supplies for the construction of the Fortress. “I don’t do any work on the building, but I do get supplies such as brick, cement and block,” Long said. “The castle is very sturdy and should stand for years.”
Stone crosses can be found throughout the exterior and interior of the castle. Several walkways of the Fortress have arrowheads fused within brick and/or stone. Three wooden crosses are outside, beside the pet cemetery. Over 10 crosses mark the graves. “Most of the animals buried in the pet cemetery were pets,” Banks said.
The circular room of the castle is adorned with blue, painted crosses on the wall. A wooden stairway spirals to the second floor, which is still under construction. “I keep the stairway blocked off,” Banks said. “It is coming along, but there are spots on the second level that a person could fall through if they weren’t careful.”
Over 50 images in the form of silhouettes adorn the overall structure of the Fortress. Banks said he is not responsible for the silhouettes. “The (silhouette) images have appeared at various times over the years,” he said. “The images don’t have lines, and all of my art has lines. I believe the images are holy signs and messages.”
There are a few areas which contrast the overall theme of the castle, such as the room known as the Hell Room. The room has chains and whips on the wall, accompanied by the silhouette of some sort of creature. There is also a wall on the castle’s exterior covered with Egyptian hieroglyphs. “The (Egyptian wall) has been here for a while, but I just recently started repainting and adding to it,” Banks said. “Many visitors have given positive comments about the hieroglyphs. It isn’t something they see on a daily basis.”
Banks said the castle has spirits. “I think my brother, Randal, is here sometimes,” Banks said. “Randal died years ago. I put his chess set in one of the rooms — it has a stone table and two stone chairs. I think his spirit visits the room. I also believe the spirit of God is always (covering) the Fortress.”
The castle is open to the public during the day, yet is off limits at night. “The castle is always under construction,” Banks said. “It is easy to stumble around in the dark on the inside and outside of the Fortress. I don’t allow night visits for the sake of safety.”
Vandalism is another reason the castle is closed after dusk. “Three months ago stone crosses in front of the castle were knocked over,” Banks said. “Now I rope the castle off at night to keep vandals away.”
The Fortress receives hundreds of visitors each year. “People come from all over the world to see the Fortress of Faith,” Banks said. “They sign a visitor’s logbook I have inside. It is nice to see that so many people make the time to visit the castle.”
Banks is recovering from eye surgery. Presently, he is not doing any physical labor with the construction of the Fortress. However, he does have a few helping hands. “I have grandchildren, and they are doing the heavy lifting right now,” Banks said. “As soon as I heal, I will get back to the task of building the castle.”
020419 - Maryville (TN) heavy metal band films music video at 'Castle'
Greenback, TN. 070821.
The Delta Wild and Scenic River Watershed originates south of the Denali Highway and includes all of the Upper and Lower Tangle Lakes, the Tangle River, and the Delta River. The Delta River drains north through the Alaska Range, eventually joining the Tanana River and emptying into the Yukon River. The watershed includes 150,000 acres of land, 160 miles of streams and 21 lakes, providing excellent habitat for over 100 species of migrating birds and waterfowl as well as grayling, whitefish, lake trout, burbot, and longnose suckers. Much of the watershed is surrounded by arctic tundra with grasses and sedges makitg it a popular place for berry picking and for migrating caribou. Recreationists who visit during the fall, winter and spring will often witness subsistence hunting and gathering activities.
The southern stretches of the Delta Wild and Scenic River Corridor are located within the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District and contain hundreds of archaeological sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Use of the area for hunting, mining, and subsisting are evidenced for the last 10,000 years.
Learn more: www.blm.gov/ak/st/en/fo/gdo/delta_wild_and_scenic.html
Photos by Bob Wick, BLM
Stourhead (/ˈstɑːˌhɛd/[1]) is a 1,072-hectare (2,650-acre) estate[2] at the source of the River Stour near Mere, Wiltshire, England. The estate includes a Palladian mansion, the village of Stourton, gardens, farmland, and woodland. Stourhead is part owned with the National Trust since 1946.
Contents [hide]
1History
2Gardens
2.1Architects
2.2"The Genius of the Place"
3Prints
4Trivia
5Gallery
6References
7External links
History[edit]
The Stourton family, the Barons of Stourton, had lived in the Stourhead estate for 500 years[3] until they sold it to Sir Thomas Meres in 1714.[4] His son, John Meres, sold it to Henry Hoare I, son of wealthy banker Sir Richard Hoare in 1717.[5] The original manor house was demolished and a new house, one of the first of its kind, was designed by Colen Campbell and built by Nathaniel Ireson between 1721 and 1725.[6] Over the next 200 years the Hoare family collected many heirlooms, including a large library and art collection. In 1902 the house was gutted by fire but many of the heirlooms were saved, and the house was rebuilt in a near identical style.[7]
The last Hoare family member to own the property, Henry Hugh Arthur Hoare, gave the house and gardens to the National Trust in 1946, one year before his death; his sole heir and son, Captain "Harry" Henry Colt Arthur Hoare, of the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry, had died of wounds received at the Battle of Mughar Ridge on 13 November 1917 in World War I.[7] The last Hoare family member to be born at the house was Edward Hoare on 11 October 1949.
Gardens[edit]
Architects[edit]
Although the main design for the estate at Stourhead was created by Colen Campbell, there were various other architects involved in its evolution through the years. William Benson, Henry Hoare's brother-in-law, was in part responsible for the building of the estate in 1719.[8] Francis Cartwright, a master builder and architect, was established as a "competent provincial designer in the Palladian manner."[9] He worked on Stourhead between the years of 1749–1755. Cartwright was a known carver, presumably of materials such as wood and stone. It is assumed that his contribution to Stourhead was in this capacity. Nathaniel Ireson is the master builder credited for much of the work on the Estate. It is this work that established his career, in 1720.[10]
The original estate remained intact, though changes and additions were made over time. Henry Flitcroft built three temples and a tower on the property. The Temple of Ceres was added in 1744, followed by the Temple of Hercules in 1754 and the Temple of Apollo in 1765. That same year he designed Alfred's Tower, but it wasn't built until 1772.[11] In 1806, the mason and surveyor John Carter added an ornamental cottage to the grounds; at the request of Sir Richard Colt Hoare.[12] The architect William Wilkins created a Grecian style lodge in 1816; for Sir R. Colt Hoare.[12]
In 1840, over a century after the initial buildings were constructed, Charles Parker was hired by Sir Hugh Hoare to make changes to the estate. A portico was added to the main house, along with other alterations. The design of the additions was in keeping with original plans.[13]
"The Genius of the Place"[edit]
The lake at Stourhead is artificially created. Following a path around the lake is meant to evoke a journey similar to that of Aeneas's descent in to the underworld.[14] In addition to Greek mythology, the layout is evocative of the "genius of the place", a concept made famous by Alexander Pope. Buildings and monuments are erected in remembrance of family and local history. Henry Hoare was a collector of art– one of his pieces was Claude Lorrain's Aeneas at Delos, which is thought to have inspired the pictorial design of the gardens.[14] Passages telling of Aeneas's journey are quoted in the temples surrounding the lake.
Monuments are used to frame one another; for example the Pantheon designed by Flitcroft entices the visitor over, but once reached, views from the opposite shore of the lake beckon.[15] The use of the sunken path allows the landscape to continue on into neighbouring landscapes, allowing the viewer to contemplate all the surrounding panorama. The Pantheon was thought to be the most important visual feature of the gardens. It appears in many pieces of artwork owned by Hoare, depicting Aeneas's travels.[16] The plantings in the garden were arranged in a manner that would evoke different moods, drawing visitors through realms of thought.[15] According to Henry Hoare, 'The greens should be ranged together in large masses as the shades are in painting: to contrast the dark masses with the light ones, and to relieve each dark mass itself with little sprinklings of lighter greens here and there.'[17]
View taken from the Grotto, of the lake in autumn colours
Stourhead's lake and foliage as seen from a high hill vantage point
The gardens were designed by Henry Hoare II and laid out between 1741 and 1780 in a classical 18th-century design set around a large lake, achieved by damming a small stream. The inspiration behind their creation were the painters Claude Lorrain, Poussin, and, in particular, Gaspard Dughet, who painted Utopian-type views of Italian landscapes. It is similar in style to the landscape gardens at Stowe.
Included in the garden are a number of temples inspired by scenes of the Grand Tour of Europe. On one hill overlooking the gardens there stands an obelisk and King Alfred's Tower, a 50-metre-tall, brick folly designed by Henry Flitcroft in 1772; on another hill the temple of Apollo provides a vantage point to survey the magnificent rhododendrons, water, cascades and temples. The large medieval Bristol High Cross was moved from Bristol to the gardens. Amongst the hills surrounding the site there are also two Iron Age hill forts: Whitesheet Hill and Park Hill Camp. The gardens are home to a large collection of trees and shrubs from around the world.
Richard Colt Hoare, the grandson of Henry Hoare II, inherited Stourhead in 1783.[7] He added the library wing to the mansion,[7] and in the garden was responsible for the building of the boathouse and the removal of several features that were not in keeping with the classical and gothic styles (including a Turkish Tent). He also considerably enhanced the planting – the Temple of Apollo rises from a wooded slope that was planted in Colt Hoare's time. With the antiquarian passion of the times, he had 400 ancient burial mounds dug up to inform his pioneering History of Ancient Wiltshire.
Florenz - Kathedrale
seen from Piazzale Michelangelo
gesehen vom seen Piazzale Michelangelo
Florence Cathedral (Italian: Duomo di Firenze), formally the Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower (Italian: Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore [katteˈdraːle di ˈsanta maˈriːa del ˈfjoːre]), is the cathedral of Florence, Italy. It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi. The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink, bordered by white, and has an elaborate 19th-century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.
The cathedral complex, in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and Giotto's Campanile. These three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major tourist attraction of Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until the development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
The cathedral is the mother church of the Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is Giuseppe Betori.
History
Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of Florence's second cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata; the first was the Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze, the first building of which was consecrated as a church in 393 by St. Ambrose of Milan.The ancient structure, founded in the early 5th century and having undergone many repairs, was crumbling with age, according to the 14th-century Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani, and was no longer large enough to serve the growing population of the city. Other major Tuscan cities had undertaken ambitious reconstructions of their cathedrals during the Late Medieval period, such as Pisa and particularly Siena where the enormous proposed extensions were never completed.
City council approved the design of Arnolfo di Cambio for the new church in 1294. Di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on 9 September 1296, by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. The building of this vast project was to last 140 years; Arnolfo's plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size.
After Arnolfo died in 1302, work on the cathedral slowed for almost 50 years. When the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project gained a new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of wool merchants, took over patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio's design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died on 8 January 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was halted due to the Black Death in 1348.
In 1349, work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, starting with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. In 1359, Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360–1369) who divided the centre nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravanti and Andrea Orcagna. By 1375, the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and only the dome remained incomplete until 1418.
On 19 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced an architectural design competition for erecting Neri's dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained sharp. Brunelleschi won and received the commission.
Ghiberti, appointed coadjutor, drew a salary equal to Brunelleschi's and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of 200 florins, was promised equal credit, although he spent most of his time on other projects. When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423, Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.
Work on the dome began in 1420 and finished in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on 25 March 1436, (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first 'octagonal' dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame. It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. During the consecration in 1436, Guillaume Dufay's motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed.
The decoration of the exterior of the cathedral, begun in the 14th century, was not completed until 1887, when the polychrome marble façade was completed with the design of Emilio De Fabris. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto's Bell Tower. There are two side doors: the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six side windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
Exterior
Plan and structure
The cathedral of Florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross. The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers.
The dimensions of the building are enormous: building area 8,300 m2 (89,340 sq ft), length 153 m (502 ft), width 38 m (125 ft), width at the crossing 90 m (300 ft). The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 m (75 ft). The height of the dome is 114.5 m (375.7 ft). It has the fifth tallest dome in the world.
Planned sculpture for the exterior
The Overseers of the Office of Works of Florence Cathedral the Arte della Lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large Old Testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral. Donatello, then in his early twenties, was commissioned to carve a statue of David in 1408, to top one of the buttresses of Florence Cathedral, though it was never placed there. Nanni di Banco was commissioned to carve a marble statue of Isaiah, at the same scale, in the same year. One of the statues was lifted into place in 1409, but was found to be too small to be easily visible from the ground and was taken down; both statues then languished in the workshop of the opera for several years. In 1410 Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. In 1409–1411 Donatello made a statue of Saint John the Evangelist which until 1588 was in a niche of the old cathedral façade. Between 1415 and 1426, Donatello created five statues for the campanile of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, also known as the Duomo. These works are the Beardless Prophet; Bearded Prophet (both from 1415); the Sacrifice of Isaac (1421); Habbakuk (1423–25); and Jeremiah (1423–26); which follow the classical models for orators and are characterized by strong portrait details. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello's direction. A statue of David by Michelangelo was completed 1501–1504 although it could not be placed on the buttress because of its six-ton weight. In 2010 a fiberglass replica of "David" was placed for one day on the Florence cathedral.
Dome
After a hundred years of construction and by the beginning of the 15th century, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic features of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. His brick model, 4.6 m (15.1 ft) high, 9.2 m (30.2 ft) long, was standing in a side aisle of the unfinished building, and had long been sacrosanct. It called for an octagonal dome higher and wider than any that had ever been built, with no external buttresses to keep it from spreading and falling under its own weight.
The commitment to reject traditional Gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravanti's model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini. That architectural choice, in 1367, was one of the first events of the Italian Renaissance, marking a break with the Medieval Gothic style and a return to the classic Mediterranean dome. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts. Furthermore, the use of buttresses was forbidden in Florence, as the style was favored by central Italy's traditional enemies to the north. Neri's model depicted a massive inner dome, open at the top to admit light, like Rome's Pantheon, partly supported by the inner dome, but enclosed in a thinner outer shell, to keep out the weather. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri's dome would need an internal defense against spreading (hoop stress), but none had yet been designed.
The building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems. Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. The Pantheon had employed structural centring to support the concrete dome while it cured. This could not be the solution in the case of a dome this size and would put the church out of use. For the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting 52 m (171 ft) above the floor and spanning 44 m (144 ft), there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms. Brunelleschi chose to follow such design and employed a double shell, made of sandstone and marble. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of brick, due to its light weight compared to stone and being easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction. To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco, a model which is still displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi's control over the construction.
Brunelleschi's solutions were ingenious. The spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: one at the top, one at the bottom, with the remaining two evenly spaced between them. A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains. Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together.
Each of Brunelleschi's stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams 43 cm (17 in) in diameter and no more than 2.3 m (7.5 ft) long. The rails were connected end-to-end with lead-glazed iron splices. The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the 1970s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. Brunelleschi also included vertical "ribs" set on the corners of the octagon, curving towards the center point. The ribs, 4 m (13 ft) deep, are supported by 16 concealed ribs radiating from center.The ribs had slits to take beams that supported platforms, thus allowing the work to progress upward without the need for scaffolding.
A circular masonry dome can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet. Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the non-circular dome.
The outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only 60 cm (2 ft) thick at the base and 30 cm (1 ft) thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes. To counteract hoop stress, the outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome and has no embedded chains.
A modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses were centuries in the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built. To lift 37,000 tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi's chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri's, that is commonly associated with the dome.
Brunelleschi's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition, even though there had been evidence that Brunelleschi had been working on a design for a lantern for the upper part of the dome. The evidence is shown in the curvature, which was made steeper than the original model. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo) was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows. Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi's friend Michelozzo in 1461. The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to 114.5 m (376 ft). This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later.
The commission for this gilt copper ball [atop the lantern] went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci. Fascinated by Filippo's [Brunelleschi's] machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention.
Leonardo might have also participated in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris "Remember the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore".
The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo.
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is still the largest masonry dome in the world.
The building of the cathedral had started in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the placing of Verrochio's copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfinished and would remain so until the 19th century.
Facade
The original façade, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto's death. A mid-15th-century pen-and-ink drawing of this so-called Giotto's façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. This original façade was completed in only its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dismantled in 1587–1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre.
The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs had been proposed in later years, but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century.
In 1864, a competition held to design a new façade was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808–1883) in 1871. Work began in 1876 and was completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto's bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated.
The whole façade is dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
Cracking of the dome
The unreinforced masonry that Brunelleschi used to construct the dome is weak in tension which leads to cracking when tensile stresses exceed the limited masonry tensile strength. The material is especially susceptible to damage from seismic loading due to its heterogeneity and many surfaces between different materials (stones to mortar connection).
Cracking of the dome was observed even before its construction was completed. It is possible that the first cracks were caused by a strong earthquake in 1453.[
The first written evidence about the presence of cracks appears in a report by Gherardo Silvani report dated 18 September 1639 which refers to "peli" ("hairs"). In 1694 Gianbattista Nelli and Vincenzo Viviani surveyed the cracks with Nelli recording that there were two major cracks with a maximum width of 29 mm (1.1 in). They believed that the cracks were caused by the weight of the dome, and the resulting the horizontal thrusts on the pillars. A commission, headed by Vincenzo Viviani carried out investigations in 1695 and came to the conclusion that the cracking was due to the dead weight of the buildings, it was proposed that the dome be strengthened by installing four large iron belts; three on the outside of the dome between the bugling area of the dome and the circular windows, while the fourth would be installed internally in the second walkway between the two shells. This was similar to what had been done on the dome of St. Peter's in Rome. After a long debate, a decision was made to leave the dome as it was.
The first most complete survey of the cracks was published in 1757 by the Jesuit Leonardo Ximenes (1716–1786). In his document he described 13 different crack typologies. In 1934, Pier Luigi Nervi, who was head of a special commission established by the Opera del Duomo to study the cracking observed that the cracks opened and closed with the seasons. In the winter, the dome's stone and bricks would contract causing the cracks to widen while over the summer the materials would expand and the cracks would close up. While modern buildings by design incorporate expansion joints, the cathedral's dome does not include any and so subsequently developed its own expansion joints in the form of these cracks which allowed the structure to "breathe". To date they have not caused any catastrophic damage to the dome.
In 1955 the Opera del Duomo installed 22 mechanical deformometers, which were read four times a year to record the variations in the width of the major cracks in the inner dome. At the same time the dome's internal and external temperatures were also recorded. This remained in service until 2009.
In 1975 a commission was appointed by the Italian government to safeguard the dome. In 1978 a government culture agency decided to restore the frescoes. Brunelleschi left forty eight 600 mm (24 in) holes in the base of the dome. They are open on the inside and covered by the outer skin of the dome. It has long been assumed that the holes simply served as mounts for the scaffold used when frescoes were painted on the inside of the dome. While the holes had been able to support the scaffolding used for the creation of the frescos on the interior of the dome they were not strong enough for the network of modern metal scaffolding necessary to provide access for the restoration work undertaken on the frescos between 1979 and 1995. To strengthen the scaffolding, the private company contracted to build scaffolding for the work was allowed in 1982 to fill the holes with concrete so that steel beams could be anchored in them.
In 1985 local architect Lando Bartoli noticed that additional cracks were forming around the sealed holes. It was theorized at the time that in summer the four major masses separated by the "A" cracks expanded into the fissures, but now, at the base of the dome, the masses come up against the unyielding concrete that now fills the 48 holes acts as a fulcrum which causes the energy that was once dissipated with the closing of the fissures and into the holes to be transferred into the upper areas of the dome. However analysis by Andrea Chiarugi, Michele Fanelli and Giuseppetti (published in 1983) found that the principal source of the cracks was a dead-weight effect due to the geometry of the dome, its weight (estimated to be 25,000 tons) and the insufficient resistance of the ring beam, while thermal variations, has caused fatigue loading and thus expanding of the structure. This is a well-known collapse mechanism typical of domed structures: a lowering of the top of the structure under its own weight with significant horizontal thrusts on the bearing elements.
In 1985 a commission established by the Italian Ministry of Cultural and Monumental Heritage accepted this theory. The debate about the filling of the scaffolding holes was finally settled in 1987 when it was demonstrated that closing the 48 holes had had no impact on the expansion and contraction of the dome. A survey completed in 1984 counted a total of 493 cracks of various sizes, sorted into categories identified by the letters "A" through "D". These are as follows:
Type A. These are sub-vertical major cracks that start from the ring beam and continue upwards for approximately two-thirds of the height of the dome; they pass through both the internal and external layer of the even webs and their range in thickness from 55 mm (2.2 in) to 60 mm (2.4 in) (webs 4 and 6) and 25 mm (0.98 in) to 30 mm (1.2 in) (webs 2 and 8). The dome has eight webs numbered counter clockwise from 1, which faces the main nave of the cathedral. These effectively divide the dome into quarters and never completely close in summer. There is a theory that the plaster used to patch the cracks over the years and crumbling building materials have jammed the fissures.
Type B. These sub-vertical minor cracks are located near the circular windows.
Type C. These are sub-vertical minor cracks that are present around the eight edges of the dome.
Type D. These are four sub-vertical minor cracks in the internal part of the odd webs. They do not pass through the width of the dome.
All have formed in a symmetrical pattern.
The development of the Type "A" cracks means that the dome now permanently behaves as four drifting half-arches linked below the upper oculus. The abutments of these half-arches are constituted by the pillars, the chapels and the nave of the church. The differences in the cracking patterns between even and odd webs is believed to be due to variations in the stiffness of the supporting ring beam structure under the dome as it is supported by four heavy pillars which line up with the even webs while the odd webs are located over four arches which connect the pillars.
In 1987 a second and more comprehensive digital system (which automatically collects data every six hours) was installed by ISMES (in cooperation with the "Soprintendenza", the local branch of the Ministry of Culture, which is responsible for the conservation of all historical monuments in Florence) in 1987. It consists of 166 instruments, among which are 60 thermometers measuring the masonry and air temperature at various locations, 72 inductive type displacement transducers (deformometers) at various levels on the main cracks of the inner and outer domes; eight plumb-lines at the centre of each web, which measure the relative displacements between pillars and tambour; eight livellometers and two piezometers, one near the web 4 and the other below the nave which register the variation of the underground water level. A linear regression analysis of the recorded data has shown that the major cracks are widening by approximately 3 mm (0.12 in) per century. Another source quotes a movement of 5.5mm.
Using software that had been used to model the structures of large dam a computer model of the dome was developed in 1980 in a collaboration between Italian National Agency for Electric Power and Structural and Hydraulic Research Centre (CRIS) by a group of researcher leaded by Michele Fanelli and Gabriella Giuseppetti in cooperation with the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Florence, under the supervision of Andrea Chiarugi. Because of limited computational resources and for reasons of symmetry only a quarter of the dome was modelled. The resulting finite elements analysis confirmed that the main cracks was essentially being created by self-weight of the dome. Since then series of numerical models of increasing complexity have been developed. To assist in monitoring of the dome an extensive photogrammetric and topographical survey of the entire dome was commissioned in 1992 by the "Soprintendenza". The results of this survey were then used to further develop the finite elements model of the dome.
(Wikipedia)
Die Kathedrale Santa Maria del Fiore (italienisch Cattedrale metropolitana di Santa Maria del Fiore) in Florenz ist die Bischofskirche des Erzbistums Florenz und somit Metropolitankirche der Kirchenprovinz Florenz. Sie wurde von Papst Eugen IV. am 24. März 1436 geweiht und trägt den Titel einer Basilica minor. Das Kirchenschiff fasst circa 4.000–5.000 Personen. Ihre gewaltige Kuppel, das Hauptwerk Brunelleschis, gilt als technische Meisterleistung der frühen Renaissance.
Dimensionen
Der Florentiner Dom ist, bezogen auf die Länge des Längsschiffs, nach dem Petersdom im Vatikan, St Paul’s Cathedral in London und dem Mailänder Dom die viertgrößte Kirche in Europa (nach der bebauten Fläche rangiert allerdings noch die Kathedrale von Sevilla in Spanien an dritter Stelle). Seine Abmessungen: 153 m Länge, 38 m Breite, Breite des Kuppelfundaments 90 m. Die Seitenschiffe haben eine Gewölbehöhe von 23 m, das Mittelschiff ist um etwa 12 Meter höher. Die lichte Höhe der Kuppel beträgt vom Boden bis zur Laterne 90 m. Außen ist die Kuppel mit Laterne mehr als 114 m hoch.
Baugeschichte
Bis ins 13. Jahrhundert hatten den Bewohnern der Stadt das Baptisterium San Giovanni sowie einige kleine Kirchen zur Repräsentation genügt. Erst 1296 entschloss man sich zum Bau eines Doms nach Plänen von Arnolfo di Cambio. Der Bau sollte Ausmaße haben, wie sie die Toskana nie zuvor gesehen hatte. Der Entschluss kam nicht aus einem religiösen Impuls, sondern aus dem Wunsch nach einem weithin sichtbaren Monument, nicht zuletzt in Konkurrenz zu Venedig, Pisa und zum 1229 begonnenen Dombau in Siena.
Baubeginn
Noch im gleichen Jahre wurde mit der Errichtung der Westfassade begonnen. Die ursprüngliche Bischofskirche, Santa Reparata, wurde dabei zunächst von dem Neubau umgeben und weiter liturgisch genutzt. Nach dem Tod Arnolfos kamen die Arbeiten zum Erliegen, da die Ressourcen zum Bau der dritten Stadtmauer und zur Errichtung des Palazzo della Signoria genutzt wurden. Von der Fassade war nach Arnolfos Entwürfen bis dahin nur der untere Teil vollendet.
Der Campanile Giottos
Erst die spätere Berufung Giottos brachte neue Impulse. Doch Giotto, schon 68 Jahre alt, richtete seine ganze Energie auf den Campanile, der in kürzerer Zeit zu vollenden war. So wollte er Florenz wenigstens mit dem Campanile ein alles überragendes Wahrzeichen schenken.
Die Turmfundamente waren bereits 1298 zu Beginn der Bauarbeiten an der neuen Kathedrale unter Arnolfo di Cambio gelegt worden. Die für die italienische Gotik ungewöhnliche Position des Glockenturms – in einer Linie mit der Westfassade – wird zum einen als Indiz für die besondere Betonung der Vertikalen als Zentrum der Bischöflichen Insel gewertet, andererseits wollte man die Sichtachse auf die geplante große Kuppel freihalten.
Giotto di Bondone entwarf einen Campanile, der eine pyramidenförmige Spitze mit einer Höhe von 50 florentinischen Braccia (Armlängen), also etwa 30 Metern gehabt hätte; insgesamt wäre er 110–115 Meter hoch geworden. Bei Giottos Tod im Jahr 1337 war erst das erste Geschoss fertiggestellt. Andrea Pisano und Francesco Talenti beendeten den Bau 1359 mit einigen Änderungen. Der Turm bekam ein niedriges Pyramidendach und wurde nur 85 m hoch.
Im Turm sind insgesamt zwölf Kirchenglocken untergebracht. Eine Glocke befindet sich abgestellt auf dem Boden des Glockengeschosses. Sie ist die 1516 von Lodovico di Guglielmo gegossene 2500 Kilogramm schwere Apostolica. Zudem hängen auf allen vier Seiten, jeweils zwischen Glockenstube und Fenster vier kleinere Glocken (Beona, Maria Anna, Campana Piccola, Campana Più Piccola), die nicht geläutet werden können. Die übrigen sieben Glocken bilden das Hauptgeläut, das seit 2000/2001 über einen neuen elektrischen Läuteantrieb verfügt.
Wiederaufnahme der Bauarbeiten am Dom
Ab 1330 übernahm die Wollweberzunft die Verantwortung für den Dombau. Neue Baumeister modifizierten die Pläne immer wieder, bis sie 1368 gebilligt und das danach entstandene Ziegelmodell (Maßstab 1:10) für verbindlich erklärt wurden. Der Bau konnte nun schneller vorangetrieben werden. Schon 1379 wurde das Langhaus für den Gottesdienst in Gebrauch genommen.
Fassade
Die unter Arnolfo di Cambio begonnene Fassade wurde schon 1588 als unzeitgemäß empfunden und abgerissen, um Platz für eine neue Fassadengestaltung zu schaffen, für die die Mittel dann allerdings nicht ausreichten. Die heutige Westfassade ist eine neogotische Vervollständigung des späten 19. Jahrhunderts, die den Stil des Langhauses, die Gestaltung in dreifarbigem Marmor, fortsetzt. Sie wurde nach Entwürfen von Emilio de Fabris und Guglielmo Calderini (Obergeschoss) bis 1887 vollendet.
Kuppel
Brunelleschis Kuppel
1417 legte Brunelleschi sein erstes Kuppelmodell vor, nachdem vorher beschlossen worden war, eine noch prächtigere und größere Kuppel zu erstellen, als das erste Modell vorgesehen hatte. Der Bau der 107 Meter hohen Kuppel mit einem Durchmesser von 45 Metern dauerte 16 Jahre (1418 bis 1434). Von Anfang an trug die aus zwei Schalen bestehende Konstruktion sich selbst und wurde ohne Lehrgerüst errichtet. Aufgrund ihrer Einzigartigkeit wird sie noch heute als Höhepunkt der Renaissance gesehen. Der Dom wurde nach der Fertigstellung der Kuppel am 25. März 1436 in Anwesenheit von Donatello, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Michelozzo und Alberti durch Papst Eugen IV. geweiht. Für die Ausführung der Glasfenster wurde 1436 der Glasmaler Francesco Livi aus Lübeck nach Florenz berufen. Die Laterne wurde nach einem Entwurf Brunelleschis von 1446 bis 1461, zuletzt unter der Aufsicht von Michelozzo, erbaut. Bis zum Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts gab es immer wieder kleinere Arbeiten am Dom.
Ausmalung der Kuppel
Die Innenbemalung der Kuppel war nach früherer einhelliger Meinung der Kunsthistoriker missglückt. Kein Geringerer als Giorgio Vasari, der Vater der Kunstgeschichtsschreibung und der Schöpfer des gleichnamigen Korridors über den Ponte Vecchio, hatte 1572 dieses Fresko begonnen, das 1579 von Federico Zuccari vollendet wurde. Es ist in seinen Ausmaßen riesig und gilt nach der Fläche als der größte Fresken-Zyklus zu einem christlichen Thema. Hunderte von Kolossalfiguren gruppieren sich auf insgesamt 4000 m² um den Weltenrichter, den man in der unteren Mitte mühsam erkennen kann. Vasaris Traum soll es gewesen sein, Michelangelos Jüngstes Gericht in der Sixtinischen Kapelle zu übertreffen.
Das Riesenwerk ist nicht unproblematisch. Denn es ist so weit vom Boden entfernt, dass man kaum ein Detail hinreichend erkennen kann – der Kuppelraum ist normalerweise dunkler als auf den Fotos –, und vor allem: Das Fresko Vasaris lässt die Kuppel nicht höher erscheinen, sondern niedriger. Das Kuppelfresko wurde seit 1979 restauriert und ist 1994 wieder enthüllt worden, wobei die beiden Kunsthistorikerinnen Cristina Acidini und Cristina Danti bisher ungewürdigte künstlerische Qualitäten dokumentiert haben.
Vasari war schon krank, als er 1572 im Alter von 61 Jahren das Gerüst zur Ausmalung der Kuppel bestieg und starb bereits zwei Jahre danach 1574 lange vor der Vollendung des Freskos. Federico Zuccari übermalte und modernisierte teilweise Vasaris Malerei. Dabei unterliefen ihm auch einige Fehler. So bekam beispielsweise ein Esel die massigen Beine eines Bären, der seinerseits mit Hufen ausgestattet wurde, was vom Boden der Kathedrale aus jedoch nicht sichtbar ist.
Einzelne Aspekte zum Florentiner Kuppelbau
Vorgeschichte
Die Kuppel des Domes von Florenz ist nicht die Bekrönung der Vierung eines lateinischen Kreuzes, also einer Kreuzung von Langhaus und Querhaus, sondern einer Drei-Konchen-Anlage, somit also ein Zentralbau, der erste der Renaissance. Zumindest hieß es so lange Zeit in der Fachliteratur. Aber dieser Zentralbau ist eine Idee der Gotik und seine Durchführung wurde mit gotischen Mitteln erreicht. Man sagt also besser: Dieser gotische Plan kam den Tendenzen der Renaissance entgegen.
Die Bewunderung für das antike römische Pantheon und die architektonische Tradition hatten sich vereint, um die Kuppel zum idealen und zentralen Bestandteil der Kirche zu machen. Es scheint, dass man auch in jenen Fällen, in denen man keinen Zentralbau durchführen konnte, weil – wie hier am Florentiner Dom – ein Langhaus bereits vorgegeben war, sich als Ersatz dafür im Ostbau wenigstens die Illusion eines Zentralbaus mit der Kuppel als wichtigstem Bestandteil hat verschaffen wollen.
Dabei gab es eine prinzipielle Schwierigkeit in der Renaissance bei der Verbindung des Zentralbauideals mit rein liturgischen Erfordernissen. Sollte ein Zentralbau eine Kuppel erhalten, dann konnte er nicht allzu groß werden, weil die Konstruktion der Kuppel das schwierigste von allem war. Deshalb wurde das Ideal des reinen Zentralbaus meistens bei kleineren Kirchen erfüllt.
In großen Kirchen sollten aber auch viele Menschen zusammenkommen, und das widersprach den technischen Grenzen des Zentralbaus. Deshalb wurden häufig Kompromisse gebildet, indem man an einen zentralbauähnlichen Ostteil ein Langhaus anschloss. Jetzt konnten zwar viele Gläubige im Innenraum zusammengefasst werden, aber ein idealer Zentralbau war das nicht, wie man am Grundriss sehen kann.
Besonders dramatisch waren später diese Auseinandersetzungen beim Neubau von St. Peter in Rom. Auch hier siegte im Endeffekt die politische Wirkung eines solchen bedeutenden Baues über das architektonische Ideal Michelangelos. Und die Politik spielte auch hier in Florenz eine Rolle.
Die Kuppel als Träger der Staatsidee
Von jeher war Architektur in den italienischen Stadtstaaten dazu ausersehen, Träger der Staatsideen zu werden. Und die Kuppel des Florentiner Doms hier war der deutlich sichtbare Ausdruck eines neuen Machtanspruchs einer Stadt, die mit 50.000 Einwohnern so viele Bewohner hatte wie London. Durch Brunelleschi wurde die Kuppel zu einer neuen Pathosformel erhoben – und das merkt man bis hin zum Kapitol in Washington von 1857. Im Mittelalter war der Turm oder die Turmgruppe das höchste architektonische Zeichen städtischer Majestät. Jetzt in der Neuzeit, in der Renaissance, wurde die Kuppel das Symbol staatlicher Macht.
Hier spielt sicher auch eine Rolle, dass zur damaligen Zeit Florenz mit Kunstwerken deutlich weniger ausgestattet war als seine italienischen Konkurrenten. Nach den Zeiten der Protorenaissance im 11. Jahrhundert gab es seltsamerweise eine lange Pause in der Entwicklung der Kunst. Erst 1246 mit der Dominikanerkirche Santa Maria Novella wurde wieder eine neue Periode in der Kunstgeschichte der Stadt eröffnet.
Im ganzen 12. Jahrhundert und noch im frühen 13. Jahrhundert, als in Pisa bereits der Dom erweitert wurde, der Campanile, das Baptisterium und der Camposanto erbaut wurden, als man in Lucca, in Pistoia, in Prato und später auch in Arezzo und Siena Dome und Kirchen errichtete, entstand in Florenz kein Bauwerk gleichen Ranges. Während sich Pisa und Lucca zu Zentren der Bildhauerkunst und der Malerei entfalteten, ist für Florenz kaum eine Skulptur und kein Gemälde bezeugt. In dieser fast 150 Jahre dauernden Pause schuf Florenz stattdessen die wirtschaftlichen und politischen Voraussetzungen für seine spätere Vormachtstellung, die dann durch den Bau des Domes und vor allem durch die dominierende Kuppel neuen, majestätischen Ausdruck erhalten sollte. Also: Die Kuppel des Doms hatte für Florenz wortwörtlich überragende Bedeutung. Hier musste mit einem Schlag ein langer künstlerischer Rückstand übersprungen werden. Florenz hatte gleichsam keine Wahl. Die Kuppel musste gelingen.
Das Interessante daran ist, dass möglicherweise bereits Arnolfo di Cambio, der 1296 mit dem Bau begonnen hatte, eine solche Kuppel vorgesehen hatte. Inspiriert war diese Idee sicher damals schon vom Baptisterium und von den gigantischen Kuppelbauten der römischen Antike, vor allem auch hier vom Pantheon in Rom und von der Hagia Sophia in Byzanz. Als weiteres Vorbild darf sicher die Kuppel des Pisaner Domes angenommen werden und die des Doms von Siena, einer Stadt, zu der Florenz in besonderer Konkurrenz stand. Aber die Verbindung dieser Idee einer so gigantischen Kuppel mit einem gotischen Langhaus war neu.
Die Probleme eines Kuppelbaus
Der Plan zu einer riesigen Kuppel war auch 1367 vorherrschend, als nach langer Bauunterbrechung eine Kommission der Baumeister und Maler die Ausdehnung der Vierung selbstbewusst auf 42 Meter erhöhte und eine Gewölbehöhe der noch zu bauenden Kuppel von 83 Metern vorsah] Damit sollte die Florentiner Kuppel nicht nur die breiteste, sondern auch die höchste jemals errichtete Kuppel werden. Man hatte dabei sicher das Pantheon in Rom vor Augen, dessen Kuppeldurchmesser 42,70 Meter beträgt, also fast identisch mit den Florentiner Plänen.
Die aus diesen gewaltigen Ausmaßen resultierenden Schwierigkeiten erkannte man erst später. Denn man wusste nicht, wie man ein solch riesiges Gewölbe von 42 Metern Durchmesser über dem achteckigen Grundriss errichten konnte. Es erwies sich nämlich beispielsweise als unmöglich, die Gerüstbalken zu beschaffen, die für den Bau einer solchen Wölbung benötigt wurden. Denn man war zuvor – 1410–1413 – auf die kühne Idee gekommen, auf das 42 Meter hohe oktogonale Grundgeschoss noch ein Tambourgeschoß von knapp zehn Metern Höhe und 4½ Metern Dicke aufzusetzen, so dass die Kuppel erst in der unglaublichen Höhe von 52 Metern ansetzte, also in einer Höhe, die über den höchsten Gewölben der französischen gotischen Kathedralen lag – das höchste gotische Gewölbe hat die Kathedrale von Beauvais mit 48 Metern.
Übrigens erhielt die Kirche erst jetzt ihren heutigen Namen Santa Maria del Fiore. Bis dahin hieß sie wie die Vorgängerkirche Santa Reparata.
Und damit niemand auf die Idee kam, diesen neuen, kühnen Plan von 1367 zugunsten älterer, einfacherer Lösungen zu verlassen und damit den neuen Machtanspruch von Florenz zu reduzieren, vernichtete man alle älteren Dokumente, die sich mit dem Dombau befassten. Man hat also gleichsam alle Brücken hinter sich abgebrochen. Entweder diese neue Kuppel mit bisher noch nie erreichter Höhe – oder gar keine. Daher ist nur unzulänglich bekannt, wie sich Arnolfo di Cambio und seine frühen Nachfolger den Dom eigentlich vorgestellt hatten.
Die Konkurrenzsituation
Damals, in der 2. Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts herrschte eine scharfe Konkurrenz zwischen den großen norditalienischen Städten in Bezug auf ihre zentralen großen Kirchenbauten. In Florenz wurden teilweise über acht Prozent der gesamten Staatseinkünfte für den Bau des Domes aufgewandt.
1388 wurde in Bologna der Dom San Petronio begonnen, der den im Bau befindlichen Florentiner Dom noch übertreffen sollte, aber nie vollendet wurde. Zwei Jahre zuvor, 1386, war der Mailänder Dom begonnen worden, der nicht nur die italienischen, sondern alle Kathedralen des Abendlandes übertreffen sollte – allerdings ohne große Türme und ohne Kuppel. Die Kuppelwölbung war das große Problem und sie blieb es bis in unsere Zeit hinein, daher auch ihre große Bedeutung für die Repräsentation. Noch in der Nikolaikirche in Potsdam in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts, im Kapitol von Washington 1857 und in den Großmacht-Fantasien des NS-Architekten Albert Speer für das Neue Berlin der 40er Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts wirkte diese Idee nach.
1414 war in Florenz der Bau wieder ins Stocken geraten. Als vorerst letztes Glied wurde der zehn Meter hohe achteckige Tambour mit seinen runden Lichtöffnungen von 3,5 Meter Durchmesser errichtet. Die oktogonale Basis als Auflager für die Dachkonstruktion war damit vorgegeben.
Der Wettbewerb
Das Problem wurde über einen Wettbewerb im Jahr 1418 gelöst. Man schrieb am 19. August einen Wettbewerb aus, den Brunelleschi nach diversen Widerständen mit einem Rohentwurf gewann.
Die revolutionäre Idee Brunelleschis bestand darin, das Baugerüst gar nicht auf dem Boden aufsetzen zu lassen, sondern als Klettergerüst innerhalb der noch zu bauenden Kuppel zu verankern. Die Gutachterkommission lehnte seinen Vorschlag zunächst mehrmals ab. Brunelleschi bestand aber auf seinem Plan, teilweise so beharrlich, dass man ihn mehrmals aus den Sitzungen der Gutachterkommission hinaustragen musste. Außerdem war Brunelleschi nicht bei einem Baumeister in die Lehre gegangen, sondern bei einem Goldschmied, gehörte also nicht zur Gilde der Steinmetze, sondern derjenigen der Seidenweber an, die sich mit den Goldschmieden zusammengeschlossen hatten.
Erst als auf Seiten der Stadt keine brauchbare Alternative zu Brunelleschis Plan gefunden wurde, ließ man sich doch auf dessen Idee ein. Brunelleschi wurde nach der Annahme seines Rohentwurfes gebeten, einen genauen Plan auszuarbeiten. Ihm wurde zwar die Bauleitung übertragen, aber als unerfahrenem Baumeister wurde ihm – zur Vorsicht – Lorenzo Ghiberti an die Seite gestellt, was ihn sehr geärgert haben muss. Beide sollen sich zeitlebens wenig verstanden haben, nachdem 1401 Brunelleschi im Wettbewerb um die zweite Bronzetür des Baptisteriums Ghiberti unterlegen war. Trotzdem arbeiteten sie 18 Jahre lang an der Kuppel des Florentiner Domes zusammen, anfangs mit gleichem Gehalt. Um Ghibertis Inkompetenz bloßzustellen, soll Brunelleschi eine Krankheit fingiert haben, deretwegen die Bauarbeiten ins Stocken kamen.
Der Baubeginn der Kuppel
Der Baubeginn der Kuppel fand am 7. August 1420 in 52 Metern Höhe statt. Im gleichen Jahr war Brunelleschi mit einer weiteren genialen Idee aufgetreten. Er übernahm ein Bauprinzip aus der nordeuropäischen Gotik, die Rippenwölbung. Er verlegte Rippen an jeder Ecke des Oktogons und jeweils zwei zusätzliche im Innern jeder Gewölbekappe, also insgesamt 24, die miteinander durch waagerechte Querbalken verbunden waren. Die äußeren sind die weithin sichtbaren acht großen Marmorrippen mit einem Maß von 4,4 × 3,5 Metern. Jedes der acht Segmente der Kuppelschale ist an seiner Basis 17 Meter breit, 3,50 Meter dick und vollwandig aus massivem Kalksandstein geschichtet.
Durch diese insgesamt 24 Rippen entstand ein Skelettsystem, das mit zwei Ziegelschalen, einer inneren und einer äußeren, ausgefugt wurde. Die Schalen aus Ziegeln wurden in einzelnen Ringen von unten nach oben aufgemauert; die Kuppel wurde ohne Lehrgerüst errichtet. Das Deckenloch wurde zuerst wie im Pantheon in Rom offen gelassen. Später wurde die Laterne aufgesetzt.
Um einen Begriff davon zu bekommen, um welche Dimensionen an Hölzern es sich hier handelte: Für die Halbkuppel der südlichen Apsis, die im Jahr 1418 mit einem solchen Lehrgerüst konstruiert wurde, benötigte man 32 Baumstämme, die in Bohlen von insgesamt 280 Metern Länge und 135 Balken zersägt wurden. Die Halbkuppel ist aber weitaus kleiner im Vergleich zur Vierungskuppel, für die nach einer Schätzung zwanzig Mal so viel Holz benötigt wurde.
Das waren bis dahin kaum vorstellbare und schwerlich finanzierbare Dimensionen, und auch die technische Realisierbarkeit blieb weiterhin fraglich. Brunelleschi, der sich in antiker Architektur auskannte, nahm die alte Idee der Doppelschaligkeit auf und erfand ganz neue Techniken für die einzelnen Arbeitsschritte.
Zugringe aus Stein
Eine doppelschalige Kuppelkonstruktion entsprach der antiken Tradition. Auch das Baptisterium besitzt in Ansätzen eine solche doppelte Schale. Die Idee stammt aus dem mittelalterlichen Persien und stellte das typische Merkmal islamischer Moscheen dar. Trotz der Doppelschaligkeit blieben bauliche Schwierigkeiten.
Die Kuppel musste – auch als Rippenkonstruktion – zusätzlich abgestützt werden, genauso wie in der gotischen Architektur Nordeuropas, wo diese Idee herkam. Aber in Italien gibt es außer beim Mailänder Dom kein äußeres, stützendes Strebewerk wie in Frankreich oder Deutschland. Die riesige Kuppel in Florenz kann seitlich nicht abgestützt werden, da sie in zu großer Höhe thront. Um den horizontalen Schub des Gewölbes zu neutralisieren und nur noch Vertikalkräfte in die Tambourwände einzuleiten, erfand Brunelleschi „ein System so genannter Steinketten, um die beiden Gewölbeschalen zusammenzuhalten. Sie setzen an den Rippen an und sind durch Metallklammern verbunden, so dass sie Zugspannung aufnehmen können. Ohne sie würden die Rippen unter der Gesteinslast nach außen gedrückt“ und bersten.
Die Kuppel: Gotik oder Renaissance?
Die Kuppelkonstruktion hatte nachhaltige Konsequenzen für die Architektur der gesamten Renaissance. Deswegen setzte die Kunstgeschichte den Beginn der Renaissance lange Zeit auf diesen Kuppelbau von 1420 bis 1436.
Gegen diese Sichtweise ist aber einiges einzuwenden. Die Kuppel war unzweifelhaft eine Glanzleistung, die von niemandem übertroffen worden ist, auch nicht von Michelangelo später am Petersdom in Rom. Aber in diesem Fall war Brunelleschi in erster Linie als Ingenieur gefordert, die in der Planung bereits festgelegte Vierungskuppel zu erbauen. „Das ganze Werk hat bezeichnenderweise ein spitzbogiges, gotisches Profil, denn es ist nach dem gotischen Prinzip der tragenden Rippen erbaut. Selbst wenn Brunelleschi die Kuppel des Pantheon studiert hat, um seine Technik zu vervollkommnen, haben die beiden Werke doch nichts miteinander gemein: die Kuppel des Pantheon ist eine echte Halbkugel, […], die von den riesigen Mauern getragen wird. […] Die Florentiner Kuppel ist ein ins Gigantische gesteigertes Spitzbogengewölbe, das als Kuppel getarnt ist. Nur in den untergeordneten Bauelementen erscheint der Stil Brunelleschis – und damit Renaissancekunst.“ Auch das Motiv des Kapellenkranzes, der sich um die Vierung herumlegt, kommt aus der nordeuropäischen Architektur, ist also Gotik (oder sogar Romanik) und keine Renaissance.
Das erste wirkliche Renaissance-Bauwerk Brunelleschis ist die nicht weit entfernte Kirche von San Lorenzo.
Es ist wahrscheinlich nicht so, dass sich Brunelleschi von Anfang an über alle Details der Konstruktion im Klaren war. Auf viele Ideen kam er erst während der 16-jährigen Bauzeit. Und der obere spätere Teil der Kuppel war der schwierigere, weil hier die Wölbung wesentlich stärker ist. Genaue Informationen über Brunelleschis Pläne und Phantasien sind nicht bekannt, weil er in dieser Hinsicht schweigsam war. Er befürchtete, dass andere ihm seine Ideen stehlen könnten. Deshalb informierte er nur seine nächsten Mitarbeiter über seine Pläne – und das auch nur spät. Brunelleschi ist in Sichtweite des Domes aufgewachsen, kannte von Kindesbeinen an die Probleme, die seine Vorgänger mit der Wölbung hatten, informierte sich jahrelang auch in Rom über antike Architektur und hatte mit Sicherheit diverse Pläne im Kopf, wie eine solche Kuppel zu konstruieren sei. Aber er wusste, dass er der einzige war, der so etwas konnte, und behielt sein Wissen möglichst bei sich. Wenn er für sich selbst Pläne aufzeichnete, bediente er sich einer Geheimschrift, die niemand anderer lesen konnte.
Eisenkette
So gibt es beispielsweise seit ewigen Zeiten Gerüchte über eine Eisenkette, die Brunelleschi angeblich zusätzlich zu den bekannten Steinketten um den Sockel der Kuppel hat legen lassen. Eine magnetische Untersuchung, die in den 1970er Jahren durchgeführt wurde, erbrachte keinen Beweis, dass diese Ketten tatsächlich existieren.
Holzkette
Was es aber außer den vier Steinketten wirklich gibt, ist eine 1424 hinzugefügte Holzkette 7½ Meter über der untersten Steinkette – bestehend aus Balken aus Kastanienholz von sechs Metern Länge und einem Querschnitt von 30 × 30 Zentimetern. Dieses Holz musste gefunden und sorgfältig mit einem speziellen Verfahren verarbeitet werden, was mehrere Jahre in Anspruch nahm. Dass man außer an Stein- auch an Holzketten dachte, hat damit zu tun, dass man eine solche Holzkonstruktion für widerstandsfähiger bei Erdbeben hielt. Bei der Hagia Sophia in Konstantinopel war man so vorgegangen und bei einigen anderen Bauten in den gefährdeten Gebieten beispielsweise in Persien. Und tatsächlich erlitt die cupola bei den Erdbeben von 1510, 1675 und 1895 keine Schäden. Die Holzkette musste übrigens im 18. Jahrhundert ausgetauscht werden, weil das Holz zu verrotten begann.
Baumaschinen
Zu Brunelleschis Glanzleistungen zählen unter anderem auch die Maschinen, die er entworfen hat, um mit ihnen die Steine in die Höhe zu ziehen. Hier waren Konstruktionen notwendig, die zur damaligen Zeit noch nicht existierten. Die Materialaufzüge und Kräne, die Filippo entwarf, wurden zu den meistbewunderten mechanischen Geräten der Renaissance. Das Seil für den Lastenaufzug wurde in Pisa bestellt, einer Hochburg des Schiffbaus. Aber auch die dortigen Fachleute sahen sich einer neuen Aufgabe gegenüber, denn es wurde das längste und schwerste Seil benötigt, das jemals angefertigt worden war: 180 Meter lang, mehr als sieben Zentimeter dick und mit einem Gewicht von nahezu einer halben Tonne. Dieser Aufzug bewegte täglich ca. 50 Mal die Steine in die Höhe, also ungefähr eine Fuhre alle zehn Minuten.
Bevor die einzelnen Steine in der Kuppel eingesetzt wurden, mussten sie natürlich genau zugehauen werden. Die Schablonen dafür wurden auf einem Grundstück hergestellt, das Brunelleschi im Sommer 1420 flussabwärts auf einem Uferbereich des Arno auf einer Fläche von 800 m² präpariert hatte. Dort wurde ein Plan der Kuppel im Verhältnis 1:1 in den Sand geritzt. Bei den gotischen Kathedralen Nordeuropas war man ähnlich vorgegangen. Diese Schablonen von über 2½ Metern Größe wurden anschließend am Mauerwerk der inneren Kuppelschale befestigt und dienten als Richtmaß.
Ziegel
Bei der Herstellung der Ziegel ging man ebenfalls von Schablonen aus, da nicht nur einheitliche Maße benutzt wurden, sondern auch außergewöhnliche – dreieckige Formen, Ziegel mit Verzahnungen oder mit hervorstehendem Rand, Ziegel, die genau in die Ecken passten etc. Aber bis es überhaupt so weit war, musste ein langer Weg zurückgelegt werden.
Die Brennöfen befanden sich nicht in der Stadt, sondern auf dem Land in der Nähe der Tongruben. Es war natürlich etwas anderes, ob man Ziegel brauchte für ein kleines Haus, die man im Bedarfsfalle leicht ersetzen konnte, oder ob es sich um Ziegel handelte für die Riesenkuppel von Florenz, wo ein kleiner Fehler massive Konsequenzen haben könnte. Jedenfalls gab es umfangreiche Regeln dafür, wie und wo und wann der Ton gewonnen werden sollte, wie lange er vor dem Brennen trocknen sollte – das konnte bis zu zwei Jahren dauern –, wie der Mörtel beschaffen sein sollte usw.
Der geknetete Ton wurde in entsprechenden Holzformen an der Luft getrocknet und vorgehärtet. Danach erfolgte das Brennen, das mehrere Tage dauerte. Da die Temperatur im Ofen um 1000 Grad Celsius betrug, ließ man die Ziegel zwei Wochen abkühlen, damit sie bruchfester wurden, bevor man sie zur Baustelle transportierte. Ein Brennofen konnte im Durchschnitt 20.000 Ziegel aufnehmen; wurde er alle drei Wochen befeuert, ergab dies eine jährliche Kapazität von mehr als 300.000 Ziegeln. Doch selbst bei dieser Leistung hätte es mit nur einem Brennofen mehr als 13 Jahre gedauert, die für den Bau der Kuppel erforderlichen vier Millionen Ziegel herzustellen.
Das Tempo der acht Maurermannschaften wurde durch das Abbinden des Mörtels im zuletzt gemauerten Horizontalring auf weniger als einen Ring pro Woche begrenzt. Die Kuppel wuchs somit jeden Monat um ungefähr 30 Zentimeter in die Höhe.
Trotz der schwierigen Arbeitsbedingungen soll während der 16-jährigen Bauzeit der Kuppel nur ein einziger Arbeiter ums Leben gekommen sein.
Loggia
Am Ansatz der Kuppel wurde 1508–12 versucht, eine Loggia anzubringen, die den gesamten Ostbau plastisch aufgelockert hätte und die auch zu Brunelleschis Plan gehörte. Aber deren Gestaltung ist zu zierlich geraten und – der Überlieferung nach – soll Michelangelo sich sehr abschätzig über diese Idee geäußert haben – sie sehe aus „wie ein Grillenkäfig“ –, weshalb der Plan nicht vollendet wurde.Quelle?
Risse
Insgesamt wiegt allein die Kuppel ca. 37.000 Tonnen und hat bis heute gehalten, trotz der insgesamt 1.500 Haarrisse, die mittlerweile aufgetreten sind. Das Phänomen der Risse ist an sich nicht neu. Angeblich sollen schon um 1500, also kurz nach Fertigstellung des Bauwerks, solche Risse aufgetreten sein. Jetzt scheinen die Risse so zahlreich zu werden, dass man überlegt, Maßnahmen zu ihrer Beseitigung zu ergreifen.
Man weiß nicht, wie Brunelleschi selber dieses Problem gesehen hat, denn er hat keinerlei Aufzeichnungen hinterlassen. Michelangelo hat bei der Konstruktion der Kuppel des Petersdomes in Rom eine schwere Eisenkette um deren Sockelzone vorgesehen. Als Grund für die jetzt zunehmend auftretenden Risse in Florenz werden von fachlicher Seite die normalen Temperaturschwankungen angegeben, die im Laufe der Jahrhunderte dem Mauerwerk langsam zugesetzt hätten. Eine Lösung des Problems ist trotz zahlreicher Kommissionen offenbar noch nicht in Sicht, deren erste bereits 1934 angetreten war. Aktuell wird die Kuppel durch ständiges Deformationsmonitoring überwacht, um kleinste Veränderungen sofort nachvollziehen zu können.
Andererseits gilt: „Da in der Regel schon beim Ausschalen des Gewölbes solche Spannungen auftreten und erste Risse provozieren, ist der gerissene Zustand als der normale anzusehen und das jeweilige Rißbild im Gewölbe Zeichen einer letztlich individuellen Statik.“
Treppensystem
Brunelleschi baute die Kuppel auf einem hohen Tambour in den besagten zwei Schalen, wobei die innere Schale die dickere ist. Die äußere dient lediglich der Bedachung. Zwischen beiden Schalen liegt ein Treppensystem, das über 463 Stufen begehbar ist und auf die Laterne an der Kuppelspitze in 106 Meter Höhe führt.
Nachwirkungen des Florentiner Kuppelbaus
Dieser gewaltige Kirchenbau, dessen Konzeption bereits 1367 festgelegt war, sollte Ausdruck des Stolzes einer Stadt sein, die damals ein außerordentliches Maß an Macht und Reichtum erworben hatte. Florenz zählte gegen Ende des 13. Jahrhunderts mit ungefähr 100.000 Einwohnern zu den größten Städten der damaligen Welt.
Von vergleichbarer Größe ist die ebenfalls doppelschalige Kuppel des Petersdoms (1590) mit 42,3 Metern Durchmesser, das größte freitragende Ziegelbauwerk der Erde, und das Pantheon (118) mit der größten in unbewehrtem Beton gegossenen Kuppel von 43,2 Metern, beide in Rom. Einen größeren Durchmesser hatte mit 108 Metern erst die zur Weltausstellung 1873 gebaute Rotunde in Wien aus Stahl, die 1937 einem Brand zum Opfer fiel.
(Wikipedia)
Shoreditch London Old Street and City Road Silicon Roundabout Major Road Works.
This was due to be completed Autumn 2022 which has been delayed until Early 2024. The project commenced way back in 2019.
This cycle lane change was initially a three-year project. Now Five Years. The road is the inner ring road for London. They have blocked one of the tube entrances which includes the underpass. Ironically, cyclist do not even use this route since they blocked off the backstreets to traffic. They are trying to sabotage London. The situation is disgusting.
This was completely homemade.
Includes Cheese (real), Gammon Ham, Tomatoes and Onions.
I am not very good at making round pizzas so now they are rectangularish!
• colors include soft burgundys and reds, orangey melons, creams, greys and dark brown :)
• fibers include merino, bfl, bfl x montadale, mohair, romney, gotland x border leicester, merino x romney, cotswald, silk and sari silk threads, novelty fabric and yarn snippets
The Canyon Diablo meteorites include the many fragments of the asteroid that created the Barringer Crater (Meteor Crater), Arizona, USA. Meteorites have been found around the crater rim, and are named for nearby Canyon Diablo, which lies about three to four miles west of the crater.
The asteroid fell about 50,000 years ago. The meteorites have been known and collected since the mid-19th century and were known and used by pre-historic Native Americans. The Barringer Crater, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, was the center of a long dispute over the origin of craters that showed little evidence of volcanism. That debate was settled in the 1950s thanks to Eugene Shoemaker's study of the crater.
In 1953, Clair Cameron Patterson measured ratios of the lead isotopes in samples of the meteorite. The result permitted a refinement of the estimate of the age of the Earth to 4.550 billion years (± 70 million years).
The shallow dome of the Librarian's Room includes a central disc with a painting by Edward J. Holslag. Representing Letters, the seated figure of a beautiful woman holds a scroll in her hand and is accompanied by a child with a torch. In the ribbon banner is the Latin phrase "Litera scripta manet" (The written word endures).
Surrounding the ceiling painting of Letters is plaster ornamentation in low relief by Albert Weinert. There are two slightly different alternating Grecian female figures holding a garland. Below them are square panels in which there is an open book. These, in turn, alternate with ovals, each containing an octagonal panel with an owl. Between each Grecian figure is a palm branch with a hexagonal panel above. These panels contain the lamp of learning. The open book, owl, and lamp symbols, used throughout the Jefferson Building, represent wisdom and learning. The dome also features decorative urns, fluttering ribbons, and bay leaf swags.
From: http://www.loc.gov/jefftour/lc/lc-pnlc.html and http://www.loc.gov/jefftour/lc/lc-girls.html
When couples dream of their perfect wedding destination abroad, their vision often includes escaping to a far-away place that offers all of the charms one could possibly desire for their Religious or Civil Ceremony. So, if you're looking at celebrating your wedding in Sicily, Taormina is a good choice.Taormina's beauty is uncontested. Some cities are known for their art treasures, others for their natural beauties; only a few, like Taormina, own both.Visitors to this magical yet relatively undiscovered island, leave with its images of sheer beauty, its cultural simplicity, the passion and warmth of the people and historical delights etched permanently in their memories.Within its ancient stone gates, the old town has fascinating archeological monuments and medieval homes. Magnificent views of the sea complete the picture.The city is located on a cliff top overlooking the deep blue of the never ending horizon reflected in a clear turquoise sea which surrounds the bays and beaches.In fact it is Sicily's number one tourist resort, boasting magnificent scenery, architecture and great local cuisine. It's no wonder tourists flock to Taormina every year.
Its rich culture and crystal clear sea and views of Mount Etna create a magical atmosphere. Taormina has endlessly winding medieval streets and tiny passages, each with its own secrets.Some of these intriguing places are secluded gardens hidden by stone walls; others are set on terraces overlooking the coast or in more public but equally pleasant squares.Taormina is beautiful by day but in the evenings its atmosphere is simply enchanting, whether you stroll the illuminated streets or indulge in the view of the coast over an authentic Sicilian dinner. Taormina's ancient Greek splendor, medieval charm and unique views will leave you with a lasting impression of Sicily.The climate is mild even in the winter, where it feels like eternal spring time. Its air is filled with the scent of orange and lemon blossoms. Steal away on an island retreat in beautiful Sicily, as it offers a taste of the traditional with a delicate touch of the exotic.There are several charming churches here in which to have a Catholic wedding, as well as Palazzo Santo Stefano for civil weddings, which takes an exquisitely charming medieval mood. Taormina's regal Norman Byzantine, Romanesque and Baroque churches offer a beautiful venue for a religious wedding.Couples may choose to exchange their wedding vows in any of these spectacular locations!The whole Taormina experience leaves visitors breathless and enthusiastic to plan their dream wedding here.
Make the dream come true for you...
www.facebook.com/pages/Weddinginsicily-Taormina/475641052...
City Palace, Jaipur, which includes the Chandra Mahal and Mubarak Mahal palaces and other buildings, is a palace complex in Jaipur, the capital of the Rajasthan state, India. It was the seat of the Maharaja of Jaipur, the head of the Kachwaha Rajput clan. The Chandra Mahal palace now houses a museum but the greatest part of it is still a royal residence. The palace complex, which is located northeast of the centre of the grid patterned Jaipur city, incorporates an impressive and vast array of courtyards, gardens and buildings. The palace was built between 1729 and 1732, initially by Sawai Jai Singh II, the ruler of Amber. He planned and built the outer walls, and later additions were made by successive rulers right up to the 20th century. The credit for the urban layout of the city and its structures is attributed to two architects namely, Vidyadar Bhattacharya, the chief architect in the royal court and Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob, apart from the Sawai himself who was a keen architectural enthusiast. The architects achieved a fusion of the Shilpa Shastra of Indian architecture with Rajput, Mughal and European styles of architecture.
The palace complex lies in the heart of Jaipur city, to the northeast of the very centre. The site for the palace was located on the site of a royal hunting lodge on a plain land encircled by a rocky hill range, five miles south of Amber (city). The history of the city palace is closely linked with the history of Jaipur city and its rulers, starting with Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II who ruled from 1699-1744. He is credited with initiating construction of the city complex by building the outer wall of the complex spreading over many acres. Initially, he ruled from his capital at Amber, which lies at a distance of 11 kilometres from Jaipur. He shifted his capital from Amber to Jaipur in 1727 because of an increase in population and increasing water shortage. He planned Jaipur city in six blocks separated by broad avenues, on the classical basis of principals of Vastushastra and other similar classical treatise under the architectural guidance of Vidyadar Bhattacharya, a man who was initially an accounts-clerk in the Amber treasury and later promoted to the office of Chief Architect by the King.
Following Jaisingh's death in 1744, there were internecine wars among the Rajput kings of the region but cordial relations were maintained with the British Raj. Maharaja Ram Singh sided with the British in the Sepoy Mutiny or Uprising of 1857 and established himself with the Imperial rulers. It is to his credit that the city of Jaipur including all of its monuments (including the City Palace) are stucco painted 'Pink' and since then the city has been called the "Pink City". The change in colour scheme was as an honour of hospitality extended to the Prince of Wales (who later became King Edward VII) on his visit. This colour scheme has since then become a trademark of the Jaipur city.
Man Singh II, the adopted son of Maharaja Madho Singh II, was the last Maharaja of Jaipur to rule from the Chandra Mahal palace, in Jaipur. This palace, however, continued to be a residence of the royal family even after the Jaipur kingdom merged with the Indian Union in 1949 (after Indian independence in August 1947) along with other Rajput states of Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Bikaner. Jaipur became the capital of the Indian state of Rajasthan and Man Singh II had the distinction of becoming the Rajapramukh (present day Governor of the state) for a time and later was the Ambassador of India to Spain.
Other panelists with President Kagame include; the President of AfDB, Donald Kaberuka, Founder of Mo Ibrahim Foundation, Mo Ibrahim, South African Finance Minister, Pravin Gordhan, and moderator; BBC’s senior journalist, Komla Dumor.
The scenarios from the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) project that temperatures will increase dramatically in the Arctic, more than in many other parts of the world. This leads to effects, such as the decrease of area (e.g. tundra) under continuous permafrost, the northward move of the tree line and the decrease of Arctic Sea Ice. The synthesis is based on several different models and ensables and this map depicts the situation at the end of this century.
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This photo has been graciously provided to be used in the GRID-Arendal resources library by: Hugo Ahlenius
Thursday at the Goodwood Festival of Speed. A flat display from the Red Arrows on Thursday. Friday's display was cancelled due to the rain/low cloud.
The full title of this 360/720 panorama includes the above phrase, but is prefaced with: In the manner of Robbert Frick.
Robbert Frick is a Los Angeles-based artist. He attached a camera to his car and drove around, generating pictures that way. This method is both relevant to LA and elegantly minimal.
My friend, Paul Zelevansky suggested I do something similar with the equipment I use to generate 360/720 spherical panoramas. At first, I didn’t think this would work. Then, I became intrigued. It might generate really different kinds of images.
So…I got a tripod out, mounted theVRkit rotator on it, and put all this on the floor of the passenger side of my Subaru Forester Sport. I put my iPhone 11 with my Sandmarc fisheye lens in the Rotator clamp, and set off.
I didn’t have to go very far before I had my first pano. You have to know my neighborhood in West Des Moines to understand how really smashed up this picture is.
1. My house is sizable, but it doesn’t have 3 garages on the first floor. It doesn’t even have two garages.
2. I appear to be going east, to the right of my house, but the picture has moved everything that actually is west of my house to the east.
3. Not to mention my left arm has taken the place of my right arm in the first reflection and then moves back to its proper place in the next reflection.
There are many more instances in this image of fractured duplications and reflections. Enjoy!
This image is a 360/720 spherical panorama. It is best viewed in a VR headset such as the Oculus Quest 2, but can also be viewed happily just as it is.
Pickering Castle is situated on the southern edge of the North York Moors on a limestone bluff which formerly overlooked the meeting point of two of the main highways through the north of England: the east-west route along the Vale of Pickering and the north-south route through Newton Dale to Malton. The monument consists of a single area which includes the site of the 11th century motte and bailey castle and the 13th century shell keep castle. The former was built by William the Conqueror either during or shortly after the 'harrying of the north' in 1069-70. It consisted of an earth motte crowned by a timber palisade, flanked on the north-west side by a crescent-shaped inner bailey and, on the south-east side, by a contemporary or slightly later outer bailey. The inner bailey measured c.120m by c.35m and was bounded to the north by a steep natural slope surmounted by a palisade and to the south by deep 15m wide ditches linked to the ditch encircling the motte. The outer bailey, which measured c.185m by c.25m, was protected on the north side by these same ditches and, on the south side, by a 5-8m high palisaded bank with an outer ditch. To the immediate east of the outer bailey ditch a further earthwork bank may have provided additional defence on this side; alternatively it may be part of a medieval defence system associated with the adjacent settlement. The motte is c.20m high and has a base diameter of c.60m. It is not yet clear whether this is the original 11th century motte or a later medieval reconstruction. In the latter case, the earlier motte will have been preserved inside the later while, in addition, the buried remains of a wide range of domestic and service buildings will survive within the open areas of the baileys.
The reconstruction of the castle in stone largely took place between 1180 and 1236. There were three main phases to the work at this time, the earliest involving the late 12th century replacement of the palisade round the inner bailey with a curtain wall and also the probable construction of the first shell keep on the motte. In its present form the shell keep dates to the early 13th century but the foundations of the earlier wall will survive underneath. The remains of the early curtain wall still stand round the inner bailey, surviving best where the curtain was incorporated into later buildings. The earliest buildings so far identified are the early or mid- 12th century Old Hall, a free-standing residence whose surviving foundations show it to have been half-timbered, and the Coleman Tower, constructed at the same time as the inner curtain and an integral part of it. The Coleman Tower guarded the entry across the inner bailey ditch and was also a prison; hence its earlier name, the King's Prison. It was square in plan and had its entrance on the first floor, the level underneath being where the prisoners were kept. On the east side are the remains of a small building and also a stairway leading onto an adjacent wall. This wall, built across the motte ditch in the late 12th century, replaced an earlier palisade and provided access to the summit of the motte. A similar and contemporary length survives on the opposite side of the motte, crossing the ditch and joining the curtain alongside the later Rosamund's Tower. The keep consisted of a rubble wall enclosing a roughly circular area 20m wide. A wall walk would have lined the inside of the wall above a series of garrison buildings. The foundations of some of these buildings survive but it is not certain whether they date to the 13th or the 14th century. In some cases they will have replaced earlier timber structures whose buried remains will also survive. Also of uncertain date are the foundations of a number of buildings in the inner bailey, including a service range to the south-west and a group of buildings referred to as the Constable's Place in the accounts of the years 1441-43. The latter were half-timbered and some sections predate the inner curtain though others were clearly added later. A survey of 1537 lists a number of distinct structures, including the Constable's hall, a kitchen, buttery and pantry, and quarters for staff and servants. At the southern end of the group were a number of storage buildings, one of which is believed to have been the wool house. Two additional service buildings lay adjacent to the Old Hall and are thought, originally, to have been contemporary with it. To the south of these is the chantry-chapel which dates from c.1227 and is still complete though in a much altered state.
To the west of this is the early 14th century New Hall, initially built as a residence for Countess Alice, wife of Earl Thomas of Lancaster. This was later used as a courthouse which gave rise to it being named King's Hall or Motte (moot) Hall in later surveys. It was a penticed or lean-to building of two storeys which utilised the inner curtain for its outer wall. The inner walls were timber-framed and, as much of the surviving stonework is late 12th or early 13th century, it clearly replaced an earlier building. The upper chamber or solar of the 14th century hall was an elaborate plastered room with a decorated fireplace. The last major programme of building dates to 1324-26 when Edward II ordered extensive works to be carried out which included replacing the whole of the timber palisade round the outer bailey with a stone wall. This outer curtain included three projecting towers, a gatehouse with a drawbridge over the outer ditch and a postern gate which led from the north-east arm of the inner bailey ditch, underneath Rosamund's Tower and out onto the rampart. A second gate and drawbridge, built at this time alongside the Coleman Tower, had fallen out of use by the 16th century and can now no longer be seen. The three projecting towers, named from north-east to south-west, Rosamund's Tower, Diate Hill Tower and Mill Tower, are all square in plan and all would have led out onto the wall-walk along the inside of the curtain though, in the case of the Mill Tower, the curtain to either side has not survived sufficiently well to demonstrate this. The ground-floor entrance to the Mill Tower consisted of two doors linked by a short passage, in which the first door opened inwards and the second outwards indicating that the tower was built as a prison, a role it took over from the Coleman Tower. North of the Mill Tower, the outer curtain crossed the inner bailey ditch which can also be seen outside the castle walls on the west and north sides. This section of the ditch was part of the original 11th century defences and was quarried out of the rock on which the castle was built.
A levelled area alongside the inner edge indicates that quarrying of the rock-face continued after the ditch was cut. The quarried stone would have gone towards the construction of at least some of the castle buildings. Aside from its strategic and administrative roles, Pickering Castle had two other functions: to guard and manage the large forest which lay adjacent and to provide a court and place of detention for those found guilty of offences against it, such as poaching, unauthorised clearance and the theft of timber. The forest was an extremely important economic resource during the Middle Ages and its particular importance at Pickering can be seen in the great use made of wood in the castle buildings and also, most significantly, its continuous use in the defences down to the 14th century. Also important to the castle economy during the 14th century was the sale of wool, and it also had responsibility for managing the royal stud created by Edward II in c.1322. Possibly the stables known to have been located against the outer curtain at this time, between the gatehouse and Diate Hill tower, were connected with this. According to the Domesday Book, in 1086 the manor of Pickering was held by the king, that is, William the Conqueror. The castle established at this time as part of the subjugation of the rebellious North remained in royal hands until 1267 when it was conferred with the title Earl of Lancaster on Edmund Crouchback, younger son of Henry III. Edmund's son Thomas succeeded to both title and estates in 1296 but was executed for treason by Edward II in 1322, whereupon his estates reverted to the king. Following the unsuccessful Scottish campaign of the same year, and the ensuing retaliatory attacks on the north of England by Robert the Bruce, Edward ordered the building works noted above, clearly intending to keep Pickering a royal castle. However, in 1326 his son Edward III confirmed Henry, the younger brother of Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, in his brother's titles and estates, and, in 1351, the castle became part of the Duchy of Lancaster when that title was created. Upon the elevation of the House of Lancaster to the throne in 1399, and in 1413, the succession of Henry V, the Duchy reverted to the Crown and Pickering became a royal castle once again. It has been in State care since 1926. A number of features within the protected area are excluded from the scheduling. These include the ticket office/sales point and its paved base and steps, all English Heritage fixtures and fittings such as bins, bridges, safety grilles, signs, railings and interpretation boards, the surfaces of all modern steps and paths inside and outside the castle walls, lighting and the modern walls and fences round the outside edge of the protected area but the ground beneath all these features is included.
City Tour Cusco Half Day
Our city tour of Cusco includes a visit to the City's Highlights, located in and around Cusco. We start off by visiting the huge "Inca Ceremonial Center of Sacsayhuaman." This enormous structure overlooks the city of Cusco. Its construction is amazing, with huge rocks perfectly aligned. It is said that it took over 10,000 workers and 50 years to build it. The origin of the temple of Sacsayhuaman is still unknown today. The archaeologist attributed its construction to the period of the Inca Pachacutec (in the Inca language Pachacutec means either Cataclysm or He who transforms the world), the man essentially credited with founding the Inca Empire. We will visit another important Inca site known as "Qenqo". This is a place with subterranean passages with carved stone channels in a zigzag pattern. In its inner part there is a carved stone table where it is said to be where the Incas mummified their dead. Next, we will make a short visit to the archaeological Inca site of "Tambomachay", a temple dedicated to the God of Water. After these visits, we will return to Cusco, where we will visit one of the most sacred Inca buildings, "The Temple of Koricancha". Koricancha was the most important temple of the Inca Empire. According to archaeologists it housed over 1000 priests and attendants. Within its walls, religious ceremonies were constant and offerings to the Gods and the Inca's mummies were made each day. Finally we will visit the beautiful "Cathedral" of Cusco. This enormous Cathedral was built in the XVI. It contained nearly 400 colonial paintings, including many from the Cusco School, which was prominent in the 17th century. Among them a painting of the Last Supper by Marcos Zapata, showing Christ and the apostles eating guinea pig (Guinea-pig was the one of the main courses at sacred feasts in Inca times). After our city tour our local guide will drop you off at your hotel.
Tour Package: City Tour Cusco Half Day
Duration: Half Day
Type of Tour: Cultural
Group Size: The minimum to open the departure is two people and our maximum is eight so if you guys are two we can do it!
Ideal For: Adventure Seekers, Couples, Families, Nature Lovers and Intrepid People
Difficulty: Easy
High Season: All year
Departures Day: Daily departures
Sites to Visit:
The Cathedral was built between 1560 and 1664 out of large slabs of red granite taken from the Inca construction of Sacsayhuaman. It houses important collections of gold and silver work of the colonial period, elaborately engraved wooden altars and a beautiful collection of oil on canvas paintings from the Escuela Cusqueña.
Koricancha and the Convent of Santo Domingo
The convent was built on the spectacular Qoricancha ‘site of gold’. This was the most important temple dedicated to the worship of the Sun and whose walls were lined with solid sheets of gold. All that remains now is the fine stonework, the conquistadors took the rest. Coricancha was also an observatory, where priests kept track of major celestial events. Today it houses an impressive collection of canvas paintings from the Escuela Cusqueña.
Sacsayhuaman
Sacsayhuaman (which means ‘satisfied falcon’) is one of the most impressive sites built by the Incas. It is generally referred to as a fortress, however it is not certain what its main function was. Current research suggests that it was more likely to be used as a temple, as Inca tombs have been discovered in the area.
The site is a marvellous archaeological feat, even now after it was destroyed, one can only imagine its greatness when it stood in full glory. The stones in the wall are incredible and the largest weighs in at over 300 tonnes.
The Incas envisioned Cusco as having a puma shape - Sacsayhuaman was the head. The magnificent zigzag walls are the major attraction. The grounds surrounding Sacsayhuaman are still used today for the colourful festival of Inti Raymi which is held on the 24th June every year.
Q'enqo
The site of Q'enqo (meaning ‘zigzag’ or ‘labyrinth’) contains the most impressive carved rocks in the Cusco area. There are carvings everywhere, although some are a little indistinct: a llama, a condor and snakes have been identified. There are many zigzag channels on top of the rock, probably used for pouring sacrificial chicha (a local wine made from maize). Inside the rock there are a number of caves and passageways and an alter which was used for the sacrifices of llamas.
Puka Pukara
Puka Pukara translates to ‘the red fortress’. This is a small site and although the name suggests that it was a fortress, it does not appear to have any defensive purpose.
This site was thought to have been used as a Temple to the Water. There are some very impressive aqueducts, canals and cascades carved in stone, designed to channel water flowing from a nearby stream.
What is Included:
A professional guide, Bi-lingual Staff. (English, Spanish).
Tourist Bus transportation
Transfers
What is not Included:
Entrance fees - You need to purchase the Boleto de Turistico at the first site you enter (Soles 130 per person; valid for 10 days and allows you entrance into 16 various sites around Cusco and the Sacred Valley)
The Cathedral (Soles 25 per person)
Koricancha (Soles 10 per person)
Gratuities/tips.
Includes home fries and fresh fruit. Extra side of bacon. Photo credit: Nancy Wong Photo taken: Apr.25,2015
Item Attributes Of all the tastes that LorAnn provides, These Tastes are taken into consideration the most effective for making your personal E-Juice. They are water soluble, they include no food additives or tryglicerides. These 10 Loads ALWAYS Ship Within a Corrugated Box to Maintain Your Oils Safe After Distribution, We
www.vapestore.wupples.com/index.php/2016/06/06/10-best-di...
The Oz (Oscar Diggs) 12'' doll has been deboxed. He is posed free standing, both with and without his accessories, which include his top hat, his traveling bag, and the China Girl 4'' mini doll.
The Oscar Diggs doll is a 12'' tall posable fashion doll, with a removable outfit. It consists of a black faux wool coat with black satin lining, a black satin vest, dark gray pinstriped pants, a black bow tie, and white satin dress shirt. His vest is actually only a front panel sewn onto his shirt. He also has ankle high black boots, and a black top hat. His outfit looks well tailored, and fits him well.
His face is a decent facimile of the Oscar Diggs movie character. His skin tone is a medium tan. He has dark brown facial hair, with thick eyebrows, mustache and goatee. He has small, narrow dark brown eyes staring straight ahead. His nose is medium sized and straight. He has short rooted hair that is a mixture of dark brown and black strands. His sideburns are black. His hair is slicked back, but doesn't have a lot of hair product, so is still soft and resilient, even over his forehead, and stays pretty neat. I groom his hair just using my fingers.
His body is well proportioned, with his head, hands, feet looking to be realistic sizes. His articulation consists of neck, shoulder, elbow and hip joints. His neck is a ball joint allowing 360 rotation and tilting up about 20 degrees. His shoulder ball joint allowing 360 rotation about a vertical plane, and tilting about 45 degrees from the vertical. His elbows are ball joints allowing 360 degress rotation, and tilting about 45 degrees. Finally his hips allow 360 rotation (constrained by his pants), and tilting about 20 degrees away from the vertical. He can sit with his legs together. Since he cannot bend his knees, he has to sit with his legs straight.
I think that this doll is a great bargain for the $20 price. He looks good, has rooted hair, has a good looking outfit, with many accessories, including the 4'' China Girl mini doll. The mini doll seems to be identical to the Disney Store mini doll, that is sold separately for $9.50. I can't be absolutely sure of that until I get the DS mini doll, which should happen by Tuesday, February 19.
Oz (Oscar Diggs) 12'' Fashion Doll With China Girl 4'' Mini Doll
By Tollytots, a division of Jakks Pacific
Based on a character in Disney's Oz The Great and Powerful
Released by Target online February 5, 2013
Purchased from Target online on February 6, 2013
Received on February 14, 2013
First Look
Following product information from the US Target website
Oz the Great and Powerful Oz and China Fashion Dolls
$19.99
This Oz doll is inspired by James Franco's character in the movie Oz the Great and Powerful. Oz is dressed for adventure in his coat, vest and top hat. This articulated doll comes with a mini China Doll and a travel bag, so your little one can reenact all her favorite scenes from the movie.
History of the Vienna Philharmonic
The orchestra of the Vienna Philharmonic was founded on March 28, 1842. It was founded by the German composer Otto Nicolai, whose creations include the opera "The Merry Wives of Windsor". Nearly a century later, the club was dissolved in December 1938 during the Nazi period by the law on the "transfer and incorporation of clubs, organizations and associations" for the time being and the assets fell to the State Theater and the Stage Academy of the City of Vienna. This was, however, a few days later at the urging of the conductor and musicologist Dr. Heinz Drewes largely reversed. Dr. Drewes was the leader of the "entire German musical life" and so he used his influence on the Reich propaganda minister Goebbels. Ultimately, Goebbels decreed in June 1939 that the Vienna Philharmonic as an association should retain their most extensive independence on the condition that the club is subject to his supervision and that the articles of association regarding the National Socialist principles is changed. Thus, the club's assets were released again.
In 1939, the idea of the New Year's Concert, at which time only the music of Johann Strauss was played, was born. This concert series of the New Year's Concert has become one of the cultural highlights of the year and is always broadcast live on television. The magnificent pictures from Vienna are accompanied, among other things, by fantastic flowers and dance performances by the Wiener Ballett. With the end of the Second World War, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra once again became completely independent and the orchestra played two major concert evenings right after the liberation of Vienna in April 1945. A special focus is still the position of the conductor at the Vienna Philharmonic. Because until 1933, the orchestra was directed by a single conductor every season. From 1933 there were only guest conductors. Great merits in the early years had especially the conductors Arturo Toscanini from 1933 to 1937 and intermittently from 1933 to 1954 Wilhelm Furtwängler. Herbert von Karajan, Karl Böhm, Paul Hindemith and Daniel Barenboim are among the famous guest conductors. Also as a guest conductor conducted from 1966, the later honorary member Leonard Bernstein repeatedly the orchestra. One of Leonard Bernstein's most outstanding works in collaboration with the Vienna Philharmonic is, for example, the adaptation of the works of Gustav Mahler, who himself had directed the orchestra from 1898 to 1901 for three years as a subscription conductor to the Vienna Philharmonic.
Vienna Philharmonic coins
Appropriately to the Vienna Philharmonic, the Austrian Mint, which mints all coins in Austria, has been issuing a bullion every year since 1989, which after the orchestra precisely is called the Vienna Philharmonic. At first, the coins were pure gold. Since 2008 there is also an annual silver version. Their value does not correspond to the nominal value, but the Vienna Philharmonic is a bullion coin whose value depends on the current precious metal value. The motif of the Vienna Philharmonic is always the same. The front of the Vienna Philharmonic Münze designed by Thomas Pesendorfer shows some of the classical orchestral instruments such as bassoon, horn, harp and four violins, as well as a cello in the middle. The reverse shows the organ, which is located in the Golden Hall of the Wiener Musikverein. Only the respective year is changed. The coin is now available in four sizes. As a special coinage, a 1000-ounce coin, the so-called "Big Phil", was released in 2004 on the occasion of the 15th anniversary, and another coin in 2009 for the 20th anniversary. Both are traded as collectors' items because of the limited edition and are therefore more expensive than the actual precious metal value.
Geschichte der Wiener Philharmoniker
Das Orchester der Wiener Philharmoniker wurde am 28. März 1842 gegründet. Ins Leben gerufen hatte es der deutsche Komponist Otto Nicolai, aus dessen Feder unter anderem die Oper "Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor" stammt. Knapp ein Jahrhundert später wurde der Verein im Dezember 1938 in der NS-Zeit durch das Gesetz zur "Überleitung und Eingliederung von Vereinen, Organisationen und Verbänden" vorerst aufgelöst und das Vermögen fiel dem Staatstheater und der Bühnenakademie der Stadt Wien zu. Dies wurde jedoch wenige Tage später auf Drängen des Dirigenten und Musikwissenschaftlers Dr. Heinz Drewes größtenteils wieder rückgängig gemacht. Dr. Drewes war der Leiter des "gesamten deutschen Musiklebens" und so nutzte er seinen Einfluss auf den Reichspropagandaminister Goebbels. Letztlich verfügte Goebbels im Juni 1939, dass die Wiener Philharmoniker als Verein ihre weitestgehende Selbständigkeit behalten sollten unter der Bedingung, dass der Verein seiner Aufsicht unterstellt wird dass die Vereinssatzung hinsichtlich der nationalsozialistischen Grundsätze geändert wird. Damit wurde auch das Vereinsvermögen wieder frei gegeben.
Im Jahr 1939 entstand zugleich die Idee des Neujahrskonzerts, bei dem damals ausschließlich die Musik von Johann Strauss gespielt wurde. Diese Konzertreihe des Neujahrskonzerts ist inzwischen einer der kulturellen Höhepunkte des Jahres und wird immer live im Fernsehen übertragen. Die prächtigen Bilder aus Wien werden unter anderem untermalt durch phantastische Blumen und Tanzeinlagen des Wiener Balletts. Mit dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde der Verein der Wiener Philharmoniker wieder komplett unabhängig und das Orchester spielte gleich nach der Befreiung von Wien im April 1945 zwei große Konzertabende. Ein ganz besonderer Augenmerk gilt noch der Stelle des Dirigenten bei den Wiener Philharmonikern. Denn bis zum Jahr 1933 wurde das Orchester jede Saison von einem einzigen Dirigenten geleitet. Ab 1933 gab es nur noch Gastdirigenten. Große Verdienste hatten in den Anfangsjahren vor allem die Dirigenten Arturo Toscanini von 1933 bis 1937 und mit Unterbrechungen von 1933 bis 1954 Wilhelm Furtwängler. Zu den berühmten Gastdirigenten zählen unter anderem Herbert von Karajan, Karl Böhm, Paul Hindemith oder Daniel Barenboim. Ebenfalls als Gastdirigent leitete ab 1966 das spätere Ehrenmitglied Leonard Bernstein mehrfach das Orchester. Zu den herausragendsten Werken von Leonard Bernstein in Zusammenarbeit mit den Wiener Philharmonikern zählt beispielsweise die Bearbeitung der Werke von Gustav Mahler, der von 1898 bis 1901 selbst drei Jahre lang als Abonnementdirigent der Wiener Philharmoniker das Orchester geleitet hatte.
Wiener Philharmoniker Münzen
Passend zu den Wiener Philharmonikern gibt die Münze Österreich, die alle Münzen in Österreich prägt, seit dem Jahr 1989 jedes Jahr eine Anlagemünze heraus, die nach dem Orchester eben der Wiener Philharmoniker genannt wird. Zunächst waren die Münzen aus reinem Gold. Seit 2008 gibt es auch eine jährliche Silberversion. Ihr Wert entspricht nicht dem reinen Nennwert, sondern der Wiener Philharmoniker ist eine Bullionmünze, deren Wert sich nach dem aktuellen Edelmetallwert richtet. Das Motiv des Wiener Philharmoniker ist immer gleich. Die Vorderseite der von Thomas Pesendorfer gestalteten Wiener Philharmoniker Münze zeigt einige der klassischen Orchesterinstrumente wie Fagott, Horn, Harfe und dazu vier Geigen sowie in der Mitte ein Cello. Die Rückseite zeigt die Orgel, die sich im Goldenen Saal vom Wiener Musikverein befindet. Geändert wird nur das jeweilige Prägejahr. Die Münze gibt es inzwischen in vier Größen zu kaufen. Als Sonderprägungen erschien 2004 zum 15-jährigen Jubiläum eine 1000-Unzen-Münze, der sogenannte "Big Phil", und 2009 zum 20-jährigen Jubiläum eine weitere Münze. Beide werden wegen der limitierten Auflage als Sammlerobjekte gehandelt und sind daher teurer als der eigentliche Edelmetallwert.
www.geschichte-oesterreich.com/musik/wiener_philharmonike...
A cold, frosty start to the day, but no evidence of snow in Shoreham. A bit sketchy for the ride to work - on the road, path and across the wooden deck of the Old Tollbridge.
Includes minifigures: 2 Aqua Scavengers, a dead underwater robber
Accessories include crowbar, laser cutter and harpoon
All brand new Coca-Cola collectibles. Most of the current eBay listings are from the Town Square Collection. Other collectibles include cars, trucks, clocks, and polar bears.
If you see an item that is not listed please ask and I will be sure to set up a listing for you.
Receive at least a 5% discount when you mention this Flickr set!!!
Here is general information about the Town Square Village Collection which I have taken from 2CollectCola:
These finely detailed pieces are designed with Coca Cola logos and advertising themes of the 1930's to 1950's for a nostalgic touch.
Coca-Cola Town Square has gone through several changes over the years:
• In 1992 Cavanagh Group International produced the first line of Christmas village for The Coca-Cola Company. They started the Coca-Cola Christmas Society issuing exclusive newsletters, ornaments, and Town Square pieces to members for a fee.
• In 1994 - 5 two additional lines were added for specialty markets - House of Lloyds (3 buildings and 1 accessory) and American Classics (6 buildings and 6 accessories) featured special buildings and accessories only available through limited outlets.
• In 1995 mass Retail Stores began carrying these popular Christmas collectibles - Lowes, Walmart, Sears and Target. Some years offered special editions only available at a particular retailer making collectors rush all over town.
• A change in production for 2000 meant that much smaller numbers were available. The quantity made was limited to the numbers pre-ordered by Town Square retailers in April and brought into the US in October.
• Adding fiber-optic buildings caused a big shift in 2002, with some collectors liking the new multi-colored editions and some hating them. A mixture of fiber-optic and led lit buildings were made every year after 2003. The addition of motion and movement created many new pieces from 2003-2006.
• In 2006 Cavanagh moved the business to Santa's Best who retired this popular collectible Christmas Village and replaced with the new Main Street Collection that featured similar attention to detail on the same scale.
• After 2007, the complete Town Square collection was retired by Cavanagh/Santa's Best and no new pieces will be produced.
Now is the time to find all the Town Square Village you are missing and add them to your priceless collection before they are gone forever.
14-Day Return + FREE Shipping.
See my eBay store for tons of Coca-Cola Collectibles.
stores.ebay.com/1-Antique-and-Vintage-Collectibles
Go directly to the Coca-Cola sale page:
stores.ebay.com/1-Antique-and-Vintage-Collectibles/Coca-C...
Location
Eastern side of the Civic centre, accessible from Coranderrk, Ballumbir, Akuna and Bunda Streets.
Facilities
Facilities include: Rotunda; barbecues; children's playgrounds; picnic areas; and a public toilet in the centre of the park. Time controlled parking is available outside the park only.
History
Glebe Park is an important green sanctuary in the city. Its mature trees and its distinctive stone and steel picket fences set it apart from all other parks in Canberra. For office workers, shoppers, tourists, including the many who visit the adjacent National Convention Centre, and the residents of nearby Reid, it is Civic's most accessible park.
A part of Canberra's history
The park is but a small part of a 40 hectare glebe which, together with a nearby area of approximately 0.8 hectares, was transferred by merchant and pastoralist Robert Campbell to the Church of England in the early 1840s when the area was known as "Canberry". On the smaller site was built St Johns Church, which has continued to the present day serving its parish community. The glebe, later expanded to 47 hectares, was for a parsonage and for the parson's use as a farm.
The subsequent planting of trees was to lead, a century later, to a community campaign to save those trees and their descendants by creating a public park there. That park was officially defined and named on 14 December 1983. Its future was assured by National Trust (ACT) and Australian Heritage Commission listings. After construction by the National Capital Development Commission between 1983 and 1988 it was officially opened on Canberra Day March 12 1989.
A heritage influenced design
In keeping with the historic background of the existing trees and their informal character the park has been designed to reflect the character of a traditional English park. The park's borders that front roads are marked by a stone fence with steel railings, while access is gained through formal gateways. The park is criss-crossed with paved paths. Each of the ten gates are officially named to reflect the historic background of the area since European settlement. Names include St John's, Galliad Smith, Campbell and Canberry.
The mature trees of the park create a relaxed atmosphere much sought after in the heart of the city. The blaze of autumn colour diffused with sunlight marks the change of the seasons in a way seldom experienced in other Canberra parks. Of the park's 663 trees 508 are English elms (Ulmus procera) and 92 are English oaks (Quercus robur).
A 19th century style rotunda, a children's playground and a large sculpture depicting "Egle, the Queen of Serpants" donated by the Lithuanian community in Australia, add interest to the park. United Nations Day in 1989 and the Diamond Jubilee of the Horticulture Society of Canberra (1929-1989) are commemorated with tree plantings.
A popular inner city park
Glebe Park is well used throughout the week and weekend during daylight hours, particularly in the spring, summer and autumn. Groups congregate around the barbecues and the children's playground.
The park has become a popular venue for organised events such as weddings, public meetings and concerts for which a permit may be required, while it is an excellent venue for large festivals. During March it is used for a wide range of events during the Canberra Festival, including the ever popular Canberra Times Art Show.
During a visit to Glebe Park reflect on the events over the past 150 years which have contributed to the evolution of the park and today's Canberra.
Reference
Gray, J (1997) The Historical and Cultural Background of selected Urban Parks in Canberra.
Source: www.tams.act.gov.au/play/pcl/parks_reserves_and_open_plac...
Wait...that’s not a Battle Bug! That’s right, it isn’t. Doctor Mobius and I are extending our theme to include all animals and calling it...War Beasts!
To show you what we mean, I’m introducing Mecharoo, defender of all things totally awesome and the coolest kangaroo-based War Beast in the history of the world EVER! With rotating hip cannons, dual laser guns and a massive rack of heat seeking long range missiles, Mecharoo is no slouch when it comes to long range combat. But his specialty is close up, toe-to-toe mass demolition! His leaps are legendary, his kicks are earth shattering, his solid titanium “boxing gloves” are as big and heavy as wrecking balls...and God help any structure or War Beast that gets in the way of that massive swinging spiked tail! And to add further insult to injury, say hello to his leeeetle friend! When not sitting snugly in his pouch, Bazookaroo, the little joey, is dispatched to wreak havoc in tight situations where a smaller bot is needed. Driving Mecharoo is Aussie outback adventurer Wallaby Dundee Irwin. (Not all that into crocodiles, as it turns out.)
We urge you all to join in on the carnage and build your own War Beasts. While you’re at it, please join our new group Remember, all land, sea, and air-based animals can be considered...and if you’re still jonesing to build bugs, that’s cool too.
This Honour Roll was donated by Kimba Racing Club, Kimba District Council and Anzac Day Commemoration Fund: and includes a tribute to those who served in Vietnam.
Located in the main street near the Kimba Soldiers' Memorial Institute.
*By 1918, due to the increase in Kimba’s population, the need for a public hall became a priority.
A timber framed, corrugated iron building with pitched roof was purchased for £100 from Cowell. This building was dismantled and transported to Kimba by settlers using horse-teams.
The hall was used as the School, Town Hall, and Picture Theatre with films shown every month. It was used for Dances and Balls, Church, as a Polling Booth and for travelling salesmen to display and sell their wares.
*A foundation stone was laid in 1929, in memory of those who served in the Great War 1914–1918 and the new Institute was officially opened in the same year.
*In 1958 a new front was added with a Library and Council Office. [Ref: Story Board]
*A plaque to the memory of those from the Kimba District who made the supreme sacrifice in World War One 1914–1918 and World War Two 1939–1945 was unveiled on the day the additions were officially opened by Sir Lyell McEwin on 23 February 1958.
*Kimba Memorial Institute
The first step in the most progressive move that has taken place in Kimba, occurred on Saturday, when the foundation stone of the new Soldiers Memorial Institute was laid by Miss Mary Haskett, daughter of Mr and Mrs I S Haskett, and the first white child born in the district.
One of the largest crowds seen in Kimba assembled to witness this important ceremony.
Mr F R Ferry, President of the Kimba Institute, and the Building Committee, presided, and seated on the platform with him were Mesdames O M Eatts, G J Chenoweth, Reiss (wife of contractor), and Messrs J Tippett, Andrew Ramsey, O E Carlaw, F J Newman, Reiss (contractor) and F I Kestel (architect).
Mr Ferry gave a very interesting resume of details leading up to the occasion, and then presented Miss Haskett with a silver trowel, suitably inscribed, and asked her to perform the ceremony of laying the stone.
Miss Haskett, in a neat little speech declared the stone well and truly laid.
Mr Andrew Ramsey, in moving a vote of thanks to Miss Haskett, said that we all admitted and admired the bravery of such pioneer families as the Hasketts.
The chairman then appealed for donations for the hall to be placed on the stone, and Mrs O M Eatts, on behalf of the Kimba Ladies' Social Club, led the way with their cheque for £1,116 10/0, followed by others of smaller denomination.
After the ceremony, a football match was held on the recreation ground between the Kelly and Kimba teams, resulting in a win for Kelly, who have not been defeated for the season.
A cycle race for boys was run during the intervals of the football match, and resulted in a win for J Brewster. Mr Chenoweth also conducted a putting and mashie competition for golf enthusiasts, the whole proceeds going towards the institute funds. [Ref: Eyre’s Peninsula Tribune 11-7-1929]
*Kimba Institute - Official Opening
Kimba will be en fete on Saturday December 7th, when the long-looked for event of the opening of the large new hall will take place.
For many years the public have suffered the inconvenience of a cramped wood and iron structure which could not nearly cope with the crowd at public functions. As a form of Soldiers’ Memorial it was decided to build an institute large enough to satisfy the requirements of a rapidly growing district, and despite the lean years that the district has recently experienced, a very handsome structure is the result. In conjunction with the opening of the hall on December 7th, the local branch of the RSA will hold their annual sports on the show grounds, the total proceeds of the day will go towards the hall funds. The hall will be opened by Lieutenant-Colonel W F J McCann DSO, MC, at 10am.
Special arrangements are being made to provide a sparkling entertainment for the evening which will be followed by a dance. [Ref: Eyre’s Peninsula Tribune 28-11-1929]
As always NEoN celebrates its festival with a late night party. Acts include Plastique Fantastique, Verity Brit & Musician U, Fallope & The Tubes and Resident DJ RHL. With a pop up bar and performances amongst our large group exhibition the vast factory space West Ward Works, this night promises to be a visual audible delight.
Plastique Fantastique (UK)
A performance fiction envisaged as a group of human and non-human avatars delivering communiqués from the past and the future. The communiqués are channelled through installations, writing, comics and sound and moving image work and performances, addressing technology, popular and mass media and sacred cultures and also human-machine animals and non-human entities and agents. Over several years, numerous people have produced Plastique Fantastique but there is also a core group producing the performance fiction. Plastique Fantastique was first presented by David Burrows and Simon O’Sullivan and developed with long-term collaborators Alex Marzeta and Vanessa Page, and more recently with Mark Jackson. For NE0N 2017, this group will call forth and trap a bit-coin-fairy-spirit to ask it seems questions. The performance – Plastique Fantastique Protocols for the Society for Cutting Up Mun-knee-snakers (S.C.U.M.): I-Valerie-Solaris-AKA-@32ACP-Amazon.co.uk-recommends-‘Pacific-Rim’ may/may-not shoot b1t-c0in-f@iry-sp1r1t) – uses drone-folk-songs, moving image projection, reliquaries and ritual to manifest the block-chain-spirit.
David Burrows, Alex Marzeta, Vanessa Page and Mark Jackson will be performing.
Rites of the Zeitgeber, Verity Brit & Musician ‘U’ (UK)
9 channel video installation, live score performed by musician ‘U’
The Zeitgeber (‘time giver’ or ‘synchroniser’) is honoured by a triadic henge of stacked CRT monitors in which past durations collide with future vacuums. Strange extra-terrestrial topographies are traversed across geological time and the internet. Curious substances are unearthed and lost languages resurrected. Fragments from Mina Loy, J. G. Ballard and Henri Bergson emerge amongst an archaeology of media from Super 8, VHS, to HD. Time bends from matter, history is up-set and the clock is obsolete.
Verity Birt an artist based in London. She studied an MA in Moving Image at the Royal College of Art (2013–2015) and BA in Art Practice at Goldsmiths University of London (2008–2011). She is involved with collaborative research groups; The Future is a Collective Project, Reconfiguring Ruins and a founding member of women artists collective Altai. This summer, Verity was artist in residence at BALTIC and The Newbridge Project in Newcastle. Previous exhibitions include: Our House of Common Weeds; Res. Gallery, London (2017); Relics from the De-crypt | Gossamer Fog Gallery London (2017), Altai in Residence, Experiments in Collective Practice, Dyson Gallery, London (2017); Chemhex Extract, Peacock Visual Arts, Aberdeen (2016); Feeling Safer, IMT Gallery, London and Gallery North, New York (2016); Come to Dust, Generator Projects, Dundee (2016)
Fallopé & The Tubes (UK)
A weirdo-punk performance band. Each live show features live humans! film and visuals! costumes! sculpture! visual props! and music/a sequence of sounds!
Fallopé and The Tubes is a fluctuating live musical and performative event with contributions from Sarah Messenger, Ruby Pester, Nadia Rossi, Rachel Walker, Catherine Weir, Emma McIntyre and Skye Renee Foley. The group are made up of Scottish based artists and musicians that are also filmmakers, festival organisers, librarians, boatbuilders and more who work collaboratively to devise live performances. Drawing influence from a wide range of fringe and mainstream musical genres, exploring sexuality, elements of social satire, self promotion and leftist political ideologies.
The group was established in January 2014 at Insriach Bothy, Aviemore and have developed their practice during numerous residency experiences across Scotland. By living and working together ‘off grid’ the group have developed experimental techniques to create a collective energy. Fallopé & The Tubes draw influence from a wide range of fringe and mainstream musical genres, as well as sexuality, elements of social satire and self promotion and leftist political ideologies. Soakin Records
DJ RHL (UK)
Resident NEoN DJ has been entertaining us since 2010. Djing for about 25 years, he predominately plays Techno but you often find him playing anything dance music related. Spinning old school vinyl sets containing an eclectic mix of old and new stuff. RHL just likes making people dance. Check here for past performances.
Accompanying DJ RHL is ‘The Wanderer‘ aka Naomi Lamb. Naomi works layers of diverse video loops into an ever evolving collage colours textures and shape and intuitively mixies visuals live. She improvises, freestyles and channels the room, customising the ephemeral moving collage in response to the tone of the happening.
For the past 20 years Naomi has been a prolific live video art performer utilising techniques and process that is often associated with the ever growing subculture of VJing and presents under the name of ‘The Wander’. Naomi has an intimate knowledge of not only the process of live video performance but also an wide reaching connections within the VJ community and has performed at many of the leading outdoor music and art festivals in New Zealand with a debut at two English Festivals this summer and she is super please for her first time mixing it up in Scotland to be at NEoN. “
AGK Booth
Yuck ’n Yum hereby invites you to attend the Annual General Karaoke booth at this year’s NEoN at Night. The AGK is a fiercely contested karaoke video competition, getting creative types to make videos that will shock, delight and confound its audience. First staged back in 2010, over the years the AGK has built up a sizeable back catalogue of singalong anthems encompassing everything from pop classics to the most extreme avant garde out there. Now Yuck ’n Yum will bring the AGK archive to NEoN revellers in an audiovisual extravaganza that will overturn everything you ever thought you knew about karaoke convention. This November, Yuck ’n Yum together with NEoN are making a song and dance about it.
About the Artists Yuck ‘n Yum is a curatorial collective formed in Dundee 2008. Until 2013 its main raison d’etre was to make zines and distribute art. The AGK booth is the first of three projects that will kick start a period of activity after a couple of years of hibernation.
Yuck ‘n Yum are Andrew Maclean, Gayle Meikle, Ben Robinson, Alexandra Ross, Alex Tobin, Becca Clark and Morgan Cahn.
WEST WARD WORKS
Guthrie Street
DD1 5BR
Images: Kathryn Rattray Photography
Murree (Punjabi, Urdu: مری) is a hill station and summer resort and the administrative centre of Murree Tehsil, Pakistan, which is a subdivision of Rawalpindi District and includes the Murree Hills.
Murree was the summer capital of the British Raj in the Punjab Province (British India). A popular tourist destination Located in the north-west Himalayas at an average altitude of 2,291 metres (7,516 ft), the city of Murree, draped in forests of pine, and oak, experiences pleasant summers and cold, snowy winters. The city is famous for its buildings styled in tudorbethan and neo-gothic architecture dating from the colonial era.
Murree is located along the Islamabad-Murree Highway, some 58.3 km (36.2 mi) northeast of Islamabad.
Murree was developed in 1851 by the (then) President of the Punjab Administrative Board, Sir Henry Lawrence, and was originally established for the British troops garrisoned on the Afghan frontier as a sanatorium.Officially, the municipality was created in 1850.
The permanent town of Murree was constructed at Sunnybank in 1853. The church was sanctified in May 1857, and the main road, Jinnah Road, formerly known as The Mall (and still commonly referred to as), was built. The most significant commercial establishments, the Post Office, general merchants with European goods, tailors and a millinery, were established opposite the church. Until 1947, access to Jinnah Road was restricted for "natives" (non-Europeans).
Until 1876, Murree was the summer headquarters of the Punjab local government; after 1876 the headquarters were moved to Shimla.[
The railway connection with Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province, via Rawalpindi, made Murree a popular resort for Punjab officials, and the villas and other houses erected for the accommodation of English families gave it a European aspect. The houses crowned the summit and sides of an irregular ridge, the neighbouring hills were covered during the summer with encampments of British troops, while the station itself was filled with European visitors from the plains and travellers to Kashmir.
Murree is one of the largest resort towns in the Galyat area of Pakistan, and is the municipal or regional capital of Murree Tehsil* (*general administrative subdivision), it is an administrative division of the Rawalpindi District. The town of Muree is situated on the southern slopes of the Western Himalayan foothills as they ascend northeastward, towards the bifurcated states of Kashmir. During British colonial rule in the nineteenth century, its altitude was established at 7,500 feet (2,300 m).
Murree is accessible by road from the centre of the Islamabad and Rawalpindi areas. It is still associated with Britain; many British fruits (including cherries, raspberries and strawberries) thrive locally. There is an Anglican church, built in 1857, located at the centre of the town, which is still used as a place of worship. Many houses around the church are still standing, functioning mostly as hotels. Old traditional restaurants have been replaced by fast-food shops and newer restaurants. Some famous old places of accommodation, such as the Rich Villa Inn and Gulberg Hotel, have completely disappeared. A typical hotel provides a motel-type accommodation with breakfast and communication access. Newly built hotels are also accessible
Murree houses headquarters of 12th infantry division of Pakistan Army and large number of educational and training institutions. Combined Military Hospital established to cater the needs of civilian population of Murree and adjoining areas. Pakistan Air Force also maintains base at Lower Topa. For administrative purposes the military areas of Murree are divided in two separate cantonments, Murree Cantonment and Murree Hills Cantonment.
Murree Houses residence for Punjab Governor at the Kashmir point. The imposing building was built in nineteenth century by the British. There are Punjab and Sindh Houses to cater needs of the provincial government. Similarly, there are Rest Houses for the Judges of Supreme Court and Lahore High Court. A large number of government, semi government and private departments and institutions maintain guest houses in Murree. A number of diplomatic missions based in Islamabad established their camp offices in Murree in the 1960s. The same however are seldom used now. Adjacent to Murree is the Galliat region of North West Frontier Province which includes Nathiagalli, Ayubia, Khanspur, Dunga Galli, Khairagalli and Changla Galli. Before the British rule whether part of Rawalpindi District of Muzaffarabad, Murree and Galiat have been part of same administrative unit, however in 1850 the British decided to divide them between Rawalpindi and Hazara. Howevere despite divided by provincial boundaries, Murree and Galliat are inseparable both geographically, culturally, linguistically as well as from the point of view of the tourists. Murree serves as a gateway to Galliat.
[Bhurban]] and New Murree (Patriata) have also developed as tourist centres. The whole Murree Galliat region is known for its scenic beauty. Mountains overhung with pines and oaks, bubbling with gurgling springs, crisscrossed by rivulets, dotted with sprawling lawns and orchards overloaded with fruits present a nice spectacle. A fine view of the snowy peaks of Kashmir is to be had on a clear day, and the crest of Nanga Parbat can sometimes be seen.
Bhurban, boosting with a five star Pearl Continental Hotel and a nine hole Golf course has cropped recently as another tourist attraction in the area. Lying at an altitude of 6000 ft, Bhurban is situated at a distance of 13 kilometres from Murree on one of main roads leading to Azad Kashmir. The Punjab government is said to have plans to develop New Murree city at Patriata fifteen kilometres southeast of Murree. The Punjab Tourism department constructed resorts amidst the forests on the Patriata ridge in 1987 as well as a 3 kilometre sky slope from the top of Patriata ridge to Gulara Gali (not functioning currently). Patriata is connected with Islamabad and Murree through a number of all weather roads.
I was struck by this bird-shaped cloud on Shoreham Beach this afternoon. I am not in the least bit religious, but decided to include the church spire. But, is it a bird, or is it a plane?
The Canyon Diablo meteorites include the many fragments of the asteroid that created the Barringer Crater (Meteor Crater), Arizona, USA. Meteorites have been found around the crater rim, and are named for nearby Canyon Diablo, which lies about three to four miles west of the crater.
The asteroid fell about 50,000 years ago. The meteorites have been known and collected since the mid-19th century and were known and used by pre-historic Native Americans. The Barringer Crater, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, was the center of a long dispute over the origin of craters that showed little evidence of volcanism. That debate was settled in the 1950s thanks to Eugene Shoemaker's study of the crater.
In 1953, Clair Cameron Patterson measured ratios of the lead isotopes in samples of the meteorite. The result permitted a refinement of the estimate of the age of the Earth to 4.550 billion years (± 70 million years).
The geothermal areas of Yellowstone include several geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles. The number of thermal features in Yellowstone is estimated at 10,000. A study that was completed in 2011 found that a total of 1,283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone, 465 of which are active during an average year. These are distributed among nine geyser basins, with a few geysers found in smaller thermal areas throughout the Park. The number of geysers in each geyser basin are as follows: Upper Geyser Basin (410), Midway Geyser Basin (59), Lower Geyser Basin (283), Norris Geyser Basin (193), West Thumb Geyser Basin (84), Gibbon Geyser Basin (24), Lone Star Geyser Basin (21), Shoshone Geyser Basin (107), Heart Lake Geyser Basin (69), other areas (33). Although famous large geysers like Old Faithful are part of the total, most of Yellowstone's geysers are small, erupting to only a foot or two. The hydrothermal system that supplies the geysers with hot water sits within an ancient active caldera. Many of the thermal features in Yellowstone build up sinter, geyserite, or travertine deposits around and within them.
The various geyser basins are located where rainwater and snowmelt can percolate into the ground, get indirectly superheated by the underlying Yellowstone hotspot, and then erupt at the surface as geysers, hot springs, and fumaroles. Thus flat-bottomed valleys between ancient lava flows and glacial moraines are where most of the large geothermal areas are located. Smaller geothermal areas can be found where fault lines reach the surface, in places along the circular fracture zone around the caldera, and at the base of slopes that collect excess groundwater. Due to the Yellowstone Plateau's high elevation the average boiling temperature at Yellowstone's geyser basins is 199 °F (93 °C). When properly confined and close to the surface it can periodically release some of the built-up pressure in eruptions of hot water and steam that can reach up to 390 feet (120 m) into the air (see Steamboat Geyser, the world's tallest geyser). Water erupting from Yellowstone's geysers is superheated above that boiling point to an average of 204 °F (95.5 °C) as it leaves the vent. The water cools significantly while airborne and is no longer scalding hot by the time it strikes the ground, nearby boardwalks, or even spectators. Because of the high temperatures of the water in the features it is important that spectators remain on the boardwalks and designated trails. Several deaths have occurred in the park as a result of falls into hot springs.
Prehistoric Native American artifacts have been found at Mammoth Hot Springs and other geothermal areas in Yellowstone. Some accounts state that the early people used hot water from the geothermal features for bathing and cooking. In the 19th century Father Pierre-Jean De Smet reported that natives he interviewed thought that geyser eruptions were "the result of combat between the infernal spirits". The Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled north of the Yellowstone area in 1806. Local natives that they came upon seldom dared to enter what we now know is the caldera because of frequent loud noises that sounded like thunder and the belief that the spirits that possessed the area did not like human intrusion into their realm. The first white man known to travel into the caldera and see the geothermal features was John Colter, who had left the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He described what he saw as "hot spring brimstone". Beaver trapper Joseph Meek recounted in 1830 that the steam rising from the various geyser basins reminded him of smoke coming from industrial smokestacks on a cold winter morning in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In the 1850s famed trapper Jim Bridger called it "the place where Hell bubbled up".
The heat that drives geothermal activity in the Yellowstone area comes from brine (salty water) that is 1.5–3 miles (7,900–15,800 ft; 2,400–4,800 m) below the surface. This is actually below the solid volcanic rock and sediment that extends to a depth of 3,000 to 6,000 feet (900 to 1,800 m) and is inside the hot but mostly solid part of the pluton that contains Yellowstone's magma chamber. At that depth the brine is superheated to temperatures that exceed 400 °F (204 °C) but is able to remain a liquid because it is under great pressure (like a huge pressure cooker).
Convection of the churning brine and conduction from surrounding rock transfers heat to an overlaying layer of fresh groundwater. Movement of the two liquids is facilitated by the highly fractured and porous nature of the rocks under the Yellowstone Plateau. Some silica is dissolved from the fractured rhyolite into the hot water as it travels through the fractured rock. Part of this hard mineral is later redeposited on the walls of the cracks and fissures to make a nearly pressure-tight system. Silica precipitates at the surface to form either geyserite or sinter, creating the massive geyser cones, the scalloped edges of hot springs, and the seemingly barren landscape of geyser basins.
There are at least five types of geothermal features found at Yellowstone:
Fumaroles: Fumaroles, or steam vents, are the hottest hydrothermal features in the park. They have so little water that it all flashes into steam before reaching the surface. At places like Roaring Mountain, the result is loud hissing of steam and gases.
Geysers: Geysers such as Old Faithful are a type of geothermal feature that periodically erupt scalding hot water. Increased pressure exerted by the enormous weight of the overlying rock and water prevents deeper water from boiling. As the hot water rises it is under less pressure and steam bubbles form. They, in turn, expand on their ascent until the bubbles are too big and numerous to pass freely through constrictions. At a critical point the confined bubbles actually lift the water above, causing the geyser to splash or overflow. This decreases the pressure of the system and violent boiling results. Large quantities of water flash into tremendous amounts of steam that force a jet of water out of the vent: an eruption begins. Water (and heat) is expelled faster than the geyser's recharge rate, gradually decreasing the system's pressure and eventually ending the eruption.
Hot springs: Hot springs such as Grand Prismatic Spring are the most common hydrothermal features in the park. Their plumbing has no constrictions. Superheated water cools as it reaches the surface, sinks, and is replaced by hotter water from below. This circulation, called convection, prevents water from reaching the temperature needed to set off an eruption. Many hot springs give rise to streams of heated water.
Mudpots: Mudpots such as Fountain Paint Pots are acidic hot springs with a limited water supply. Some microorganisms use hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell), which rises from deep within the earth, as an energy source. They convert the gas into sulfuric acid, which breaks down rock into clay.
Travertine terraces: Travertine terraces, found at Mammoth Hot Springs, are formed from limestone (a rock type made of calcium carbonate). Thermal waters rise through the limestone, carrying high amounts of dissolved carbonate. Carbon dioxide is released at the surface and calcium carbonate deposited as travertine, the chalky white rock of the terraces. These features constantly and quickly change due to the rapid rate of deposition.
Geyser basins
The Norris Geyser Basin 44°43′43″N 110°42′16″W is the hottest geyser basin in the park and is located near the northwest edge of Yellowstone Caldera near Norris Junction and on the intersection of three major faults. The Norris-Mammoth Corridor is a fault that runs from Norris north through Mammoth to the Gardiner, Montana, area. The Hebgen Lake fault runs from northwest of West Yellowstone, Montana, to Norris. This fault experienced an earthquake in 1959 that measured 7.4 on the Richter scale (sources vary on exact magnitude between 7.1 and 7.8; see 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake). Norris Geyser Basin is so hot and dynamic because these two faults intersect with the ring fracture zone that resulted from the creation of the Yellowstone Caldera of 640,000 years ago.
The Basin consists of three main areas: Porcelain Basin, Back Basin, and One Hundred Springs Plain. Unlike most of other geyser basins in the park, the waters from Norris are acidic rather than alkaline (for example, Echinus Geyser has a pH of ~3.5). The difference in pH allows for a different class of bacterial thermophiles to live at Norris, creating different color patterns in and around the Norris Basin waters.
The Ragged Hills that lie between Back Basin and One Hundred Springs Plain are thermally altered glacial kames. As glaciers receded the underlying thermal features began to express themselves once again, melting remnants of the ice and causing masses of debris to be dumped. These debris piles were then altered by steam and hot water flowing through them. Madison lies within the eroded stream channels cut through lava flows formed after the caldera eruption. The Gibbon Falls lies on the caldera boundary as does Virginia Cascades.
Algae on left bacteria on right at the intersection of flows from the Constant & Whirlgig Geysers at Norris Geyser Basin
The tallest active geyser in the world, Steamboat Geyser,[11] is located in Norris Basin. Unlike the slightly smaller but much more famous Old Faithful Geyser located in Upper Geyser Basin, Steamboat has an erratic and lengthy timetable between major eruptions. During major eruptions, which may be separated by intervals of more than a year (the longest recorded span between major eruptions was 50 years), Steamboat erupts over 300 feet (90 m) into the air. Steamboat does not lie dormant between eruptions, instead displaying minor eruptions of approximately 40 feet (12 m).
Norris Geyser Basin periodically undergoes a large-scale, basin-wide thermal disturbance lasting a few weeks. Water levels fluctuate, and temperatures, pH, colors, and eruptive patterns change throughout the basin. During a disturbance in 1985, Porkchop Geyser continually jetted steam and water; in 1989, the same geyser apparently clogged with silica and blew up, throwing rocks more than 200 feet (61 m). In 2003 a park ranger observed it bubbling heavily, the first such activity seen since 1991. Activity increased dramatically in mid-2003. Because of high ground temperatures and new features beside the trail much of Back Basin was closed until October. In 2004 the boardwalk was routed around the dangerous area and now leads behind Porkchop Geyser.
North of Norris, Roaring Mountain is a large, acidic hydrothermal area (solfatara) with many fumaroles. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the number, size, and power of the fumaroles were much greater than today. The fumaroles are most easily seen in the cooler, low-light conditions of morning and evening.
The Gibbon Geyser Basin 44°41′58″N 110°44′34″W includes several thermal areas in the vicinity of the Gibbon River between Gibbon Falls and Norris. The most accessible feature in the basin is Beryl Spring, with a small boardwalk right along the Grand Loop Road. Artists' Paintpots is a small hydrothermal area south of Norris Junction that includes colorful hot springs and two large mudpots.
The Monument Geyser Basin 44°41′03″N 110°45′14″W has no active geysers, but its 'monuments' are siliceous sinter deposits similar to the siliceous spires discovered on the floor of Yellowstone Lake. Scientists hypothesize that this basin's structures formed from a hot water system in a glacially dammed lake during the waning stages of the Pinedale Glaciation. The basin is on a ridge reached by a very steep one-mile (1.6 km) trail south of Artists' Paint Pots. Other areas of thermal activity in Gibbon Geyser Basin lie off-trail.
South of Norris along the rim of the caldera is the Upper Geyser Basin 44°27′52″N 110°49′45″W, which has the highest concentration of geothermal features in the park. This complement of features includes the most famous geyser in the park, Old Faithful Geyser, as well as four other predictable large geysers. One of these large geysers in the area is Castle Geyser which is about 1,400 feet (430 m) northwest of Old Faithful. Castle Geyser has an interval of approximately 13 hours between major eruptions, but is unpredictable after minor eruptions. The other three predictable geysers are Grand Geyser, Daisy Geyser, and Riverside Geyser. Biscuit Basin and Black Sand Basin are also within the boundaries of Upper Geyser Basin.
The hills surrounding Old Faithful and the Upper Geyser Basin are reminders of Quaternary rhyolitic lava flows. These flows, occurring long after the catastrophic eruption of 640,000 years ago, flowed across the landscape like stiff mounds of bread dough due to their high silica content.
Evidence of glacial activity is common, and it is one of the keys that allows geysers to exist. Glacier till deposits underlie the geyser basins providing storage areas for the water used in eruptions. Many landforms, such as Porcupine Hills north of Fountain Flats, are made up of glacial gravel and are reminders that 70,000 to 14,000 years ago, this area was buried under ice.
Signs of the forces of erosion can be seen everywhere, from runoff channels carved across the sinter in the geyser basins to the drainage created by the Firehole River. Mountain building is evident on the drive south of Old Faithful, toward Craig Pass. Here the Rocky Mountains reach a height of 8,262 feet (2,518 m), dividing the country into two distinct watersheds.
Midway Geyser Basin 44°31′04″N 110°49′56″W is much smaller than the other basins found alongside the Firehole River. Despite its small size, it contains two large features, the 200-by-300-foot-wide (60 by 90 m) Excelsior Geyser which pours over 4,000 U.S. gallons (15,000 L; 3,300 imp gal) per minute into the Firehole River. The largest hot spring in Yellowstone, the 370-foot-wide (110 m) and 121-foot-deep (37 m) Grand Prismatic Spring is found here. Also in the basin is Turquoise Pool and Opal Pool.
Lower Geyser Basin
Blue spring with steam rising from it; irregular blotches of red and orange residue are on the banks, along with dead tree trunks.
Silex Spring at Fountain Paint Pot
Farther north is the Lower Geyser Basin 44°32′58″N 110°50′09″W, which is the largest geyser basin in area, covering approximately 11 square miles. Due to its large size, it has a much less concentrated set of geothermal features, including Fountain Paint Pots. Fountain Paint Pots are mud pots, that is, a hot spring that contains boiling mud instead of water. The mud is produced by a higher acidity in the water which enables the spring to dissolve surrounding minerals to create an opaque, usually grey, mud. Also there is Firehole Spring, Celestine Pool, Leather Pool, Red Spouter, Jelly spring, and a number of fumaroles.
Geysers in Lower Geyser Basin include Great Fountain Geyser, whose eruptions reach 100 to 200 feet (30–61 m) in the air, while waves of water cascade down its sinter terraces., the Fountain group of Geysers (Clepsydra Geyser which erupts nearly continuously to heights of 45 feet (14 m), Fountain Geyser, Jelly Geyser, Jet Geyser, Morning Geyser, and Spasm Geyser), the Pink Cone group of geysers (Dilemma Geyser, Labial Geyser, Narcissus Geyser, Pink Geyser, and Pink Cone Geyser), the White Dome group of geysers (Crack Geyser, Gemini Geyser, Pebble Geyser, Rejuvenated Geyser, and White Dome Geyser), as well as Sizzler Geyser.
Clepsydra Geyser erupting. July 2019
Fountain Paint Pots
White Dome Geyser
West Thumb Geyser Basin
Several pools of blue water in ashen rock basin.
West Thumb Geyser Basin
Blackened basin with orange streaks; steam is rising from it with fir trees in the background.
Overflow areas of Silex springs
The West Thumb Geyser Basin 44°25′07″N 110°34′23″W, including Potts Basin to the north, is the largest geyser basin on the shores of Yellowstone Lake. The heat source of the thermal features in this location is thought to be relatively close to the surface, only 10,000 feet (3,000 m) down. West Thumb is about the same size as another famous volcanic caldera, Crater Lake in Oregon, but much smaller than the great Yellowstone Caldera which last erupted about 640,000 years ago. West Thumb is a caldera within a caldera.
West Thumb was created approximately 162,000 years ago when a magma chamber bulged up under the surface of the earth and subsequently cracked it along ring fracture zones. This in turn released the enclosed magma as lava and caused the surface above the emptied magma chamber to collapse. Water later filled the collapsed area of the caldera, forming an extension of Yellowstone Lake. This created the source of heat and water that feed the West Thumb Geyser Basin today.
The thermal features at West Thumb are not only found on the lake shore, but extend under the surface of the lake as well. Several underwater hydrothermal features were discovered in the early 1990s and can be seen as slick spots or slight bulges in the summer. During the winter, the underwater thermal features are visible as melt holes in the icy surface of the lake. The surrounding ice can reach three feet (one yard) in thickness.
Perhaps the most famous hydrothermal feature at West Thumb is a geyser on the lake shore known as Fishing Cone. Walter Trumbull of the 1870 Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition described a unique event while a man was fishing adjacent to the cone: "...in swinging a trout ashore, it accidentally got off the hook and fell into the spring. For a moment it darted about with wonderful rapidity, as if seeking an outlet. Then it came to the top, dead, and literally boiled." Fishing Cone erupted frequently to the height of 40 feet (12 m) in 1919 and to lesser heights in 1939. One fisherman was badly burned in Fishing Cone in 1921. Fishing at the geyser is now prohibited.
Early visitors would arrive at West Thumb via stagecoach from the Old Faithful area. They had a choice of continuing on the stagecoach or boarding the steamship Zillah to continue the journey by water to Lake Hotel. The boat dock was located near the south end of the geyser basin near Lakeside Spring.
Backcountry Geyser Basins
The Heart Lake 44°18′00″N 110°30′56″W, Lone Star 44°24′50″N 110°49′04″W, and Shoshone Geyser Basins 44°21′16″N 110°47′57″W are located away from the road and require at least several miles of hiking to reach. These areas lack the boardwalks and other safety features of the developed areas. As falling into geothermal features can be fatal, it is usually advisable to visit these areas with an experienced guide or at the very least, travelers need to ensure they remain on well-marked trails.
The Heart Lake Geyser Basin contains several groups of geysers and deep blue hot springs near Heart Lake in the south-central portion of Yellowstone, southeast of most of the main geyser basins. Lying in the Snake River watershed east of Lewis Lake and south of Yellowstone Lake, Heart Lake was named sometime before 1871 for Hart Hunney, a hunter. Other explorers in the region incorrectly assumed that the lake's name was spelled 'heart' because of its shape. The Heart Lake Geyser Basin begins a couple miles from the lake and descends along Witch Creek to the lakeshore. Five groups of hydrothermal features comprise the basin, and all of them contain geysers, although some are dormant.
Between Shoshone Lake and Old Faithful is the Lone Star Geyser Basin, of which the primary feature is Lone Star Geyser, named for its isolation from the nearby geysers of the Upper Geyser Basin. The basin is reachable on foot or bicycle via a 3 mile road that is closed to vehicles.
The Shoshone Geyser Basin, reached by hiking or by boat, contains one of the highest concentrations of geysers in the world – more than 80 in an area 1,600 by 800 feet (490 by 240 m). Hot springs and mudpots dot the landscape between the geyser basin and Shoshone Lake.
Hot Spring Basin is located 15 miles (24 km) north-northeast of Fishing Bridge and has one of Yellowstone's largest collections of hot springs and fumaroles. The geothermal features there release large amounts of sulfur. This makes water from the springs so acidic that it has dissolved holes in the pants of people who sit on wet ground and causes mounds of sulfur three feet (1 m) high to develop around fumaroles. The very hot acidic water and steam have also created voids in the ground that are only covered by a thin crust.
Mammoth Hot Springs is a large complex of hot springs on a hill of travertine in Yellowstone National Park adjacent to Fort Yellowstone and the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District. It was created over thousands of years as hot water from the spring cooled and deposited calcium carbonate (over two tons flow into Mammoth each day in a solution). Because of the huge amount of geothermal vents, travertine flourishes. Although these springs lie outside the caldera boundary, their energy has been attributed to the same magmatic system that fuels other Yellowstone geothermal areas.
The thermal features at Mud Volcano and Sulphur Caldron are primarily mud pots and fumaroles because the area is situated on a perched water system with little water available. Fumaroles or "steam vents" occur when the ground water boils away faster than it can be recharged. Also, the vapors are rich in sulfuric acid that leaches the rock, breaking it down into clay. Because no water washes away the acid or leached rock, it remains as sticky clay to form a mud pot. Hydrogen sulfide gas is present deep in the earth at Mud Volcano and is oxidized to sulfuric acid by microbial activity, which dissolves the surface soils to create pools and cones of clay and mud. Along with hydrogen sulfide, steam, carbon dioxide, and other gases explode through the layers of mud.
A series of shallow earthquakes associated with the volcanic activity in Yellowstone struck this area in 1978. Soil temperatures increased to nearly 200 °F (93 °C). The slope between Sizzling Basin and Mud Geyser, once covered with green grass and trees, became a barren landscape of fallen trees known as "the cooking hillside".
Yellowstone National Park is a national park located in the western United States, largely in the northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the 42nd U.S. Congress with the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone was the first national park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially the Old Faithful geyser, one of its most popular. While it represents many types of biomes, the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.
While Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years, aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the first Secretary of the Interior to supervise the park being Columbus Delano. However, the U.S. Army was eventually commissioned to oversee the management of Yellowstone for 30 years between 1886 and 1916. In 1917, the administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than a thousand archaeological sites.
Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 sq mi (8,983 km2), comprising lakes, canyons, rivers, and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest super volcano on the continent. The caldera is considered a dormant volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Well over half of the world's geysers and hydrothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone. In 1978, Yellowstone was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the contiguous United States. Grizzly bears, cougars, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in this park. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the park each year; in the large forest fires of 1988, nearly one-third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing, and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles.
Teton County is a county in the U.S. state of Wyoming. As of the 2020 United States Census, the population was 23,331. Its county seat is Jackson. Its west boundary line is also the Wyoming state boundary shared with Idaho and the southern tip of Montana. Teton County is part of the Jackson, WY-ID Micropolitan Statistical Area.
Teton County contains the Jackson Hole ski area, all of Grand Teton National Park, and 40.4% of Yellowstone National Park's total area, including over 96.6% of its water area (largely in Yellowstone Lake).
Wyoming is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the southwest, and Colorado to the south. With a population of 576,851 in 2020, Wyoming is the least populous state despite being the 10th largest by area, with the second-lowest population density after Alaska. The state capital and most populous city is Cheyenne, which had an estimated population of 63,957 in 2018.
Wyoming's western half consists mostly of the ranges and rangelands of the Rocky Mountains; its eastern half consists of high-elevation prairie, and is referred to as the High Plains. Wyoming's climate is semi-arid in some parts and continental in others, making it drier and windier overall than other states, with greater temperature extremes. The federal government owns just under half of Wyoming's land, generally protecting it for public uses. The state ranks sixth in the amount of land—-and fifth in the proportion of its land—-that is owned by the federal government. Its federal lands include two national parks (Grand Teton and Yellowstone), two national recreation areas, two national monuments, and several national forests, as well as historic sites, fish hatcheries, and wildlife refuges.
Indigenous peoples inhabited the region for thousands of years. Historic and currently federally recognized tribes include the Arapaho, Crow, Lakota, and Shoshone. Part of the land that is now Wyoming came under American sovereignty via the Louisiana Purchase, part via the Oregon Treaty, and, lastly, via the Mexican Cession. With the opening of the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, and the California Trail, vast numbers of pioneers travelled through parts of the state that had once been traversed mainly by fur trappers, and this spurred the establishment of forts, such as Fort Laramie, that today serve as population centers. The Transcontinental Railroad supplanted the wagon trails in 1867 with a route through southern Wyoming, bringing new settlers and the establishment of founding towns, including the state capital of Cheyenne. On March 27, 1890, Wyoming became the union's 44th state.
Farming and ranching, and the attendant range wars, feature prominently in the state's history. Today, Wyoming's economy is largely based on tourism and the extraction of minerals such as coal, natural gas, oil, and trona. Its agricultural commodities include barley, hay, livestock, sugar beets, wheat, and wool.
Wyoming was the first state to allow women the right to vote (not counting New Jersey, which had allowed it until 1807), and the right to assume elected office, as well as the first state to elect a female governor. In honor of this part of its history, its most common nickname is "The Equality State" and its official state motto is "Equal Rights". It is among the least religious states in the country, and is known for having a political culture that leans towards libertarian conservatism. The Republican presidential nominee has carried the state in every election since 1968.
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Tynemouth Castle is located on a rocky headland (known as Pen Bal Crag), overlooking Tynemouth Pier.
The moated castle-towers, gatehouse and keep are combined with the ruins of the Benedictine priory where early kings of Northumbria were buried.
The coat of arms of the town of Tynemouth still includes three crowns commemorating the tradition that the Priory had been the burial place for three kings.
Little is known of the early history of the site. Some Roman stones have been found there, but there is no definite evidence that it was occupied by the Romans.
The Priory was founded early in the 7th century, perhaps by Edwin of Northumbria. In 651 Oswin, king of Deira was murdered by the soldiers of King Oswiu of Bernicia, and subsequently his body was brought to Tynemouth for burial.[1] He became St Oswin and his burial place became a shrine visited by pilgrims. He was the first of the three kings buried at Tynemouth.
In 792 Osred II, who had been king of Northumbria from 789 to 790 and then deposed, was murdered. He also was buried at Tynemouth Priory.[1] Osred was the second of the three kings buried at Tynemouth.
The third king to be buried at Tynemouth was Malcolm III, king of Scotland, who was killed at the Battle of Alnwick in 1093.[1] (This is the same Malcolm who appears in Shakespeare's Macbeth.) The king's body was sent north for reburial, in the reign of his son Alexander I, at Dunfermline Abbey, or possibly Iona.
In 800 the Danes plundered Tynemouth Priory,[1] and afterwards the monks strengthened the fortifications sufficiently to prevent the Danes from succeeding when they attacked again in 832. However, in 865 the church and monastery were destroyed by the Danes. At the same time, the nuns of St Hilda, who had come there for safety, were massacred. The priory was again plundered by the Danes in 870. The priory was destroyed by the Danes in 875.
Norman rule
Earl Tostig made Tynemouth his fortress during the reign of Edward the Confessor. By that time, the priory had been abandoned and the burial place of St Oswin had been forgotten. According to legend, St Oswin appeared in a vision to Edmund, a novice, who was living there as a hermit. The saint showed Edmund where his body lay and so the tomb was re-discovered in 1065.
Tostig was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 and so was not able to re-found the monastery as he had intended.
In 1074 Waltheof II, Earl of Northumbria, last of the Anglo-Saxon earls, granted the church to the monks of Jarrow together with the body of St Oswin (Oswine of Deira), which was transferred to that site for a while.
In 1090 Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland decided to re-found Tynemouth Priory, but he was in dispute with William de St-Calais, the Bishop of Durham and so placed the priory under the jurisdiction of the priory of St Albans. Monks were sent from St Albans in 1090 to colonise the new monastery.
However, when the abbot of St Albans visited in 1093, Prior Thurgot of Durham met him and prevented the usurpation of the rights of Durham.
In 1091, seamen from William II's ships plundered Tynemouth and one victim appealed to St. Oswin, whose shrine was in the priory, and the next day the ships were all lost on the rocks of Coquet Island in fair weather. Thereafter, William Rufus held St. Oswin in great reverence.
In 1093 Malcolm III of Scotland invaded England and was killed at Alnwick by Robert de Mowbray. Malcolm's body was buried at Tynemouth Priory for a time, but it is believed that he was subsequently reburied in Dunfermline Abbey, in Scotland.
In 1095 Robert de Mowbray took refuge in Tynemouth Castle after rebelling against William II. William besieged the castle and captured it after two months. Mowbray escaped to Bamburgh Castle, but subsequently returned to Tynemouth. The castle was re-taken and Mowbray was dragged from there and imprisoned for life for treason. In 1110 a new church was completed on the site.
Tynemouth Priory viewed from Tynemouth pier shows the strategic and dramatic nature of its headland setting
It is believed that at the time of Robert Mowbray's capture in 1095 there was a castle on the site consisting of earthen ramparts and a wooden stockade.
In 1296 the prior of Tynemouth was granted royal permission to surround the monastery with walls of stone, which he did. In 1390 a gatehouse and barbican were added on the landward side of the castle.
Much remains of the priory structure as well as the castle gatehouse and walls which are 3200 feet (975 m) in length. The promontory was originally completely enclosed by a curtain wall and towers, but the north and east walls fell into the sea, and most of the south wall was demolished; the west wall, the gatehouse and a section of the south wall (with original wall walk) remain in good condition.
Edward II
In 1312 King Edward II took refuge in Tynemouth Castle together with his favourite Piers Gaveston, before fleeing by sea to Scarborough Castle. These events were dramatised by Christopher Marlowe in his play Edward II, published in 1594. Act 2 Scene 2 of the play is set 'Before Tynemouth Castle'; Act 2 Scene 3 is set 'Near Tynemouth Castle'; and Act 2 Scene 4 is set 'In Tynemouth Castle'.
Tynemouth Priory was also the resting place of Edward's illegitimate son Adam FitzRoy. FitzRoy accompanied his father in the Scottish campaigns of 1322, and died shortly afterwards on 18 September 1322, of unknown causes, and was buried at Tynemouth Priory on 30 September 1322; his father paid for a silk cloth with gold thread to be placed over his body.[2]
The Oratory of St Mary, or Percy Chapel
In 1538 the monastery of Tynemouth was suppressed when Robert Blakeney was the last prior of Tynemouth. At that time, apart from the prior, there were fifteen monks and three novices in residence.
The priory and its attached lands were taken over by King Henry VIII who granted them to Sir Thomas Hilton. The monastic buildings were dismantled leaving only the church and the Prior's house. The castle, however, remained in royal hands.
New artillery fortifications were built from 1545 onwards, with the advice of Sir Richard Lee and the Italian military engineers Gian Tommaso Scala and Antonio da Bergamo. The medieval castle walls were updated with new gunports.[3] The castle was the birthplace of Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland in 1564, during the period when his father, the 8th Earl, was guardian of the castle.
In May 1594 George Selby and Thomas Power, lieutenant of Tynemouth Castle, captured two fugitives from the court of Anne of Denmark who had stolen some of her jewels. Power kept Jacob Kroger, a German goldsmith, and Guillaume Martyn, a French stableman, as prisoners at Tynemouth for five weeks until they were returned to Edinburgh for summary trial and execution.[4]
Parish church
The church remained in use as a parish church until 1668 when a new church was built nearby. The ruins of the church can still be seen. Beneath them is a small (18 feet by 12 feet) chapel, the Oratory of St Mary or Percy Chapel. Its notable decorative features include a painted ceiling with numerous coats of arms and other symbols, stained-glass side windows, and a small rose window in the east wall, above the altar.
Tynemouth priory, 1867 proof engraving by William Miller after J M W Turner. The lighthouse, since demolished, stands on the far right of the promontory.
For some time a navigation light, in the form of a coal-fired brazier, had been maintained on top of one of the turrets at the east end of the Priory church. It is not known when this practice began, but a source of 1582 refers to: "the kepinge of a continuall light in the night season at the easte ende of the churche of Tinmouthe castle ... for the more safegarde of such shippes as should passe by that coast".[5] As Governor of Tynemouth Castle, Henry Percy, 8th Earl of Northumberland is recorded as having responsibility for the light's maintenance; and he and his successors in that office were entitled to receive dues from passing ships in return.
In 1559, however, the stairs leading to the top of the turret collapsed, preventing the fire from being lit.[5] In 1665, therefore, the then Governor (Colonel Villiers) had a purpose-built lighthouse erected on the headland (within the castle walls, using stone taken from the priory); it was rebuilt in 1775.[6] Like its predecessor, the lighthouse was initially coal-fired, but in 1802 an oil-fired argand light was installed and by 1871 it displayed a revolving red light. In 1841 William Fowke (a descendant of Villiers and his successor as Governor) sold the lighthouse to Trinity House, London.[6] It remained in operation until 1895, when it was replaced by St. Mary's Lighthouse in Whitley Bay to the north. Tynemouth Castle Lighthouse was subsequently demolished, in 1898.[7]
At the end of the 19th century the castle was used as a barracks with several new buildings being added. Many of these were removed after a fire in 1936. The castle played a role during World War I and World War II[8] when it was used as a coastal defence installation covering the mouth of the river Tyne. The restored sections of the coastal defence emplacements are open to the public. These include a guardroom and the main armoury, where visitors can see how munitions were safely handled and protected.
More recently the site has hosted the modern buildings of Her Majesty's Coastguard; however the new coastguard station, built in 1980 and opened by Prince Charles, was closed in 2001.[9]
Present-day
Tynemouth Castle and Priory is now managed by English Heritage, which charges an admission fee.
In 2002, it doubled as a castle for a tourist advert for the Isle of Mull.