Ha formado parte de la serie desde las primeras versiones, y siempre ha sido el "villano incomprendido". Según el co-creador de la serie Finish Hiroshi el estilo de lucha de Sagat fue desarrollado a partir de películas como Kickboxer interpretada por Jean-Claude Van Damme. Al parecer, el personaje estaría basado en un luchador de Muay Thai apodado Reiba, o "El señor oscuro del Muay Thai", que tuvo una gran rivalidad con Yoshiji Soeno, el maestro de Karate en el que estaría basado Ryu.

 

Sagat, logró el título de Emperador/Dios del Muay Thai y logro ser un héroe nacional en Tailandia. Debido a su título enfrenta gran cantidad de retos, entre ellos el de un karateka llamado Gou Hibiki con quien sostiene un difícil y brutal combate que le costó el ojo derecho. En ese combate Go perdió la vida. Por ello el hijo de Go , Dan Hibiki, juró venganza.

 

Sagat organizó el primer World Warrior Tournament para demostrar que no era sólo el luchador de Muay Thai más fuerte sino que también era el más fuerte de todas las disciplinas. En ese Torneo tan sólo un joven luchador fue capaz de alcanzar el último combate, Ryu. En una intensa batalla Sagat logra derrotar a Ryu, Sagat se acerca para tenderle la mano al luchador derrotado y en ese momento Ryu se recupera y ejecuta un Metsu Shoryuken a un Sagat sin guardia que le ocasionó a este una gran cicatriz a lo largo de su pecho.

 

Adon que había sido entrenado por Sagat, se burló de su maestro por la derrota de este frente a Ryu y le retó a un combate para decidir quien sería el Dios del Muay Thai. La rabia cegó a Sagat y este fue derrotado por su alumno aunque debido al combate Adon pasó cuatro meses en el hospital. Consumido por la rabia y el odio Sagat se unió a la organización criminal conocida como Shadaloo. El poder de Sagat le permitió convertirse en guardaspaldas de M. Bison. Durante su permanencia en Shadaloo, Sagat se reencuentra con Dan Hibiki que busca venganza por la muerte de su padre en el combate contra Sagat. Entonces Sagat comprende que los verdaderos rivales no deben estar cegados por la ira y el odio por lo que se deja perder el combate (aunque Dan no lo cree así) a fin de satisfacer el ánimo de venganza de este. Así mismo Sagat se da cuenta de las verdaderas intenciones de M. Bison. Sin embargo M. Bison lava el cerebro a Ryu, convirtiendolo en evil Ryu, y fuerza a Sagat a enfrentarse a él en un combate de revancha. A pesar de que Sagat no quiere enfrentarse a Ryu, cede ante M. Bison y se enfrenta a él. Pero durante el combate Ryu se libra del control de M. Bison y vuelve a vencer a Sagat. Sagat comprende entonces que las rivalidades deben tener sus límites.

 

El objetivo de Sagat para el segundo Torneo World Warrior era disputar un combate de revancha limpio frente a Ryu, pero sus esperanzas desaparecen cuando Ryu es eliminado de la competición antes de poder enfrentarse. Tras esto Sagat continúa entrenando su cuerpo y su mente confiando en poder convertirse en el mejor luchador del mundo antes de que sea demasiado viejo para ello.

 

Sagat cuenta con una gran altura, que le da una buena ventaja en los ataques a larga distancia. Su envergadura le convirte en un poderoso luchador. Sus manos son lo suficientemente grandes como para rodear la cabeza de muchos de sus oponentes.

 

Siempre fue representado totalmente calvo, salvo en sólo una de las representaciones artísticas oficiales, en la cual aparece con la cabeza totalmente cubierta de pelo.

 

En la series del Street Fighter II no es representado con la fortaleza muscular con la que aparece en el Street Fighter Alpha.

 

Sagat lleva un parche de color negro en su dañado ojo derecho, aunque la pérdida de visión periférica y de percepción no le impiden ser un luchador muy peligroso. Debido a las limitaciones técnicas existentes en el momento de la salida al mercado del primer Street Fighter, el parche parece cambiar de ojo cuando el personaje cambia de dirección.

 

La cicatriz de su pecho es un recuerdo de la derrota frente a Ryu y Sagat no se ocupa de ocultarla. Su vestimenta consiste en un pantalón corto de los utilizados tradicionalmente en el Muay Thai.

 

Sagat se controla de forma similar a Ken y Ryu pero con algunas diferencias. La principal diferencia es su amplia gama de ataques, sobre todo en cuanto a ataques bajos y patadas horizontales se refiere. En el Street Fighter 2 la alternancia entre ataques de bola de fuego altos y bajos genera confusión en el rival. En los juegos más modernos es menos útil dado que produce menos daño y es más fácil de ser evitada. En el juego Capcom vs. SNK 2 los ataques normales de Sagat, en concreto su puñetazo, producen un alto daño en el rival, por lo que es uno de los personajes más fáciles de controlar en este juego.

Two Large Forms by Henry Moore, Grange Park, Toronto. The Frank Gehry extension to the Art Gallery of Ontario is in the background on the left.

++++++ Form Wikipedia +++++

  

Kalaw (Burmese: ကလောမြို့; Shan: ၵလေႃး [ka lɔ]) is a hill town in the Shan State of Myanmar. It is located in Kalaw Township in Taunggyi District.

Kalaw

ကလောမြို့

Kalaw 21.jpg

Kalaw is located in Myanmar

Kalaw

 

Location in Myanmar

Coordinates: 20°38′N 96°34′E

Country Myanmar

Division Shan State

Districts Taunggyi District

Township Kalaw Township

Population (2005)

• Religions Buddhism

Time zone MST (UTC+6.30)

OverviewEdit

 

The town was popular with the British during colonial rule. Kalaw is the main setting of the novel "The Art of Hearing Heartbeats" by Jan-Philipp Sendker.

 

The hill station is located at an elevation of 1320 metres, 50 km from the Inle lake. Kalaw is famous for hiking and trekking.[1]

Kalaw Train station sign altitude.

 

Myanmar (Burmese pronunciation: [mjəmà]),[nb 1][8] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5,876 km (3,651 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km (1,200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people.[9] As of 2017, the population is about 54 million.[10] Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles) in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon).[1] Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

 

Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma.[11] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia.[12] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship.

 

For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.[13] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and other economic sanctions.[14] There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.[15] In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.

 

Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[6] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government.[16] As of 2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.[7]

Etymology

Main article: Names of Myanmar

 

In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: "Burma" became "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.[17] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.[18]

 

In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".[19]

 

The country's official full name is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[20]

 

In English, the country is popularly known as either "Burma" or "Myanmar" /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/ (About this sound listen).[8] Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the colloquial form of the group's name.[17] Depending on the register used, the pronunciation would be Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[17] The name Burma has been in use in English since the 18th century.

 

Burma continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom.[21][22] Official United States policy retains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country by both names.[23] The Czech Republic officially uses Myanmar, although its Ministry of Foreign Affairs mentions both Myanmar and Burma on its website.[24] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia,[25] Russia, Germany,[26] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,[27] Japan[21] and Switzerland.[28]

 

Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,[29] CNN,[30] Al Jazeera,[31] Reuters,[32] RT (Russia Today) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.[33]

 

Myanmar is known with a name deriving from Burma as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – Birmania being the local version of Burma in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French.[34] As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie.,[35][36]

History

Main article: History of Myanmar

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma

Pyu city-states c. 8th century; Pagan is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary.

 

Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.[37] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 11,000 BC, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BC has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[38]

 

The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BC when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[39] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Division.[40] The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.[41] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BC and 200 AD.[42] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[43]

Early city-states

Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms

 

Around the second century BC the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.[44] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[45]

 

By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.[46]

Imperial Burma

Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty

See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States

Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.

 

Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[47] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.[48]

 

Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[48]

Temples at Mrauk U.

 

Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.

 

Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.

 

Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.[49] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[50] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.

Taungoo and colonialism

Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580.

 

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).

 

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.

A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

 

After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) against Qing China (1765–1769).[51]

 

With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.[52]

 

The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.

 

Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[53] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.

British Burma (1824–1948)

Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma Campaign

Burma in British India

The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Min.

British troops firing a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944.

 

The eighteenth century saw Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, seek to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885), Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.[54] British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes.

 

With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.

 

Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way until the 1930s.[55] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.[56]

Separation of British Burma from British India

 

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.

 

A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[57] A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[58] Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.[59]

 

Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[60] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[61]

 

Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[62] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[63]

Independence (1948–1962)

Main article: Post-independence Burma, 1948–62

British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma).

 

On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,[64] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.

 

The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[65]

 

In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.[66] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.

 

When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[67]

Military rule (1962–2011)

 

On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,[68] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.

 

A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[69] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[70]

Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988.

 

There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[68] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[69]

 

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[71] SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.

 

In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[72] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.

Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.

 

On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[73]

Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.

 

In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[74] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.

 

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.[75] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damage totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million left homeless.[76] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[77] Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[78]

 

In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,[79] Wa, and Kachin.[80][81] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[80][81][82]

Civil wars

Main articles: Internal conflict in Myanmar, Kachin Conflict, Karen conflict, and 2015 Kokang offensive

 

Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[83]

 

In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,[84] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;[85] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims, and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;[86] and a conflict between the Shan,[87] Lahu, and Karen[88][89] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".[90] In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.[91]

 

Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces have resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[92] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in Southeast Asia.[93] However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.

Democratic reforms

Main article: 2011–12 Burmese political reforms

 

The goal of the Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008, held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.[94]

U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012

 

The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 percent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.[95][96] One report documented 77 percent as the official turnout rate of the election.[95] The military junta was dissolved on 30 March 2011.

 

Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into Burmese politics. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy, but transition to a quasi-military rule.[97]

 

Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[98]

 

The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014;[99] the visit by United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years,[100] during which Clinton met with the Burmese president and former military commander Thein Sein, as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;[101] and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the NLD.[102] As of July 2013, about 100[103][104] political prisoners remain imprisoned, while conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continues.

Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.

 

In 1 April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[105]

2015 general elections

Main article: Myanmar general election, 2015

 

General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[106]

 

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016[107] and, on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[108] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor, a role akin to a Prime Minister.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar

A map of Myanmar

Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.

 

Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Myanmar consisted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2,914 Wards, 14,220 village tracts and 68,290 villages.

 

Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan province for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[20]

 

In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[109] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[110]

 

The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.[111] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[110] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar

A clickable map of Burma/Myanmar exhibiting its first-level administrative divisions.

About this image

 

Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[112] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

 

Climate

Main article: Climate of Myanmar

The limestone landscape of Mon State.

 

Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[111]

Environment

Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar

 

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the South Asian region, only ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[114][115]

Wildlife

 

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[116]

 

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.[117] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.

 

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[118] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Myanmar.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Myanmar

Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)

 

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.

forme rudis (Maton, 1797)

Bigorneaux photographiés à Cancale.

Pour cette photographie j'ai utilisé une bonnette x1 que j'avais trouvée sur internet.

Bain News Service,, publisher.

 

[Nick Allen, catcher, Cincinnati NL (baseball)]

 

[1919]

 

1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or smaller.

 

Notes:

Original data provided by the Bain News Service on the negatives or caption cards: Mitchell, Reds.

Corrected title and date based on research by the Pictorial History Committee, Society for American Baseball Research, 2006.

Forms part of: George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress).

 

Format: Glass negatives.

 

Rights Info: No known restrictions on publication.

 

Repository: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print

 

General information about the Bain Collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.ggbain

 

Higher resolution image is available (Persistent URL): hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29206

 

Call Number: LC-B2- 4993-4

  

Guy Lombardo and His Royal Canadians. Dance band formed in London, Ontario, named in Cleveland in 1923, and known for 'the sweetest music this side of Heaven,' a description coined by Ashton Stevens of the Chicago Tribune in 1928.

 

Guy (Gaetano Alberto) Lombardo - b London, Ont, 19 Jun 1902, naturalized US 1938, d Houston 5 Nov 1977; honorary D MUS (Western Ontario) 1971 - was its leader from its inception, ca 1917 as the Lombardo Brothers' Orchestra and Concert Company, until his death. The 'orchestra' was a quartet: Guy (violinist), his brothers Carmen (flutist, saxophonist, singer; see previous entry) and Lebert (drummer, trumpeter, b London, Ont, 1904), and Freddie Kreitzer (pianist). The 'company' included, variously, the Lombardos' sister Elaine (soprano) and father, Gaetano (baritone, b Lipari, Italy, ca 1873, d Stamford, Conn, 6 Oct 1954), and occasionally a Scottish comedian and dancers.

 

The Lombardo quartet fulfilled its first significant engagement at an outdoor dance pavilion at Grand Bend, Ont, during the summer of 1919. With an expanded group, the Lombardos spent the winter season 1922-3 at the Winter Garden in London and the summer of 1923 at Port Stanley, Ont. Curtailing its second season at the Winter Garden late in 1923, the Lombardo Brothers' Orchestra - the quartet plus Archie Cunningham (saxophone, later a popular radio entertainer in Toronto), Jim Dillon (trombone), Eddie Mashurette (tuba), Francis 'Muff' Henry (guitar), and George Gowans (drums) - went to Cleveland. It remained in the USA, thereafter, although it toured in Canada in later years.

 

Larry Owen was an arranger and saxophonist who worked with Guy Lombardo's orchestra, The Royal Canadians. Owen was a member of the band for many years, contributing to its musical arrangements and also singing in a trio with fellow sax players Fred Higman and Carmen Lombardo. Arranger and musician: Owen wrote arrangements for the band and played the alto saxophone, clarinet, and was also a vocalist. Long-term member: He was a member of The Royal Canadians for many years, even singing in a trio with Fred Higman and Carmen Lombardo. Family connection: Owen grew up in New York, the son of a musician who played in Guy Lombardo's orchestra.

 

LINK to video - Guy Lombardo and the Royal Canadians 1955 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJEA-X0Fo-0&t=1s

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Although Canada’s premiere dance band, the Royal Canadians, are most closely associated with Guy Lombardo, it was in fact his younger brother Carmen who was the true driving force behind the music group. Born in London, Ontario in 1903, the Lombardo brothers made their first debut together at a church function in 1914, starting what would end up to be a 55-year collaboration. Both Carmen and Guy began taking music lessons at the same time, with Guy on violin and Carmen on flute. Over the years, Carmen would switch to saxophone while Guy would just pick up a conductor’s baton. The Royal Canadians formed in 1916, with Carmen as singer, saxophone player and composer. Their first prominent performance occurred at a dance pavilion in Grand Bend, Ontario in 1919. In 1923, The Royal Canadians moved to Cleveland, Ohio and quickly obtained a permanent gig at a nightclub called the Claremont Trent. The band was taken under the wing of club owner, Louis Bleet, and continued to play in the Cleveland area until 1927, when they moved to Chicago and began broadcasting live on the radio from the Granada Cafe. In 1928, two of Carmen’s songs, Coquette and Sweethearts on Parade, became major hits for the group, attracting international attention. The Royal Canadians were known for ‘the sweetest music this side of Heaven’, a description coined by Ashton Stevens of the Chicago Tribune. In 1929, The Royal Canadians began their longest standing gig at the Roosevelt Grill in New York City, lasting 33 years. It was at the Roosevelt that The Royal Canadians began the annual tradition of a New Years Eve telecast on CBS. The Royal Canadians sold at least 100 million records. Between 1929 and 1952 there wasn’t a single year that a Guy Lombardo record didn’t chart – 21 of them at number one, and many featuring songs by Carmen Lombardo. Although Carmen continued to be the lead singer of The Royal Canadians, he never really enjoyed the job. In 1940, he was replaced as the lead singer, allowing him to concentrate solely on songwriting. Among the hits that Carmen penned, made popular by the Guy Lombardo Orchestra, were Jungle Drums, Boo Hoo, It’s Never Too Late, It’s Easier Said than Done, Seems Like Old Times, Where Are You Gonna Be When the Moon Shines?, Get Out Those Old Records, How Long Has it Been?, and Marry the One You Love. On the novelty side, Carmen wrote quirky numbers like Play Ball with the New York Mets, an ode to the hapless baseball team of the early 1960s. He also penned the stage scores Arabian Nights, Paradise Island and Mardi Gras! LINK to the complete article - www.cshf.ca/songwriter/carmen-lombardo/

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Lebert Lombardo (February 11, 1905 – June 16, 1993) was a musician with the Royal Canadians and a younger brother of Guy Lombardo. Lombardo was born in London, Ontario, Canada. He had three brothers who also became musicians: Guy, Carmen, and Victor. With his brother Carmen, Lebert Lombardo was a member of the original Royal Canadians, playing trumpet, cornet and drums. On June 14, 1937, Lombardo married Helen Healey in New York City. Earlier, he had been married to Carol Williams, She and Lombardo had been victims of a theft in 1930.

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August Fred “Freddie” Kreitzer

(b. 27 April 1903 in Middlesex County, Ontario, Canada - d. 3 October 1985 (aged 82) in Sarasota, Sarasota County, Florida, USA) - Fred was one of the original band members of the Guy Lombardo Orchestra. He played the second piano and seat the timing for the orchestra. He was the son of August Kreitzer and Agnes Jervis, ancestry.com indexed under Frederick August Kreitzer. - LINK to his Find a Grave site - www.findagrave.com/memorial/170463565/august-fred-kreitzer

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George Gowans

(b. 21 April 1905 in Hartlepool, Durham, United Kingdom - d.

22 December 1986 at age 81 in Seminole, Florida, United States) - He was a drummer for Guy Lombardo's Royal Canadians - Also Known as George Forester Gowans. LINK to a photo - www.discogs.com/artist/2095460-George-Gowans/image/SW1hZ2...

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Larry Owen / Aliases - Larry Owens - Died 1978 in the United States - Big band alto saxophonist, clarinetist, occasional vocalist, arranger and band manager with Guy Lombardo. Owen, from Cleveland, Ohio, was the first American to join the band. LINK - secondhandsongs.com/artist/158351/all

1970 Corning invented optical fiber and the cable in later years was laid on the seabed crossing Atlantic Ocean or on the ground and serves as the backbone that interconnects the global communication via internet and telephone.

The Corning Museum of Glass Corning, NY

Form and functionality unite. You can look sharp for a night out or actually be sharp and slice and dice your way through all the odd jobs life may throw at you with this stylish hat. The Bladed Bowler comes in black or brown (No HUD required). This is unrigged so you can fully resize it.

I have to interrupt the preparations for my dinner to take a quick image. I'm always surprised about the creativity of nature.

shot taken on a Ryanair flight leaving form Alicante, Spain and direct to Milan Bergamo, Italy.

 

Still done with my portable sony camera as, tks to Ryanair carry-on luggage policy, when I'm flying with them, i can not bring my Nikon with me!!!

  

Hamburg - Moments

PGB Photographer & Creative - © 2023 Philip Romeyn - Phillostar Gone Ballistic 2021 - Photo may not be edited from its original form. Commercial use is prohibited without contacting me.

traveladventureeverywhere.blogspot.com/2024/06/saint-pete...

 

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ALBANIA

 

Albanian Trilogy: A Series of Devious Stratagems

 

Armando Lulaj

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture. Curator: Marco Scotini. Deputy Curator: Andris Brinkmanis. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale

 

ANDORRA

 

Inner Landscapes

 

Roqué, Joan Xandri

 

Commissioner: Henry Périer. Deputy Commissioner: Joana Baygual, Sebastià Petit, Francesc Rodríguez

 

Curator: Paolo de Grandis, Josep M. Ubach. Venue: Spiazzi, Castello 3865

 

ANGOLA

 

On Ways of Travelling

 

António Ole, Binelde Hyrcan, Délio Jasse, Francisco Vidal, Nelo Teixeira

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture, Rita Guedes Tavares. Curator: António Ole. Deputy Curator: Antonia Gaeta. Venue: Conservatorio Benedetto Marcello - Palazzo Pisani, San Marco 2810

 

ARGENTINA

 

The Uprising of Form

 

Juan Carlos Diste´fano

 

Commissioner: Magdalena Faillace. Curator: Mari´a Teresa Constantin. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

 

ARMENIA, Republic of

 

Armenity / Haiyutioun

 

Haig Aivazian, Lebanon; Nigol Bezjian, Syria/USA; Anna Boghiguian Egypt/Canada; Hera Büyüktasçiyan, Turkey; Silvina Der-Meguerditchian, Argentina/Germany; Rene Gabri & Ayreen Anastas, Iran/Palestine/USA; Mekhitar Garabedian, Belgium; Aikaterini Gegisian, Greece; Yervant Gianikian & Angela Ricci Lucchi, Italy; Aram Jibilian, USA; Nina Katchadourian, USA/Finland; Melik Ohanian, France; Mikayel Ohanjanyan, Armenia/Italy; Rosana Palazyan, Brazil; Sarkis, Turkey/France; Hrair Sarkissian, Syria/UK

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Armenia. Deputy Commissioner: Art for the World, Mekhitarist Congregation of San Lazzaro Island, Embassy of the Republic of Armenia in Italy, Vartan Karapetian. Curator: Adelina Cüberyan von Fürstenberg. Venue: Monastery and Island of San Lazzaro degli Armeni

 

AUSTRALIA

 

Fiona Hall: Wrong Way Time

 

Fiona Hall

 

Commissioner: Simon Mordant AM. Deputy Commissioner: Charles Green. Curator: Linda Michael. Scientific Committee: Simon Mordant AM, Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev, Max Delany, Rachel Kent, Danie Mellor, Suhanya Raffel, Leigh Robb. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

AUSTRIA

 

Heimo Zobernig

 

Commissioner: Yilmaz Dziewior. Curator: Yilmaz Dziewior. Scientific Committee: Friends of the Venice Biennale. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

AZERBAIJAN, Republic of

 

Beyond the Line

 

Ashraf Murad, Javad Mirjavadov, Tofik Javadov, Rasim Babayev, Fazil Najafov, Huseyn Hagverdi, Shamil Najafzada

 

Commissioner: Heydar Aliyev Foundation. Curators: de Pury de Pury, Emin Mammadov. Venue: Palazzo Lezze, Campo S.Stefano, San Marco 2949

 

Vita Vitale

 

Edward Burtynsky, Mircea Cantor, Loris Cecchini, Gordon Cheung, Khalil Chishtee, Tony Cragg, Laura Ford, Noemie Goudal, Siobhán Hapaska, Paul Huxley, IDEA laboratory and Leyla Aliyeva, Chris Jordan with Rebecca Clark and Helena S.Eitel, Tania Kovats, Aida Mahmudova, Sayyora Muin, Jacco Olivier, Julian Opie, Julian Perry, Mike Perry, Bas Princen, Stephanie Quayle, Ugo Rondinone, Graham Stevens, Diana Thater, Andy Warhol, Bill Woodrow, Erwin Wurm, Rose Wylie

 

Commissioner: Heydar Aliyev Foundation. Curators: Artwise: Susie Allen, Laura Culpan, Dea Vanagan. Venue: Ca’ Garzoni, San Marco 3416

 

BELARUS, Republic of

 

War Witness Archive

 

Konstantin Selikhanov

 

Commissioner: Natallia Sharanhovich. Deputy Commissioners: Alena Vasileuskaya, Kamilia Yanushkevich. Curators: Aleksei Shinkarenko, Olga Rybchinskaya. Scientific Committee: Dmitry Korol, Daria Amelkovich, Julia Kondratyuk, Sergei Jeihala, Sheena Macfarlane, Yuliya Heisik, Hanna Samarskaya, Taras Kaliahin, Aliaksandr Stasevich. Venue: Riva San Biagio, Castello 2145

 

BELGIUM

 

Personnes et les autres

 

Vincent Meessen and Guests, Mathieu K. Abonnenc, Sammy Baloji, James Beckett, Elisabetta Benassi, Patrick Bernier & Olive Martin, Tamar Guimara~es & Kasper Akhøj, Maryam Jafri, Adam Pendleton

 

Commissioner: Wallonia-Brussels Federation and Wallonia-Brussels International. Curator: Katerina Gregos. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

COSTA RICA

 

"Costa Rica, Paese di pace, invita a un linguaggio universale d'intesa tra i popoli".

 

Andrea Prandi, Beatrice Gallori, Beth Parin, Biagio Schembari, Carla Castaldo, Celestina Avanzini, Cesare Berlingeri, Erminio Tansini, Fabio Capitanio, Fausto Beretti, Giovan Battista Pedrazzini, Giovanni Lamberti, Giovanni Tenga, Iana Zanoskar, Jim Prescott, Leonardo Beccegato, Liliana Scocco, Lucia Bolzano, Marcela Vicuna, Marco Bellagamba, Marco Lodola, Maria Gioia dell’Aglio, Mario Bernardinello, Massimo Meucci, Nacha Piattini, Omar Ronda, Renzo Eusebi, Tita Patti, Romina Power, Rubens Fogacci, Silvio di Pietro, Stefano Sichel, Tino Stefanoni, Ufemia Ritz, Ugo Borlenghi, Umberto Mariani, Venere Chillemi, Jacqueline Gallicot Madar, Massimo Onnis, Fedora Spinelli

 

Commissioner: Ileana Ordonez Chacon. Curator: Gregorio Rossi. Venue: Palazzo Bollani

 

CROATIA

 

Studies on Shivering: The Third Degree

 

Damir Ocko

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture. Curator: Marc Bembekoff. Venue: Palazzo Pisani, S. Marina

 

CUBA

 

El artista entre la individualidad y el contexto

 

Lida Abdul, Celia-Yunior, Grethell Rasúa, Giuseppe Stampone, LinYilin, Luis Edgardo Gómez Armenteros, Olga Chernysheva, Susana Pilar Delahante Matienzo

 

Commissioner: Miria Vicini. Curators: Jorge Fernández Torres, Giacomo Zaza. Venue: San Servolo Island

 

CYPRUS, Republic of

 

Two Days After Forever

 

Christodoulos Panayiotou

 

Commissioner: Louli Michaelidou. Deputy Commissioner: Angela Skordi. Curator: Omar Kholeif. Deputy Curator: Daniella Rose King. Venue: Palazzo Malipiero, Sestiere San Marco 3079

 

CZECH Republic and SLOVAK Republic

 

Apotheosis

 

Jirí David

 

Commissioner: Adam Budak. Deputy Commissioner: Barbara Holomkova. Curator: Katarina Rusnakova. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

ECUADOR

 

Gold Water: Apocalyptic Black Mirrors

 

Maria Veronica Leon Veintemilla in collaboration with Lucia Vallarino Peet

 

Commissioner: Andrea Gonzàlez Sanchez. Deputy Commissioner: PDG Arte Communications. Curator: Ileana Cornea. Deputy Curator: Maria Veronica Leon Veintemilla. Venue: Istituto Santa Maria della Pietà, Castello 3701

 

ESTONIA

 

NSFW. From the Abyss of History

 

Jaanus Samma

 

Commissioner: Maria Arusoo. Curator: Eugenio Viola. Venue: Palazzo Malipiero, campo San Samuele, San Marco 3199

 

EGYPT

 

CAN YOU SEE

 

Ahmed Abdel Fatah, Gamal Elkheshen, Maher Dawoud

 

Commissioner: Hany Al Ashkar. Curator: Ministry of Culture. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

FINLAND (Pavilion Alvar Aalto)

 

Hours, Years, Aeons

 

IC-98

 

Commissioner: Frame Visual Art Finland, Raija Koli. Curator: Taru Elfving. Deputy Curator: Anna Virtanen. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

FRANCE

 

revolutions

 

Céleste Boursier-Mougenot

 

Commissioner: Institut français, with Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication. Curator: Emma Lavigne. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

GEORGIA

 

Crawling Border

 

Rusudan Gobejishvili Khizanishvili, Irakli Bluishvili, Dimitri Chikvaidze, Joseph Sabia

 

Commissioner: Ana Riaboshenko. Curator: Nia Mgaloblishvili. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

 

GERMANY

 

Fabrik

 

Jasmina Metwaly / Philip Rizk, Olaf Nicolai, Hito Steyerl, Tobias Zielony

 

Commissioner: ifa (Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen) on behalf of the Federal Foreign Office. Deputy Commissioner: Elke aus dem Moore, Nina Hülsmeier. Curator: Florian Ebner. Deputy Curator: Tanja Milewsky, Ilina Koralova. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

GREAT BRITAIN

 

Sarah Lucas

 

Commissioner: Emma Dexter. Curator: Richard Riley. Deputy Curator: Katrina Schwarz. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

GRENADA *

 

Present Nearness

 

Oliver Benoit, Maria McClafferty, Asher Mains, Francesco Bosso and Carmine Ciccarini, Guiseppe Linardi

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture. Deputy Commissioner: Susan Mains. Curator: Susan Mains. Deputy Curator: Francesco Elisei. Venue: Opera don Orione Artigianelli, Sala Tiziano, Fondamenta delle Zattere ai Gesuati, Dorsoduro 919

 

GREECE

 

Why Look at Animals? AGRIMIKÁ.

 

Maria Papadimitriou

 

Commissioner: Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs. Curator: Gabi Scardi. Deputy Curator: Alexios Papazacharias. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

BRAZIL

 

So much that it doesn't fit here

 

Antonio Manuel, André Komatsu, Berna Reale

 

Commissioner: Luis Terepins. Curator: Luiz Camillo Osorio. Deputy Curator: Cauê Alves. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

CANADA

 

Canadassimo

 

BGL

 

Commissioner: National Gallery of Canada, Marc Mayer. Deputy Commissioner: National Gallery of Canada, Yves Théoret. Curator: Marie Fraser. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

CHILE

 

Poéticas de la disidencia | Poetics of dissent: Paz Errázuriz - Lotty Rosenfeld

 

Paz Errázuriz, Lotty Rosenfeld

 

Commissioner: Antonio Arèvalo. Deputy Commissioner: Juan Pablo Vergara Undurraga. Curator: Nelly Richard. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale - Artiglierie

 

CHINA, People’s Republic of

 

Other Future

 

LIU Jiakun, LU Yang, TAN Dun, WEN Hui/Living Dance Studio, WU Wenguang/Caochangdi Work Station

 

Commissioner: China Arts and Entertainment Group, CAEG. Deputy Commissioners: Zhang Yu, Yan Dong. Curator: Beijing Contemporary Art Foundation. Scientific Committee: Fan Di’an, Zhang Zikang, Zhu Di, Gao Shiming, Zhu Qingsheng, Pu Tong, Shang Hui. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Giardino delle Vergini

 

GUATEMALA

 

Sweet Death

 

Emma Anticoli Borza, Sabrina Bertolelli, Mariadolores Castellanos, Max Leiva, Pier Domenico Magri, Adriana Montalto, Elmar Rojas (Elmar René Rojas Azurdia), Paolo Schmidlin, Mónica Serra, Elsie Wunderlich, Collettivo La Grande Bouffe

 

Commissioner: Daniele Radini Tedeschi. Curators: Stefania Pieralice, Carlo Marraffa, Elsie Wunderlich. Deputy Curators: Luciano Carini, Simone Pieralice. Venue: Officina delle Zattere, Dorsoduro 947, Fondamenta Nani

 

HOLY SEE

 

Commissioner: Em.mo Card. Gianfranco Ravasi, Presidente del Pontificio Consiglio della Cultura. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

 

HUNGARY

 

Sustainable Identities

 

Szilárd Cseke

 

Commissioner: Monika Balatoni. Deputy Commissioner: István Puskás, Sándor Fodor, Anna Karády. Curator: Kinga German. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

 

ICELAND

 

Christoph Büchel

 

Commissioner: Björg Stefánsdóttir. Curator: Nína Magnúsdóttir. Venue: to be confirmed

 

INDONESIA, Republic of

 

Komodo Voyage

 

Heri Dono

 

Commissioner: Sapta Nirwandar. Deputy Commissioner: Soedarmadji JH Damais. Curator: Carla Bianpoen, Restu Imansari Kusumaningrum. Scientific Committee: Franco Laera, Asmudjo Jono Irianto, Watie Moerany, Elisabetta di Mambro. Venue: Venue: Arsenale

 

IRAN

 

Iranian Highlights

 

Samira Alikhanzaradeh, Mahmoud Bakhshi Moakhar, Jamshid Bayrami, Mohammed Ehsai

 

The Great Game

 

Lida Abdul, Bani Abidi, Adel Abidin, Amin Agheai, Ghodratollah Agheli, Shahriar Ahmadi, Parastou Ahovan, Farhad Ahrarnia, Rashad Alakbarov, Nazgol Ansarinia, Reza Aramesh, Alireza Astaneh, Sonia Balassanian, Mahmoud Bakhshi, Moakhar Wafaa Bilal, Mehdi Farhadian, Monir Farmanfarmaian, Shadi Ghadirian, Babak Golkar, Shilpa Gupta, Ghasem Hajizadeh, Shamsia Hassani, Sahand Hesamiyan, Sitara Ibrahimova, Pouran Jinchi, Amar Kanwar, Babak Kazemi, Ryas Komu, Ahmad Morshedloo, Farhad Moshiri, Mehrdad Mohebali, Huma Mulji, Azad Nanakeli, Jamal Penjweny, Imran Qureshi, Sara Rahbar, Rashid Rana, T.V. Santhosh, Walid Siti, Mohsen Taasha Wahidi, Mitra Tabrizian, Parviz Tanavoli, Newsha Tavakolian, Sadegh Tirafkan, Hema Upadhyay, Saira Wasim

 

Commissioner: Majid Mollanooruzi. Deputy Commissioners: Marco Meneguzzo, Mazdak Faiznia. Curators: Marco Meneguzzo, Mazdak Faiznia. Venue: Calle San Giovanni 1074/B, Cannaregio

 

IRAQ

 

Commissioner: Ruya Foundation for Contemporary Culture in Iraq (RUYA). Deputy Commissioner: Nuova Icona - Associazione Culturale per le Arti. Curator: Philippe Van Cauteren. Venue: Ca' Dandolo, San Polo 2879

 

IRELAND

 

Adventure: Capital

 

Sean Lynch

 

Commissioner: Mike Fitzpatrick. Curator: Woodrow Kernohan. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale - Artiglierie

 

ISRAEL

 

Tsibi Geva | Archeology of the Present

 

Tsibi Geva

 

Commissioner: Arad Turgem, Michael Gov. Curator: Hadas Maor. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

ITALY

 

Ministero dei Beni e delle attività culturali e del turismo - Direzione Generale Arte e Architettura Contemporanee e Periferie Urbane. Commissioner: Federica Galloni. Curator: Vincenzo Trione. Venue: Padiglione Italia, Tese delle Vergini at Arsenale

   

JAPAN

 

The Key in the Hand

 

Chiharu Shiota

 

Commissioner: The Japan Foundation. Deputy Commissioner: Yukihiro Ohira, Manako Kawata and Haruka Nakajima. Curator: Hitoshi Nakano. Venue : Pavilion at Giardini

   

KENYA

 

Creating Identities

 

Yvonne Apiyo Braendle-Amolo, Qin Feng, Shi Jinsong, Armando Tanzini, Li Zhanyang, Lan Zheng Hui, Li Gang, Double Fly Art Center

 

Commissioner: Paola Poponi. Curator: Sandro Orlandi Stagl. Deputy Curator: Ding Xuefeng. Venue: San Servolo Island

   

KOREA, Republic of

 

The Ways of Folding Space & Flying

 

MOON Kyungwon & JEON Joonho

 

Commissioner: Sook-Kyung Lee. Curator: Sook-Kyung Lee. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

KOSOVO, Republic of

 

Speculating on the blue

 

Flaka Haliti

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports. Curator: Nicolaus Schafhausen. Deputy Curator: Katharina Schendl. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale - Artiglierie

   

LATVIA

 

Armpit

 

Katrina Neiburga, Andris Eglitis

 

Commissioner: Solvita Krese (Latvian Centre for Contemporary Art). Deputy Commissioner: Kitija Vasiljeva. Curator: Kaspars Vanags. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale

   

LITHUANIA

 

Museum

 

Dainius Liškevicius

 

Commissioner: Vytautas Michelkevicius. Deputy Commissioner: Rasa Antanaviciute. Curator: Vytautas Michelkevicius. Venue: Palazzo Zenobio, Fondamenta del Soccorso 2569, Dorsoduro

   

LUXEMBOURG, Grand Duchy of

 

Paradiso Lussemburgo

 

Filip Markiewicz

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture. Deputy Commissioner: MUDAM Luxembourg. Curator: Paul Ardenne. Venue: Cà Del Duca, Corte del Duca Sforza, San Marco 3052

   

MACEDONIA, Former Yugoslavian Republic of

 

We are all in this alone

 

Hristina Ivanoska and Yane Calovski

 

Commissioner: Maja Nedelkoska Brzanova, National Gallery of Macedonia. Deputy Commissioner: Olivija Stoilkova. Curator: Basak Senova. Deputy Curator: Maja Cankulovska Mihajlovska. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale - Sale d’Armi

   

MAURITIUS *

 

From One Citizen You Gather an Idea

 

Sultana Haukim, Nirmal Hurry, Alix Le Juge, Olga Jürgenson, Helge Leiberg, Krishna Luchoomun, Neermala Luckeenarain, Kavinash Thomoo, Bik Van Der Pol, Laure Prouvost, Vitaly Pushnitsky, Römer + Römer

 

Commissioner: pARTage. Curators: Alfredo Cramerotti, Olga Jürgenson. Venue: Palazzo Flangini - Canareggio 252

   

MEXICO

 

Possesing Nature

 

Tania Candiani, Luis Felipe Ortega

 

Commissioner: Tomaso Radaelli. Deputy Commissioner: Magdalena Zavala Bonachea. Curator: Karla Jasso. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

   

MONGOLIA *

 

Other Home

 

Enkhbold Togmidshiirev, Unen Enkh

 

Commissioner: Gantuya Badamgarav, MCASA. Curator: Uranchimeg Tsultemin. Scientific Committee: David A Ross, Boldbaatar Chultemin. Venue: European Cultural Centre - Palazzo Mora

   

MONTENEGRO

 

,,Ti ricordi Sjecaš li se You Remember "

 

Aleksandar Duravcevic

 

Commissioner/Curator: Anastazija Miranovic. Deputy Commissioner: Danica Bogojevic. Venue: Palazzo Malipiero (piano terra), San Marco 3078-3079/A, Ramo Malipiero

   

MOZAMBIQUE, Republic of *

 

Theme: Coexistence of Tradition and Modernity in Contemporary Mozambique

 

Mozambique Artists

 

Commissioner: Joel Matias Libombo. Deputy Commissioner: Gilberto Paulino Cossa. Curator: Comissariado-Geral para a Expo Milano 2015. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale

   

NETHERLANDS, The

 

herman de vries - to be all ways to be

 

herman de vries

 

Commissioner: Mondriaan Fund. Curators: Colin Huizing, Cees de Boer. Venue: Pavilion ar Giardini

   

NEW ZEALAND

 

Secret Power

 

Simon Denny

 

Commissioner: Heather Galbraith. Curator: Robert Leonard. Venue: Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Marco Polo Airport

   

NORDIC PAVILION (NORWAY)

 

Camille Norment

 

Commissioner: OCA, Office for Contemporary Art Norway. Curator: Katya García-Antón. Deputy Curator: Antonio Cataldo. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

PERU

 

Misplaced Ruins

 

Gilda Mantilla and Raimond Chaves

 

Commissioner: Armando Andrade de Lucio. Curator: Max Hernández-Calvo. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

   

PHILIPPINES

 

Tie a String Around the World

 

Manuel Conde, Carlos Francisco, Manny Montelibano, Jose Tence Ruiz

 

Commissioner: National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), Felipe M. de Leon Jr. Curator: Patrick D. Flores. Venue: European Cultural Centre - Palazzo Mora

   

POLAND

 

Halka/Haiti. 18°48’05”N 72°23’01”W

 

C.T. Jasper, Joanna Malinowska

 

Commissioner: Hanna Wróblewska. Deputy Commissioner: Joanna Wasko. Curator: Magdalena Moskalewicz. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

PORTUGAL

 

I Will Be Your Mirror / poems and problems

 

João Louro

 

Commissioner/Curator: María de Corral. Venue: Palazzo Loredan, campo S. Stefano

   

ROMANIA

 

Adrian Ghenie: Darwin’s Room

 

Adrian Ghenie

 

Commissioner: Monica Morariu. Deputy Commissioner: Alexandru Damian. Curator: Mihai Pop. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

Inventing the Truth. On Fiction and Reality

 

Michele Bressan, Carmen Dobre-Hametner, Alex Mirutziu, Lea Rasovszky, Stefan Sava, Larisa Sitar

 

Commissioner: Monica Morariu. Deputy Commissioner: Alexandru Damian. Curator: Diana Marincu. Deputy Curators: Ephemair Association (Suzana Dan and Silvia Rogozea). Venue: New Gallery of the Romanian Institute for Culture and Humanistic Research in Venice

   

RUSSIA

 

The Green Pavilion

 

Irina Nakhova

 

Commissioner: Stella Kesaeva. Curator: Margarita Tupitsyn. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

SERBIA

 

United Dead Nations

 

Ivan Grubanov

 

Commissioner: Lidija Merenik. Deputy Commissioner: Ana Bogdanovic. Curator: Lidija Merenik. Deputy Curator: Ana Bogdanovic. Scientific Committee: Jovan Despotovic. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

SAN MARINO

 

Repubblica di San Marino “ Friendship Project “ China

 

Xu De Qi, Liu Dawei, Liu Ruo Wang, Ma Yuan, Li Lei, Zhang Hong Mei, Eleonora Mazza, Giuliano Giulianelli, Giancarlo Frisoni, Tony Margiotta, Elisa Monaldi, Valentina Pazzini

 

Commissioner: Istituti Culturali della Repubblica di San Marino. Curator: Vincenzo Sanfo. Venue: TBC

   

SEYCHELLES, Republic of *

 

A Clockwork Sunset

 

George Camille, Léon Wilma Loïs Radegonde

 

Commissioner: Seychelles Art Projects Foundation. Curators: Sarah J. McDonald, Victor Schaub Wong. Venue: European Cultural Centre - Palazzo Mora

   

SINGAPORE

 

Sea State

 

Charles Lim Yi Yong

 

Commissioner: Paul Tan, National Arts Council, Singapore. Curator: Shabbir Hussain Mustafa. Scientific Committee: Eugene Tan, Kathy Lai, Ahmad Bin Mashadi, June Yap, Emi Eu, Susie Lingham, Charles Merewether, Randy Chan. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

   

SLOVENIA, Republic of

 

UTTER / The violent necessity for the embodied presence of hope

 

JAŠA

 

Commissioner: Simona Vidmar. Deputy Commissioner: Jure Kirbiš. Curators: Michele Drascek and Aurora Fonda. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale - Artiglierie

   

SPAIN

 

Los Sujetos (The Subjects)

 

Pepo Salazar, Cabello/Carceller, Francesc Ruiz, + Salvador Dalí

 

Commissioner: Ministerio Asuntos Exteriores. Gobierno de España. Curator: Marti Manen. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

 

Origini della civiltà

 

Narine Ali, Ehsan Alar, Felipe Cardeña, Fouad Dahdouh, Aldo Damioli, Svitlana Grebenyuk, Mauro Reggio, Liu Shuishi, Nass ouh Zaghlouleh, Andrea Zucchi, Helidon Xhixha

 

Commissioner: Christian Maretti. Curator: Duccio Trombadori. Venue: Redentore – Giudecca, San Servolo Island

   

SWEDEN

 

Excavation of the Image: Imprint, Shadow, Spectre, Thought

 

Lina Selander

 

Commissioner: Ann-Sofi Noring. Curator: Lena Essling. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale

   

SWITZERLAND

 

Our Product

 

Pamela Rosenkranz

 

Commissioner: Swiss Arts Council Pro Helvetia, Sandi Paucic and Marianne Burki. Deputy-Commissioner: Swiss Arts Council Pro Helvetia, Rachele Giudici Legittimo. Curator: Susanne Pfeffer. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

THAILAND

 

Earth, Air, Fire & Water

 

Kamol Tassananchalee

 

Commissioner: Chai Nakhonchai, Office of Contemporary Art and Culture (OCAC), Ministry of Culture. Curator: Richard David Garst. Deputy Curator: Pongdej Chaiyakut. Venue: Paradiso Gallerie, Giardini della Biennale, Castello 1260

   

TURKEY

 

Respiro

 

Sarkis

 

Commissioner: Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts. Curator: Defne Ayas. Deputy Curator: Ozge Ersoy. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d’Armi

   

TUVALU

 

Crossing the Tide

 

Vincent J.F. Huang

 

Commissioner: Taukelina Finikaso. Deputy Commissioner: Temate Melitiana. Curator: Thomas J. Berghuis. Scientific Committee: Andrea Bonifacio. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale

   

UKRAINE

 

Hope!

 

Yevgenia Belorusets, Nikita Kadan, Zhanna Kadyrova, Mykola Ridnyi & SerhiyZhadan, Anna Zvyagintseva, Open Group, Artem Volokitin

 

Commissioner: Ministry of Culture. Curator: Björn Geldhof. Venue: Riva dei Sette Martiri

   

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

 

1980 – Today: Exhibitions in the United Arab Emirates

 

Abdullah Al Saadi, Abdul Qader Al Rais, Abdulraheem Salim, Abdulrahman Zainal, Ahmed Al Ansari, Ahmed Sharif, Hassan Sharif, Mohamed Yousif, Mohammed Abdullah Bulhiah, Mohammed Al Qassab, Mohammed Kazem, Moosa Al Halyan, Najat Meky, Obaid Suroor, Salem Jawhar

 

Commissioner: Salama bint Hamdan Al Nahyan Foundation. Curator: Hoor Al Qasimi. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale – Sale d'Armi

   

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 

Joan Jonas: They Come to Us Without a Word

 

Joan Jonas

 

Commissioner: Paul C. Ha. Deputy Commissioner: MIT List Visual Arts Center. Curators: Ute Meta Bauer, Paul C. Ha. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

URUGUAY

 

Global Myopia II (Pencil & Paper)

 

Marco Maggi

 

Commissioner: Ricardo Pascale. Curator: Patricia Bentancour. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

VENEZUELA, Bolivarian Republic of

 

Te doy mi palabra (I give you my word)

 

Argelia Bravo, Félix Molina (Flix)

 

Commissioner: Oscar Sotillo Meneses. Deputy Commissioner: Reinaldo Landaeta Díaz. Curator: Oscar Sotillo Meneses. Deputy Curator: Morella Jurado. Scientific Committee: Carlos Pou Ruan. Venue: Pavilion at Giardini

   

ZIMBABWE, Republic of

 

Pixels of Ubuntu/Unhu: - Exploring the social and cultural identities of the 21st century.

 

Chikonzero Chazunguza, Masimba Hwati, Gareth Nyandoro

 

Commissioner: Doreen Sibanda. Curator: Raphael Chikukwa. Deputy Curator: Tafadzwa Gwetai. Scientific Committee: Saki Mafundikwa, Biggie Samwanda, Fabian Kangai, Reverend Paul Damasane, Nontsikelelo Mutiti, Stephen Garan'anga, Dominic Benhura. Venue: Santa Maria della Pieta

   

ITALO-LATIN AMERICAN INSTITUTE

 

Voces Indígenas

 

Commissioner: Sylvia Irrazábal. Curator: Alfons Hug. Deputy Curator: Alberto Saraiva. Venue: Pavilion at Arsenale

 

ARGENTINA

 

Sofia Medici and Laura Kalauz

 

PLURINATIONAL STATE OF BOLIVIA

 

Sonia Falcone and José Laura Yapita

 

BRAZIL

 

Adriana Barreto

 

Paulo Nazareth

 

CHILE

 

Rainer Krause

 

COLOMBIA

 

León David Cobo,

 

María Cristina Rincón and Claudia Rodríguez

 

COSTA RICA

 

Priscilla Monge

 

ECUADOR

 

Fabiano Kueva

 

EL SALVADOR

 

Mauricio Kabistan

 

GUATEMALA

 

Sandra Monterroso

 

HAITI

 

Barbara Prézeau Stephenson

 

HONDURAS

 

Leonardo González

 

PANAMA

 

Humberto Vélez

 

NICARAGUA

 

Raúl Quintanilla

 

PARAGUAY

 

Erika Meza

 

Javier López

 

PERU

 

José Huamán Turpo

 

URUGUAY

 

Gustavo Tabares

   

Ellen Slegers

     

001 Inverso Mundus. AES+F

 

Magazzino del Sale n. 5, Dorsoduro, 265 (Fondamenta delle Zattere ai Saloni); Palazzo Nani Mocenigo, Dorsoduro, 960

 

May 9th – October 31st

 

Organization: VITRARIA Glass + A Museum

 

www.vitraria.com

 

www.inversomundus.com

   

Catalonia in Venice: Singularity

 

Cantieri Navali, Castello, 40 (Calle Quintavalle)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Institut Ramon Llull

 

www.llull.cat

 

venezia2015.llull.cat

   

Conversion. Recycle Group

 

Chiesa di Sant’Antonin, Castello (Campo Sant’Antonin)

 

May 6th - October 31st

 

Organization: Moscow Museum of Modern Art

 

www.mmoma.ru/

   

Dansaekhwa

 

Palazzo Contarini-Polignac, Dorsoduro, 874 (Accademia)

 

May 7th – August 15th

 

Organization: The Boghossian Foundation

 

www.villaempain.com

   

Dispossession

 

Palazzo Donà Brusa, Campo San Polo, 2177

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: European Capital of Culture Wroclaw 2016

 

wroclaw2016.pl/biennale/

   

EM15 presents Doug Fishbone’s Leisure Land Golf

 

Arsenale Docks, Castello, 40A, 40B, 41C

 

May 6th - July 26th

 

Organization: EM15

 

www.em15venice.co.uk

   

Eredità e Sperimentazione

 

Grand Hotel Hungaria & Ausonia, Viale Santa Maria Elisabetta, 28, Lido di Venezia

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Istituto Nazionale di BioArchitettura - Sezione di Padova

 

www.bioarchitettura.it

   

Frontiers Reimagined

 

Palazzo Grimani, Castello, 4858 (Ramo Grimani)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Tagore Foundation International; Polo museale del Veneto

 

www.frontiersreimagined.org

   

Glasstress 2015 Gotika

 

Istituto Veneto di Scienze Lettere ed Arti, Palazzo Cavalli Franchetti, San Marco, 2847 (Campo Santo Stefano); Chiesa di Santa Maria della Visitazione, Centro Culturale Don Orione Artigianelli, Dorsoduro, 919 (Zattere); Fondazione Berengo, Campiello della Pescheria, 15, Murano;

 

May 9th — November 22nd

 

Organization: The State Hermitage Museum

 

www.hermitagemuseum.org

   

Graham Fagen: Scotland + Venice 2015

 

Palazzo Fontana, Cannaregio, 3829 (Strada Nova)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Scotland + Venice

 

www.scotlandandvenice.com

   

Grisha Bruskin. An Archaeologist’s Collection

 

Former Chiesa di Santa Caterina, Cannaregio, 4941-4942

 

May 6th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Centro Studi sulle Arti della Russia (CSAR), Università Ca’ Foscari Venezia

 

www.unive.it/csar

   

Helen Sear, ... The Rest Is Smoke

 

Santa Maria Ausiliatrice, Castello, 450 (Fondamenta San Gioacchin)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Cymru yn Fenis/Wales in Venice

 

www.walesinvenice.org.uk

   

Highway to Hell

 

Palazzo Michiel, Cannaregio, 4391/A (Strada Nova)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Hubei Museum of Art

 

www.hbmoa.com

   

Humanistic Nature and Society (Shan-Shui) – An Insight into the Future

 

Palazzo Faccanon, San Marco, 5016 (Mercerie)

 

May 7th – August 4th

 

Organization: Shanghai Himalayas Museum

 

www.himalayasmuseum.org

   

In the Eye of the Thunderstorm: Effervescent Practices from the Arab World & South Asia

 

Dorsoduro, 417 (Zattere)

 

May 6th - November 15th

 

Organization: ArsCulture

 

www.arsculture.org/

 

www.eyeofthunderstorm.com

   

Italia Docet | Laboratorium- Artists, Participants, Testimonials and Activated Spectators

 

Palazzo Barbarigo Minotto, San Marco, 2504 (Fondamenta Duodo o Barbarigo)

 

May 9th – June 30th; September 11st – October 31st

 

Organization: Italian Art Motherboard Foundation (i-AM Foundation)

 

www.i-amfoundation.org

 

www.venicebiennale-italiadocet.org

   

Jaume Plensa: Together

 

Basilica di San Giorgio Maggiore, Isola di San Giorgio Maggiore

 

May 6th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Abbazia di San Giorgio Maggiore Benedicti Claustra Onlus

 

www.praglia.it

   

Jenny Holzer "War Paintings"

 

Museo Correr, San Marco, 52 (Piazza San Marco)

 

May 6th – November 22nd

 

Organization: The Written Art Foundation; Museo Correr, Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia

 

www.writtenartfoundation.com

 

correr.visitmuve.it

   

Jump into the Unknown

 

Palazzo Loredan dell’Ambasciatore, Dorsoduro, 1261-1262

 

May 9th – June 18th

 

Organization: Nine Dragon Heads

 

9dh-venice.com

   

Learn from Masters

 

Palazzo Bembo, San Marco, 4793 (Riva del Carbon)

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Pan Tianshou Foundation

 

pantianshou.caa.edu.cn/foundation_en

   

My East is Your West

 

Palazzo Benzon, San Marco, 3927

 

May 6th – October 31st

 

Organization: The Gujral Foundation

 

www.gujralfoundation.org

       

Ornamentalism. The Purvitis Prize

 

Arsenale Nord, Tesa 99

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: The Secretariat of the Latvian Presidency of the Council of the European Union in 2015

 

www.purvisabalva.lv/en/ornamentalism

   

Path and Adventure

 

Arsenale, Castello, 2126/A (Campo della Tana)

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: The Civic and Municipal Affairs Bureau; The Macao Museum of Art; The Cultural Affairs Bureau

 

www.iacm.gov.mo

 

www.mam.gov.mo

 

www.icm.gov.mo

   

Patricia Cronin: Shrine for Girls, Venice

 

Chiesa di San Gallo, San Marco, 1103 (Campo San Gallo)

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Brooklyn Rail Curatorial Projects

 

curatorialprojects.brooklynrail.org

   

Roberto Sebastian Matta. Sculture

 

Giardino di Palazzo Soranzo Cappello, Soprintendenza BAP per le Province di Venezia, Belluno, Padova e Treviso, Santa Croce, 770 (Fondamenta Rio Marin)

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Fondazione Echaurren Salaris

 

www.fondazioneechaurrensalaris.it

 

www.maggioregam.com/56Biennale_Matta

   

Salon Suisse: S.O.S. Dada - The World Is A Mess

 

Palazzo Trevisan degli Ulivi, Dorsoduro, 810 (Campo Sant'Agnese)

 

May 9th; June 4th - 6th; September 10th - 12th; October 15th - 17th; November 19th – 21st

 

Organization: Swiss Arts Council Pro Helvetia

 

www.prohelvetia.ch

 

www.biennials.ch

   

Sean Scully: Land Sea

 

Palazzo Falier, San Marco, 2906

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Fondazione Volume!

 

www.fondazionevolume.com

   

Sepphoris. Alessandro Valeri

 

Molino Stucky, interior atrium, Giudecca, 812

 

May 9th – November 22nd

 

Organization: Assessorato alla Cultura del Comune di Narni(TR); a Sidereal Space of Art; Satellite Berlin

 

www.sepphorisproject.org

   

Tesla Revisited

 

Palazzo Nani Mocenigo, Dorsoduro, 960

 

May 9th – October 18th

 

Organization: VITRARIA Glass + A Museum

 

www.vitraria.com/

   

The Bridges of Graffiti

 

Arterminal c/o Terminal San Basilio, Dorsoduro (Fondamenta Zattere al Ponte Lungo)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Associazione Culturale Inossidabile

 

www.inossidabileac.com

   

The Dialogue of Fire. Ceramic and Glass Masters from Barcelona to Venice

 

Palazzo Tiepolo Passi, San Polo, 2774

 

May 6th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Fundaciò Artigas; ArsCulture

 

www.fundacio-artigas.com/

 

www.arsculture.org/

 

www.dialogueoffire.org

   

The Question of Beings

 

Istituto Santa Maria della Pietà, Castello, 3701

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Museum of Contemporary Art, Taipei (MoCA, Taipei)

 

www.mocataipei.org.tw

   

The Revenge of the Common Place

 

Università Ca' Foscari, Ca' Bernardo, Dorsoduro, 3199 (Calle Bernardo)

 

May 9th – September 30th

 

Organization: Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Free University Brussels-VUB)

 

www.vub.ac.be/

   

The Silver Lining. Contemporary Art from Liechtenstein and other Microstates

 

Palazzo Trevisan degli Ulivi, Dorsoduro, 810 (Campo Sant'Agnese)

 

October 24th – November 1st

 

Organization: Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein

 

www.kunstmuseum.li

 

www.silverlining.li

   

The Sound of Creation. Paintings + Music by Beezy Bailey and Brian Eno

 

Conservatorio Benedetto Marcello, Palazzo Pisani, San Marco, 2810 (Campo Santo Stefano)

 

May 7th - November 22nd

 

Organization: ArsCulture

 

www.arsculture.org/

   

The Union of Fire and Water

 

Palazzo Barbaro, San Marco, 2840

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: YARAT Contemporary Art Organisation

 

www.yarat.az

 

www.bakuvenice2015.com

   

Thirty Light Years - Theatre of Chinese Art

 

Palazzo Rossini, San Marco, 4013 (Campo Manin)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: GAC Global Art Center Foundation; The Guangdong Museum of Art

 

www.globalartcenter.org

 

www.gdmoa.org

   

Tsang Kin-Wah: The Infinite Nothing, Hong Kong in Venice

 

Arsenale, Castello, 2126 (Campo della Tana)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: M+, West Kowloon Cultural District; Hong Kong Arts Development Council

 

www.westkowloon.hk/en/mplus

 

www.hkadc.org.hk

 

www.venicebiennale.hk

   

Under the Surface, Newfoundland and Labrador at Venice

 

Galleria Ca' Rezzonico, Dorsoduro, 2793

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Terra Nova Art Foundation

 

tnaf.ca

   

Ursula von Rydingsvard

 

Giardino della Marinaressa, Castello (Riva dei Sette Martiri)

 

May 6th - November 22nd

 

Organization:Yorkshire Sculpture Park

 

www.ysp.co.uk

   

We Must Risk Delight: Twenty Artists from Los Angeles

 

Magazzino del Sale n. 3, Dorsoduro, 264 (Zattere)

 

May 7th - November 22nd

 

Organization: bardoLA

 

www.bardoLA.org

   

Wu Tien-Chang: Never Say Goodbye

 

Palazzo delle Prigioni, Castello, 4209 (San Marco)

 

May 9th - November 22nd

 

Organization: Taipei Fine Arts Museum of Taiwan

 

www.tfam.museum

   

Formed on 14Mar27 Pan Am was the largest US international carrier until its demise on 04Dec91.

 

Delivered new to Pan Am as N802PA on 31May85. To Delta Air Lines on 01Nov91. To Federal Express as N417FE on 25Aug95 and converted to a freighter. WFU at Victorville 01Jan10. Cancelled 25Jan16 and scrapped.

Gold bracelet in the form of a coiled snake. This style of bracelet was originally introduced to Egypt via the Ptolemaic Greeks, and the Romans - who defeated the Ptolemy dynasty, subjugating Egypt - subsequently went crazy for them. Another snake bracelet was found in recent excavations.

 

The location where this bracelet has been lost, as it was looted during early excavations and presented in the early 19th century to Ferdinand II, King of Naples and Sicily. This era was all about finding 'treasure' from Pompeii for the nobles to display in their palaces and grand homes. Unfortunately, we lose context for these finds when we don't have the information about their findspots, disposition, etc.

 

The British Museum has far better photos that show the squiggly tail of the snake, impossible to photograph in its current display case: www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1946-0702-2?sel...

 

Roman, 1st century CE, from Pompeii.

 

British Museum, London (1946,0702.2)

NAO Power is a Platform Supply Vessel, designed and built by ULSTEIN. The hull form, with the ULSTEIN X-BOW®,

combined with diesel electric propulsion system, ensures the best performances with regard to fuel consumption, sea

keeping, station keeping, and speed.

 

The main propulsion system comprises two azimuth pulling thrusters, each driven by frequency controlled variable speed electric motor.

 

One retractable azimuth thruster and two tunnel thrusters forward are installed, ensuring the vessel to obtain the best

station keeping capabilities with ERN[99,99,96,90].

 

The vessel is equipped, built and certified according to IMO Class II for Dynamic Positioning

 

MAIN PARTICULARS:

Length overall 83,40 m

Length between p.p. 76,50 m

Breadth moulded 18.00 m

Depth main deck 8,00 m

Max. load line draft midship 6.70 m

Max Speed (at T=4,5 m, approx) 15,6 knots

ERN 99.99.96.90

 

ACCOMMODATION:

Accommodation and equipment for 23 persons

 

CAPACITIES:

Cargo deck area (free area - 10T/5T/m2) 850 m2

Deck cargo (COG=1.0 above main deck) 2 240 t

Deadweight 4 200

 

MAIN ENGINES & GENERATOR SETS:

2 off main diesel engines, 2 250 ekW each, 690 V, 1 800 rpm

2 off main diesel engines, 940 ekW each, 690 V, 1 800 rpm

 

EMERGENCY GENERATOR SET:

1 off emergency generator set, 187 ekW, 690 V, 1 800 rpm

 

THRUSTER:

3 off el. driven side thrusters forward:

2 x Tunnel thrusters, 880kW, 0-1200 RPM

1 x Azimuth retractable thruster, 880 kW, 1800RPM

 

MAIN PROPULSION:

2 off azimuth thrusters, el. driven frequency controlled propellers

and water cooled drives.

Power: 2 200 ekW each

 

DECK EQUIPMENT:

1 off Hydraulic deck/ provison crane, 3T 18M

Hoover Dam from the bypass overlook

Snow and ice beginning to form on the surface of Crescent Lake, Berrien County, Michigan.

30-Jun-2018 Ralli Museum

tumblr.

Saïd Kinos

Eindhoven (NL)

We are exploring large hollow forms in polymer clay. The objective is to create volume without additional weight. Each of the objects shown is about 4 inches in diameter.

Bella Sky.

on Instagram ift.tt/1LunDJJ

Joaquín Torres-García, Construction with Curved Forms, 1931, oil and nails on wood, 49.5 x 41 x 1.3 cm (The Museum of Modern Art)

PGB Photographer & Creative - © Philip Romeyn - Phillostar Gone Ballistic 2021 - Photo may not be edited from its original form. Commercial use is prohibited without contacting me.

via Blogger ipmanmovie.blogspot.com/2016/05/black-flag-wing-chun-wing...

www.hekkiboen.com

#Ip Man Movie, #Black Flag Wing Chun Movie, #Wing Chun Kung fu, #Wing Chun Technique, #Wing Chun Video, #Wing Chun Training, #Wing Chun Forms, #Wing Chun Dummy, #Wing Chun Schools, #Yim Wing Chun, #Ip Man Wing Chun

459 478 484 or this.. but i felt free today.

Green Form Fly Orchid (Ophrys insectifera var. ochroleuca) photographed in Hampshire England

The awesome prizes I got as a Runner Up for the Form Your Most Imaginative Voltron Scene Contest. The Voltron set is signed by the designers and graphic designer, plus a winners certificate.

MAJAELRAYO

 

Majaelrayo es un municipio español perteneciente a la provincia de Guadalajara, en la comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha. Forma parte también de la comarca de la Sierra Norte.

 

La localidad está incluida en la llamada arquitectura negra, debido a que tradicionalmente las construcciones están hechas con pizarra como material constructivo principal, tanto para muros como para cubiertas, cerramientos de parcelas, suelos, etc.

El municipio, que tiene una superficie de 54,94 km², cuenta según el padrón municipal para 2017 del INE con 57 habitantes y una densidad de 1,04 hab./km².

 

RUTA DE LA ARQUITECTURA NEGRA

 

La pizarra es el elemento estructural fundamental en las construcciones de este tipo de arquitectura, sirviendo para cubiertas y paramentos. El uso de la pizarra provoca que sus pueblos presenten un aspecto negruzco en sus vistas.

Estas construcciones se asientan en prados formando pequeños núcleos o grupos aislados de elementos auxiliares.

Los elementos más peculiares y llamativos de la arquitectura negra son las pequeñas edificaciones usadas para guardar el material tanto agrícola como ganadero y las tainas y las majadas utilizadas como cobertizos para el ganado en lugares aislados en la montaña. Estos elementos junto con las viviendas y los edificios comunitarios constituyen todo el elenco arquitectónico.

Son las viviendas los edificios más elaborados con múltiples recursos para la utilidad y comodidad de los habitantes de una zona que sufre de un clima de montaña muy frío y tendente a las nevadas.

La vivienda representa el elemento constructivo más importante de la arquitectura negra. Se adaptan a las duras condiciones climáticas que tienen que soportar sus inquilinos, sobre todo, en invierno. Tradicionalmente las viviendas se han mezclado con unas dependencias para los animales domésticos, quedando normalmente la planta baja separada en dos dependencias: una para ovejas, vacas, cabras y gallinas y, otra, para los sus dueños; y la planta alta para reservas de alimentos, paja y leña que permitan sobrevivir los meses más crudos del invierno.

Los recursos disponibles hace que su construcción se base en la pizarra, el barro y la madera, ya sea de roble, pino, chopo u olmo, según la zona en la que se encuentra la vivienda. Los volúmenes compactos de estas construcciones sólo se abren al exterior con ventanales muy pequeños en la fachada sur que responden únicamente a un mínimo de ventilación e iluminación de la estancia. El resto de las fachadas quedan ciegas por no recibir a penas luz solar durante buena parte del año. Estos ventanales y la puerta de acceso que se abren en la fachada sur se recuadran con grandes refuerzos de madera.

Calle de Umbralejo. La construcción de la vivienda comienza con la ejecución de los muros sobre el terreno asentando pizarra sobre barro y cantos rodados, mezclados con paja, consiguiendo un espesor de unos ciuncuenta o sesenta centímetros. Los tabiques interiores se construyen con armazón de palos verticales, llamados colondas, entre los que se colocan adobes. La estructura interior se realiza a base de postes sobre los que se sitúan las vigas horizontales. Sobre los muros descansan las vigas horizontales de los forjados y, sobre ellas, el entablado del piso superior.

La planta superiorse contruye con postes de distintos tamaños, según la inclinación de la cubierta, que soportan tanto las vigas longitudinales, llamadas sopandas, como la viga de la cumbrera de la cubierta, normalmente paralela a la fachada. Sobre las sopandas se apoyan los cuartones que forman los faldones de la cubierta, construida con lajas de pizarra extendidas sobre una capa de barro mezclado conpaja para dar mayor consistencia, soportada por un entablado asentado en los cuartones.

Normalmente se presentan en las viviendas cubiertas a dos aguas, siendo el faldón de la parte norte, que se extiende diagonalmente desde la parte más alta de la vivienda hasta casi el suelo mostrando un desnivel ciertamente pronunciado, de mucho mayor tamaño que el de la parte sur, permitiendo así la extensión de la fachada meridional. En muchas ocasiones, la vivienda carece de faldón en la parte sur.

Pórtico de entrada a un edificio en Majaelrayo. Bajo la cubierta, en el piso superior, se sitúa el desván que se presenta llena de alimentos, paja, forrajes y leña en los meses más crudos del invierno. En la planta baja es donde residen habitualmente el ganado y los moradores separados en dos estancias. Una sola puerta sirve de entrada tanto para animales domésticos como para sus dueños. La puerta se sitúa siempre en la fachada sur y se cubre por un pequeño tejado independiente o por la prolongación de la cubierta. Está hecha o bien de una sola hoja de madera labrada con hacha, o bien de hoja partida horizontalmente en dos mitades. Por ella se accede al zaguán, solado con lajas de pizarra y provisto de poyos adosados a las paredes. Desde aquí se accede, por un lado, a la cuadra, por otro, a los dormitorios, por unas escaleras se esciende al desván y como habitáculo central de la casa, la cocina, que sirve, a parte de lugar donde preparar los alimentos, como sala de estar, comedor y recibidor y, a demás, en ella se encuentra el horno para el pan y, con ello, la chimenea y es, también, donde cura la matanza.

Las viviendas modernas de la arquitectura negra muestran construcciones más propias de la época actual respondiendo al estilo de vida de hoy, manteniendo como caracterísitca común a las viejas construcciones el hecho de cubrir los muros con lajas de pizarra negra, las grandes cubiertas y las fachadas, olvidándose, por desuso, de las estancias dedicadas al cobertizo del ganado y al almacenaje de víveres.

 

Graffiti is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire.

 

Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions

 

"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".

 

The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.

 

The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.

 

Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.

 

Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:

 

Wet with cool dew drops

fragrant with perfume from the flowers

came the gentle breeze

jasmine and water lily

dance in the spring sunshine

side-long glances

of the golden-hued ladies

stab into my thoughts

heaven itself cannot take my mind

as it has been captivated by one lass

among the five hundred I have seen here.

 

Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.

 

Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.

 

There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.

 

Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.

 

The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.

 

In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:

 

During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".

 

Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.

 

While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’

 

Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.

 

An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.

 

Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983

 

Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture

Main article: Commercial graffiti

With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.

 

In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".

 

Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.

 

Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.

 

Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.

 

Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.

 

There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.

 

The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.

 

Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.

 

Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis

 

Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.

 

Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.

 

Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"

 

Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal

 

In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.

 

Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.

 

Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.

 

Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.

 

With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.

 

Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.

 

Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.

 

Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.

 

Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.

 

Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.

 

Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.

 

Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.

 

The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.

 

I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.

 

The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.

 

Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.

 

Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.

 

In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".

 

There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.

 

Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.

 

A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.

By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.

 

Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.

 

In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.

 

A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.

 

From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.

 

In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.

 

Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.

 

Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.

 

Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.

  

In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.

 

Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.

 

In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.

 

In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."

 

In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.

 

In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.

 

In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.

 

In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.

 

In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.

 

The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.

 

To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."

 

In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.

 

In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.

 

Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".

 

Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)

In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.

 

Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.

 

Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.

 

In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.

 

Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.

 

Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.

 

To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.

 

When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.

Living, breathing, and cast in stone

 

With the kind permission of Svend DK, I have created this diptych from cropped versions of two of his photos.

 

Please do not copy or blog this diptych

  

Forming the 1M23 10:14 Hull to Manchester Piccadilly is a four-car class 123/124 hybrid DMU at Kilnhurst Central - 04/04/1984 (11:49).

"New Form Of Carbon Is Harder Than Diamonds, And Glows" t.co/ic9qJStyd6 #_toplocalworld #feedly

..stay outta trouble loc!

Casa Batlló, Barcelona, Spain

 

flickriver.com/photos/javier1949/popular-interesting/

 

Palacio Longoria - Sociedad General de Autores

Calle Fernando VI, 4 c/v a Pelayo. Madrid

 

Arquitecto: José Grases Riera Proyecto 1902 Obras 1902-05. Colaborador en la dirección de las obras José López Salaberry. Terminación: Francisco García Nava 1912-1913. Reforma : Carlos Arniches Moltó 1950-1951. Rehabilitación: Proyecto: Ángeles Hernández-Rubio y Santiago Fajardo 992. Obras: Santiago Fajardo: 1993-95.

 

Declarado Bien de Interés Cultural BIC con la categoría de Monumento en 1996

 

Seguimos a Oscar da Rocha y Ricardo Muñoz en su excelente trabajo “Madrid modernista: guía de arquitectura”, y al primero de ellos en su magnífica tesis doctoral acerca del Modernismo en Madrid

El palacio de Longoria es, sin duda, el ejemplar más célebre del modernismo madrileño. Mandado edificar por el banquero Javier González Longoria para su vivienda privada y la sede de su negocio. Para ello recurrió al arquitecto José Grases Riera –de origen catalán, aunque afincado en Madrid desde finales del siglo XIX– cuya trayectoria, que incluye el popular Monumento a Alfonso XII en el Retiro, representa una de las mejores manifestaciones del eclecticismo característico de la arquitectura madrileña de aquella época.

 

Frente a sus obras más tradicionales Grases proyectó un edificio singular y novedoso, que exhibe una profusa decoración modernista inspirada en el art nouveau francés (sinuosidades naturalistas, flores variadas, cabezas femeninas, formas orgánicas diversas, etc.). Este peculiar giro en los fundamentos estilísticos del autor debe vincularse, además de a la influencia de las nuevas modas, a los deseos del propietario. Pero toda la exuberante ornamentación modernista, aplicada como un revestimiento decorativo, prende sobre unos volúmenes que responden a criterios convencionales (esencialmente eclécticos), manifiestos tanto en la planta del edificio (en forma de L con la clásica rotonda en la esquina) como en el sistema constructivo mixto (muros de carga con forjados de vigas y bovedillas) y en la composición de los alzados (simétricos y rematados por un ático en forma de mansarda).

La planta se conforma, sobre un solar en esquina sensiblemente cuadrado, mediante dos cuerpos rectangulares, paralelos a las dos calles, ensamblados por un torreón circular que acoge la gran escalera. El protagonismo visual recae sobre el tratamiento decorativo dado a las fachadas, realizadas en piedra artificial con formas suaves, vegetales y orgánicas que dan una continuidad espacial a las superficies con una decoración que lo invade todo enlazando unos elementos con otros. La fachada principal se retranquea para iluminar los sótanos y queda realzada con la inclusión de un patio inglés cerrado con una bella verja de forja, que tras su última restauración ha recuperado lo mejor de su sugestiva apariencia. La inclusión en el ático de azulejos cerámicos con piezas irregulares, recuerda al “trencadís” creado por Antoni Gaudí. La planta en “L” deja un patio-jardín interior que permite desarrollar una interesante fachada al mismo con una galería porticada sobre soportes en forma de palmeras y pabellones semicirculares en los extremos.

 

En el interior, se distingue la soberbia escalera principal, una de las más brillantes piezas del modernismo español, cuya admirable combinación de hierro (armadura), bronce (barandillas), mármol (escalones), yeso (relieves) y vidrio (cúpula) sigue la concepción modernista de integración de todas las artes. Trazada a partir de unos diseños extraordinaria calidad, la escalinata configura una espectacular escenografía iluminada cenitalmente por una hermosa vidriera. De traza imperial y perímetro circular se sitúa en la rotonda de la esquina, eje del edificio, y la corona una impresionante cúpula de hierro y vidrio con estructura nervada en estrella que apoya en soportes de hierro. La barandilla es asimismo una sugestiva obra de forja con dinámicos elementos vegetales salpicados con flores y hojas de latón movidos por el característico "golpe de látigo". En una labor de tal magnificencia y complejidad Grases debió contar con la colaboración de artesanos muy cualificados, pero desgraciadamente ignoramos sus nombres.

En cualquier caso el conjunto origina una escenografía espectacular y, sobre todo, plenamente modernista. La escalera es sin duda el elemento art nouveau más ortodoxo de todo el edificio, ya que en ella los distintos materiales reciben un tratamiento decorativo (identificación entre estructura y ornamento), existe una absoluta integración de las artes (arquitectura, metalistería, escultura y vidriería), se desarrolla un espacio dinámico y se crea un ambiente hedonista y totalmente novedoso. En resumen, el Palacio de Longoria es, por su condición ecléctica, el edificio más representativo del modernismo madrileño pero también, por su abundante decoración y su magnífica escalinata, uno de los más excepcionales.

 

Según nos comenta Oscar da Rocha en su tesis, José Grases Riera (1850-1919, terminó sus estudio de arquitectura el año 1878 en Barcelona) y en agosto de 1902 firmó la memoria y los planos del que habría de ser su trabajo más polémico. Hasta entonces sus obras madrileñas habían estado sometidas a la influencia del eclecticismo neobarroco y afrancesado que podemos apreciar en La Equitativa (1887-1891), El New Club (1899-1902), el Monumento a Alfonso XII (1901-1922) o el Teatro Lírico (1901-1902); edificios todos ellos muy alejados del modernismo exhibido por el Palacio de Longoria. Siempre se ha responsabilizado de tan inesperado cambio estilístico al propietario, Francisco Javier González Longoria, y hasta ahora esta idea sigue siendo plenamente asumible.

González Longoria poseyó el palacio muy poco tiempo. En 1912, por encargo de su nuevo propietario el dentista Florestán Aguilar, el arquitecto municipal Francisco García Nava realiza unas obras de reforma en las que introduce algunos elementos nuevos a fin de destinar el edificio para residencia personal y sede de la Compañía Dental Española. Así, realiza, entre otras obras, la conclusión de las fachadas, especialmente la configuración de las abiertas al jardín. A partir de aquel momento sus interiores se fueron degradando y desapareció la distribución original. Durante el tiempo en que el palacio perteneció a Florestán Aguilar –hasta mediados de los años 40– fueron varias las obras ejecutadas. A la vez que se reformaba el edificio, se encargó la realización de un garaje-cochera. Esta construcción, situada al fondo de la parcela y hoy perdida, podría ser el lugar que durante algún tiempo sirvió de taller al pintor Julio Romero de Torres. En 1919, el arquitecto Francisco Pingarrón Yarritu proyectó un pabellón en la azotea, con fachada al jardín –recientemente sustituido por un ligero volumen de hierro y cristal–, que con poco acierto intentaba respetar el aspecto modernista del conjunto. En 1946, los herederos de Aguilar vendieron el inmueble a Construcciones Civiles, que traslada aquí su sede, y en 1950 lo adquiere la Sociedad General de Autores, su actual propietaria, que encarga al arquitecto Carlos Arniches una radical transformación, realizando el cierre de las galerías de la fachada posterior y modificando por completo la organización y decoración interiores. Únicamente respetó el eje central, con el zaguán de entrada y la gran escalinata que, junto con la interesante escalera de servicio, son las únicas partes internas del edificio que conservan su aspecto original, además de la ejecución de una ampliación sobre un edificio colindante. La misma Sociedad emprendió en la década de 1990 la recuperación del edificio, entonces muy deteriorado, realizando la restauración de las fachadas y la rehabilitación total de los interiores. Se eliminan añadidos superfluos o antiestéticos (construcciones del jardín, pabellón de la terraza, etc.), se recuperan los motivos decorativos (algunos perdidos hacía décadas) y se devuelve a las fachadas el cromatismo uniforme (color siena) que suaviza la sensación de yuxtaposición de los elementos ornamentales sobre los muros –muy evidente cuando tenían tonalidades distintas–. Muy elogiable es el trabajo de recuperación de la escalera de servicio, uno de los escasos ámbitos que perduran del edificio original, en la que hoy se combinan acertadamente elementos antiguos y modernos. Las figuras en relieve de las esquinas y la cerrajería de los antepechos, con un diseño similar al de la verja de cerramiento, pertenecen a la primera decoración. Ahora se complementan con un zócalo de mármol de inspiración modernista y un añadido en la cancela del ascensor –basado en el modelo del antepecho– que respetan totalmente la coherencia del conjunto. Las obras fueron proyectadas por Ángeles Hernández-Rubio y Santiago Fajardo y realizadas bajo dirección de este último arquitecto.

Por todas sus cualidades arquitectónicas y artísticas el edificio fue declarado en 1996 Bien de Interés Cultural con la categoría de Monumento.

The four horses that form the Rising Tide exhibit are on the Thames foreshore near Vauxhall bridge.

 

While the muscled bodies of the horses are rendered in beautiful, anatomical detail, the heads are stylised and machine-like, recalling the mechanical "horse heads" of oil well pumpjacks: familiar and eerily alien-looking all at once.

 

Each horse also has a rider, making it impossible not to think of the four horsemen of the apocalypse – although the apocalypse these figures foretell is an environmental, rather than a Biblical one.

 

Two of the horses carry figures representing businessmen or politicians: shirts straining against full, suited bellies; arrogant noses tilted skywards. The other two riders are young children.

October 2016

May I have another biscuit, mum?