The Crab Nebula (catalogue designations M1, NGC 1952, Taurus A) is a supernova remnant and pulsar wind nebula in the constellation of Taurus. The nebula was discovered by English astronomer John Bevis in 1731. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified that corresponds with a historically-observed supernova explosion. At an apparent magnitude of 8.4, the nebula lies in the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, at a distance of about 2.0 kiloparsecs (6,500 ly) from Earth. (Wikipedia)

 

Imaged in December 2024 from Los Coloraos, Spain in the Turismo Astronómico complex in Gorafe using the C14 Edge HD telescope and ASI 6200 MM Pro camera. Three narrowband filters of Sii, Ha and Oiii were used to produce this colour palette.

 

Full resolution and technical details available at astrob.in/j0ukp0/0/

 

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ЧС4 ChS4 (Czechoslovak type 4; type designations - from 52E0 to 52E5) - passenger single-section six-axle 25 kV 50Hz AC electric locomotive, power 5100 kW, hourly speed 101,5 km/h, design speed 180 km/h and tractive force 17900 kgf. The empty weight of the electric locomotive with 2/3 of the sand stock is 123 tons.

In 1963 Škoda built the first prototype electric locomotive S 699.001 (32E), which became the basis for the construction of AC electric locomotive ChS4 (Škoda 52E). At the end of 1965, testing began in the USSR of a prototype of the series CS4-001 (52E0). After the necessary modifications of the running gear, electric brake and increasing the power of the locomotive up to 5100 kW in 1966 began production of the 52E model, which lasted until 1972. Electric locomotives with numbers from 012 to 061 were assigned type 52E2, from 062 to 160 - 52E3, from 162 to 211 - 52E4, from 212 to 231 - 52E5. A total of 230 were produced. Electric locomotives with numbers from 012 (from 52E2 to 52E5) were produced without the ineffective rheostat brake. In addition, the layout, ventilation system, design of kingpin assemblies and some mechanical parts were changed on the locomotives.

The body and driver's cabin cladding is made of fiberglass. The high forehead, large glazing area and rounded contours of fiberglass cladding gave the locomotive a unique look created by Czech designer Otakar Diblik

 

Since 1973, the plant switched to the production of the CS4T model, differing in material and shape of the body, design of individual apparatuses, as well as the presence of rheostat brake.

London headquarters of Channel Four Television, including offices, post-production edit suites, restaurant, screening room and originally a studio. Built to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership (partner in charge, John Young), 1992-1994. Structural engineers Ove Arup and Partners.

 

The mapping of the listed building does not reflect the full extent of its below-ground footprint.

Reasons for Designation

124-126 Horseferry Road, built as the headquarters of Channel Four Television to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership 1992-94, is listed at Grade II for the following principal reasons:

 

Architectural interest:

 

* as an elegant work of the High-tech movement, displaying many of its key principles, such as the separation of services from the spaces served, the use of prefabricated elements and a technological aesthetic based upon expressed structure and exposed services; * for its logical L-plan with a dynamic, highly articulated corner composition and entrance sequence, dominated by a curved, top-hung, structural glass wall; * for the sophistication of its design, in which intricate details, executed in a consistent palette of materials, are integrated into a rigorous modular framework; * for its sequence of three linked interior spaces, centring on the dramatic full-height entrance atrium, to which are connected the fan-shaped restaurant and the subterranean screening room and foyer; * as a late-C20 exemplar of both a prestigious, owner-occupied headquarters building and a television centre, equipped primarily for the commissioning, but not the production of television programming, as per Channel 4’s remit; * for its designed flexibility to allow for changing technologies and operational needs, combining set-piece interiors with adaptable office workspaces; * for its degree of survival, with little alteration externally or to its key interior spaces.

 

Historic interest:

 

* as the purpose-built headquarters of Channel 4, a key player in television broadcasting history, commercially funded but with a public-service remit to provide innovative and diverse programming; * as an important British work by Richard Rogers Partnership, a practice of international renown led by one of Britain’s most celebrated architects.

History

124-126 Horseferry Road was built in 1992-1994 as the headquarters for Channel 4, a publicly owned, commercially-funded public service broadcaster, established with a remit to make innovative, experimental and distinctive programmes. After launching on 2 November 1982, its audience share gradually increased and the station soon outgrew its collection of rented offices in the West End. The switch to digital broadcasting also loomed. The chief executive, Michael Grade, and the chairman, Sir Richard Attenborough, took the decision to build a new headquarters. A suitable site was found at the junction of Horseferry Road and Chadwick Street, and a limited competition held in late 1990.

 

The commission was won by the Richard Rogers Partnership (RRP), who then explored the organisation’s needs through a series of workshops. As Channel 4 was a commissioner and transmitter, but not a producer of programmes, their main requirements were for offices and prestigious spaces to receive clients. The office space was specified to institutional standards so that the building could be readily let or sold in the event of a future move. A 10m deep basement already existed from a previous stalled development, so production and transmission facilities and a minimal studio occupied two subterranean levels, with provision made in the design for adding windows to the lower ground floor in the future, and flooring over the double-height studio to make the space more flexible.

 

RRP proposed a perimeter plan that reinforced the street pattern. Office wings at right angles were hinged by a ‘knuckle’, containing an entrance atrium and restaurant, with offices above. Behind the building a public garden was created, framed to the south and east by a separate housing development which fulfilled a planning condition set by Westminster City Council. In 2007 ‘the big 4’, a metal sculpture designed by Nick Knight and based on the channel’s current on-air identity was erected in the small piazza at the front of the building.

 

Richard Rogers was one of a group of British architects responsible for the High-tech movement, which originated in the 1960s with in a series of loose-fit industrial structures. By the 1980s High-tech architecture was increasingly being translated into urban contexts and cultural commissions. 124-126 Horseferry Road demonstrates many of its key principles, such as the separation of services from the spaces served, the use of prefabricated elements and a technological aesthetic based upon expressed structure and exposed services. It was Rogers’ first central London job after the Lloyd’s Building (1978-1986, listed Grade I), a seminal work of High-tech architecture. The image of Lloyds’ seems to have loomed large. For John Young, partner in charge, 124-126 Horseferry Road is ‘a building in the Lloyds mould.’ (Powell, 2001, 173).

 

The building’s drama is focussed on the entrance front; its transparency revealing the principal interior spaces, giving views right through the building to the public garden, and glimpses of working life within. ‘The effect, especially at night, is televisual’, commented Jonathan Glancey, (The Independent, 1994). The office wings are conventional in their planning and the building was designed to meet the bespoke needs of the client, as well as to be sufficiently adaptable should those needs change, or the building be sold.

 

124-126 Horseferry Road was a BBC Design Awards Finalist 1996 and won a RIBA National Award 1995; Royal Fine Art Commission Award 1995 and Civic Trust Award 1996. Since its opening the building has undergone several phases of internal refurbishment, including, in about 2010, the flooring-over of the double-height basement studio and repurposing of the space for various other uses. Externally, the building is largely unaltered.

 

Television as a broadcasting phenomenon began in the 1930s, with the first regular television service in the world introduced on 2 November 1936 by the BBC. The BBC’s monopoly was broken by the Television Act 1954, which created commercially funded Independent Television (ITV), served by regional franchised networks. Channel 4 arrived in 1982, established under the provisions of the 1980 Broadcasting Act. The act provided for a new, fourth, channel with a remit to ‘encourage innovation and experiment in the form and content of programmes’; its output was to be distinctive, offering programming for tastes not catered for by the commercial broadcaster ITV.

 

Its organisational model was equally distinctive, funded by advertising but adhering to a public service remit, it didn’t produce its own programming, instead commissioning and purchasing material from independent production companies. It employed commissioning editors to nurture the various strands and genres of the channel’s output and made particular efforts to employ people outside the television industry who could bring new and non-traditional perspectives. This meant new voices and new talents, and a greater plurality of programming and representation, including minorities. Channel 4 still proclaims its role as a ‘disruptive, innovative force in UK Broadcasting’ (Channel4.com, accessed 3 December 2021). Channel 4 has been major contributor to the British cultural landscape of the last four decades.

 

Richard Rogers, later Lord Rogers of Riverside, (1933-2021) was born in Florence. He trained at the Architectural Association and Yale University before setting up the Team 4 practice with Norman Foster and others in 1962. Their house for his in-laws, Creekvean in Feock, Cornwall (1964-1967) was listed Grade II in 1998 and upgraded to Grade II* in 2002. Rogers subsequently formed an architectural practice with his then wife, Su Rogers, and from 1970-1977, worked with the Italian architect Renzo Piano. Their Pompidou Centre building in Paris, which opened in 1977, is a major landmark of the High-tech style. Richard Rogers Partnership was formed the same year, with John Young, a veteran team member from Team 4 days, as one of several partners. The Lloyd’s Building together with the Pompidou sealed an international reputation. Other major works by Rogers include: the European Court of Human Rights, Strasbourg (1989-1995), Terminal 4 at Barajas Airport in Madrid (2004), the National Assembly of Wales in Cardiff (2005) and Terminal 5 at Heathrow Airport (2008). Rogers won the RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1985, was knighted in 1991 and was created Baron Rogers of Riverside in 1996. In 2007 the Richard Rogers Partnership was renamed Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners to reflect the practice‘s succession plan.

Details

Once national, now regional, headquarters of Channel Four Television, including offices, post-production edit suites, restaurant, screening room and originally a studio. Built to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership (partner in charge, John Young),1992-1994. Structural engineers Ove Arup and Partners.

 

MATERIALS: the majority of the building has a reinforced concrete frame with metal and glass cladding. The conference rooms have a steel pin-jointed frame and the atrium frontage is of glass, suspended from above and held in tension by a steel cabling system devised by Arup.

 

PLAN: the building is L-shaped in plan, occupying the corner between Horseferry Road to the west and Chadwick Street to the north, with rectangular office wings fronting each road and a concave quadrant knuckle connecting the two and framing a small piazza facing the road junction. The building has four floors above a basement and lower-ground floor levels. To the rear are two terraces; one at ground-floor level, above the larger footprint of the two lower floors, and one at third floor, where the footprint of the central knuckle is set back from the floors below.

 

Each office wing has two internal service cores and externally-expressed stair towers at each end. There is a lift tower at the far end of the Chadwick Street wing and three wall-climber lifts facing Horseferry Road, adjacent to the piazza. The basement level is given over to plant, storage, staff well-being facilities and edit suites. The lower-ground floor is a mixture of open-plan office space, meeting rooms and staff facilities; the main area of interest is the fan-shaped screening room with its circular foyer beneath the piazza, and stair connecting it to the atrium above. The ground floor contains the atrium reception area and large curved restaurant on a slightly lower level behind, overlooking the garden; the office blocks are given over to open-plan work space and a loading bay. First, second and third floors are mainly open-plan work space, with some meeting rooms and private offices as well. Key aspects of the building’s layout are original, including the screening room and foyer, reception atrium and restaurant. There has been reconfiguration in other parts, in particular the flooring-over of the studio, reconfiguration of the editing-suites and the removal of rows of perimeter offices.

 

EXTERIOR: the building’s key aspect faces onto the Horseferry Road/ Chadwick Street junction. The ends of the office wings are pulled back from the corner and the piazza is framed by a High-tech composition of glass and graphite-coloured steel, aluminium and cladding panels, punctuated by vertical flashes of red-painted structural steelwork. The full-height, concave, structural glass wall of the atrium is at the centre, suspended from above by a steel frame. Flanking it to either side are radiused stair towers. The stair towers have bands of glazing following the line of the stair within, almost uninterrupted by vertical supports because the cladding is supported internally on rods hung from above. To the left is a stack of conference rooms with glazed end walls, elevated and supported by a red pin-jointed steel frame. To the right is a stack of glazed lift lobbies serving a bank of three external ‘wall-climber’ lifts running along red steelwork; above are boxed-out service elements and a quasi-Constructivist transmission tower, creating a strong vertical element in the composition. Boiler flues add further interest to the roofline.

 

The piazza has shallow steps and flanking ramps which lead to a circular space immediately in front of the building. The centre of this is occupied by a circular skylight lighting the foyer of the screening room below; a bridge sheltered by a glass canopy stretches across it to a pair of revolving entrance doors. The sculpture, ‘the big 4’* stands towards the front edge of the piazza.

 

The office wings are clad with glazed panels of powder-coated aluminium, at ground floor these are set back behind the exposed concrete posts of the building’s frame, and above they are jettied out slightly, meeting at the corners with narrow, vertical, fully-glazed units. The panels each have four rebated horizontal glazed units divided by a fin-like transom, the lowest unit also having a band of sunscreen steel mesh in front. The floor plates are faced with panelled steel units. The facing components meet with a narrow shadow gap and the overall effect is of a modelled grid with a horizontal emphasis. The rear elevations, both to the office wings and the convexly curved knuckle, follow this aesthetic.

 

INTERIOR: the atrium is the building’s key public-facing interior space. The curved, full-height glazed wall is held in tension by a complex network of steel cables and suspended from above by exposed red steelwork. Set back from the wall, and above the ground-floor reception area, are curved cantilevered walkways at each floor, open to the atrium and floored in concrete panels set with circular glass blocks; behind, offices are enclosed by glazed walls.

 

Behind the reception, at a slightly lower level, is the staff restaurant. This has been refurbished a number of times but retains its distinctive fan shape, exposed concrete ceiling and glazed walls looking out onto the terrace.

 

The screening room, beneath the piazza, has a fan-shaped auditorium and circular foyer. Both spaces have been refurbished but retain perforated steel acoustic panelling and exposed concrete structural elements. The walls of the anti-room are hung with a chain curtain and the space is lit from above by the circular skylight in the piazza pavement; the glazing is held in a steel, umbrella-like structure. A concrete stair with steel balustrade leads from the foyer up to the atrium above.

 

The stairs in the four towers are dog-legged, red with stainless steel tubular balustrades; the treads and risers are of folded steel, supported at the half landings by flanged I-beam newels.

 

The interior most relevant to the building’s special interest are addressed in the paragraphs above. Throughout the rest of the building, the smooth round concrete posts and other concrete structural elements are visible, but spaces have been reconfigured and refurbished to suit operational needs.

 

* Pursuant to s1 (5A) of the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 (‘the Act’) it is declared that ‘the big 4’ sculpture on the building’s piazza is not of special architectural or historic interest, however any works which have the potential to affect the character of the listed building as a building of special architectural or historic interest may still require LBC and this is a matter for the LPA to determine.

The Cadillac Eldorado is a personal luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1953 to 2002 over ten generations. Competitors and similar vehicles included the Lincoln Mark series, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado and Chrysler's Imperial Coupe.

 

The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line during early model years. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years, and the Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 until 1966. Eldorados carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972.

 

NAME

The nameplate Eldorado is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical South American "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.

 

Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating the company's golden anniversary, the name Eldorado was proposed by Mary-Ann Marini (née Zukosky), a secretary in Cadillac's merchandising department — and was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.

 

Palm Springs Life magazine incorrectly attributes the name to the Eldorado Country Club in Indian Wells, California, a favorite resort of General Motors executives in the Coachella Valley — though the resort opened in 1957, five years after Cadillac's own naming competition.

 

Cadillac began using the nameplates 'Eldorado Seville' and 'Eldorado Biarritz' to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The 'Seville' name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1977.

 

FIRST GENERATION (1953)

The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets (aka dagmars) from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.

 

The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheetmetal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors (Aztec red, Alpine white, azure blue and artisan ochre — the last is a yellow hue, although it was shown erroneously as black in the color folder issued on this rare model). Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option, as were wire wheels. The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top in the open car version.

 

Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible, sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750. The 5,610 mm long, 2,030 mm wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. The Eldorado comprised only 5% of Cadillac's sales in 1953.

 

SECOND GENERATION (1954–1956)

In 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price and see a substantial increase in sales. The Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fenderbreaks and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear bodysides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum and also appeared on a unique one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. Two thousand one hundred and fifty Eldorados were sold, nearly four times as many as in 1953.

 

For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender, pointed tailfins. These contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time and were an example of the Eldorado once again pointing the way forward. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.

 

For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version appeared, called the Eldorado Seville at which point the convertible was named the "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Eldorados accounted for nearly 4% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

THIRD GENERATION (1957-1960)

1957 saw the Eldorado (in both convertible and Seville hardtop bodystyles) with a revised rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by a pointed, in-board fin. The rear fenders were commonly referred to as "chipmunk cheeks". This concept was used for two years, but did not spawn any imitators. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The rear fender and deck contour was trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels. Also seen were "shark" style fins pointing towards the back of the cars. A three section built in front bumper was another exclusive trait of the Series 62 Eldorados, which came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sedan Sevilles were also built in 1957.

 

1957 was chiefly notable for the introduction of one of GM's most memorable designs, the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham. Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the Eldorado Brougham was a hand-built, limited car derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953-54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, it featured the first appearance of quad headlights and totally unique trim. The exterior ornamentation included wide, ribbed lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. This four-door hardtop with rear-hinged rear doors was an ultra-luxury car that cost an astonishing $13,074 — twice the price of any other 1957 Eldorado and more than the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud of the same year. It featured a stainless steel roof, self leveling air suspension, the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener, cruise control, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, automatic-release parking brake, electric door locks, dual heating system, silver magnetized glovebox, drink tumblers, cigarette and tissue dispensers, lipstick and cologne, ladies' compact with powder puff, mirror and matching leather notebook, comb and mirror, Arpège atomizer with Lanvin perfume, automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.

 

There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.

 

The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name. The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. Only 400 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1957.

 

An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco Radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.

 

For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.

 

On 1958 2-door Eldorados, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script were mounted to the deck lid. Two-door Eldorados also had ten vertical chevron slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. Broad, sculptured beauty panels decorated the lower rear quarters on all Series 62 Eldorados and extended around the wheel opening to stretch along the body sills. All-new was a special-order Series 62 Eldorado Seville, of which only one was actually built.

 

The major changes to the Eldorado Brougham in 1958 were seen inside the car. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors. A total of 304 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy.

 

The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels. In 1959 the Series 62 became the Series 6200. De Villes and 2-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the Series 6300 and Series 6400 respectively, though they all, including the 4-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to Series 6900), shared the same 3,302 mm wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert, but other trim and equipment features varied. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even 345 hp (257 kW) from the 6.4 L engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with Air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, acruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.

 

The 1960 Cadillacs had smoother, more restrained styling. General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins with oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Cambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.

 

A different Eldorado Brougham was sold for 1959 and 1960. These cars were not quite so extravagantly styled but were very unusual pieces in themselves. Priced at $13,075, they cost $1 more, each, than their older siblings. The company contracted out the assembly to Pininfarina of Italy, with whom the division has had a long-running relationship, and these Eldorados were essentially hand-built in Italy. Ironically only now did it acquire Fleetwood wheel discs and doorsill moldings, presumably because the design work and final touches were still being done by Fleetwood. Discreet, narrow taillights integrated into modest tailfins, and a squared-off rear roof line with rear ventiplanes caused the Italian-built Brougham to contrast sharply to the rounded roof lines, and especially the new "rocketship" taillights and flamboyant fins of the standard 1959 Cadillacs, which are a feature only of that year. A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. It did not sport Eldorado front fender letters or body sill headlights. A fin-like crest, or "skeg," ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodysides and there were special crest medallions on the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The Brougham's styling cues would prove to indicate where standard Cadillac styling would head from 1960 through the early-mid-1960s. The standard equipment list was pared down to match those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass. The Brougham build-quality was not nearly to the standard of the Detroit hand-built 1957–1958 models, and thus the 1959–1960 Broughams did not sell as well as their forebears. However, collector interest and values for these cars remain high. The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 for its remaining two years.

 

The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series Northern Exposure.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (1961–1964)

Cadillac was restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plan, and sat between dual headlamps. New forward slanting front pillars with non-wraparound windshield glass were seen. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back up lights, windshield washer, dual speed wipers, wheel discs, plain fender skirts, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, 6-way power bench seat or bucket seats, power vent windows, whitewall tires, and remote control trunk lock. Rubberized front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone sales fell to 1,450.

 

A mild face lift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertical nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the radiator grille. Standard equipment included all of last year’s equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.

 

In 1963 Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies and immediately acquired Fleetwood crests on its rear quarters[26] and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. Exterior changes imparted a bolder and longer look. Hoods and deck lids were redesigned. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was entirely eliminated. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the flush-fender dual headlamps. Smaller circular front parking lamps were mounted in those extensions. The Eldorado also had a rectangular grid pattern rear decorative grille. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, 6.4 l and 325 hp (242 kW).

It was time for another facelift in 1964 and really a minor one. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes. The main horizontal grille bar was now carried around the body sides. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to 7 l, with 340 hp (253.5 kW) available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at 30 to 80 km/h traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special.

 

FITH GENERATION (1965–1966)

The Eldorado became a Fleetwood sub-series in 1965, although there was strictly speaking no separate Fleetwood series at this time. It was consequently marketed as the Cadillac Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Cadillac Fleetwood Series 75 and the Cadillac Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long absent Seville and Brougham. This was the last generation to be installed with rear wheel drive.

 

In 1966 changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac crests and V-shaped moldings, front and rear, were identifiers. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.

 

SIXTH GENERATION (1967–1970)

The Eldorado was radically redesigned in 1967 to capitalize on the burgeoning era's personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year. To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adopted the Toronado's front-wheel drive Unified Powerplant Package, adapted to a standard Cadillac 429 V8 coupled to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Based on the Turbo-Hydramatic 400, the THM425 placed the torque converter next to the planetary gearbox, which it drove through a metal, motorcycle-style roller chain. Disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel. The Unified Powerplant Package was later shared with the GMC Motorhome starting in 1972.

 

The new Eldorado was a great departure from the previous generation, which had become little more than a dressed-up version of Cadillac's De Ville. Its crisp styling, initiated by GM styling chief Bill Mitchell, was distinctive and unique, more angular than the streamlined Riviera and Toronado. This was the only production Cadillac to be equipped with concealed headlights behind vacuum operated doors.

 

Performance was 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in less than nine seconds and a top speed of 120 mph (192 km/h). Roadability and handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.

 

In 1968, the Eldorado received Cadillac's new 375 hp (280 kW) (SAE gross) 7.7 L V8, and disc brakes became standard. Only slight exterior changes were made to comply with new federal safety legislation. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorados accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

In 1969 hidden headlamps were eliminated, and a halo vinyl roof was available as an option, joined later in the model year by a power sunroof.

 

In 1970 the Eldorado introduced the new 8.2 L V8 engine, the largest-ever production V8, rated SAE gross 400 hp (298 kW) and 550 lb·ft (746 N·m), which would remain exclusive until it became standard on all full size Cadillacs in the 1975 model year.

 

SEVENTH GENERATION (1971–1978)

The Eldorado underwent a substantial redesign in 1971, growing two inches in length but six in wheelbase. The result was a rounder, much heavier looking automobile, made even more rotund by the return of standard fender skirts. While Eldorado door glass remained frameless, the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A convertible model rejoined the line-up. This 126.3-inch (3,210 mm) wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving facelifts in 1973 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.

 

In 1972 sales rose to 40,074.

 

Performance was not competitive with contemporary premium personal luxury cars. However, none but the Lincoln were 6 passenger vehicles.

 

In 1973 the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The '73 models received a facelift featuring new front and rear bumpers, egg-crate grille, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps.

 

The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the pace car for the Indy 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Total sales soared to 51,451, over a sixth of all Cadillac sales.

 

1974 models featured a redesigned rear bumper, to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Styling changes include horizontal taillamps, and a fine mesh grille. Inside, there was a new, redesigned instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.

 

For 1975, the Eldorado was given rectangular headlamps, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and crisper lines which resulted in a much sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967-70 models.

 

In 1976 GM heavily promoted the Eldorado convertibles as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. These cars were white with a dual-color red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside. When GM reintroduced Eldorado convertibles for the 1984 model year, owners of 1976 Eldorados felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit.

 

In 1977 the Eldorado received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few new 1977 and 1978s Eldorados into coach convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The 8.2L V8 of 1970-76 gave way to a new 7L V8 with 180 bhp (134 kW). For the first time in 1977 all GM E-body cars were front-wheel drive, as the Riviera underwent a two-year hiatus before joining them in 1979.

 

A new grille was the only major change in 1978. The Eldorado was totally redisigned for 1979.

 

ELDORADO BIARRITZ

Unlike the Cadillac Sixty Special and De Ville, Eldorado did not have a unique luxury package to provide it with a title change (such as the "d'Elegance" package). This was rectified in mid-year 1976 with the Biarritz package. A unique trim feature of Biarritz, a name that had not been used since the 1964 model year (although the Eldorado was Fleetwood bodied from the 1963 model year on, the Fleetwood designation was only applied to all Eldorados produced from the 1965 through 1972 model years) was a brushed stainless steel roof covering the front passenger compartment for model years 1979-1985. This was a styling cue reminiscent of the 1957/58 Eldorado Brougham. The rear half of the roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. The interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" velour or leather seating, with contrasting piping, along with an array of other options available.

 

The 1978 Biarritz option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom Biarritz ($1,865.00); w/Astroroof ($2,946.00); w/Sunroof ($2,746.00) and Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classic ($2,466.00); w/Astroroof ($3,547.00); w/Sunroof ($3,347.00).

 

For the 1978 Eldorado model year only, 2,000 Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classics were produced in Two-Tone Arizona Beige/Demitasse Brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no Sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with Sunroofs and one (1) was produced with a Power Sliding T-Top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Division.

 

The Biarritz option stayed with the Eldorado through the 1991 model year. Some of the original styling cues vanished after the 1985 model year, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing and the interior seating designs, but the Biarritz remained unique just the same.

 

EIGHTH GENERATION (1979–1985)

A new, trimmer Eldorado was introduced for 1979, for the first time sharing its chassis with both the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. Smaller, more fuel efficient 350 and 368 in³ (5.7 and 6.0 L) V8's replaced the 500 and 425 in³ (8.2 and 7.0 L) engines. A diesel 350 was available as an option.

 

In 1980, the gas 350 was replaced with the 368 except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was used. In both the 1980 Seville and Eldorado (which shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI (later known as throttle body injection when it was later used with other GM corporate engines), whereas in the larger RWD Cadillacs it came only with a 4-barrel Quadrajet carburetor. Independent rear suspension was adopted, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado Biarritz model resurrected the stainless-steel roof concept from the first Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and the rear quarter windows re-appeared as they did before 1971, without a thick "B" pillar. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed. Sales set a new record at 67,436.[citation needed]

 

For 1981, Cadillac offered the V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate some cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy ("CAFE") averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-year 1977–1979 425. The engine itself was extremely rugged and durable, but its complex electronics were the source of customer complaints.

 

Another engine was introduced for 1982. The 4.1 L HT-4100 was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Some HT-4100s were replaced under warranty.

 

From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered an 'Eldorado Touring Coupe', with heavier duty suspension, alloy wheels, blackwall tires, minimal exterior ornamentation and limited paint colors. These were marketed as 'driver's cars' and included bucket seats and a center console.

 

In 1984, Cadillac also introduced a convertible version of Eldorado Biarritz. It was 91 kg heavier featuring the same interior as other Biarritz versions. The model year of 1985 was the last year for the ASC, Inc., aftermarket conversion Eldorado convertible. Total sales set an all-time record of 77,806, accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

Prior to the 'official' 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979-83 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. American Sunroof Corporation, Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio - this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles), Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coachbuilders also converted the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera into a ragtop.

 

Late in the 1985 model year, an optional 'Commemorative Edition' package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a "Commemorative Edition" badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in Dark Blue or White, or a two-tone with Dark Blue and White) was included in the package, along with a Dark Blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were Cotillion White or Commodore Blue.

 

NINTH GENERATION (1986–1991)

The Eldorado was downsized again in 1986. In a fairly extreme makeover it lost about 16" in length and some 350 pounds in weight. Just like in previous generations, the Eldorado shared its chassis with the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera, as well as Eldorado's four-door companion, the Cadillac Seville. However, the coupés from Buick and Oldsmobile both utilized Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while Cadillac continued to use their exclusive 4.1 liter V8. The convertible bodystyle was ceded to the Cadillac Allanté roadster.

 

The $24,251 Eldorado was now the same size that GM's own compact cars had been only a few years earlier, and considerably smaller than Lincoln's competing Mark VII, and no similar offering from Chrysler as the Imperial coupe was discontinued in 1983. Its styling seemed uninspired and stubby, and in a final unfortunate flourish, for the first time the Eldorado abandoned its "hardtop" heritage and featured framed door glass. News reports later indicated that GM had been led astray by a consultant's prediction that gasoline would be at $3 per gallon in the U.S. by 1986, and that smaller luxury cars would be in demand. In fact, gasoline prices were less than half that. With a sales drop of 60%, seldom has any model experienced a more precipitous fall. Production was only about a fifth of what it had been just two years earlier.

 

Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, Eldorado received very few changes for 1987. A price drop, to $23,740, did not raise sales any, as only 17,775 were made this year (21,342 for 1986). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) Touring Suspension, with deflected-disc strut valves and 15" alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of Eldorado's most expensive singluar options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850, it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a hidden microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a clever radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use at the same time, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone. On an interesting note, the square marker lamp, located on the bumper extension molding just behind the rear wheel well on 1986 and '87 Eldorado models, would suddenly re-appear on the 1990 & '91 Seville (base models only) and Eldorado Touring Coupé.

1988 was met with an extensive restyle, and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. While the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged, new body panels gave the 1988 model a more identifiable "Eldorado" appearance. Now available in just 17 exterior colors (previously 19), the new Eldorado was 3" longer than last year. Underneath the restyled hood was Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Longer front fenders held "bladed" tips, and a new grille above the revamped front bumper. In back, new three-sided tail lamps - reminiscent of the 1987 Deville - appeared along with a new bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14" aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15" snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the Touring Suspension option. The interior held wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles (replacing the former door pull straps). New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter bringing back the tufted-button design - last seen in the 1985 Eldorado Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full roof top, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows - similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the roof top, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and '87, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976 - 1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the roof top, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Pricing went up this year - to $24,891. This 1988 restyle would be the last, until the model was replaced by an all-new Eldorado for 1992.

 

TENTH GENERATION (1992–2002)

The 1992 Eldorado was all new, drawing both interior and exterior styling cues from the 1988 Cadillac Solitaire show car. It was significantly larger than its predecessor – approximately 11" longer, 3" wider, and substantially heavier. Window glass was once again frameless, and shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and 295 hp (220 kW) variants, replacing the 200 hp (150 kW) 4.9 L. Sales were up, though never again at record heights.

 

The Eldorado continued for the rest of the decade with incremental changes and tapering sales. A passenger side airbag was added as standard equipment in 1993. Styling was freshened in 1995, with updated bumpers front and rear, side cladding, and a new grille. In 1996, the interior received attention, with a new upholstery style, larger analog gauge cluster, relocated climate control system, updated stereo faces and standard daytime running lights. The ETC receives rain-sensing wipers called "Rainsense."

 

In 1997, the Integrated Chassis Control System was added. It involved microprocessor integration of engine, traction control, Stabilitrak electronic stability control, steering, and adaptive continuously variable road sensing suspension CVRSS, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. Similar to Toyota/Lexus Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management VDIM.

 

In the wake of declining sales, circulating reports that the Eldorado would get a redesign for 1999 — similar to that which the Seville underwent for 1998 — would prove false as the car soldiered on largely unchanged into the new millennium, although it did get some upgrades from the 1999 Seville.

 

The car was sold under Cadillac ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) and ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) trim.

 

In 2001 GM announced that the Eldorado's 50th model year (2002) would be its last. To mark the end of the nameplate, a limited production run of 1,596 cars in red or white - the colors available on the original 1953 convertible - were produced in three batches of 532, signifying the Eldorado's first year of production. These last cars featured specially tuned exhaust notes imitating their forerunners from a half-century earlier, and a dash-mounted plaque indicating each car's sequence in production.

 

Production ended on April 22, 2002, with the Lansing Craft Centre retooled to build the Chevrolet SSR.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

DESIGNATION: CT-5718

NICKNAME: Do’k

RANK: ARC [Sergeant]

UNIT: 1st Regiment of the 253rd Elite Legion

 

*^*Log Entry*^*

We fought through the hills and jungle as far as we could. There were so many of them and we lost many men. Luckily we pushed through and will continue to our next part of the mission.

*^*Log Entry*^*

 

The designation NGC 2264 is used to identify 2 objects in the constellation of Monoceros. The Cone Nebula, which can be seen in the bottom of the image, and an open star cluster known as the ‘Christmas Tree’ located above the Cone. The tree is inverted with the top of the tree marked by the bright star just above the cone, and the very bright star in the middle of the image (S Monocerotis) marking the centre of the tree trunk.

Also within this region is the Fox Fur Nebula, which lies just to the right of S-Monocerotis, so named as it resembles a stole (or shawl worn on the shoulders) with the head of a fox.

Although not formally named, I have always thought that there is also a cosmic cat lurking within this region, in the top left corner of the image, what do you think?

 

Chassis No 280093.

Official designations:- Sd Kfz 182 Panzerkampfwagen VI Ausf B, VK45.03(H).

Built July 1944 by Henschel & Sohn.

The Tiger II was developed from the legendary Tiger I and combined thick armour with the Panzer style sloping hull design. Production began in 1944 and 492 had been built by the end of the war.

The type was informally known ‘Königstiger’ which is German for ‘Bengal Tiger’. The literal translation, however, is ‘Royal Tiger’ which led to it being known to Allied troops as the ‘King Tiger’ (which does seem somehow appropriate!).

The type saw significant use in several major battles in the last year of WW2, including in Normandy in July 1944 as well as Operation Panzerfaust (the taking of Budapest) in October 1944, the Ardennes Offensive (The Battle of the Bulge) in December 1944 and the Battle of Berlin leading up to the final days of the war.

This is a standard production example fitted with the production turret, often referred to (incorrectly) as the Henschel turret. It was captured by advancing Allied forces on the outskirts of Beauvais, in late August 1944. It had already been abandoned and had clearly been shot at, but details of the actual battle are unclear.

Of the eight surviving examples, two are at Bovington, this production example being displayed along with the second prototype (Chassis No V2).

The Tank Museum, Bovington, Dorset, UK.

26th July 2016

 

The following info is partly from the excellent Tank Museum website:-

 

Known variously as the Tiger Ausf. B, Tiger II or Königstiger (the British also referred to it as the `Royal Tiger’), 489 Tiger IIs, were produced at the Henschel assembly plant, between January 1944 and March 1945. However, despite lacking in numbers, and being prone to mechanical and mobility issues based on its size and weight, the Tiger IIs combination of devastating firepower, and thick sloped armour plate, made it a formidable adversary for Allied forces on the rare occasions it was encountered on the battlefield.

 

In May 1942 the German Ordnance Department Waffenprüfamt 6 (Weapons Proving Office) identified the key characteristics of the tank design which was intended to replace the Tiger I. It was identified as having a gun capable of defeating 100mm of rolled homogenous armour at 1,500m, armour protection of 150mm front, and 80mm side and rear, and the mobility to move at 40kph.

 

Both the Henschel and Porsche designs teams were tasked with working on this project and they developed two different prototypes VK45.01(H) and VK45.02(P) respectively (VK refers to Volketten – fully tracked). Flaws in these two designs; VK45.01(H) a 45 tonne design mounting a tapered bored gun which used increasingly rare tungsten ammunition was cancelled, and the Porsche design; VK45.02(P) was based on the earlier rejected design for the Tiger I with enhanced armament, Rheinmetall-Borisg’s 8.8cm Flak 41 L/74 gun. The Porsche design was also rejected due to issues over mechanical reliability, its electric drive train, and the use of scarce materials. Improving on their original design, and hitting the design criteria, Henschel’s VK45.03 (H) design was subsequently chosen incorporating the new 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun.

 

Construction of turrets and hulls were undertaken by Krupp, with Dortmund Hörder Hutten Verein and Skoda Works of Czechoslovakia producing armour components. Turrets were assembled at Wegmann and Company before arrival at Henschel’s assembly plant for marrying up with the hulls. Although an order for 1,500 Tiger IIs was tendered the impact of RAF bombing from October 1943 onwards had a severe impact on Henschel’s facilities and production was limited to less than a third of this figure.

 

Designed and produced by Krupp, the Tiger IIs longer more powerful 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun had been developed to increase its armour piercing effectiveness at longer ranges over that of the original 8.8cm KwK 36 L/56 gun fitted to the Tiger I. Using a sectional Monobloc design, which simplified manufacturing and improved barrel wear, the KwK 43 gun had been redesigned to fit inside the tank turret and featured improvements to its recoil system, fume evacuation and breech.

 

Firing at a higher velocity, and on a flatter trajectory, the penetration figures for the Tiger IIs gun show that using Pzgr. 39/43 armour piercing ammunition the 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun was capable of penetrating the frontal armour of a Sherman, Cromwell, Churchill and T-34-85 tank at ranges out to at least 2,600 metres.

 

The first fifty Tiger IIs were fitted with the Porsche and Krupp designed turrets from the abandoned VK 45.02 (P) project, following that a new, simpler production design was introduced to enable mass production. This turret, frequently, and incorrectly named, the ‘Henschel’ turret, was much easier to build as it eliminated many of the complicated curved forgings and extensive machining which the original turret had demanded. The slightly sloped front plate of this new turret also eliminated the shot trap which had existed on the old design and had the benefit of providing greater internal turret room space allowing 86 rounds of ammunition to the Porsche designed turret’s 80.

 

Complementing the Tiger IIs formidable gun was the use of 150mm thick sloped armour plates for the glacis plate (including a cut-out in the plate for the driver’s periscope), as well as 180mm of armour for the turret, factoring in the angled plate and the increased chance of ricochets, the Tiger IIs armour was thick enough to make it effectively invulnerable to frontal penetration (although theoretically the 17-pdr firing APDS could penetrate it). Consequently, Allied forces had to target the weaker side and rear armour plates, which were 80mm thick, if they were to stand a chance of overmatching the Tiger IIs armour protection.

 

Unfortunately, the enhanced armour protection afforded to the Tiger II had helped to increase in size and the (combat) weight of the design to 69.8 tonnes. This had a detrimental effect on the Tiger II in terms of its strategic mobility; that is its ability to cross obstacles such as bridges, and transportation to the battlefield. Moreover once on the battlefield the Tiger IIs weight size meant that manoeuvrability through unsuitable country, such as close and boggy terrain, tended to slow or hamper the Tiger IIs battlefield mobility, a situation which was compounded by mechanical problems such as the lack of a suitable armoured recovery vehicle to assist in recovery, which either meant trying to recover the vehicle with another Tiger II or destroying the vehicle.

 

Modifications to the Tiger during its production run included the application of Zimmeritt paste, a turret ring guard, hangers for spare track links, and a monocular TZF 9d Telescopic Sight.

 

Tiger IIs were issued to existing independent heavy tank battalions (Schwere Panzer-Abteilung) of the Army and Waffen SS and in small numbers to the Panzer Lehr trials unit and the Feldherrnhalle Division. Ideally these independent heavy tank battalions would be organised with 45 Tiger IIs in three companies of 14 Tiger IIs each with the remaining 3 Tiger IIs making up the headquarters. The first Tiger II heavy tank battalion to engage in combat was the Army’s 503rd Schwere Panzer-Abteilung in Normandy on the 11th July 1944 with the 501st Schwere Panzer-Abteilung being the first to employ Tiger IIs on the Eastern Front. There are no records of Tiger IIs being deployed or used in Italy.

 

The Tiger II with Production turret on display in the Tiger Collection was built in July 1944 by Henschel and given Fahrgestell Nummer (chassis number) 280093.

At the beginning of August it was one of 14 Tiger IIs issued to the 1st Company of SS Heavy Panzer Battalion 101 at Sennelager in Germany. Its turret number, 104, tells us it was one of two assigned to Company Headquarters, rather than being in one of the three Platoons of 4 tanks.

 

The tank was commanded by Oberscharfuhrer Sepp Franzl, the Kompanietruppfuhrer (Company Headquarters Section Leader). As well as serving as a tank commander he led the small administration element that supported the Company.

The Company travelled by rail into France and saw their first combat on the 23rd, counterattacking Allied forces that had begun to cross the River Seine. After just 14 days in action, the Company would have only one tank left.

 

As Allied forces poured across the Seine in ever increasing numbers the Germans in this part of France were forced to retreat North-East towards the Belgian border. They launched frequent counterattacks, often inflicting casualties, but never succeeding in stopping the Allied advance. This meant tanks that were damaged, broken down or out of fuel had to be abandoned to the Allies.

 

That appears to be what happened to this Tiger. It was abandoned on the 29th or 30th August. For many years this was believed to have occurred at Magny-en-Vexin roughly 8 miles North-East of the Seine. However recent study of wartime photographs of the tank and its surroundings by French historians has suggested that in fact it was abandoned at Aux Marais, a community on the outskirts of Beauvais around 15 miles further North-East.

It has also long been believed that this tank was fired on, possibly after it was abandoned, by the Sherman commanded by Sergeant Roberts of 4 Troop, A Squadron, 23rd Hussars.

The 23rd Hussars passed through Saint-Aubin-en-Bray, about 4 miles west of Aux Marais on the 30th August. They then advanced 70 miles through the night to take part in the capture of Amiens the next day.

 

The 23rd Hussars history, published in April 1946, records capturing an anti-aircraft site outside Amiens on the 31st August then, after this, Sergeant Roberts knocking out a Tiger II. However their War Diary, compiled closer to the time, mentions the anti-aircraft site, but not the Tiger II.

 

It is impossible now to be sure whether these events occurred as recorded, or whether the fog of war, made worse by the fatigue suffered by the Hussars on the night-time advance to Amiens, led to confusion over their exact date and location when they were recorded later.

 

What is clear is that tank 104 was shot at, although by whom is likely to remain unclear. There is damage on the right hand side of the hull in two locations. This can be seen on wartime photographs taken at Aux Marais. The Tiger was facing roughly south, so shots from the west, where the 23rd Hussars were, would have hit that side of the tank.

Sergeant Roberts himself was unable to clarify matters. Sergeant 7907199 Thomas Roberts MM was killed on the 5th January 1945 when his tank was knocked out near Bure in Belgium. He was 27.

 

After the battle the Tiger was recovered by the Royal Engineers in January 1945 and brought back to the UK. It was kept at the Fighting Vehicle Proving Establishment at Chertsey, then the Royal Military College at Shrivenham before coming to the Tank Museum in 2006.

Old Town is the historic original town site of Albuquerque, New Mexico, for the provincial kingdom of Santa Fe de Nuevo México, established in 1706 by New Mexico governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés. It is listed on the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties as the Old Albuquerque Historic District, and is protected by a special historic zoning designation by the city. However, prior to its establishment as a city in the Santa Fe de Nuevo México province, many indigenous tribes lived there including Diné, Pueblo, Apache, Tiwa, and others.The present-day district contains about ten blocks of historic adobe buildings surrounding Old Town Plaza. On the plaza's north side stands San Felipe de Neri Church, a Spanish colonial church constructed in 1793.

 

Old Town is a popular tourist destination with a large number of restaurants, shops, and galleries, and is also home to the Albuquerque Museum of Art and History. The New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science and the Explora science center are located a short distance to the northeast. Old Town is known for its luminaria displays during the holiday season, particularly on Christmas Eve.

 

Layout

 

Old Town occupies an area of about 0.8 square miles (2.1 km2), roughly bounded by Rio Grande Boulevard, Mountain Road, 19th Street, and Central Avenue. At the center is Old Town Plaza, surrounded by approximately ten blocks of one- and two-story buildings. The central plaza layout was favored by Spanish colonial authorities and is found in many other cities and towns throughout New Mexico, including Santa Fe, Taos, Las Vegas, and Mesilla. The area around Old Town was originally acequia fed farmland, but it has been covered over by 20th century urban development, however, land to the north and south of the plaza continues to operate for agricultural purposes with the acequia traditions, including Los Ranchos, Corrales, South Valley, and Isleta Village Proper.

 

History

 

Prior to 1706, indigenous tribes traveled through and occupied the land on which Old Town Albuquerque now stands. These indigenous peoples include the Anasazi, Diné, Pueblo, Apache, and Tiwa communities. While it is unknown approximately how long the area has been inhabited by indigenous peoples, their long-standing presence in the Albuquerque area is exemplified by the thousands of years old Petroglyphs found in the Sandia mountains to the Acoma pueblo which is still inhabited by the Acoma tribe today. During this time, the region that is now known as Albuquerque was known as Paak'u. The indigenous peoples residing in the Paak'u region engaged in subsistence farming and hunting, managing complex, intertwined systems of government and religion. The Pueblo peoples of modern Albuquerque originally stemmed from one tribe called the Tamayame or Santa Ana tribe. As they discovered the resources that the Sandia mountains and the Rio Grande had to offer, they slowly spread into different pueblos as far as Angostura, a village 131 miles northeast of Albuquerque. The spread led into the development of five distinct language groups and many more dialects based off those languages. Today, because of the combination of smaller and larger pueblos due to colonization by both the Spanish and Anglo Americans, there is a total of nineteen pueblos which are recognized as sovereign nations in and around Albuquerque.

 

Arrival of the Spanish

 

Spanish relations with indigenous peoples in Albuquerque were complex and violent. In New Mexico, the first interaction that Puebloans had was at the Zuni pueblo of Vacapa when the Spanish explorer Frey Marcos de Niza sent his African slave Esteban to interact with the Zuni people. Estaban was subsequently killed by the Zuni, establishing a tone for Spanish-Indigenous relations throughout New Mexico which carried into the founding of Albuquerque. The Spanish first had contact with the Pueblos in the area that would become Old Town Albuquerque when in 1540 Fransisco Vásquez de Coronado’s expedition searching for the Seven Cities of Cibola lead him to the Pueblos. Coronado was able to peacefully trade small gifts and items with them at first, but as winter overtook the unprepared conquistadors, they steadily became more and more violent with the Pueblo peoples, demanding more food and supplies and progressively conquering a few of the Puebloan’s smaller villages. The Tiwa people of Albuquerque fought back against the Spanish until they left to return to Mexico in the Spring of 1541. However, the violent interactions between the two parties gave each a long-lasting impression of the other, further contributing to negative relations between the Spanish and Indigenous peoples of Albuquerque. This paved the way for the violent conquest of Oñate, and his ouster from New Mexico by the indigenous peoples in 1680 during the Pueblo Revolts.

 

Albuquerque began to be settled by a group of people traveling in the Spanish “Reconquista” led by Don Diego de Vargas in 1693. Several families in this group split off and asked permission to settle the Middle Valley which was the area south of the Sandia and Alameda pueblos. The settlement grew progressively to encompass around forty-five Spanish estate and what is known as Old Town Albuquerque was established in 1702 and recognized by Francisco Cuervo y Valdes, the governor of Spanish New Mexico, as a municipality in 1706. In 1784, over 3500 Spaniards and 600 Indigenous people were recognized by the census to be residents of Old Town. However, for many of the Indigenous tribes living around Old Town, the rapid growth of Old Town served as a reminder to the continuing conquest of their people. Cuervo reported that the new settlement was home to 252 residents and had been laid out with streets, a plaza, and a church in accordance with the town planning regulations set forth in the Laws of the Indies. Cuervo's account had been exaggerated in order to offer a centralized Villa to better serve the already existent Hispano and Pueblo communities. Those communities included Barelas, Corrales, Isleta Pueblo, Los Ranchos, Sandia Pueblo, and others along the Rio Grande rather than a centralized settlement. After a formal investigation, the villa was allowed to keep its title, especially as it was established to serve those communities as an outpost on Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

 

Women also played an overlooked role in Old Town Albuquerque. At least twenty women are known to have been a part of the Spanish colonization of Albuquerque and the subsequent founding of Old Town. While many were subjugated to more traditional colonial roles like cooking, cleaning, and homemaking, some quickly became heads of their respective families due to the death of their husbands. Those who were designated heads of households were able to inherit land as a result of Spanish law and became the breadwinners for their families. The twenty women who are known to have helped colonize Old Town have come to be acknowledged as the "founding women of Albuquerque" and are listed on a plaque in Old Town Plaza provided by the New Mexico Historic Women Marker Program.

 

Like other Spanish colonial settlements, Albuquerque consisted of a central plaza surrounded by houses, government offices, and a church. For much of the 18th century, the homes around the plaza were inhabited only on Sundays as the residents spent the rest of the week on their farms. It was not until the late 1700s that a permanent population was established at the plaza.

 

Toward the Modern Age

 

Possession of Albuquerque, along with the rest of New Mexico, passed to Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence and later to the United States in 1846 when General Stephen Kearny took control of Santa Fe and the Santa Fe trail in 1846. The territory was officially recognized as US territory on February 2, 1848 under the signature of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, representing yet another change in the power dynamics for Indigenous people and Mexicans living in New Mexico alike. Kearny's troops established a U.S. Army post near the plaza, which brought an influx of goods and people over the next twenty years. The 1860 Census showed a population of 1,608, of which the army garrison made up about a third. During the U.S. Civil War, Confederate troops under Henry Hopkins Sibley captured the town in March 1862 but were later forced to retreat back to Texas after losing most of their supplies at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Albuquerque saw minor action when the retreating Confederates were involved in a skirmish with Union troops in the Battle of Albuquerque. For the most part, however, the town remained a quiet agricultural community.

 

The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway reached Albuquerque in 1880, building a depot about 2 miles (3.2 km) east of the plaza. This led to the creation of a rival "New Albuquerque" (now Downtown Albuquerque) which quickly boomed thanks to the railroad and was incorporated as the City of Albuquerque in 1891. The original town, now called Old Albuquerque, entered a decline as businesses and institutions moved to New Town. The county courthouse was moved in 1926, and by the 1930s barely any businesses were still operating around the plaza. Old Town's fortunes began to improve in the 1940s as Albuquerque citizens began to take note of Old Town's historic value, and the Old Albuquerque Historical Society was established in 1946. Old Town was annexed by the city in 1949, bringing municipal improvements like paved streets and sidewalks for the first time. Since then, Old Town has developed into a popular tourist attraction, with most of the adobe houses re-purposed into shops, restaurants, and galleries.

 

The Plaza

 

Old Town Plaza dates to the original founding of the city in the early 1700s and remains the center of Old Town. It was originally larger than today, extending to the south and east, but was reduced to its present size by the late 1800s. In the 1850s, a 121-foot (37 m) flagpole was erected in the center of the plaza by the U.S. Army.  The adobe wall surrounding the plaza was replaced with a picket fence in 1881 and then a stone wall built by the Works Progress Administration in 1937. The WPA's walls and bandstand were unpopular and were removed just eleven years later through a grassroots effort organized by the Old Albuquerque Historical Society. The historical society also oversaw construction of a new bandstand, new landscaping, and installation of 16 wrought iron benches purchased from Chihuahua, Mexico.

 

At the east end of the plaza is a display of two replica M1835 mountain howitzers. During the civil war, the guns originally belonged to the Union until the Confederacy captured the guns and used them against the Union. Retreating Confederate forces buried eight howitzers near the plaza in 1862 to prevent them from falling into Union hands. he guns were rediscovered in 1889 with the help of the former Confederate artillery commander, who still remembered their location. Two of the howitzers were put on display in the plaza but were later moved to the Albuquerque Museum of Art and History and replaced with replicas.  Accompanying the guns is a plaque that is controversial for having pro-confederate sentiments, mentioning the name of a Confederate Major Trevanion Teel. The plaque was partially funded by his ancestors, however, Teel was a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle, a group like the Ku Klux Klan, that sought to conquer territory in Latin America with the purpose of establishing an empire based on slavery. At the west end of the plaza is a display of various flags which have flown over the city, including those of Spain, Mexico, and the United States. There was also a Confederate flag reflecting the brief occupation of the city by Confederate forces, but it was removed in 2015 amid the ongoing controversy surrounding such symbols. Two other plaques, both which have created controversy due to their historical flaws in the portrayal of events, that commemorated the Skirmish of Albuquerque and buried Confederate soldiers respectively were also removed at that time. At this time, the plaque that accompanies the howitzers remains in tact.

 

La Journada Statue

 

A controversial statue known as La Journada featuring the Spanish conquistador Juan de Oñate formerly sat in the middle of Old Town Plaza. The statue was commissioned by the City of Albuquerque in 1998 and created by New Mexico artists Betty Sabo and Reynaldo "Sunny" Rivera. It depicts several Spanish settlers and an Indigenous guide led by Oñate who is one of the first Spanish conquistadors to travel to and settle in the New Mexico territory. However, much of Oñate's success were at the expense of Indigenous peoples, most notably the Acoma people, who he tortured and massacred. Oñate was later removed and prosecuted by the Spanish crown in 1614, however, the pain and generational trauma he has inflicted on many Indigenous peoples in New Mexico have caused continuing controversy around the statue. In the wake of the George Floyd murder, during a protest that rose at the site of the statue, a gunman opened fire on the protesters, prompting the Albuquerque mayor Tim Keller have the statue removed the next day. The incident occurred when armed counter protesters from the New Mexico Civil Guard, a paramilitary group, attempted to act in a law enforcement capacity, trying to detain protestors. A judge later ruled that the group did not have the right to act in the capacity as law enforcement or national guard as well as barring them from having any law enforcement powers independent of the state government of New Mexico. As of 2023, the statue remains in storage with its new home still undetermined by the Albuquerque city council.

 

Buildings

 

Most of the historic buildings in Old Town were built between 1870 and 1900, though some are older. Only one building, San Felipe de Neri Church, is proven to date to the Spanish colonial period. During the 20th century, many of the buildings were remodeled to facilitate modern commercial use, often including historically insensitive conversion of authentic vernacular and Victorian architectural details to a more idealized Territorial or Pueblo Revival style. Other buildings have been better preserved.

 

Five properties in Old Town are listed on the National Register of Historic Places:

 

Salvador Armijo House, built c. 1840

Charles A. Bottger House, built in 1912

Our Lady of the Angels School, built in 1878

San Felipe de Neri Church, built in 1793

Antonio Vigil House, built in 1879

 

(Wikipedia)

The Volkswagen Type 2, known officially (depending on body type) as the Transporter, Kombi or Microbus, or, informally, as the Bus (US) or Camper (UK), is a forward control panel van introduced in 1950 by the German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model. Following – and initially deriving from Volkswagen's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle) – it was given the factory designation Type 2.

 

As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to forward control competitors in the United States in the 1960s, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Chevrolet Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adopting the Type 2's rear-engine configuration.

 

European competition included the 1947-1981 Citroën H Van, the 1959-1980 Renault Estafette (both FF layout), and the 1953-1965 FR layout Ford Transit.

 

Japanese manufacturers also introduced the platform in different configurations, such as the Nissan Caravan, Toyota LiteAce and the Subaru Sambar.

 

Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus", "minibus", and, because of its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, Hippie van/wagon, and still remains iconic for many hippies today.

 

Brazil contained the last factory in the world that produced the T2. Production in Brazil ceased on December 31, 2013, due to the introduction of more stringent safety regulations in the country. This marks the end of an era with the rear-engine Volkswagens manufactured (after the 2002 termination of its T3 successor in South Africa), which originated in 1935 with their Type 1 prototypes.

 

HISTORY

The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. (It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production.) Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to the Netherlands, where he saw an improvised parts-mover and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23, 1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg and placing the driver at the very front. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.

 

When capacity freed up, a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp (19 kW) flat four engine.

 

Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial drag coefficient of Cd=0.75), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee" helped the production Type 2 achieve Cd=0.44, exceeding the Type 1's Cd=0.48. Volkswagen's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.

 

An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate"-style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year. These were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.

 

Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all-new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1" to "T5" (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front-drive T4 which replaced the T25). However, only generations T1 to T3 (or T25 as it is still called in Ireland and Great Britain) can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).

 

The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first 'forward control' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1958 RAF-977, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair-based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van went so far as to copy the Type 2's rear-engine layout, using the Corvair's horizontally opposed, air-cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor" Panel Vans, which could not easily be loaded from the rear because the engine cover intruded on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise.

 

VARIANTS

The Type 2 was available as a:

 

Panel van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats.

Double-door Panel Van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats and cargo doors on both sides.

High Roof Panel Van (German: Hochdach), a delivery van with raised roof.

Kombi, from German: Kombinationskraftwagen (combination motor vehicle), with side windows and removable rear seats, both a passenger and a cargo vehicle combined.

Bus, also called a Volkswagen Caravelle, a van with more comfortable interior reminiscent of passenger cars since the third generation.

Lotação (share-taxi), a version exclusive to Brazil, with 6 front-hinged doors for the passenger area and 4 bench-seats, catering to the supplemental public transport segment.[citation needed] Available from 1960 to 1989, in both the split-window and "clipper" (fitted with the bay-window front panel) bodystyles.

Samba-Bus, a van with skylight windows and cloth sunroof, first generation only, also known as a Deluxe Microbus. They were marketed for touring the Alps.

Flatbed pickup truck, or Single Cab, also available with wider load bed.

Crew cab pick-up, a flatbed truck with extended cab and two rows of seats, also called a Doka, from German: Doppelkabine.

Westfalia camping van, "Westy", with Westfalia roof and interior. Included optional "pop up" top.

Adventurewagen camping van, with high roof and camping units from Adventurewagen.

Semi-camping van that can also still be used as a passenger car and transporter, sacrificing some camping comforts. "Multivan" or "Weekender", available from the third generation on.

 

Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third-party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail-going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.

 

In South Africa, it is known as a well-loved variation of the ice cream van (first, second and third generations). The mere sight of one (in South Africa) sparks the familiar rhyme: I scream, We scream, We all scream for Ice-Cream!

 

FIRST GENERATION (T1; 1950–1967)

The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950 to 1956, the T1 (not called that at the time) was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air-cooled engine, an 1,131 cc, DIN-rated 18 kW (24 PS; 24 bhp), air-cooled flat-four-cylinder 'boxer' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 – an 1,192 cc 22 kW (30 PS; 30 bhp) in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the 30 kW (41 PS; 40 bhp) engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. This engine proved to be so uncharacteristically troublesome that Volkswagen recalled all 1959 Transporters and replaced the engines with an updated version of the 30 kW engine. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are true survivors. Since the engine was totally discontinued at the outset, no parts were ever made available.

 

The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor" (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15" roadwheels instead of the original 16" ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW's retrospective T1,2,3,4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay-window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger/cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans.

 

In 1962, a heavy-duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of 1,000 kg instead of the previous 750 kg, smaller but wider 14" roadwheels, and a 1.5 Le, 31 kW (42 PS; 42 bhp) DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine – 1,493 cc as standard equipment to the US market at 38 kW (52 PS; 51 bhp) DIN with an 83 mm bore, 69 mm (2.72 in) stroke, and 7.8:1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to 40 kW (54 PS; 54 bhp) DIN.

 

German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968–79 T2-style front end, and big 1972-vintage taillights into the so-called "T1.5" and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1.5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s-era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle/Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five-stud 205 mm Pitch Circle Diameter rims. Wheel tracks varied between German and Brazilian production and with 14-inch, 15-inch and 16-inch wheel variants but commonly front track varied from 1290 mm to 1310 mm and rear track from 1370 mm to 1390 mm.

 

Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11-window (a.k.a. three-window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15-window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23-window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13-window and 21-window respectively. The 23- and later 21-window variants each carry the nickname 'Samba', or in Australia, officially 'Alpine'.

 

SAMBA

The Volkswagen Samba, in the United States also known as Sunroof Deluxe, was the most luxurious version of the T1. Volkswagen started producing Sambas in 1951.

 

Originally Volkswagen Vans were classified according to the number of windows they had. This particular model had 23 and later 21 windows including eight panoramic windows in the roof. To distinguish it from the normal 23 or 21-window Volkswagen van the name Samba was coined.

 

Instead of a sliding door at the side the Samba had two pivot doors. In addition the Samba had a fabric sunroof. At that time Volkswagen advertised with the idea of using the Samba to make tourist trips through the Alps.

 

Sambas were painted standard in two colors. Usually, the upper part was colored white. The two colored sections were separated by a decorative strip. Further the bus had a so-called "hat": at the front of the van the roof was just a little longer than the car itself to block the sun for the driver. The windows had chrome tables and the van had a more comprehensive dashboard than the normal T1.

 

When Volkswagen started producing the successor of the T1 (the T2) the company also stopped producing the Samba so there are no Sambas in later versions of the Transporter.

 

US CHICKEN TAX

Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in a historic episode during the early 1960s, known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of U.S. chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25% tax (almost ten times the average U.S. tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.

 

In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House, revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just before the 1964 election, and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.

 

The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German-built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks – that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups. In 1964, U.S. imports of automobile trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million – about one-third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, "practically disappeared from the U.S. market". While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single-cab and double-cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. Any post-1971 specimen found ostensibly has had its import tariff paid. As of 2013, the "chicken tax" remains in effect.

 

SECOND GENERATION (T2; 1967–1979)

In late 1967, the second generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 (T2) was introduced. It was built in Germany until 1979. In Mexico, the Volkswagen Kombi and Panel were produced from 1970 to 1994. Models before 1971 are often called the T2a (or "Early Bay"), while models after 1972 are called the T2b (or "Late Bay").

 

This second-generation Type 2 lost its distinctive split front windshield, and was slightly larger and considerably heavier than its predecessor. Its common nicknames are Breadloaf and Bay-window, or Loaf and Bay for short. At 1.6 L and 35 kW (48 PS; 47 bhp) DIN, the engine was also slightly larger. The battery and electrical system was upgraded to 12 volts, making it incompatible with electric accessories from the previous generation. The new model also did away with the swing axle rear suspension and transfer boxes previously used to raise ride height. Instead, half-shaft axles fitted with constant velocity joints raised ride height without the wild changes in camber of the Beetle-based swing axle suspension. The updated Bus transaxle is usually sought after by off-road racers using air-cooled Volkswagen components.

 

The T2b was introduced by way of gradual change over three years. The first models featured rounded bumpers incorporating a step for use when the door was open (replaced by indented bumpers without steps on later models), front doors that opened to 90° from the body, no lip on the front guards, unique engine hatches, and crescent air intakes in the D-pillars (later models after the Type 4 engine option was offered, have squared off intakes). The 1971 Type 2 featured a new, 1.6 L engine with dual intake ports on each cylinder head and was DIN-rated at 37 kW (50 PS; 50 bhp). An important change came with the introduction of front disc brakes and new roadwheels with brake ventilation holes and flatter hubcaps. Up until 1972, front indicators are set low on the nose rather than high on either side of the fresh air grille – giving rise to their being nicknamed "Low Lights". 1972's most prominent change was a bigger engine compartment to fit the larger 1.7- to 2.0-litre engines from the Volkswagen Type 4, and a redesigned rear end which eliminated the removable rear apron and introduced the larger late tail lights. The air inlets were also enlarged to accommodate the increased cooling air needs of the larger engines.

In 1971 the 1600cc Type 1 engine as used in the Beetle, was supplemented with the 1700cc Type 4 engine – as it was originally designed for the Type 4 (411 and 412) models. European vans kept the option of upright fan Type 1 1600 engine but the 1700 Type 4 became standard for US spec models.

 

In the Type 2, the Type 4 engine was an option for the 1972 model year onward. This engine was standard in models destined for the US and Canada. Only with the Type 4 engine did an automatic transmission become available for the first time in the 1973 model year. Both engines displaced 1.7 L, DIN-rated at 49 kW (67 PS; 66 bhp) with the manual transmission and 46 kW (63 PS; 62 bhp) with the automatic. The Type 4 engine was enlarged to 1.8 L and 50 kW (68 PS; 67 bhp) DIN for the 1974 model year and again to 2.0 L and 52 kW (71 PS; 70 bhp) DIN for the 1976 model year. The two-litre option appeared in South African manufactured models during 1976, originally only in a comparably well-equipped "Executive" model. The 1978 2.0 L now featured hydraulic valve lifters, eliminating the need to periodically adjust the valve clearances as on earlier models. The 1975 and later U.S. model years received Bosch L-Jetronic electronic fuel injection as standard equipment; 1978 was the first year for electronic ignition, utilizing a hall effect sensor and digital controller, eliminating maintenance-requiring contact-breaker points. As with all Transporter engines, the focus in development was not on power, but on low-end torque. The Type 4 engines were considerably more robust and durable than the Type 1 engines, particularly in Transporter service.

 

In 1972, for the 1973 model year, exterior revisions included relocated front turn indicators, squared off and set higher in the valance, above the headlights. Also, square-profiled bumpers, which became standard until the end of the T2 in 1979, were introduced in 1973. Crash safety improved with this change because of a compressible structure behind the front bumper. This meant that the T2b was capable of meeting US safety standards for passenger cars of the time, though not required of vans. The "VW" emblem on the front valance became slightly smaller.

 

Later model changes were primarily mechanical. By 1974, the T2 had gained its final shape. Very late in the T2's design life, during the late 1970s, the first prototypes of Type 2 vans with four-wheel drive (4WD) were built and tested.

 

T2c

The T2c, with a roof raised by about 10 cm was built starting in the early 1990s for the South American and Central American markets. Since 1991, the T2c has been built in México with the water-cooled 1.8 L inline four-cylinder 53 kW (72 PS; 71 bhp) carbureted engine - easily identified by the large, black front-mounted radiator - and since 1995 with the 1.6 L air-cooled engines for the Brazilian market.

 

Once production of the original Beetle was halted in late 2003, the T2 was the only Volkswagen model with an air-cooled, rear-mounted boxer engine, but then the Brazilian model shifted to a water-cooled engine on 23 December 2005. There was a 1.6 L 50 hp (37 kW; 51 PS) water-cooled diesel engine available from 1981 to 1985, which gave fuel economy of 15 km/l to 18 km/l - but gave slow performance and its insufficient cooling system led to short engine life.

 

The end of the Volkswagen air-cooled engine on a worldwide basis was marked by a Special Edition Kombi. An exclusive Silver paint job, and limited edition emblems were applied to only 200 units in late 2005, and were sold as 2006 models.

 

Stricter emissions regulations introduced by the Brazilian government for 2006 forced a shift to a flexible-fuel water-cooled engine[citation needed] able to run on petrol or alcohol. Borrowed from the Volkswagen Fox, the engine is a rear-mounted EA-111 1.4 L 8v Total Flex 1,390 cc, 58 kW (79 PS; 78 bhp) on petrol, and 60 kW (82 PS; 80 bhp) when run on ethanol, and 124 N·m (91 lbf·ft) torque. This version was very successful, despite the minor changes made to the overall T2-bodied vehicle. It still included the four-speed transmission, but a new final-drive ratio enabled cruising at 120 km/h (75 mph) at 4,100 rpm. Top speed was 130 km/h (81 mph). 0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) acceleration took 22.7 seconds (vs. 29.5 seconds for the last air-cooled version). Other improvements included 6.6% better fuel economy, and nearly 2 dB less engine noise.

 

The Volkswagen Type 2 is by far the longest model run in Brazil, having been introduced in September 1950 as the Volkswagen "Kombi", a name it has kept throughout production.[citation needed] Only produced in two versions, bus (nine-seater or 12-seater – a fourth row is added for metro transportation or school bus market) or panel van, it offers only one factory option, a rear window defogger.[citation needed] As of June 2009, the T2 was being built at the Volkswagen Group's São Bernardo do Campo plant at a rate of 97 per day.

 

The production of the Brazilian Volkswagen Kombi ended in 2013 with a production run of 600 Last Edition vehicles.[28] A short movie called "Kombi's last wishes" was made by VW Brazil.

 

POST_TYPE 2 GENERATIONS

THIRD GENERATION (T3; 1979–1992)

The Volkswagen Type 2 (T3) also known as the T25, (or Vanagon in the United States), the T3 platform was introduced in 1980, and was one of the last new Volkswagen platforms to use an air-cooled engine. The Volkswagen air-cooled engine was phased out for a water-cooled boxer engine (still rear-mounted) in 1984. Compared to its predecessor the T2, the T3 was larger and heavier, with square corners replacing the rounded edges of the older models. The T3 is sometimes called "the wedge" by enthusiasts to differentiate it from earlier Kombis.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (T4; 1990–2003)

Since 1990, the Transporter in most world markets has been front-engined and water-cooled, similar to other contemporary Volkswagens, almost two decades later than it did for the passenger cars. T4s are marketed as Transporter in Europe. In the United States, Volkswagen Eurovan is the brand name.

 

FITH GENERATION (T5; 2003–2015)

The Volkswagen Transporter T5 range is the fifth generation of Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles medium-sized light commercial vehicle and people movers. Launched 6 January 2003, the T5 went into full production in April 2003, replacing the fourth generation range.

 

Key markets for the T5 are Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia, France and Turkey. It is not sold in the US market because it is classed as a light truck, accruing the 25% chicken tax on importation. The T5 has a more aerodynamic design. The angle of the windshield and A-pillar is less; this makes for a large dashboard and small bonnet.

 

In June 2009, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles announced the one-millionth T5 rolled off the production line in Hanover.

 

T5 GP introduced in 2010. Heavily face-lifted with some new power plants including the 180 bi-turbo range topper. These new engines saw the demise of the now "dirty" 5 cylinder units.

 

Late 2015 will see the arrival of the "Neu Sechs", the New 6. The T6 will offer further engine changes in early 2016, but will launch with the previous generation engines. The new engines will see the introduction of Ad-Blu to meet with euro 6 emission compliance. The new 6 was expected by many to be more than just a face lift.

 

With the T6 now hitting the roads it is very clear it would appear to be just a face lift. New front, new tailgate and a new dash. There are quality improvements, sound deadening, new colours and improved consumption, but many believe VW have missed an opportunity to go back to the top.

Sixth generation (T6; 2015–)

 

The new T6 will launch with the old Euro 5 non AdBlue power-plants, but will be offered with a Euro 6 diesel engine with 204bhp and AdBlue. Three further Euro 6 Adblue diesel power-plants with 84ps, 102ps and 150ps will also be offered.

 

There is some debate in the community over whether the T6 is a new model, or simply a face-lift. There are obvious external changes to the nose and tailgate, while internally there is a new dash in 2 versions. Volkswagen are claiming refinement to ride, handling and noise levels.

 

ADDITIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

In 2001, a Volkswagen Microbus Concept was created, with design cues from the T1 generation in a spirit similar to the New Beetle nostalgia movement. Volkswagen planned to start selling it in the United States market in 2007, but it was scrapped in May 2004 and replaced with a more cost-effective design to be sold worldwide.

 

NAMES AND NICKNAMES

Like the Beetle, from the beginning, the Type 2 earned many nicknames from its fans. Among the most popular,[citation needed] at least in Germany, are VW-Bus and Bulli (or Bully) or Hippie-van or the bus. The Type 2 was meant to be officially named the Bully, but Heinrich Lanz, producer of the Lanz Bulldog farm tractor, intervened. The model was then presented as the Volkswagen Transporter and Volkswagen Kleinbus, but the Bully nickname still caught on.

 

The official German-language model names Transporter and Kombi (Kombinationskraftwagen, combined-use vehicle) have also caught on as nicknames. Kombi is not only the name of the passenger variant, but is also the Australasian and Brazilian term for the whole Type 2 family; in much the same way that they are all called VW-Bus in Germany, even the pickup truck variations. In Mexico, the German Kombi was translated as Combi, and became a household word thanks to the vehicle's popularity in Mexico City's public transportation system. In Peru, where the term Combi was similarly adopted, the term Combi Asesina (Murdering Combi) is often used for buses of similar size, because of the notorious recklessness and competition of bus drivers in Lima to get passengers. In Portugal it is known as Pão-de-Forma (Breadloaf) because its design resembles a bread baked in a mold. Similarly, in Denmark, the Type 2 is referred to as Rugbrød (Rye bread). Finns dubbed it Kleinbus (mini-bus), as many taxicab companies adopted it for group transportation; the name Kleinbus has become an appellative for all passenger vans. The vehicle is also known as Kleinbus in Chile.

 

In the US, however, it is a VW bus, a "vee-dub", a minibus, a hippie-mobile, hippie bus, or hippie van, "combie", Microbus or a Transporter to aficionados. The early versions produced before 1967 used a split front windshield (giving rise to the nickname "Splitty"), and their comparative rarity has led to their becoming sought after by collectors and enthusiasts. The next version, sold in the US market from 1968 to 1979, is characterised by a large, curved windshield and is commonly called a "bay-window". It was replaced by the Vanagon, of which only the Westfalia camper version has a common nickname, "Westy".

 

It was called Volksie Bus in South Africa, notable in a series of that country's TV commercials. Kombi is also a generic nickname for vans and minibuses in South Africa and Swaziland, often used as a means of public transportation. In Nigeria it was called Danfo.

 

In the UK, it is known as a "Campervan". In France, it was called a "camping-car" (usually hyphenated) though this has been expanded to include other, often more specialized vehicles in more recent times.

 

MEXICAN PRODUCTION

T2 production began in 1970 at the Puebla assembly factory.

 

Offered initially only as a nine-passenger version called the Volkswagen Kombi, and from 1973 also its cargo van version called the Volkswagen Panel, both variants were fitted with the 1.5 L air-cooled boxer engine and four-speed manual gearbox. In 1974, the 1.6 L 44 bhp (33 kW; 45 PS) boxer engine replaced the 1.5 previous one, and production continued this way up to 1987. In 1987, the water-cooled 1.8 L 85 bhp (63 kW; 86 PS) inline four-cylinder engine replaced the air-cooled 1.6 L. This new model is recognisable by its black grille (for its engine coolant radiator), bumpers and moldings.

 

In 1975, Volkswagen de Mexico ordered two specially made pickups from Germany, one single cab and one double cab, for the Puebla plant. These were evaluated for the possibility of building pickups in Mexico, and were outfitted with every option except the Arctic package, including front and rear fog lights, intermittent wipers, trip odometer, clock, bumper rubber, PVC tilt, and dual doors on the single cab storage compartment. VW de Mexico was interested in having the lights, wiring, brake systems and other parts manufactured in Mexico. Ultimately, VW de Mexico declined to produce pickups, and the pickups were sold to an Autohaus, a Volkswagen dealer in San Antonio, Texas, since they could not be sold in Mexico. By law, no German-made Volkswagens were to be sold in Mexico. These are probably the only pickups that were produced in Germany for Mexican import, and have the "ME" export code on the M-code plate. The green double cab was sold to a new owner in New York, and has been lost track of. The light gray (L345, licht grau) single cab still exists. Pickups were not manufactured in Mexico, nor were they imported into Mexico from Germany, save for these two examples.

 

In 1988, a luxury variant – the Volkswagen Caravelle – made its debut in the Mexican market to compete with the Nissan Ichi Van, which was available in cargo, passenger and luxury versions.

 

The main differences between the two are that the Caravelle was sold as an eight-passenger version, while the Combi was available as a nine-passenger version, the Caravelle was only painted in metallic colors, while the Combi was only available in non-metallic colors, and the Caravelle was fitted with an AM/FM stereo cassette sound system, tinted windows, velour upholstery, reading lights, mid and rear headrests, and wheel covers from the European T25 model.

 

In 1991, the 10 cm higher roof made its debut in all variants, and the Combi began to be offered in eight- or nine-passenger variants. In 1991, since Mexican anti-pollution regulations required a three-way catalytic converter, a Digifant fuel injection system replaced the previous carburetor. The three variants continued without change until 1994.

 

In 1994, production ended in Mexico, with models being imported from Brazil. The Caravelle was discontinued, and both the Combi and the Panel were only offered in white color and finally in 2002, replaced by the T4 EuroVan Pasajeros and EuroVan Carga, passenger and cargo van in long wheelbase version, inline five-cylinder 2.5 L 115 bhp and five-speed manual gearbox imported from Germany.

 

WIKIPEDIA

BMW E21 is the body designation for the first BMW 3 Series compact executive car, produced by the German automaker BMW from 1975 to 1983. This series was the immediate successor to the BMW 2002 and was superseded by the BMW E30.

 

Development and early history

 

Under the direction of its 51% percent shareholder, Herbert Quandt, BMW decided upon a replacement for their aging 2002. Without it, there was the distinct possibility of BMW leaving its core mission of building driver oriented cars, and alienating an existing customer base long enamored with the company's 2002 model.

 

Paul Bracq, Director of Design at BMW from 1970 to 1974, is credited with setting the design direction of the E21 3 Series, while Wilhelm Hofmeister is credited with first drawing the small forward wedge at the base of the C-pillar, a strong design trait of the first Three-series. In 1975 Claus Luthe replaced Bracq and became the owner of the project.

 

In July 1975, BMW’s Board of Management first presented this new model series in the Munich Olympic Stadium for public appraisal. The frontal view of the new car was dominated by the BMW trademark kidney grille standing out clearly from the radiator cover. The styling of the new car bore a resemblance to the BMW E12 5 Series.

 

The wedge shape of the two-door model was distinctive, extending all the way to the unusually high rear end. In response to criticism of the tail design, a black plastic trim panel between the tail lights was added.[citation needed] The car's styling was otherwise well received. Measuring 4355 millimeters (171.5 inches) in length, 1610 millimeters (63.4 inches) in width, and 1380 millimeters (54.3 inches) in height, the E21 Series continued the tradition of the New Class. With the wheelbase measuring 2563 millimeters (100.9 in), there was little body overhang in the rear-wheel-drive design. The track measured 1364 millimeters (53.7 in) at the front, and 1377 millimeters (54.2 in) at the rear.

 

The suspension incorporated rack and pinion steering and MacPherson strut suspension at the front, and semi-trailing arm type independent suspension at the rear. The power assisted brakes were discs on the front wheels, while the rear wheels had drum brakes. Initially, a Getrag four-speed manual was the standard transmission fitment. Five-speed overdrive Getrag gearboxes were fitted as standard in 1980, but close ratio 'sport' gearboxes were available at the car's release as an option. Alternatively, purchasers could opt for the ZF 3 HP-22 three-speed automatic transmission.

 

The cockpit design of the E21 marked the introduction of a new design concept, with the center console and central dashboard area angled towards the driver. This feature has become part of BMW’s interior design philosophy for many years. As a sign of passive safety, all edges and control elements within the interior were rounded off and padded.

 

At the E21's release, three models were available: with 316 (1.6-litre), 318 (1.8-litre) and 320 (2.0-litre) versions of the BMW M10 four-cylinder engine. To draw clear visual distinction within the new model series, the 320 models came with dual headlights, while the 315 - 316 and 318 had single round headlights.

 

At the end of 1975, the 320i was introduced; the engine was fitted with Bosch K Jetronic fuel injection, delivering 125 bhp (93 kW; 127 PS) on premium grade gasoline.

 

Ongoing evolution

 

The BMW M10 engine.

In the mid-1970s, BMW had invested DM 110 million in a new engine series, designated as the M60, but later renamed as M20 upon the introduction of the E30 in late 1982.

 

At the 1977 International Auto Show in Frankfurt, BMW unveiled its new variants of the E21, featuring the new six-cylinder M20 engines. The four-cylinder 320 model was replaced with the 320/6, featuring a two-litre version of the M20 engine. The 323i model was introduced, featuring 2.3 litres and 143 bhp (107 kW; 145 PS), empowering this car with a top speed of approximately 190 km/h (118 mph). The braking system was also upgraded, with the 323i featuring disc brakes on all wheels.

 

In the meantime however, a performance gap had developed between the 98 bhp (73 kW; 99 PS) 318 and the new 320/6 delivering 122 bhp (91 kW; 124 PS). For the 1979/80 model year, the four-cylinder models were upgraded: the 1.8-litre power unit was revised and entered the market as a 90 bhp (67 kW; 91 PS) carburetor engine in the 316, while addition of Bosch K Jetronic fuel injection to the 1.8-litre engine raised the 318i to 105 bhp (78 kW; 106 PS) .

 

Since there was now also room for a new entry-level model, the 315 powered by a 75 bhp (56 kW; 76 PS) 1.6-litre M10 engine made its appearance in 1981.

 

Motorsports

 

The Group 5 version of the BMW 320, introduced in 1977 as a replacement to the already obsolete BMW 3.0 CSL and became nicknamed as the Flying Brick in reference to the blocky bodyshape, was powered by a Formula Two engine that was tuned to 300 bhp (220 kW) by BMW Motorsport.

 

Other than the main factory team and McLaren who ran the IMSA operation in the US, the car was notably used by the BMW Junior Team, who had the likes of Manfred Winkelhock, Eddie Cheever, and Marc Surer as drivers. They would help to win the 1977 Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft and would later go into Formula One.

 

The car was also used to win the Macau Guia Race in 1981 and 1982.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_3_Series_(E21)

Two Canadian Forces, 410 Squadron CF-188B Multi-Role Fighters, one painted in special anniversary colors, flying over the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR) for planned engagements during the Tiger Meet of the Americas. The Inaugural Tiger Meet of the Americas brought together flying units from throughout North America that have a Tiger or large cat as their unit symbol. The Tiger Meet of the Americas closely mirrors the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)/Europe Tiger Meet in its goal of fostering camaraderie, teamwork and tactics familiarization.

 

The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) CF-18B "Hornet" (official military designation CF-188) is a Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) fighter aircraft, based on the American McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F/A-18 "Hornet" fighter. In 1980, the F/A-18 was selected as the winner of the New Fighter Aircraft Project competition, and a production order was awarded. The Canadian Forces began receiving the CF-18 in 1982. CF-18s have supported North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) air sovereignty patrols and participated in combat during the Gulf War in 1991, the Kosovo War in the late 1990s, and as part of the Canadian contribution to the international Libyan no-fly zone in 2011. CF-18s were also part of the Canadian contribution to the military intervention against ISIL, Operation Impact.

 

Observatory House is an A-listed Building. The following description is from Historic Environment Scotland:

( portal.historicenvironment.scot/designation/LB27608 )

 

"Old Observatory House is of great importance for several reasons. It is one of the very few extant buildings designed by James Craig, the planner of Edinburgh?s first New Town. It is a well-known landmark in Edinburgh and is a vital component in the group of buildings (of which Old Observatory House is the earliest) on Calton Hill which are both architecturally and culturally significant in the history of the city and the nation. It is also highly significant in the history of astronomy in Scotland. In addition, the roof of the tower of Old Observatory House was the viewing point from which the world?s first 360? panorama, Robert Barker?s 'Panoramic View from Calton Hill,' was painted in the late 1780s.

 

The idea of an observatory was first put forward in the mid-18th century, and a fund was set up accordingly, but it was not until the 1770s that firm proposals were received by the Council. These came from Thomas Short, an Edinburgh optician and instrument maker who had inherited his brother James? respected telescope making business. Short proposed to build a relatively basic observatory, but following an increase in funding the scheme became more complex; the final proposal included an octagonal observatory with flanking pavilions for storage and a further, smaller observatory with accommodation for a keeper. James Craig began preparing the plans in 1775, and in 1776 the buildings were begun.

 

However, several sources report that Robert Adam suggested to Craig that a castellated appearance would be appropriate for the smaller Observatory House, recommending ?the appearance of a fortification?.with buttresses and embrasures, and having Gothick towers on the angles? (Arnot); (it is not certain a what point Craig altered his scheme to accommodate the increased funding and Adam?s recommendations; a plan (E.C.A.) of the site and proposed observatory, drawn by the surveyor John Laurie as late as 20th April 1776, shows a very simple scheme.) All concerned were so taken by the design that the building of the octagonal observatory was all but abandoned to concentrate on the construction of the Observatory House. This consumed all the available finance for the project, and in 1777 construction halted, with only one of the four intended buttressed towers and the compound wall complete. By 1780, a 2-bay, 3-storey wing to the east was extant, and Kincaid?s plan of 1784 is the first indication of a single storey wing to the north. However, the exact date of these wings is not clear, and it may be that they were completed in, or soon after, 1777. The mason for the project was William Pirnie, the plumber William Scott and John Sibbald was the smith who supplied the ironmongery and hardware. Many of the tradesmen were owed wages for several years, and even Craig himself was writing to the council as late as 1792 to demand unpaid architect?s fees.

 

After the funding ran out in 1771, the council withdrew from the contract, and siezed Short?s telescope in leu of payments. There then ensured a complicated wrangle over ownership which continued after Short?s death in 1788 until the telescope was finally reclaimed by his daughter Maria in 1820. Meanwhile, in 1788 the council took control of the project in partnership with James Douglas, Short?s grandson, who undertook to finish the Observatory. However, it seems that Douglas? contribution was limited, and that the project was completed in a style far inferior to the original plan. Douglas appears to have focused on the Observatory House rather than the main Octagonal Observatory (although a painting of 1799 by Adam Callender shows the Octagonal Observatory completed with a domed roof). The roof of the tower of Observatory House was fitted with a rotating roof with a 17ft diameter iron wheel. The 'New Observatory?, based in the Observatory House was opened in 1793. However, in the same year Douglas went to sea to escape financial problems, and the tenancy of the observatory was taken on by his wife. She sub-let it to Robert Bowman, an optical instrument maker, who shared the compound with the Town Militia who used it as an arsenal. By 1802 the building was reported to be in a state of bad repair. Bowman asked the council for funds for repair but was denied.

 

In 1811 the Astronomical Society was formed and the lease of the Observatory site subsequently transferred to them. The small building to the NE of Old Observatory House was built to house a transit instrument. They made plans for a new observatory (Playfair?s City Observatory, see separate Listing), on the site of Short?s original octagonal observatory, for scientific research, and adapted Old Observatory House for use as a popular observatory and camera obscura. The keeper of the of the observatories was housed in the single storey N wing until around the mid-nineteenth century, when the camera obscura seems to have closed, and the whole of Old Observatory House was given over to accommodation for the Assistant Astronomer.

 

In 1883, the Astronomer Royal of the time, Charles Piazzi Smyth, instigated the extension and upgrading of Old Observatory House. Consequently the building was extended in a Scots Baronial style: the second bay of the east wing was partially rebuilt and a third bay added; the north wing was also altered and given an additional two stories. An entrance porch was also added at the re-entrant angle.

 

In 1896, the Astronomer Royal moved to Blackford Hill to escape the city smog, and the observatory compound returned to the council. Playfair?s observatory became the City Observatory, and Old Observatory House found use as a council house. It is not currently occupied (2002).

 

The painted ceiling in the 2nd floor tower room is thought to have been painted in the early twentieth century. The choice of subject is particularly appropriate for the dome of an observatory; it depicts a story from the ancient Norse / Scandinavian Creation myth. Part of this legend describes how the sun and moon were placed in chariots which pulled them across the sky, eternally pursued by two wolves, Skoll and Hati."

  

Wikipedia references:

1. James Craig, architect

2. The City Observatory

Date Taken: January 15, 2015

 

Basic Details:

Operator: Kelly Transport

Fleet Number: 4650

Classification: Ordinary Fare / Non-Air-Conditioned City Operation Bus

Seating Configuration: 3x2 Seats

Seating Capacity: 54 Passengers

 

Body:

Coachbuilder: Mhel Bhen Motors, Corp.

Body Model: Unknown / Unspecified Model Designation

 

Chassis:

Chassis Model: Isuzu R01-C

Layout: Front-Longitudinally-Mounted Engine Rear-Wheel Drive

Suspension: Leaf Springs Suspension

 

Engine:

Engine Model: Isuzu 6BG1

Cylinder Displacement: 6.5 Liters

Cylinder Configuration: Straight-6

Engine Aspiration: Naturally-Aspirated

Max. Power Output: 165 hp @ 2,500 rpm

Peak Torque Output: 423 N.m @ 1,500 rpm

Emission Standard: Euro 0

 

Transmission:

Type: Manual Transmission

Gears: 6-Speed Forward, 1-Speed Reverse

 

* Some parts of the specifications may be subjected for verification and may be changed without prior notice...

 

View on Sub-Reddit r/bus

 

Our Official Facebook Fan Page: Philippine Bus Enthusiasts Society (PhilBES)

////DESIGNATION: BARRACUDA

////ROLE: ARTILLERY SUPPORT

 

////SYSTEMS LOADOUT:

>>SYSTEM 01: DEFENSIVE

>>SYSTEM 02: MOVEMENT

>>SYSTEM 03: ARTILLERY WEAPON

>>SYSTEM 04: ARTILLERY WEAPON

 

////NOTES:

Heavy offense frame. Superior long range firepower. Average mobility and survivability. No targeting capabilities. Unable to engage mid- to close range targets. Rely on company for enemy positional data.

 

////BUILD NOTES:

This design came about because I only had one light grey headlight brick. I need two for the Hammerhead design. So I decided to make something asymmetrical.

 

Honestly, these pictures don't really do it justice. It looks much better in person. I'm not really a fan of the red (it's too bright and comical), but I didn't have the correct pieces in a more somber color.

or, a parable on what man believes he is owed:

 

The date and location of this tale have been lost to time, as they were never of great significance once reflected upon by its narrators. Whatever designation this settlement bore would have been ascribed in an effort to bring a merrier emanation to an otherwise unremarkable place, and thus is, too, inconsequential. What is retained and recounted with every retelling, however, is the ambience of that same municipality, in which the crucial events transpire.

 

Denizens of the town thrived not, neither did they have occasion to want. All that was theirs was enough, only enough. Harvests supplied every man, woman and youngling with the nutrients they required to collect another harvest. The proper implement for any task was always at hand. There was unmistakable peace to be had, but nary a soul could be heard to suggest there was no room for betterment.

 

The isolated territory was primed to erupt. The people, afforded unwaning harmony, wanted all the same. Some prayed for fortune. Fewer still sought it beyond their comfortable borders, but would hastily return, unaccustomed to the trials of travel. And so there they remained, dissatisfied in their facility.

 

It was on the evening of October that saw the sun set slowest, that the Peddler appeared to them.

 

A vast quantity of the community hurriedly barred itself in the tavern upon noticing a newcomer in their midst. The stranger had an uncanny presence; some remarked the air did not change when the figure passed by, as it aught to have, as with any regular person, and it was the conjecture of the more superstitious of their lot that submitted this Peddler was not of the mortal plane.

 

The Peddler waited patiently outside the tavern. It was hours hence that the citizens decided they would assuredly go mad from trepidation, unless they confronted their visitor.

 

“A deceiver!” one of the elders warned, as the barricade was removed. “Mind what foul utterances will ensue!”

 

The bravest of their number prompted the Peddler to divulge what aids could be anticipated.

 

“Wares,” the Peddler trickled. “Only the essentials; only that which has been bestowed unto this celestial body to be rightfully earned and spent by man.”

 

This seemed reasonable enough to many of the townsfolk. Yet the cautious elder was insistent.

 

“Spices may mask the taste of rancid meats, but never their effects! Heed all of what your new friend’s words entail!”

 

Conflicted, most were a trifle too perturbed, despite the Peddler’s soothing affirmations, to make any requests. Just one man, upon the first night, confided in the Peddler his grievances.

 

“We maintain all that ensures our health, my wife and I, but our labors that beget stability are what have robbed her of the mirth she once could manage. Such was why I was drawn to her, years ago.”

 

“The noblest of aspirations,” gushed the Peddler. “To long for prosperity of the heart, not the body alone. What creature dares to refute that the diligent and the burdened deserve happiness? Indeed, I shall alleviate you.”

 

The following morning, it was noted by both the man and his neighbors that his wife, characteristically pensive and dejected, was changed. To use a word like “chipper” would be a disservice to her overflowing spirit.

 

“When, my compatriots,” she proposed genially for all to hear, “did we cease to count our blessings? Our satisfaction should be derived not from abundance or adventure!”

 

Rumor circulated that the Peddler had played a part in this pleasant metamorphosis. Soon, at every corner, throngs awaited the apparent miracle-worker. But it was only those sequestered in their homes, or tending their crops by themselves, that would have a chance at conversing with this entity.

 

The encounters would be spread shortly afterward. A mason’s son, who was lame, had asked the Peddler for a talent that which could be admired and held in reverence.

 

The Peddler then babbled, “You desire a purpose. Partaking in a craft, what might benefit more than your own self. This, I may certainly grant.”

 

Another sun set and rose, and the boy, now able and confident, had forged an assortment of swords and suits of armor so pristine that they should be envied by the most lauded of smiths.

 

The populace had among them an acclaimed teacher, her years dedicated to texts and tables. “Alas,” she imparted to the Peddler, “even the thanks I receive cannot distract me from this deep-rooted craving. What I would not give, to recall a childhood that was so joyous in its unknowing.”

 

The Peddler’s approval cascaded. “Deeds of selflessness and devotion so numerous, that ignorance seems a boon. Any man caught uttering that his younger days are of little meaning to him, best he be scorned for such denial. If it is a return to wonderment you grasp at, all the world would concur, it was yours to have all along.”

 

As good as the Peddler’s word, the teacher could once again drum up memories that had brought fleeting delight then, but now, were rapturous in quality to her. Her love for life was of a magnitude anew.

 

The doubting elder hung their head. “What think you all the Peddler’s remittance to be, in return for these gifts?”

 

“The Peddler insists upon no payment!” a woman cried. “What has been allotted is natural and indisputable. Who should attempt to contest these dues we are at last privy to?!”

 

The elder was silenced once more. Before the month had passed, nearly the entirety of the village had offered their entreaties to the Peddler, who never failed to be impressed and humbled by these modest pleas. The mayor’s proposal in particular was relayed with the utmost discretion. He and his wife had wished for a child, but it would be a daughter that was raised in their household, not the son the mayor had always envisioned.

 

“The trouble,” the mayor timorously explained, “is that we only have the means to support one- that is to say, we could not keep fed another mouth with what our land provides, nor educate another mind with time we cannot find. If you were to but increase the season’s harvest only slightly…”

 

“That is not what you are owed,” dribbled the Peddler. “Sustenance for a belly what is not yet realized? What you should expect is offspring that honors your commitment. No parent is meant to suffer their legacy overthrown by the very flesh and will they have sacrificed so much for. What your toil and worry will bear, come daybreak, is security. The perfect child you were entitled to all these years.”

 

With all the elation that accompanied the Peddler’s charity, on the thirty-first of October, the elder too gave way to the pressure that had only intensified with their exclusion.

 

“I denounced you, fearing my people, in their lack of worldliness, would be susceptible to your lavish agreeance, your imposture, and so they have!”

 

The Peddler was quiet, knowing one more supplication was nearing.

 

The elder now begged. “I can no longer uphold my pretense of exuding respect. If they cannot listen to me, please, let them at least hold me in esteem. May they remember I shepherded them to tranquility, lest they forget the precise words I spoke.”

 

“How correct you are,” spewed the Peddler, in victory. “Nowhere is it written a man must take to heart another’s philosophy. It is, howbeit, your prerogative to be dealt acclaim equal to the good you have put forth in your long life. An unappreciated existence is such an unforgivable tragedy.”

 

The elder departed in shame for their own frailty, but in smugness as well, certain that those who would grow discontent with the Peddler’s offerings would finally recognize the advice they had so quickly brushed aside.

 

“Rejoice!” the Peddler’s voice surged, as the sun fell. “Be glad in all your cognizance for what is truly yours; that in your collective humility, you have not overstepped the bounds instituted by man nor deity.”

 

That night, the residents would, unreservedly, be made aware of how their demands had informed their characters. They would begin to question their hastily-made grabs for ease when they beheld their cherished schoolteacher forgo her duties in favor of reliving moments from her past that quashed responsibility and reality, going so far as to instruct her pupils to likewise abandon practices of logic and preparation.

 

Appalled eyes would witness, in the dying light, the mason’s son, who had attained his newfound prowess with no tribulation, be dragged through and stoned in the streets, having instilled enormous envy in his peers, mockeries made of their endeavors to reach the same degree of skill.

 

The man, whose wife was given limitless jubilation for her condition, was wrought with grief when he came to realize she herself could not mourn the atrocities unfolding in their midst. She capered through the boy’s blood in the dust, and her husband wept for her.

 

It was the wail of the mayor’s wife that shook the mortified assembly most of all, sounding more akin to the baying of a stricken hound. Her sanity was severed when discovering her child was not hers, not in soul. Individuality was sapped from this body parading as her son; it was not but the manifestation of her and the mayor’s own partialities and traits. The mayor was harrowed by the absence of free will he had produced.

 

In seeking one who could be given the blame, the elder was exempt, for the citizens could now only view their leader and all their decisions as sage. As the elder had made dealings with the Peddler also, it was accepted in the end that all that had befallen them was righteous. Blindness to death and pursuits of pleasure over maturity were praised from then on. Lives continued, and nothing was learned. Had the people wished for vengeance, it would have mattered not.

 

The Peddler had already moved on to the next town that wanted.

Topol TEL in Military Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineers and Signal Corps

 

The RT-2PM Topol (Russian: РТ-2ПМ Тополь ("Poplar"); NATO reporting name SS-25 Sickle; GRAU designation: 15Ж58 ("15Zh58"); other designations: RS-12M Topol) is a mobile intercontinental ballistic missile designed in the Soviet Union and in service with Russia's Strategic Rocket Forces.

 

DevelopmentThe three stage solid propellant RT-2PM Topol became the first Soviet mobile ICBM to be successfully deployed. It was deployed after two decades of unsuccessful attempts by different design bureaus to create a reliable mobile launch system. It emerged from the same line of development as mobile missiles such as the RT-21 Temp 2S and the RSD-10 Pioneer, and was deployed as a replacement for the widely deployed UR-100. The United States considered developing their own road-mobile ICBM called the Midgetman, but the program was canceled with the end of the Cold War.

 

Development of the RT-2PM was approved on July 19, 1977 and carried out by the Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology headed by A. D. Nadiradze. Flight tests were conducted on the Plesetsk test site from February through December 1985. The main problem that had to be overcome during this period was the development of battle management system. After the first test series was successfully conducted in April 1985, with the first regiment with Topol missiles put on alert in July 1985. Throughout this time work continued on improving the battle management system. The first regiment of "Topol" missiles employing a modernized mobile command center (in the area of Irkutsk) were put on alert on May 27, 1988. The test missile firings were finally completed in December 1987.

 

The RT-2PM ICBM was designed to be road mobile and is mounted on a heavy truck (MAZ-7310 or MAZ-7917). Development began in 1977, flight tests of the missile were conducted between 1983 and 1987. After the first series of tests, the first missiles became operational in 1985. Full deployment of 360 missiles was achieved in 1996, and in 2005 300 remained on duty. As of January 2008 the figure had dropped to 201 active missiles. In December 2008 Russian rocket forces had 189 RT-2PM operational missiles.[2] With 276 ICBMs of other types (including 75 R-36 missiles and 75 Topol-M missiles), that gives Russia an ICBM arsenal of 465 missiles - larger than United States ICBM arsenal of 450 LGM-30 Minuteman rockets.

 

The RT-2 is a road mobile 3-stage, single warhead ICBM. Its 29.5 meter length and 1.7 meter diameter are approximately the same size and shape as the U.S. Minuteman ICBM. It has a throw-weight of 1000 kg and carries a single warhead with a yield of 800 kt[3] and accuracy (CEP) of 900 m according to Russian sources [as opposed to 300m according to Western sources]. Its road mobile capability gave the RT-2PM Topol an extremely high probability of survival. It can fire from field deployment sites or through sliding roof garage bases. The RT-2PM Topol joined operational Soviet SRF regiments in 1985. A total area of approximately 190,000 square kilometers could be required to deploy a force consisting of 500 road-mobile Topol ICBMs. Mobile units require a much higher number of personnel for maintenance and operation than fixed systems. Consequently, the RT-2PM Topol was significantly more costly to maintain and operate than silo launched systems.

All three stages are made of composite materials. During first stage operation the flight control is implemented through four aerodynamic and four jet vanes. Four similar trellised aerodynamic surfaces serve for stabilization. During the second and third stage of flight gas is injected into the diverging part of the nozzle for flight control.

The missile is deployed in a Transporter Erector Launcher (TEL) canister mounted on cross-country 7-axle chassis on a mobile launch vehicle. The chassis incorporates jacks, gas and hydraulic drives and cylinders, with a power of several hundred tons, for jacking and leveling of the launcher, speeding up (combat) and slowing down (maintaining) elevation of the container with the missile in the vertical position. The TEL is accompanied by a Mobile command post, carrying support facilities mounted on cross-country 4-axle chassis with unified vans. The complex is equipped with an onboard inertial navigation system which gives the TEL group the capability to conduct the launch independently from its field deployment sites. This topo-geodesic support and navigation subsystem, created by the “Signal” Research Institute, provides a quick and highly precise tie-in of the launcher in a field position and enables its crew to carry out missile launches from any combat patrol route point. The launch can also be carried out at regimental bases from the aforementioned garrison garage.

At the time of the signing of the START I Treaty in 1991 the Soviet Union had deployed some 288 Topol missiles. Deployment continued, and at the end of 1996 a total of 360 Topol missiles were deployed.

 

The Topol missile was deployed at previously developed deployment sites. After the INF Treaty was signed in 1987 several SS-20 deployment sites were adapted to launch the Topol missiles. The United States expressed specific concerns during the INF treaty negotiations. When the SS-25 missile system was deployed in the field, with its missile inside the canister and mounted on the launcher, the US contended that the canister might conceal an RSD-10 Pioneer missile. This was of concern because unlike the single warhead of the RT-2PM Topol, the RSD-10 carried up to 3 warheads. A resolution was reached after the Soviet Union agreed to allow inspection parties to use radiation detection systems to measure fast neutron intensity flux emanating from the launch canister. A launch canister with a missile inside containing a single warhead, such as the RT-2PM Topol, emitted a different pattern of fast neutrons than did one with a missile having three warheads, such as the RSD-10.

 

Provisions of the SALT II agreement prohibited the deployment of more than one new missile (which became RT-23UTTh), it was officially declared by the Soviet Union that the RT-2PM Topol was developed to upgrade the silo based RT-2. The US government disputed this view, contending that the missile was clearly more than 5% larger and had twice the throw-weight as the RT-2 and therefore constituted a new missile system. Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov, Soviet Chief of General Staff cancelled the Sept. 1, 1983 test flight of the RT-2PM Topol which was to be launched from Plesetsk (the launch site in northwest Russia used for test firing of solid fuel propellant ICBMs)- 24 minutes later to land in the Klyuchi target area on the Kamchatka Peninsula. The night of the scheduled launch was the night that Korean Air Lines Flight 007 intruded Soviet airspace over Kamchatka.

 

An RT-2PM Topol with two MIRVs may have been tested in 1991, and the missile was tested at least once with four MIRV warheads, but there has apparently been no further development of a multiple warhead version. This became a point of contention during the conclusion of the 1991 START negotiations, at which time the US pressed for a definition of "downloading" (removing warheads from missiles) that would complicate any Soviet attempt suddenly to deploy multiple warheads on the RT-2PM Topol.

 

Russia plans to reequip approximately 400 silos where obsolete UR-100, RT-2 and MR-UR-100 missiles are located. Under the START II Treaty, which never had and most likely will never have a binding effect, Russia would have been able to place 90 single-warhead solid fuel missiles in reequipped R-36 silos. In order to guard against a break-out scenario involving the rapid reconversion of R-36 silos on-site inspection became a very important aspect of START II verification.

The breakup of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on the Topol program. The dispersed manufacturing of ICBM components seriously complicated researching and building new missile systems. For example, the Minsk Wheeled Truck-Tractor Manufacturing Plant in Belarus manufactured the missiles' transporter launchers, and some 90% of the components of the guidance system were manufactured in Ukraine.

 

In Belarus, as of December 1995, 63 RT-2PM Topol ICBMs originally deployed there had been returned to Russia. As of December 1995, Belarus had two operational mobile RT-2PM Topol regiments remaining on its territory, with a total of 18 nuclear warheads. In July 1992, Belarus signed an agreement with Russia placing the regiments under exclusive Russian control. In September 1993, Moscow and Minsk signed an agreement requiring the return of these nuclear missiles and all related missile support equipment to Russia by the end of 1996. A total of 81 RT-2PM Topol ICBMs and associated warheads were returned to Russia from Belarus.

 

By the late 1990s the lack of resources and qualified personnel forced the Strategic Rocket Forces to cut back operations considerably, with no more than one or two regiments of the mobile RT-2PM Topol missiles dispersed in the field. The remaining 40 or so regiments, each with nine single-warhead missiles, remain in garrison.

 

In February 2001, in a special test of operational readiness, the Strategic Rocket Forces successfully launched a silo-based Topol ICBM at a target in the Kura Test Range in Kamchatka. The Topol missile, the oldest of its type still in the Russian arsenal, was said to have performed flawlessly despite having outlived by 150 percent its operational period of service.

   

////DESIGNATION: WYVERN (HAMMERHEAD Mk XX)

////ROLE: MOBILE WEAPONS PLATFORM

 

////NOTES:

The 'Wyvern' Hammerhead Mk XX provides mobile heavy weapon support to Azure Lion mercenary squads. Built in jump jets ensures its heavy blaster rifle will always be in position, while advanced targeting sensors ignore dust, darkness, and other visibility interferences, and a computer interface jacks allows it to hack security systems.

 

////BUILD NOTES:

An updated (and slightly blurry) version of the Hammerhead frame I originally made for Mobile Frame Zero: Rapid Attack. It now has a weapon and jump jets. I'm particularly proud of those jump jet packs (minifig town binoculars sandwiched between some 2x2 round plates), but I wish the 1x1 round plates didn't stick out so much. Oh well.

Pvt. Frank Rachew, Co. H. 35th Inf., displays one of the white phosphorus mortar smoke shells used for designation of targets.

 

35th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division.

 

Photographer unknown.

 

Photo Source: U.S. National Archives. Digitized by Signal Corps Archive.

 

Names of astronomical objects are often ambiguous, especially when the historical designation of a certain class of celestial body preceded their physical understanding and was based on their appearance in the sky.

 

A notoriously abstruse case of nomenclature is that of planetary nebulas, the picturesque remains of low- and intermediate-mass stars. In contrast to what happens to their more massive counterparts, stars with masses from 0.8 to 8 times that of the Sun do not end their life exploding as powerful supernovas but peacefully puff up, releasing their outer layers in the surrounding space and creating beautifully shaped clouds in the process.

 

Although these stellar demises have nothing to do with planets, astronomers in the 18th century, who first noticed them, were baffled by their roundish appearance, and gave them the misleading name of planetary nebulas.

 

And just to make it more complicated, the planetary nebula shown in this image carries an even more peculiar name. Since it spans a disc on the sky roughly as large as that covered by the planet Jupiter, it received the curious moniker Jupiter’s Ghost. Of course, this object is also known through its catalogue designations, the most recent of which, since the late 19th century, is NGC 3242.

 

The image reveals how mighty winds released by the dying star – the white dwarf star at the centre – are shaping the double-shell structure of the nebula. The blue glow filling the inner bubble represents X-ray emission from hot gas, heated up to over two million degrees by shocks in the fast stellar winds, gusting at about 2400 km/s against the ambient gas.

 

The green glow marks cooler concentrations of gas seen in optical light through the emission of oxygen, revealing the edge of the inner shell in contrast to the more diffuse gas making up the outer shell. The two flame-shaped features, visible in red to the upper right and lower left of the inner bubble, are pockets of even cooler gas, seen also in optical light through the emission of nitrogen.

 

Jupiter's Ghost lies some 3000 light-years away, and it is visible in the southern constellation Hydra, the water snake.

 

This image combines X-ray data collected in 2003 by ESA’s XMM-Newton (blue) with optical observations from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (green and red). It was first published on the XMM-Newton image gallery.

 

Credit: ESA/XMM-Newton & Y.-H. Chu/R.A. Gruendl/M.A. Guerrero/N. Ruiz (X-ray); NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope & A. Hajian/B. Balick (optical)

ČME3 is the designation of a series also known in Poland as S200. Produced by ČKD in Prague, it is one of the most widely produced locomotive series in history. Over 8,000 units were built between 1963 and 1991, many of which are still in operation, although they have been retired in Lithuania.

The Cadillac Eldorado is a personal luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1953 to 2002 over ten generations. Competitors and similar vehicles included the Lincoln Mark series, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado and Chrysler's Imperial Coupe.

 

The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line during early model years. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years, and the Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 until 1966. Eldorados carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972.

 

NAME

The nameplate Eldorado is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical South American "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.

 

Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating the company's golden anniversary, the name Eldorado was proposed by Mary-Ann Marini (née Zukosky), a secretary in Cadillac's merchandising department — and was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.

 

Palm Springs Life magazine incorrectly attributes the name to the Eldorado Country Club in Indian Wells, California, a favorite resort of General Motors executives in the Coachella Valley — though the resort opened in 1957, five years after Cadillac's own naming competition.

 

Cadillac began using the nameplates 'Eldorado Seville' and 'Eldorado Biarritz' to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The 'Seville' name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1977.

 

FIRST GENERATION (1953)

The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets (aka dagmars) from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.

 

The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheetmetal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors (Aztec red, Alpine white, azure blue and artisan ochre — the last is a yellow hue, although it was shown erroneously as black in the color folder issued on this rare model). Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option, as were wire wheels. The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top in the open car version.

 

Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible, sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750. The 5,610 mm long, 2,030 mm wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. The Eldorado comprised only 5% of Cadillac's sales in 1953.

 

SECOND GENERATION (1954–1956)

In 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price and see a substantial increase in sales. The Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fenderbreaks and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear bodysides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum and also appeared on a unique one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. Two thousand one hundred and fifty Eldorados were sold, nearly four times as many as in 1953.

 

For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender, pointed tailfins. These contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time and were an example of the Eldorado once again pointing the way forward. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.

 

For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version appeared, called the Eldorado Seville at which point the convertible was named the "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Eldorados accounted for nearly 4% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

THIRD GENERATION (1957-1960)

1957 saw the Eldorado (in both convertible and Seville hardtop bodystyles) with a revised rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by a pointed, in-board fin. The rear fenders were commonly referred to as "chipmunk cheeks". This concept was used for two years, but did not spawn any imitators. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The rear fender and deck contour was trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels. Also seen were "shark" style fins pointing towards the back of the cars. A three section built in front bumper was another exclusive trait of the Series 62 Eldorados, which came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sedan Sevilles were also built in 1957.

 

1957 was chiefly notable for the introduction of one of GM's most memorable designs, the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham. Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the Eldorado Brougham was a hand-built, limited car derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953-54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, it featured the first appearance of quad headlights and totally unique trim. The exterior ornamentation included wide, ribbed lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. This four-door hardtop with rear-hinged rear doors was an ultra-luxury car that cost an astonishing $13,074 — twice the price of any other 1957 Eldorado and more than the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud of the same year. It featured a stainless steel roof, self leveling air suspension, the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener, cruise control, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, automatic-release parking brake, electric door locks, dual heating system, silver magnetized glovebox, drink tumblers, cigarette and tissue dispensers, lipstick and cologne, ladies' compact with powder puff, mirror and matching leather notebook, comb and mirror, Arpège atomizer with Lanvin perfume, automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.

 

There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.

 

The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name. The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. Only 400 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1957.

 

An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco Radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.

 

For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.

 

On 1958 2-door Eldorados, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script were mounted to the deck lid. Two-door Eldorados also had ten vertical chevron slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. Broad, sculptured beauty panels decorated the lower rear quarters on all Series 62 Eldorados and extended around the wheel opening to stretch along the body sills. All-new was a special-order Series 62 Eldorado Seville, of which only one was actually built.

 

The major changes to the Eldorado Brougham in 1958 were seen inside the car. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors. A total of 304 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy.

 

The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels. In 1959 the Series 62 became the Series 6200. De Villes and 2-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the Series 6300 and Series 6400 respectively, though they all, including the 4-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to Series 6900), shared the same 3,302 mm wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert, but other trim and equipment features varied. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even 345 hp (257 kW) from the 6.4 L engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with Air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, acruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.

 

The 1960 Cadillacs had smoother, more restrained styling. General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins with oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Cambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.

 

A different Eldorado Brougham was sold for 1959 and 1960. These cars were not quite so extravagantly styled but were very unusual pieces in themselves. Priced at $13,075, they cost $1 more, each, than their older siblings. The company contracted out the assembly to Pininfarina of Italy, with whom the division has had a long-running relationship, and these Eldorados were essentially hand-built in Italy. Ironically only now did it acquire Fleetwood wheel discs and doorsill moldings, presumably because the design work and final touches were still being done by Fleetwood. Discreet, narrow taillights integrated into modest tailfins, and a squared-off rear roof line with rear ventiplanes caused the Italian-built Brougham to contrast sharply to the rounded roof lines, and especially the new "rocketship" taillights and flamboyant fins of the standard 1959 Cadillacs, which are a feature only of that year. A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. It did not sport Eldorado front fender letters or body sill headlights. A fin-like crest, or "skeg," ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodysides and there were special crest medallions on the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The Brougham's styling cues would prove to indicate where standard Cadillac styling would head from 1960 through the early-mid-1960s. The standard equipment list was pared down to match those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass. The Brougham build-quality was not nearly to the standard of the Detroit hand-built 1957–1958 models, and thus the 1959–1960 Broughams did not sell as well as their forebears. However, collector interest and values for these cars remain high. The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 for its remaining two years.

 

The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series Northern Exposure.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (1961–1964)

Cadillac was restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plan, and sat between dual headlamps. New forward slanting front pillars with non-wraparound windshield glass were seen. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back up lights, windshield washer, dual speed wipers, wheel discs, plain fender skirts, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, 6-way power bench seat or bucket seats, power vent windows, whitewall tires, and remote control trunk lock. Rubberized front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone sales fell to 1,450.

 

A mild face lift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertical nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the radiator grille. Standard equipment included all of last year’s equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.

 

In 1963 Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies and immediately acquired Fleetwood crests on its rear quarters[26] and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. Exterior changes imparted a bolder and longer look. Hoods and deck lids were redesigned. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was entirely eliminated. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the flush-fender dual headlamps. Smaller circular front parking lamps were mounted in those extensions. The Eldorado also had a rectangular grid pattern rear decorative grille. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, 6.4 l and 325 hp (242 kW).

It was time for another facelift in 1964 and really a minor one. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes. The main horizontal grille bar was now carried around the body sides. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to 7 l, with 340 hp (253.5 kW) available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at 30 to 80 km/h traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special.

 

FITH GENERATION (1965–1966)

The Eldorado became a Fleetwood sub-series in 1965, although there was strictly speaking no separate Fleetwood series at this time. It was consequently marketed as the Cadillac Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Cadillac Fleetwood Series 75 and the Cadillac Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long absent Seville and Brougham. This was the last generation to be installed with rear wheel drive.

 

In 1966 changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac crests and V-shaped moldings, front and rear, were identifiers. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.

 

SIXTH GENERATION (1967–1970)

The Eldorado was radically redesigned in 1967 to capitalize on the burgeoning era's personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year. To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adopted the Toronado's front-wheel drive Unified Powerplant Package, adapted to a standard Cadillac 429 V8 coupled to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Based on the Turbo-Hydramatic 400, the THM425 placed the torque converter next to the planetary gearbox, which it drove through a metal, motorcycle-style roller chain. Disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel. The Unified Powerplant Package was later shared with the GMC Motorhome starting in 1972.

 

The new Eldorado was a great departure from the previous generation, which had become little more than a dressed-up version of Cadillac's De Ville. Its crisp styling, initiated by GM styling chief Bill Mitchell, was distinctive and unique, more angular than the streamlined Riviera and Toronado. This was the only production Cadillac to be equipped with concealed headlights behind vacuum operated doors.

 

Performance was 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in less than nine seconds and a top speed of 120 mph (192 km/h). Roadability and handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.

 

In 1968, the Eldorado received Cadillac's new 375 hp (280 kW) (SAE gross) 7.7 L V8, and disc brakes became standard. Only slight exterior changes were made to comply with new federal safety legislation. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorados accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

In 1969 hidden headlamps were eliminated, and a halo vinyl roof was available as an option, joined later in the model year by a power sunroof.

 

In 1970 the Eldorado introduced the new 8.2 L V8 engine, the largest-ever production V8, rated SAE gross 400 hp (298 kW) and 550 lb·ft (746 N·m), which would remain exclusive until it became standard on all full size Cadillacs in the 1975 model year.

 

SEVENTH GENERATION (1971–1978)

The Eldorado underwent a substantial redesign in 1971, growing two inches in length but six in wheelbase. The result was a rounder, much heavier looking automobile, made even more rotund by the return of standard fender skirts. While Eldorado door glass remained frameless, the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A convertible model rejoined the line-up. This 126.3-inch (3,210 mm) wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving facelifts in 1973 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.

 

In 1972 sales rose to 40,074.

 

Performance was not competitive with contemporary premium personal luxury cars. However, none but the Lincoln were 6 passenger vehicles.

 

In 1973 the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The '73 models received a facelift featuring new front and rear bumpers, egg-crate grille, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps.

 

The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the pace car for the Indy 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Total sales soared to 51,451, over a sixth of all Cadillac sales.

 

1974 models featured a redesigned rear bumper, to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Styling changes include horizontal taillamps, and a fine mesh grille. Inside, there was a new, redesigned instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.

 

For 1975, the Eldorado was given rectangular headlamps, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and crisper lines which resulted in a much sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967-70 models.

 

In 1976 GM heavily promoted the Eldorado convertibles as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. These cars were white with a dual-color red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside. When GM reintroduced Eldorado convertibles for the 1984 model year, owners of 1976 Eldorados felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit.

 

In 1977 the Eldorado received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few new 1977 and 1978s Eldorados into coach convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The 8.2L V8 of 1970-76 gave way to a new 7L V8 with 180 bhp (134 kW). For the first time in 1977 all GM E-body cars were front-wheel drive, as the Riviera underwent a two-year hiatus before joining them in 1979.

 

A new grille was the only major change in 1978. The Eldorado was totally redisigned for 1979.

 

ELDORADO BIARRITZ

Unlike the Cadillac Sixty Special and De Ville, Eldorado did not have a unique luxury package to provide it with a title change (such as the "d'Elegance" package). This was rectified in mid-year 1976 with the Biarritz package. A unique trim feature of Biarritz, a name that had not been used since the 1964 model year (although the Eldorado was Fleetwood bodied from the 1963 model year on, the Fleetwood designation was only applied to all Eldorados produced from the 1965 through 1972 model years) was a brushed stainless steel roof covering the front passenger compartment for model years 1979-1985. This was a styling cue reminiscent of the 1957/58 Eldorado Brougham. The rear half of the roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. The interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" velour or leather seating, with contrasting piping, along with an array of other options available.

 

The 1978 Biarritz option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom Biarritz ($1,865.00); w/Astroroof ($2,946.00); w/Sunroof ($2,746.00) and Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classic ($2,466.00); w/Astroroof ($3,547.00); w/Sunroof ($3,347.00).

 

For the 1978 Eldorado model year only, 2,000 Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classics were produced in Two-Tone Arizona Beige/Demitasse Brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no Sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with Sunroofs and one (1) was produced with a Power Sliding T-Top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Division.

 

The Biarritz option stayed with the Eldorado through the 1991 model year. Some of the original styling cues vanished after the 1985 model year, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing and the interior seating designs, but the Biarritz remained unique just the same.

 

EIGHTH GENERATION (1979–1985)

A new, trimmer Eldorado was introduced for 1979, for the first time sharing its chassis with both the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. Smaller, more fuel efficient 350 and 368 in³ (5.7 and 6.0 L) V8's replaced the 500 and 425 in³ (8.2 and 7.0 L) engines. A diesel 350 was available as an option.

 

In 1980, the gas 350 was replaced with the 368 except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was used. In both the 1980 Seville and Eldorado (which shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI (later known as throttle body injection when it was later used with other GM corporate engines), whereas in the larger RWD Cadillacs it came only with a 4-barrel Quadrajet carburetor. Independent rear suspension was adopted, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado Biarritz model resurrected the stainless-steel roof concept from the first Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and the rear quarter windows re-appeared as they did before 1971, without a thick "B" pillar. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed. Sales set a new record at 67,436.[citation needed]

 

For 1981, Cadillac offered the V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate some cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy ("CAFE") averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-year 1977–1979 425. The engine itself was extremely rugged and durable, but its complex electronics were the source of customer complaints.

 

Another engine was introduced for 1982. The 4.1 L HT-4100 was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Some HT-4100s were replaced under warranty.

 

From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered an 'Eldorado Touring Coupe', with heavier duty suspension, alloy wheels, blackwall tires, minimal exterior ornamentation and limited paint colors. These were marketed as 'driver's cars' and included bucket seats and a center console.

 

In 1984, Cadillac also introduced a convertible version of Eldorado Biarritz. It was 91 kg heavier featuring the same interior as other Biarritz versions. The model year of 1985 was the last year for the ASC, Inc., aftermarket conversion Eldorado convertible. Total sales set an all-time record of 77,806, accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

Prior to the 'official' 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979-83 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. American Sunroof Corporation, Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio - this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles), Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coachbuilders also converted the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera into a ragtop.

 

Late in the 1985 model year, an optional 'Commemorative Edition' package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a "Commemorative Edition" badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in Dark Blue or White, or a two-tone with Dark Blue and White) was included in the package, along with a Dark Blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were Cotillion White or Commodore Blue.

 

NINTH GENERATION (1986–1991)

The Eldorado was downsized again in 1986. In a fairly extreme makeover it lost about 16" in length and some 350 pounds in weight. Just like in previous generations, the Eldorado shared its chassis with the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera, as well as Eldorado's four-door companion, the Cadillac Seville. However, the coupés from Buick and Oldsmobile both utilized Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while Cadillac continued to use their exclusive 4.1 liter V8. The convertible bodystyle was ceded to the Cadillac Allanté roadster.

 

The $24,251 Eldorado was now the same size that GM's own compact cars had been only a few years earlier, and considerably smaller than Lincoln's competing Mark VII, and no similar offering from Chrysler as the Imperial coupe was discontinued in 1983. Its styling seemed uninspired and stubby, and in a final unfortunate flourish, for the first time the Eldorado abandoned its "hardtop" heritage and featured framed door glass. News reports later indicated that GM had been led astray by a consultant's prediction that gasoline would be at $3 per gallon in the U.S. by 1986, and that smaller luxury cars would be in demand. In fact, gasoline prices were less than half that. With a sales drop of 60%, seldom has any model experienced a more precipitous fall. Production was only about a fifth of what it had been just two years earlier.

 

Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, Eldorado received very few changes for 1987. A price drop, to $23,740, did not raise sales any, as only 17,775 were made this year (21,342 for 1986). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) Touring Suspension, with deflected-disc strut valves and 15" alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of Eldorado's most expensive singluar options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850, it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a hidden microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a clever radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use at the same time, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone. On an interesting note, the square marker lamp, located on the bumper extension molding just behind the rear wheel well on 1986 and '87 Eldorado models, would suddenly re-appear on the 1990 & '91 Seville (base models only) and Eldorado Touring Coupé.

1988 was met with an extensive restyle, and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. While the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged, new body panels gave the 1988 model a more identifiable "Eldorado" appearance. Now available in just 17 exterior colors (previously 19), the new Eldorado was 3" longer than last year. Underneath the restyled hood was Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Longer front fenders held "bladed" tips, and a new grille above the revamped front bumper. In back, new three-sided tail lamps - reminiscent of the 1987 Deville - appeared along with a new bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14" aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15" snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the Touring Suspension option. The interior held wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles (replacing the former door pull straps). New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter bringing back the tufted-button design - last seen in the 1985 Eldorado Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full roof top, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows - similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the roof top, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and '87, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976 - 1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the roof top, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Pricing went up this year - to $24,891. This 1988 restyle would be the last, until the model was replaced by an all-new Eldorado for 1992.

 

TENTH GENERATION (1992–2002)

The 1992 Eldorado was all new, drawing both interior and exterior styling cues from the 1988 Cadillac Solitaire show car. It was significantly larger than its predecessor – approximately 11" longer, 3" wider, and substantially heavier. Window glass was once again frameless, and shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and 295 hp (220 kW) variants, replacing the 200 hp (150 kW) 4.9 L. Sales were up, though never again at record heights.

 

The Eldorado continued for the rest of the decade with incremental changes and tapering sales. A passenger side airbag was added as standard equipment in 1993. Styling was freshened in 1995, with updated bumpers front and rear, side cladding, and a new grille. In 1996, the interior received attention, with a new upholstery style, larger analog gauge cluster, relocated climate control system, updated stereo faces and standard daytime running lights. The ETC receives rain-sensing wipers called "Rainsense."

 

In 1997, the Integrated Chassis Control System was added. It involved microprocessor integration of engine, traction control, Stabilitrak electronic stability control, steering, and adaptive continuously variable road sensing suspension CVRSS, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. Similar to Toyota/Lexus Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management VDIM.

 

In the wake of declining sales, circulating reports that the Eldorado would get a redesign for 1999 — similar to that which the Seville underwent for 1998 — would prove false as the car soldiered on largely unchanged into the new millennium, although it did get some upgrades from the 1999 Seville.

 

The car was sold under Cadillac ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) and ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) trim.

 

In 2001 GM announced that the Eldorado's 50th model year (2002) would be its last. To mark the end of the nameplate, a limited production run of 1,596 cars in red or white - the colors available on the original 1953 convertible - were produced in three batches of 532, signifying the Eldorado's first year of production. These last cars featured specially tuned exhaust notes imitating their forerunners from a half-century earlier, and a dash-mounted plaque indicating each car's sequence in production.

 

Production ended on April 22, 2002, with the Lansing Craft Centre retooled to build the Chevrolet SSR.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

The Volkswagen Type 2, officially known as the Transporter or informally as Bus (US) or Camper (UK), was a panel van introduced in 1950 by German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model – following and initially deriving from Volkswagen's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle), it was given the factory designation Type 2.

As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to competitors in the United States and Europe, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adopting the Type 2's rear-engine configuration. European competition included the Renault Estafette and the Ford Transit. As of January 2010, updated versions of the Type 2 remain in production in international markets— as a passenger van, as a cargo van, and as a pickup truck.

Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus", "minibus", "kombi" and, due to its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, "hippie van".

 

The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. (It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production.) Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to Holland, where he saw an improvised parts-mover and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23, 1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg (1,500 lb) and placing the driver at the very front. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.

When capacity freed up a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp (19 kW) flat four engine.

Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial drag coefficient of 0.75), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee" helped the production Type 2 achieve a drag coefficient of 0.44, exceeding the Type 1's 0.48. Volkswagen's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.

An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate"-style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year. These were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.

Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all-new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1" to "T5" (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front-drive T4 which repaced the T25) However only generations T1 to T3 (or T25 as it is still called in Ireland and Great Britain) can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).

The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first 'forward control' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair-based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van went so far as to copy the Type 2's rear-engine layout, using the Corvair's horizontally-opposed, air-cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor" Panel Vans, which couldn't easily be loaded from the rear due to the engine cover intruding on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise.

 

The Type 2 was available as a:

Panel van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats.

Nippen Tucket, available in six colours, with or without doors.

Walk-Through Panel Van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats and cargo doors on both sides.

High Roof Panel Van (German: Hochdach), a delivery van with raised roof.

Kombi, from German: Kombinationskraftwagen (combination motor vehicle), with side windows and removable rear seats, both a passenger and a cargo vehicle combined.

Bus, also called a Volkswagen Caravelle, a van with more comfortable interior reminiscent of passenger cars since the third generation.

Samba-Bus, a van with skylight windows and cloth sunroof, first generation only, also known as a Deluxe Microbus. They were marketed for touring the Alps,

Flatbed pickup truck, or Single Cab, also available with wider load bed.

Crew cab pick-up, a flatbed truck with extended cab and two rows of seats, also called a Doka, from German: Doppelkabine.

Westfalia camping van, "Westy", with Westfalia roof and interior.

Adventurewagen camping van, with high roof and camping units from Adventurewagen.

Semi-camping van that can also still be used as a passenger car and transporter, sacrificing some camping comforts. "Multivan" or "Weekender", available from the third generation on.

Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third-party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail-going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.

 

The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950–1956, the T1 was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air cooled engine, an 1,131 cc (69.0 cu in), DIN-rated 18 kW (24 PS; 24 bhp), air-cooled flat-four cylinder 'boxer' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 – an 1,192 cc (72.7 cu in) 22 kW (30 PS; 30 bhp) in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the 30 kW (41 PS; 40 bhp) engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. This engine proved to be so uncharacteristically troublesome that Volkswagen recalled all 1959 Transporters and replaced the engines with an updated version of the 30 kW engine. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are true survivors. Since the engine was totally discontinued at the outset, no parts were ever made available.

The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor" (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15" roadwheels instead of the original 16" ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW's restrospective T1,2,3,4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay-window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger/cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans. This change arguably makes the 1964 Volkswagen the first true minivan, although the term wouldn't be coined for another two decades.

In 1962, a heavy-duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) instead of the previous 750 kg (1,653 lb), smaller but wider 14" roadwheels, and a 1.5 Le, 31 kW (42 PS; 42 bhp) DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine – 1,493 cc (91.1 cu in) as standard equipment to the US market at 38 kW (52 PS; 51 bhp) DIN with an 83 mm (3.27 in) bore, 69 mm (2.72 in) stroke, and 7.8:1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to 40 kW (54 PS; 54 bhp) DIN.

  

1966 Volkswagen Kombi (North America)

German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968–79 T2-style front end, and big 1972-vintage taillights into the so-called "T1.5" and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1.5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s-era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle/Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five-stud 205 mm (8.1 in) PCD) rims.

  

VW Bus Type 2 (T1), hippie colors

Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11-window (a.k.a. three-window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15-window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23-window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13-window and 21-window respectively. The 23- and later 21-window variants each carry the nickname 'Samba', or in Australia, officially 'Alpine'.

 

Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in an historic episode during the early 1960s, known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of U.S. chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25% tax (almost 10 times the average U.S. tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.

In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House, revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just prior to the 1964 election, and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.

The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German-built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks – that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups. In 1964, U.S. imports of automobile trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million – about one-third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, "practically disappeared from the U.S. market". While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single-cab and double-cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. As of 2009, the Chicken tax remains in effect.

(Source Wikipedia)

 

Shot at Båstnäs Vehicle graveyard with a Nikon D70.

Edited on a IPad 2

Date Taken: June 18, 2014

 

Basic Details:

Operator: VICTORY LINER, INC.

Fleet Number: 2124

Classification: Air-Conditioned Provincial Operation Bus

Seating Configuration: 2x2 Seats

Seating Capacity: 49 Passengers

 

Body:

Coachbuilder: Five Star Bus Body

Body Model: Unknown / Unspecified Model Designation

Air-Conditioning Unit: Dependent Overhead Unit

 

Chassis:

Chassis Manufacturer: MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG

Chassis Model: MAN A55 18.310 HOCL

Layout: Rear-Longitudinally-Mounted Engine Rear-Wheel Drive (4x2 RR layout)

Suspension: Air-Suspension

 

Engine:

Engine Manufacturer: MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG

Engine Model: MAN D2866LOH27

Cylinder Displacement: 730.107 cu. inches (11,967 cc / 12.0 Liters)

Cylinder Configuration: Straight-6

Engine Aspiration: Turbocharged and Intercooled

Max. Power Output: 306 bhp (310 PS - metric hp / 228 kW) @ 1,900 rpm

Peak Torque Output: 1,012 ft.lbs (1,372 N.m / 140 kg.m) @ 900 - 1,400 rpm

Emission Standard: Euro 1

 

Transmission:

Type: Automatic Transmission

Gears: 6-Speed Forward, 1-Speed Reverse

 

* Some parts of the specifications may be subjected for verification and may be changed without prior notice...

 

Our Official Facebook Fan Page: Philippine Bus Enthusiasts Society (PhilBES)

The designation is derived from its distinctive colour scheme, shape and its ability to hyper "jump" out of trouble.

 

The above show's it's versatility - It's smallest silhouette enables it to travel at greater speeds and fit through confined spaces. When Extended it's wings provide a more stable platform for upgraded weaponry.

 

----------------

 

Built for my Polystyrene Builder contest versus Gmanvespa

  

A Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) CF-18 "Hornet's" (official military designation CF-188) breaks away from a U.S. Air Force Boeing KC-135 "Stratotanker" assigned to the 340th Expeditionary Air Refueling Squadron, after competing refueling, March 4, 2015, over Iraq. The Hornets are on a mission to strike Da'esh targets in support of Operation Inherent Resolve.

Colorado Springs, CO - When taking pictures of a newly constructed house I often think, "This is the cleanest the kitchen will ever get."

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Lockheed XFV (sometimes erroneously referred to as the "Salmon", even though this was actually the name of one of its test pilots and not an official designation) was an American experimental tailsitter prototype aircraft built by Lockheed in the early 1950s to demonstrate the operation of a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) fighter for protecting convoys.

 

The Lockheed XFV originated as a result of a proposal issued by the U.S. Navy in 1948 for an aircraft capable of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aboard platforms mounted on the afterdecks of conventional ships. Both Convair and Lockheed competed for the contract, but in 1950 the requirement was revised with a call for a research aircraft capable of eventually evolving into a VTOL ship-based convoy escort fighter. On 19 April 1951, two prototypes were ordered from Lockheed under the designation XFO-1 (company designation was Model 081-40-01). Soon after the contract was awarded, the project designation changed to XFV-1 when the Navy's code for Lockheed was changed from O to V.

 

The XFV was powered by a 5,332 hp (3,976 kW) Allison YT40-A-6 turboprop engine, composed of two Allison T38 power sections driving three-bladed contra-rotating propellers via a common gearbox. The aircraft had no landing gear, just small castoring wheels at the tips of the tail surfaces which were a reflected cruciform v-tail (forming an x) that extended above and below the fuselage. The wings were diamond-shaped and relatively thin, with straight and sharp leading edges – somewhat foretelling the design of Lockheed’s Mach-2-capable F-104 Starfighter.

 

To begin flight testing, a temporary non-retractable undercarriage with long braced V-legs was attached to the fuselage, and fixed tail wheels attached to the lower pair of fins. In this form, the aircraft was trucked to Edwards AFB in November 1953 for ground testing and taxiing trials. During one of these tests, at a time when the aft section of the large spinner had not yet been fitted, Lockheed chief test pilot Herman "Fish" Salmon managed to taxi the aircraft past the liftoff speed, and the aircraft made a brief hop on 22 December 1953. The official first flight took place on 16 June 1954.

Full VTOL testing at Edwards AFB was delayed pending the availability of the 7,100 shp Allison T54, which was earmarked to replace the T40 and power eventual serial production aircraft. But the T54 faced severe development delays, esp. its gearbox. Another problem that arose with the new engine was that the propeller blade tips would reach supersonic speed and therefore compressibility problems.

After the brief unintentional hop, the prototype aircraft made a total of 32 flights. The XFV-1 was able to make a few transitions in flight from the conventional to the vertical flight mode and back, and had briefly held in hover at altitude, but the T40 output was simply not enough to ensure proper and secure VTOL operations. Performance remained limited by the confines of the flight test regime. Another issue that arose through the advancements of jet engine designs was the realization that the XFV's top speed would be eclipsed by contemporary fighters. Additionally, the purely manual handling of the aircraft esp. during landing was very demanding - the XFV could only be controlled by highly experienced pilots.

 

Both Navy and the Marines Corps were still interested in the concept, though, so that, in early 1955, the decision was made to build a limited pre-production series of the aircraft, the FV-2, for operational field tests and evaluation. The FV-2 was the proposed production version (Model 181-43-02), primarily conceived and optimized as a night/all-weather interceptor for point defense, and officially baptized “Solstice”. The FV-2 was powered by the T54-A-16 turboprop, which had eventually overcome its teething troubles and offered a combined power output equivalent of 7,500 shp (5,600 kW) from the propellers and the twin-engines’ residual thrust. Outwardly the different engine was recognizable through two separate circular exhausts which were introduced instead of the XFV’s single shallow ventral opening. The gearbox had been beefed up, too, with additional oil coolers in small ventral fairings behind the contraprops and the propeller blades were aerodynamically improved to better cope with the higher power output and rotation speed. Additionally, an automatic pitch control system was introduced to alleviate the pilot from the delicate control burdens during hover and flight mode transition.

 

Compared with the XFV, the FV-2 incorporated 150 lb (68 kg) of cockpit armor, along with a 1.5 in (38 mm) bullet-proof windscreen. A Sperry Corporation AN/APS-19 type radar was added in the fixed forward part of the nose spinner under an opaque perspex radome. The AN/APS-19 was primarily a target detection radar with only a limited tracking capability, and it had been introduced with the McDonnell F2H-2N. The radar had a theoretical maximum detection range of 60 km, but in real life air targets could only be detected at much shorter distances. At long ranges the radar was mainly used for navigation and to detect land masses or large ships.

Like the older AN/APS-6, the AN/APS-19 operated in a "Spiral Scan" search pattern. In a spiral scan the radar dish spins rapidly, scanning the area in front of the aircraft following a spiral path. As a result, however targets were not updated on every pass as the radar was pointing at a different angle on each pass. This also made the radar prone to ground clutter effects, which created "pulses" on the radar display. The AN/APS-19 was able to lock onto and track targets within a narrow cone, out to a maximum range of about 1 mile (1.5 km), but to do so the radar had to cease scanning.

 

The FV-2’s standard armament consisted of four Mk. 11 20 mm cannon fitted in pairs in the two detachable wingtip pods, with 250 rounds each, which fired outside of the wide propeller disc. Alternatively, forty-eight 2¾ in (70 mm) folding-fin rockets could be fitted in similar pods, which could be fired in salvoes against both air and ground targets. Instead of offensive armament, 200 US gal. (165 imp. gal./750 l) auxiliary tanks for ferry flights could be mounted onto the wing tips.

 

Until June 1956 a total of eleven FV-2s were built and delivered. With US Navy Air Development Squadron 8 (also known as VX-8) at NAS Atlantic City, a dedicated evaluation and maintenance unit for the FV-2 and the operations of VTOL aircraft in general was formed. VX-2 operated closely with its sister unit VX-3 (located at the same base) and operated the FV-2s alongside contemporary types like the Grumman F9F-8 Cougar, which at that time went through carrier-qualification aboard the USS Midway. The Cougars were soon joined by the new, supersonic F-8U-1 Crusaders, which arrived in December 1956. The advent of this supersonic navy jet type rendered the FV-2’s archaic technology and its performance more and more questionable, even though the VTOL concept’s potential and the institutions’ interest in it kept the test unit alive.

 

The FV-2s were in the following years put through a series of thorough field tests and frequently deployed to land bases all across the USA and abroad. Additionally, operational tests were also conducted on board of various ship types, ranging from carriers with wide flight decks to modified merchant ships with improvised landing platforms. The FV-2s also took part in US Navy and USMC maneuvers, and when not deployed elsewhere the training with new pilots at NAS Atlantic City continued.

 

During these tests, the demanding handling characteristics of the tailsitter concept in general and the FV-2 in specific were frequently confirmed. Once in flight, however, the FV-2 handled well and was a serious and agile dogfighter – but jet aircraft could easily avoid and outrun it.

Other operational problems soon became apparent, too: while the idea of a VTOL aircraft that was independent from runways or flight bases was highly attractive, the FV-2’s tailsitter concept required a complex and bulky maintenance infrastructure, with many ladders, working platforms and cranes. On the ground, the FV-2 could not move on its own and had to be pushed or towed. However, due to the aircraft’s high center of gravity it had to be handled with great care – two FV-2s were seriously damaged after they toppled over, one at NAS Atlantic City on the ground (it could be repaired and brought back into service), the other aboard a ship at heavy sea, where the aircraft totally got out of control on deck and fell into the sea as a total loss.

To make matters even worse, fundamental operational tasks like refueling, re-arming the aircraft between sorties or even just boarding it were a complicated and slow task, so that the aircraft’s theoretical conceptual benefits were countered by its cumbersome handling.

 

FV-2 operations furthermore revealed, despite the considerably increased power output of the T54 twin engine that more than compensated for the aircraft’s raised weight, only a marginal improvement of the aircraft’s performance; the FV-2 had simply reached the limits of propeller-driven aircraft. Just the rate of climb was markedly improved, and the extra power made the FV-2’s handling safer than the XFV’s, even though this advancement was only relative because the aircraft’s hazardous handling during transition and landing as well as other conceptual problems prevailed and could not be overcome. The FV-2’s range was also very limited, esp. when it did not carry the fuel tanks on the wing tips, so that the aircraft’s potential service spectrum remained very limited.

 

Six of the eleven FV-2s that were produced were lost in various accidents within only three years, five pilots were killed. The T54 engine remained unreliable, and the propeller control system which used 25 vacuum tubes was far from reliable, too. Due to the many problems, the FV-2s were grounded in 1959, and when VX-8 was disestablished on 1 March 1960, the whole project was cancelled and all remaining aircraft except for one airframe were scrapped. As of today, Bu.No. 53-3537 resides disassembled in storage at the National Museum of the United States Navy in the former Breech Mechanism Shop of the old Naval Gun Factory on the grounds of the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., United States, where it waits for restoration and eventual public presentation.

 

As a historic side note, the FV-2’s detachable wing tip gun pods had a longer and more successful service life: they were the basis for the Mk.4 HIPEG (High Performance External Gun) gun pods. This weapon system’s main purpose became strafing ground targets, and it received a different attachment system for underwing hardpoints and a bigger ammunition supply (750 RPG instead of just 250 on the FV-2). Approximately 1.200 Mk. 4 twin gun pods were manufactured by Hughes Tool Company, later Hughes Helicopter, in Culver City, California. While the system was tested and certified for use on the A-4, the A-6, the A-7, the F-4, and the OV-10, it only saw extended use on the A-4, the F-4, and the OV-10, esp. in Vietnam where the Mk. 4 pod was used extensively for close air support missions.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length/Height: 36 ft 10.25 in (11.23 m)

Wingspan: 30 ft 10.1 in (9.4 m)

Wing area: 246 sq ft (22.85 m²)

Empty weight: 12,388 lb (5,624 kg)

Gross weight: 17,533 lb (7,960 kg)

Max. takeoff weight: 18,159 lb (8,244 kg)

 

Powerplant:

1× Allison T54-A-16 turboprop with 7,500 shp (5,600 kW) output equivalent,

driving a 6 blade contra-rotating propeller

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 585 mph (941 km/h, 509 kn

Cruise speed: 410 mph (660 km/h, 360 kn)

Range: 500 mi (800 km, 430 nmi) with internal fuel

800 mi (1,300 km, 700 nmi) with ferry wing tip tanks

Service ceiling: 46,800 ft (14,300 m)

Rate of climb: 12,750 ft/min (75.0 m/s)

Wing loading: 73.7 lb/sq ft (360 kg/m²)

 

Armament:

4× 20 mm (.79 in) Mk. 11 machine cannon with a total of 1.000 rounds, or

48× 2.75 in (70 mm) rockets in wingtip pods, or

a pair of 200 US gal. (165 imp. gal./750 l) auxiliary tanks on the wing tips

  

The kit and its assembly:

Another submission to the “Fifties” group build at whatifmodellers-com, and a really nice what-if aircraft that perfectly fits into the time frame. I had this Pegasus kit in The Stash™ for quite a while and the plan to build an operational USN or USMC aircraft from it in the typical all-dark-blue livery from the early Fifties, and the group build was a good occasion to realize it.

 

The Pegasus kit was released in 1992, the only other option to build the XFV in 1:72 is a Valom kit which, as a bonus, features the aircraft’s fixed landing gear that was used during flight trials. The Pegasus offering is technically simple and robust, but it is nothing for those who are faint at heart. The warning that the kit requires an experienced builder is not to be underestimated, because the IP kit from the UK comes with white metal parts and no visual instructions, just a verbal description of the building steps. The IP parts (including the canopy, which is one piece, quite thick but also clear) and the decals look good, though.

 

The IP parts feature flash and uneven seam lines, sprue attachment points are quite thick. The grey IP material had on my specimen different grades of hard-/brittleness, the white metal parts (some of the propeller blades) were bent and had to be re-aligned. No IP parts would fit well (there are no locator pins or other physical aids), the cockpit tub was a mess to assemble and fit into the fuselage. PSR on any seam all around the hull. But even though this sound horrible, the kit goes together relatively easy – thanks to its simplicity.

 

I made some mods and upgrades, though. One of them was an internal axis construction made from styrene tubes that allow the two propeller discs to move separately (OOB, you just stack and glue the discs onto each other into a rigid nose cone), while the propeller tip with its radome remained fixed – just as in real life. However, due to the parts’ size and resistance against each other, the props could not move as freely as originally intended.

Separate parts for the air intakes as well as the wings and tail surfaces could be mounted with less problems than expected, even though - again – PSR was necessary to hide the seams.

  

Painting and markings:

As already mentioned, the livery would be rather conservative, because I wanted the aircraft to carry the uniform USN scheme in all-over FS 35042 with white markings, which was dropped in 1955, though. The XFV or a potential serial production derivative would just fit into this time frame, and might have carried the classic all-blue livery for a couple of years more, especially when operated by an evaluation unit. Its unit, VX-8, is totally fictional, though.

 

The cockpit interior was painted in Humbrol 80 (simulating bright zinc chromate primer), and to have some contrasts I added small red highlights on the fin pod tips and the gun pods' anti-flutter winglets. For some more variety the radome became earth brown with some good weathering, simulating an opaque perspex hood, and I added white (actually a very light gray) checkerboard markings on the "propeller rings", a bit inspired by the spinner markings on German WWII fighters. Subtle, but it looks good and breaks the otherwise very simple livery.

Some post-panel-shading with a lighter blue was done all over the hull, the exhaust area and the gun ports were painted with iron (Revell 91) and treated with graphite for a more metallic shine.

Silver decal stripe material was used to create the CoroGuard leading edges and the fine lines at the flaps on wings and fins - much easier than trying to solve this with paint and brush...

 

The decals were puzzled together from various dark blue USN aircraft, including a F8F, F9F and F4U sheet. The "XH" code was created with single 1cm hwite letters, the different font is not obvious, thanks to the letter combination.

Finally, the model was sealed with semi-gloss acrylic varnish (still shiny, but not too bright), the radome and the exhaust area were painted with matt varnsh, though.

  

A cool result, despite the rather dubious kit base. The Pegasus kit is seriously something for experienced builders, but the result looks convincing. The blue USN livery suits the XFV/FV-2 very well, it looks much more elegant than in the original NMF - even though it would, in real life, probably have received the new Gull Gray/White scheme (introduced in late 1955, IIRC, my FV-2 might have been one of the last aircraft to be painted blue). However, the blue scheme IMHO points out the aircraft's highly aerodynamic teardrop shape, esp. the flight pics make the aircraft almost look elegant!

Observatory House is an A-listed Building. The following description is from Historic Environment Scotland:

( portal.historicenvironment.scot/designation/LB27608 )

 

"Old Observatory House is of great importance for several reasons. It is one of the very few extant buildings designed by James Craig, the planner of Edinburgh?s first New Town. It is a well-known landmark in Edinburgh and is a vital component in the group of buildings (of which Old Observatory House is the earliest) on Calton Hill which are both architecturally and culturally significant in the history of the city and the nation. It is also highly significant in the history of astronomy in Scotland. In addition, the roof of the tower of Old Observatory House was the viewing point from which the world?s first 360? panorama, Robert Barker?s 'Panoramic View from Calton Hill,' was painted in the late 1780s.

 

The idea of an observatory was first put forward in the mid-18th century, and a fund was set up accordingly, but it was not until the 1770s that firm proposals were received by the Council. These came from Thomas Short, an Edinburgh optician and instrument maker who had inherited his brother James? respected telescope making business. Short proposed to build a relatively basic observatory, but following an increase in funding the scheme became more complex; the final proposal included an octagonal observatory with flanking pavilions for storage and a further, smaller observatory with accommodation for a keeper. James Craig began preparing the plans in 1775, and in 1776 the buildings were begun.

 

However, several sources report that Robert Adam suggested to Craig that a castellated appearance would be appropriate for the smaller Observatory House, recommending ?the appearance of a fortification?.with buttresses and embrasures, and having Gothick towers on the angles? (Arnot); (it is not certain a what point Craig altered his scheme to accommodate the increased funding and Adam?s recommendations; a plan (E.C.A.) of the site and proposed observatory, drawn by the surveyor John Laurie as late as 20th April 1776, shows a very simple scheme.) All concerned were so taken by the design that the building of the octagonal observatory was all but abandoned to concentrate on the construction of the Observatory House. This consumed all the available finance for the project, and in 1777 construction halted, with only one of the four intended buttressed towers and the compound wall complete. By 1780, a 2-bay, 3-storey wing to the east was extant, and Kincaid?s plan of 1784 is the first indication of a single storey wing to the north. However, the exact date of these wings is not clear, and it may be that they were completed in, or soon after, 1777. The mason for the project was William Pirnie, the plumber William Scott and John Sibbald was the smith who supplied the ironmongery and hardware. Many of the tradesmen were owed wages for several years, and even Craig himself was writing to the council as late as 1792 to demand unpaid architect?s fees.

 

After the funding ran out in 1771, the council withdrew from the contract, and siezed Short?s telescope in leu of payments. There then ensured a complicated wrangle over ownership which continued after Short?s death in 1788 until the telescope was finally reclaimed by his daughter Maria in 1820. Meanwhile, in 1788 the council took control of the project in partnership with James Douglas, Short?s grandson, who undertook to finish the Observatory. However, it seems that Douglas? contribution was limited, and that the project was completed in a style far inferior to the original plan. Douglas appears to have focused on the Observatory House rather than the main Octagonal Observatory (although a painting of 1799 by Adam Callender shows the Octagonal Observatory completed with a domed roof). The roof of the tower of Observatory House was fitted with a rotating roof with a 17ft diameter iron wheel. The 'New Observatory?, based in the Observatory House was opened in 1793. However, in the same year Douglas went to sea to escape financial problems, and the tenancy of the observatory was taken on by his wife. She sub-let it to Robert Bowman, an optical instrument maker, who shared the compound with the Town Militia who used it as an arsenal. By 1802 the building was reported to be in a state of bad repair. Bowman asked the council for funds for repair but was denied.

 

In 1811 the Astronomical Society was formed and the lease of the Observatory site subsequently transferred to them. The small building to the NE of Old Observatory House was built to house a transit instrument. They made plans for a new observatory (Playfair?s City Observatory, see separate Listing), on the site of Short?s original octagonal observatory, for scientific research, and adapted Old Observatory House for use as a popular observatory and camera obscura. The keeper of the of the observatories was housed in the single storey N wing until around the mid-nineteenth century, when the camera obscura seems to have closed, and the whole of Old Observatory House was given over to accommodation for the Assistant Astronomer.

 

In 1883, the Astronomer Royal of the time, Charles Piazzi Smyth, instigated the extension and upgrading of Old Observatory House. Consequently the building was extended in a Scots Baronial style: the second bay of the east wing was partially rebuilt and a third bay added; the north wing was also altered and given an additional two stories. An entrance porch was also added at the re-entrant angle.

 

In 1896, the Astronomer Royal moved to Blackford Hill to escape the city smog, and the observatory compound returned to the council. Playfair?s observatory became the City Observatory, and Old Observatory House found use as a council house. It is not currently occupied (2002).

 

The painted ceiling in the 2nd floor tower room is thought to have been painted in the early twentieth century. The choice of subject is particularly appropriate for the dome of an observatory; it depicts a story from the ancient Norse / Scandinavian Creation myth. Part of this legend describes how the sun and moon were placed in chariots which pulled them across the sky, eternally pursued by two wolves, Skoll and Hati."

  

Wikipedia references:

1. James Craig, architect

2. The City Observatory

The Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender (company designation CW-24) was a 1940s United States prototype fighter aircraft built by Curtiss-Wright. Along with the Vultee XP-54 and Northrop XP-56, it resulted from United States Army Air Corps proposal R-40C issued on 27 November 1939 for aircraft with improved performance, armament and pilot visibility over existing fighters; it specifically allowed for unconventional aircraft designs. A highly unusual design for its time, it had a canard configuration, a rear mounted engine, swept wings and two vertical tails. Because of its pusher design, it was sarcastically referred to as the "Ass-ender". Like the XP-54, the Ascender was initially designed for the Pratt & Whitney X-1800 engine and had to be redesigned when that engine project was cancelled. It was also the first Curtiss fighter aircraft to use tricycle landing gear.

 

On 10 July 1942, the United States Army Air Forces issued a contract for three prototypes under the designation XP-55. During this time, the Pratt & Whitney X-1800 H-block sleeve valve engine was experiencing serious developmental delays, and was eventually cancelled. Curtiss decided to switch to the 1,000 hp Allison V-1710 (F16) liquid-cooled inline engine because of its proven reliability. During the mock-up phase, it was decided to switch to the more powerful 1,275 hp V-1710-95.

 

A special feature of the XP-55 was a propeller jettison lever located inside the cockpit to prevent the pilot from hitting the propeller during bailout.

 

Of the 3 XP-55s built, two of them crashed during testing. The sole survivor is on loan to the Air Zoo from the Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum. I took this photo of the unique XP-55 during a visit to the Air Zoo (Portage, MI) on June 6, 2016.

  

The RBSh designation was used to signify MiG-25RBS models fitted with newer and improved equipment. The RBS-variant was upgraded from 1978-9 onward, replacing the older Sablya Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) with the more efficient Shompol SLAR. The Shompol had a three-times higher resolution than the older model and could be used at altitudes ranging from 300-23,000 m (985-75,460 ft). The radar could select moving targets and also had a mapping mode.

 

In this image, a MiG-25RBSh flying with the 882nd Independent Tilzitskiy Reconnaissance Aviation Regiment (882nd ORAP) stationed at Dallyar Air Base in the Azerbaijan SSR flies high on a recce mission. The 882nd ORAP received their MiG-25RBSh aircraft in 1984 and flew them until 1992 when the regiment was disbanded by the newly-established Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force (AzAADF). Other MiG-25P interceptors continued to fly with the new AzAADF until 2007 when they were replaced by the MiG-29.

WW2 era American Tank Destroyer

Official designation:- 90mm Gun Motor Carriage, M36

Built:- April 1944 to May 1945

Total production:- 2,324

Main armament:- 90mm Gun M3

The M36 was based on the sloped armour hull of the M10 tank destroyer, but had a new turret designed to carry the 90mm Gun M3. The type is often called the Jackson, although this name was actually invented post-war by a model kit company.

They went on to serve with US forces in Korea and were also exported to several other countries, including Iran, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and Yugoslavia. In Taiwan they remained in use until at least 2001.

This example is believed to have taken part in the Battle of the Bulge as part of the U.S. Army 703rd Tank Destroyer Battalion (703 TD). It went on to serve in both Korea and the Middle East before being loaned to the Israeli Army to help fight Syria and Egypt, after which it was shipped back to the USA and put into storage. It was later given to the Bosnian Army where it was kept in a maintained condition. While in Bosnia, it was fitted with a diesel engine taken from a Soviet T-55 tank. It was eventually purchased by British tank importer Marcus Glen and shipped to the UK where it was purchased by it’s current owners in 2012.

Now privately owned and painted in American colours, she is seen visiting East Kirkby as part of the 2021 ‘Lanc, Tank and Military Machines’ event.

Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre

East Kirkby, Lincolnshire, UK

28th August 2021

ЧС4 ChS4 (Czechoslovak type 4; type designations - from 52E0 to 52E5) - passenger single-section six-axle 25 kV 50Hz AC electric locomotive, power 5100 kW, hourly speed 101,5 km/h, design speed 180 km/h and tractive force 17900 kgf. The empty weight of the electric locomotive with 2/3 of the sand stock is 123 tons.

In 1963 Škoda built the first prototype electric locomotive S 699.001 (32E), which became the basis for the construction of AC electric locomotive ChS4 (Škoda 52E). At the end of 1965, testing began in the USSR of a prototype of the series CS4-001 (52E0). After the necessary modifications of the running gear, electric brake and increasing the power of the locomotive up to 5100 kW in 1966 began production of the 52E model, which lasted until 1972. Electric locomotives with numbers from 012 to 061 were assigned type 52E2, from 062 to 160 - 52E3, from 162 to 211 - 52E4, from 212 to 231 - 52E5. A total of 230 were produced. Electric locomotives with numbers from 012 (from 52E2 to 52E5) were produced without the ineffective rheostat brake. In addition, the layout, ventilation system, design of kingpin assemblies and some mechanical parts were changed on the locomotives.

The body and driver's cabin cladding is made of fiberglass. The high forehead, large glazing area and rounded contours of fiberglass cladding gave the locomotive a unique look created by Czech designer Otakar Diblik

 

Since 1973, the plant switched to the production of the CS4T model, differing in material and shape of the body, design of individual apparatuses, as well as the presence of rheostat brake.

Climbing the steps towards the Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery in Sha Tin, Hong Kong.

 

Its designation as a monastery is a misnomer because there are no monks residing at the complex, which is managed solely by laypersons. Both the main temple building, and the pagoda are listed as Grade III historic buildings by the Government of Hong Kong.

 

Ground-breaking and construction of the temple began in 1951 under Yuet Kai and his followers, and the structure was finished six years later. It closed for three years at the end of the 20th century after one of its caretakers was killed in a mudslide caused by poorly maintained slopes nearby. The main journey up to the monastery is an attraction itself, as the path is lined on both sides with golden Buddhas, each unique and in different poses. Despite the common translation of its name, the monastery contains nearly 13,000 Buddha statues.

 

The Monastery was founded in 1951 by the Venerable Yuet Kai, who moved to Hong Kong from mainland China almost two decades before in 1933 to proselytize the teachings of Buddhism. The site previously housed a temple to Kwun Yam where a nun was killed during World War II. After the land was purchased by the owner of a local tobacco company, he consequently donated it to Yuet Kai for the purpose of establishing a Buddhist college.

 

This, however, did not come to fruition and the Monastery was built in its stead. Yuet Kai and his followers carried out the building "by hand" and personally transported supplies from the base of the hill. This endeavour was funded through donations from the lay public; the construction of the Monastery was eventually completed in 1957, although the installation of Buddhist statues throughout the monastery complex continued into the new millennium.

 

Yuet Kai died in 1965, eight years after the Monastery first opened. An apocryphal story written by his followers claims that his body was found to be incorruptible eight months after his death, a result of the seated lotus position he was buried in. However, newspapers maintain that he was in fact embalmed; his intact body is exhibited in the main hall of the monastery.

 

Unlike an actual monastery, the Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery does not have any monks living on site; the complex is instead maintained by laypeople. After Yuet Kai's death, his nephews assumed the role of overseeing the maintenance of the building. It was at this time that the Monastery began to decline in popularity. This was partly owing to the disruption caused by the construction of the Sha Tin New Town during the 1970s. Renovations to the Monastery buildings have taken place since; the latest renovation was described by the Antiquities Advisory Board as having compromised the building's historic "authenticity".

 

Information Source:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Thousand_Buddhas_Monastery

 

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The 21 cm Kanone 39 (K 39) was a Czech-designed heavy gun used by the Germans in the Second World War. It was original designed by Škoda as a dual-purpose heavy field and coast defence gun in the late 1930s for Turkey with the designation of ‘K52’. Only two had been delivered before the rest of the production run was appropriated by the Heer upon the occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.

Initially, the K 39 only saw limited use as a field cannon in Operation Barbarossa, the Siege of Odessa, Siege of Leningrad and the Siege of Sevastopol. During the war, nine of these guns were sold to Sweden, too.

 

With the ongoing (and worsening) war situation and the development of heavy tank chassis towards late 1944, the K 39 received new attention and was adapted by the Wehrmacht as a long-range mortar, primarily intended as a mobile coastal defense weapon for strategically important naval sites, and as a second line artillery support. There were several reasons that made the heavy weapon still attractive: Unlike the German practice of sliding block breeches that required a metallic cartridge case to seal the gun's chamber against combustion gases, Škoda had preferred to use an interrupted screw breech with a deBange obdurator to seal the chamber. This lowered the rate of fire to 3 rounds in 2 minutes but had the great economic advantage of allowing bagged propellant charges that didn't use scarce brass or steel cartridge cases, since these metals became more and more short in supply. This also meant that the propellant charge could be adjusted to the intended range, what also helped save material.

The other unusual feature of the gun was a monobloc auto-frettaged barrel, created from a single piece of steel that was radially expanded under hydraulic pressure. This had the advantage of placing the steel of the barrel under compression, which helped it resist the stresses of firing and was simpler and faster to build since the barrel didn't require assembly as with more traditional construction techniques.

 

Every shell used by the K 39 weighed 135 kilograms (298 lb). HE shells (the 21 cm Gr 40), anti-concrete shells (21 cm Gr 39 Be) and an armor-piercing, base-fuzed shell, the 21 cm Pzgr 39 were available. The K 39 used a bagged charge with a total weight of 55 kilograms (121 lb). The base charge (“Kleine Ladung”) weighed 21.5 kilograms (47 lb) and had an igniter stitched to its base. The two increments (“Vorkart”) were lightly stitched together and enclosed in another bag tied at the top and with another igniter stitched to the base. The medium charge (“Mittlere Ladung”) consisted of the base charge and increment 2 while the full charge (“Grosse Ladung”) consisted of the base charge and both increments. The increments were loaded before the base charge. This resulted in a muzzle velocity of 800–860 m/s (2,600–2,800 ft/s) and a maximum firing range of 33 km (36,000 yd).

 

Emplacing the K 39 on its original box trail carriage took six to eight hours, mainly to dig in and anchor the firing platform, and a significant entourage was necessary to operate it. To improve the weapon’s handling and mobility, and to protect the crew especially against aircraft attacks, the K 39 was in 1943 to be mounted on a self-propelled chassis. Initially, a standardized “Schwerer Waffenträger”, which would also be able to carry other large-caliber guns (like the 17 cm Kanone 18 in Mörserlafette), was favored. However, the vehicle’s functional specification included the ability to set the heavy weapon gun down on the ground, so that it could be operated separately, and this meant an open weapon platform as well as complex and heavy mechanisms to handle the separate heavy guns. The Schwere Waffenträger’s overall high weight suggested the use of existing standard heavy tank elements and running gear and drivetrain elements from the heavy Tiger II battle tank were integrated into the design. The development of this mobile platform had high priority, but the focus on more and new battle tanks kept the resources allocated to the Schwerer Waffenträger project low so that progress was slow. As it became clear that the Schwere Waffenträger SPG would not become operational before 1945 a simpler alternative was chosen: the modification of an existing heavy tank chassis. Another factor was the Heeresleitung’s wish to protect the weapon and its crew through a fully enclosed casemate, and the ability to set the weapon down was dropped, too, to simplify the construction.

Originally, the SdKfz. 184 (Porsche’s chassis design for the Tiger I battle tank, which was not accepted in this role but instead developed into the tank hunter SPG Elefant/Ferdinand with a modified combat compartment at the rear, was chosen. But since this type’s production ended prematurely and many technical problems occurred through its complex propulsion system, the chassis of the Sd.Kfz. 186, the heavy Jagdtiger SPG, was selected instead, as it was the only readily available chassis at the time in production that was capable of carrying the K 39’s size and weight and of accepting its massive recoil forces.

 

The Jagdtiger itself was based on the heavy Tiger II battle tank, but it was lengthened by 260 mm. Due to production problems with its main armament, many Jagdtiger hulls were left uncompleted, and to bring more of these heavy vehicles to the frontlines it was adapted to the Sd.Kfz. 187, the Jagdtiger Ausf. M with a modified internal layout (casemate and engine bay positions were switched to fit an 88 mm gun with an extra-long barrel), a stronger but still experimental X16 gasoline engine, and a simplified Porsche running gear.

Since it was readily available, this re-arranged Jagdtiger base was adopted for the so-called Sd.Kfz. 190 “Küstenbatterie K 39 (auf Jagdtiger (Ausf. M)” self-propelled gun (SPG), or “KüBa 39” for short. The casemate-style combat section at the rear offered sufficient space for both the huge weapon and its crew, and also prevented the long gun barrel from hanging over too far ahead of the tank, improving its handling. Space for ammunition was still limited, though: racks on the casemate’s side walls offered space for only four rounds, while fifteen gun charges were stored separately. Gun elevation was between +50° and –3°, azimuth adjustment was achieved through turning the whole vehicle around.

The Sd.Kfz. 190’s hull featured the Jagdtiger’s standard heavy armor, since the Sd.Kfz. 190 was converted from existing lower bodies, but the new battle compartment was only heavily armored at the front. This was intended as a protection against incoming RPGs or bombs dropped from Hawker Hurricane or Typhoon fighter bombers, and as a sufficient protection against frontal ground attacks – the vehicle was supposed to retreat backwards into a safe position, then turn and move away. Roof and side walls had furthermore to be thinner to reduce the vehicle’s overall weight and lower its center of gravity, but they still offered enough protection against 20mm projectiles. Nevertheless, the Sd.Kfz. 190 weighed 64 tonnes (71 short tons), almost as much as the original Jagdtiger SPG it was based upon. Since it was not intended to operate directly at the front lines, the Sd.Kfz. 190 retained the Jagdtiger’s original (but rather weak) Maybach HL230 P30 TRM petrol engine with 700hp and the Henschel suspension with internal torsion bars, what simplified the conversions with readily available material.

 

A pair of retractable supports at the rear of the vehicle could be lowered to stabilize the vehicle when firing and distribute the gun’s massive recoil into the ground. The tall casemate’s rear featured a large double swing door which were necessary to avoid crew injuries from the massive gun’s pressure when it was firing. The doors were also necessary to re-load the gun – a small crane was mounted above the doors on the roof of the casemate, and a hoist to move the heavy rounds around in the casemate was mounted on tracks under the combat compartment’s ceiling.

 

The KüBa 39 had a standard crew of six men. The crew in the hull retained their role and positions from the Tiger II, with the driver located in the front left and the radio operator in the front right. This radio operator also had control over the secondary armament, a defensive machine gun located in a mount in the front glacis plate. In the casemate were the remaining 4 crew, which consisted of a commander (front right), the gunner (front left), and two loaders in the rear, which were frequently augmented by a third loader to handle the heavy rounds with an internal hoist under the casemate’s roof. Due to the severe maintenance and logistics needs, the KüBa 39 never operated on its own. Typically, several dedicated vehicles accompanied the self-propelled gun carrier as a “battle group”, including at least one ammunition carrier like the Hummel Munitionsträger, a crew transporter like a Sd.Kfz. 251 for more helping hands outside of the vehicle and frequently a command/radio vehicle to coordinate and direct the fire onto targets far beyond visual range.

 

The KüBa 39 was quickly developed and fielded, but it came too late for the Allied invasion in 1944 where it could have been a valuable asset to repel Allied ships that operated close to the French coast or even in second line in the Channel. The first vehicles became operational only in early 1945, and production was limited and rather slow. The ever-worsening war situation put more and more emphasis on the production of battle tanks and tank hunters, so that the heavy artillery vehicle only received low priority. However, the few vehicles that were produced (numbers are uncertain, but not more than 30 were eventually completed and fielded), found a wide range of uses – including the defense of the Elbe mouth and the Hamburg port. Some were shipped to Norway for coastal defense purposes, and a handful was allocated to the defense of German submarine bases in France.

Towards the end of hostilities, the survivors were integrated into infantry groups and used for long-range fire support at both Western and Eastern front. No vehicle survived, since most Sd.Kfz. 190 were destroyed by their crews after breakdowns or when the heavy vehicle got stuck in difficult terrain – its weight made the KüBa 39 hard to recover.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Six - seven (commander, gunner, 2 -3× loader, radio operator, driver)

Weight: 64 tonnes (71 short tons)

Length: 7.27 metres (23 ft 8 in) (hull only)

9.72 metres (31 ft 10 in) overall in marching configuration

Width: 3.88 metres (12 ft 9 in)

Height 3.81 metres (12 1/2 ft)

Ground clearance: 495 to 510 mm (1 ft 7.5 in to 1 ft 8.1 in)

Suspension: Torsion bar

Fuel capacity: 720 litres (160 imp gal; 190 US gal)

 

Armor:

25 – 150 mm (1 – 5.9 in)

 

Performance:

Speed

- Maximum, road: 38 km/h (23.6 mph)

- Sustained, road: 32 km/h (20 mph)

- Cross country: 15 to 20 km/h (9.3 to 12.4 mph)

Operational range: 120 km (75 mi) on road

80 km (50 mi) off road

Power/weight: 10,93 PS/tonne (9,86 hp/ton)

 

Engine:

V-12 Maybach HL HL230 P30 TRM gasoline engine with 700 PS

 

Transmission:

ZF AK 7-200 with 7 forward 1 reverse gears

 

Armament:

1× 21 cm K 39/41 L45 heavy siege gun with 4 rounds and 15 separate charges

1× 7.92 mm Maschinengewehr 34 or 42 with 800 rounds in the front glacis plate

  

The kit and its assembly:

The project to put the massive (real) Czech 21 cm K39 gun on a German chassis had been on my agenda for a long time, but I have never been certain about the vehicle donor for this stunt. I initially favored a Modelcollect E-50/75 since it is available as an SPG version with a reversed engine/casemate layout. But this kit has two serious issues: it would IMHO be too late to be adapted for the pre-war weapon, and – worse - the kit has the flaw that the mould designers simply ignored the driver/radio operator in the hull’s front – the glacis plate immediately migrates into the engine deck and bay, so that there’s no internal space for the driver! Even if you’d assume that the driver would sit with the rest of the crew in the casemate behind the engine, there are no hatches, sights slits or mirrors? Well, it’s a fictional tank, but IMHO it has been poorly designed.

Correcting this might be possible, but then I could also convert something else, probably easier. This alternative became a serious option when I recently built my fictional Sd.Kfz. 187, a Jagdtiger with a reversed layout. This stunt turned out to be easier than expected, with good results, and since I had a second Jagdtiger kit left over from the Sd.Kfz. 187 project I simply used it for the KüBa 39 – also having the benefit of being rooted in an earlier time frame than the E-50/75, and therefore much more plausible.

 

The Trumpeter 1:72 Jagdtiger first lost its mid-positioned casemate. Internal stiffeners were glued into the hull and the engine deck was cut out and glued into the former casemate’s place, directly behind the driver section. The casemate for the 21 cm gun (a Revell field gun model of this weapon, highly detailed) was scratched, though, and designing it was a gradual step-by-step process. To offer more internal space, the engine deck was slightly shortened, what also changed the vehicle’s profile. From the Jagdtiger’s superstructure I just retained the roof. Things started with another donor piece, though, the massive gun mantlet from a Trumpeter 1:72 KV-2 tank. It was mated with the21 cm gun and the movable KV-2 mantlet mounted with styrene sheet spacer onto a scratched casemate front plate. More styrene sheet was used to create covers around the mantlet, and inside I glued an “arm” to the gun with lead bead ballast, so that the gun could be easier posed in raised position. The finished gun element was glued onto the hull, and the Tiger II roof positioned as far back as possible, what revealed a 3mm gap to the front plate – bridged by another styrene sheet filler, which was also used to raise the roof and add a kink to the roofline that would make the casemate look less boxy.

 

With the roofline defined I decided to extend the casemate backwards – after all, the original rear engine was gone and the vehicle would certainly need a spacious back door to enter and load it. Therefore, a back wall section was cut out and a casemate extension scratched from styrene sheet. When this was in place, the vertical casemate rear wall was added, and with the profile now fully defined the casemate side walls were created from 1.5 and 0.5 mm styrene sheet. The kink under the roofline was a self-imposed challenge, but I think that this extra effort was worthwhile because the casemate looks more organic than just a simple box design like the Ferdinand/Elefant’s superstructure?

Once the casemate was closed, surface details were added, including the doble door at the rear, the small crane on the roof, and the retractable supports (which came, IIRC, from a Modelcollect 1:72 T-72 kit). The rest of the original Jagdtiger kit was simply taken over OOB.

 

Painting and markings:

As a vehicle operated in the open field, I gave the KüBa 39 a classic, contemporary “Hinterhalt” paint scheme, in the sophisticated original style that was only applied to a few vehicles on factory level until the camouflage job was soon delegated to the frontline units. Painting started with a base coat of RAL 8000 (Grünbraun) as an overall primer, then 7028 Dunkelgelb (Tamiya TS-3) was sprayed onto the upper surfaces from a rattle can for a light shading effect. At this stage the markings/decals were already applied, so that the additional camouflage could be applied round them. They were puzzled together from the scrap box.

Then clusters/fields in Olivgrün (RAL 6003; Humbrol 86) and Rotbraun (RAL 8012, Humbrol 160) were added onto the sand tone base with circular templates/stencils made from densely foamed styrene that were glued onto the tip of toothpicks – the large casemate with its even surfaces lent itself for this elaborate “factory finish” scheme variant. The stamp method worked better than expected, and the result is very convincing. I just tried to concentrate the dark areas to the upper surfaces, so that the contrast against the ground when seen from above would be smaller than from a side view, which became more fragmented. The running gear remained uniform Dunkelgelb, as a counter-shading measure and to avoid wobbling patterns on camouflaged wheels that could attract attention while the vehicle would move.

 

After protecting the decals with a thin coat of varnish the model and the still separate wheels received a dark-brown washing with highly thinned acrylic paint and an overall dry-brushing treatment with light grey and beige. Additionally, water colors were used to simulate dust and light mud, and to set some rust traces on exposed areas.

 

Artist mineral pigments were dusted into the running gear and onto the tracks after their final assembly, and some mud crusts on the tail supports were created with a bit of matt acrylic varnish and more pigments.

  

A thorough conversion project, and the result is a really massive vehicle - its bulk is hard to convey, the Jagdtiger basis is already a massive vehicle, but this is "super-size", close to an E-100! However, you have to place something next to it to fathom the size of the 21 cm mortar and the huge casemate that covers it. But the conversion looks IMHO rather natural, esp. for a scratched work, and the Hinterhalt suits the bulky vehicle well, it really helps to break the outlines up.

The WB-47E was the designation assigned to converted B-47Es used for weather reconnaissance with the Air Weather Service, initially with the Military Air Transport Service (MATS), but later part of the Military Airlift Command (MAC). They had nose-mounted cameras that recorded cloud formations, and they carried air-sampling and data-recording equipment inside a sensor pod in the bomb bay in place of nuclear weapons. The defensive fire control system and the tail guns were removed. The weather service received the first of 34 WB-47Es on 20 March 1963. These aircraft were modified by Lockheed-Marietta in Georgia. These aircraft replaced the WB-50D Superfortresses that had suffered several fatal crashes between 1956 and 1960.

 

In this image, a WB-47E (B-47E-60-BW, Serial Number: 51-2417) of the 55th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron of the 9th Weather Reconnaissance Group heads out into a storm off the California coast. These aircraft were operated by the 53d, 55th, and 57th Weather Reconnaissance Squadrons stationed at Hunter AFB in Georgia and Ramey AFB in Puerto Rico, McClellan AFB in California, and Hickam AFB, Hawaii, respectively. Aircraft from the 57th WRS flew weather reconnaissance for Operation Arc Light, operating from Clark AFB in the Philippines. The WB-47Es began to be replaced by WC-130 and WC-135 aircraft in 1965, but the total phaseout took another three years. The last WB-47E was the last operational B-47 in the Air Force inventory and was delivered to Davis-Monthan AFB on 31 October 1969.

The Cadillac Eldorado is a personal luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1953 to 2002 over ten generations. Competitors and similar vehicles included the Lincoln Mark series, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado and Chrysler's Imperial Coupe.

 

The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line during early model years. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years, and the Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 until 1966. Eldorados carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972.

 

NAME

The nameplate Eldorado is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical South American "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.

 

Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating the company's golden anniversary, the name Eldorado was proposed by Mary-Ann Marini (née Zukosky), a secretary in Cadillac's merchandising department — and was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.

 

Palm Springs Life magazine incorrectly attributes the name to the Eldorado Country Club in Indian Wells, California, a favorite resort of General Motors executives in the Coachella Valley — though the resort opened in 1957, five years after Cadillac's own naming competition.

 

Cadillac began using the nameplates 'Eldorado Seville' and 'Eldorado Biarritz' to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The 'Seville' name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1977.

 

FIRST GENERATION (1953)

The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets (aka dagmars) from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.

 

The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheetmetal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors (Aztec red, Alpine white, azure blue and artisan ochre — the last is a yellow hue, although it was shown erroneously as black in the color folder issued on this rare model). Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option, as were wire wheels. The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top in the open car version.

 

Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible, sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750. The 5,610 mm long, 2,030 mm wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. The Eldorado comprised only 5% of Cadillac's sales in 1953.

 

SECOND GENERATION (1954–1956)

In 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price and see a substantial increase in sales. The Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fenderbreaks and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear bodysides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum and also appeared on a unique one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. Two thousand one hundred and fifty Eldorados were sold, nearly four times as many as in 1953.

 

For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender, pointed tailfins. These contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time and were an example of the Eldorado once again pointing the way forward. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.

 

For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version appeared, called the Eldorado Seville at which point the convertible was named the "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Eldorados accounted for nearly 4% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

THIRD GENERATION (1957-1960)

1957 saw the Eldorado (in both convertible and Seville hardtop bodystyles) with a revised rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by a pointed, in-board fin. The rear fenders were commonly referred to as "chipmunk cheeks". This concept was used for two years, but did not spawn any imitators. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The rear fender and deck contour was trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels. Also seen were "shark" style fins pointing towards the back of the cars. A three section built in front bumper was another exclusive trait of the Series 62 Eldorados, which came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sedan Sevilles were also built in 1957.

 

1957 was chiefly notable for the introduction of one of GM's most memorable designs, the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham. Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the Eldorado Brougham was a hand-built, limited car derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953-54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, it featured the first appearance of quad headlights and totally unique trim. The exterior ornamentation included wide, ribbed lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. This four-door hardtop with rear-hinged rear doors was an ultra-luxury car that cost an astonishing $13,074 — twice the price of any other 1957 Eldorado and more than the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud of the same year. It featured a stainless steel roof, self leveling air suspension, the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener, cruise control, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, automatic-release parking brake, electric door locks, dual heating system, silver magnetized glovebox, drink tumblers, cigarette and tissue dispensers, lipstick and cologne, ladies' compact with powder puff, mirror and matching leather notebook, comb and mirror, Arpège atomizer with Lanvin perfume, automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.

 

There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.

 

The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name. The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. Only 400 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1957.

 

An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco Radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.

 

For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.

 

On 1958 2-door Eldorados, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script were mounted to the deck lid. Two-door Eldorados also had ten vertical chevron slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. Broad, sculptured beauty panels decorated the lower rear quarters on all Series 62 Eldorados and extended around the wheel opening to stretch along the body sills. All-new was a special-order Series 62 Eldorado Seville, of which only one was actually built.

 

The major changes to the Eldorado Brougham in 1958 were seen inside the car. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors. A total of 304 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy.

 

The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels. In 1959 the Series 62 became the Series 6200. De Villes and 2-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the Series 6300 and Series 6400 respectively, though they all, including the 4-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to Series 6900), shared the same 3,302 mm wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert, but other trim and equipment features varied. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even 345 hp (257 kW) from the 6.4 L engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with Air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, acruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.

 

The 1960 Cadillacs had smoother, more restrained styling. General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins with oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Cambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.

 

A different Eldorado Brougham was sold for 1959 and 1960. These cars were not quite so extravagantly styled but were very unusual pieces in themselves. Priced at $13,075, they cost $1 more, each, than their older siblings. The company contracted out the assembly to Pininfarina of Italy, with whom the division has had a long-running relationship, and these Eldorados were essentially hand-built in Italy. Ironically only now did it acquire Fleetwood wheel discs and doorsill moldings, presumably because the design work and final touches were still being done by Fleetwood. Discreet, narrow taillights integrated into modest tailfins, and a squared-off rear roof line with rear ventiplanes caused the Italian-built Brougham to contrast sharply to the rounded roof lines, and especially the new "rocketship" taillights and flamboyant fins of the standard 1959 Cadillacs, which are a feature only of that year. A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. It did not sport Eldorado front fender letters or body sill headlights. A fin-like crest, or "skeg," ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodysides and there were special crest medallions on the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The Brougham's styling cues would prove to indicate where standard Cadillac styling would head from 1960 through the early-mid-1960s. The standard equipment list was pared down to match those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass. The Brougham build-quality was not nearly to the standard of the Detroit hand-built 1957–1958 models, and thus the 1959–1960 Broughams did not sell as well as their forebears. However, collector interest and values for these cars remain high. The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 for its remaining two years.

 

The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series Northern Exposure.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (1961–1964)

Cadillac was restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plan, and sat between dual headlamps. New forward slanting front pillars with non-wraparound windshield glass were seen. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back up lights, windshield washer, dual speed wipers, wheel discs, plain fender skirts, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, 6-way power bench seat or bucket seats, power vent windows, whitewall tires, and remote control trunk lock. Rubberized front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone sales fell to 1,450.

 

A mild face lift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertical nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the radiator grille. Standard equipment included all of last year’s equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.

 

In 1963 Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies and immediately acquired Fleetwood crests on its rear quarters[26] and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. Exterior changes imparted a bolder and longer look. Hoods and deck lids were redesigned. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was entirely eliminated. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the flush-fender dual headlamps. Smaller circular front parking lamps were mounted in those extensions. The Eldorado also had a rectangular grid pattern rear decorative grille. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, 6.4 l and 325 hp (242 kW).

It was time for another facelift in 1964 and really a minor one. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes. The main horizontal grille bar was now carried around the body sides. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to 7 l, with 340 hp (253.5 kW) available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at 30 to 80 km/h traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special.

 

FITH GENERATION (1965–1966)

The Eldorado became a Fleetwood sub-series in 1965, although there was strictly speaking no separate Fleetwood series at this time. It was consequently marketed as the Cadillac Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Cadillac Fleetwood Series 75 and the Cadillac Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long absent Seville and Brougham. This was the last generation to be installed with rear wheel drive.

 

In 1966 changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac crests and V-shaped moldings, front and rear, were identifiers. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.

 

SIXTH GENERATION (1967–1970)

The Eldorado was radically redesigned in 1967 to capitalize on the burgeoning era's personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year. To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adopted the Toronado's front-wheel drive Unified Powerplant Package, adapted to a standard Cadillac 429 V8 coupled to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Based on the Turbo-Hydramatic 400, the THM425 placed the torque converter next to the planetary gearbox, which it drove through a metal, motorcycle-style roller chain. Disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel. The Unified Powerplant Package was later shared with the GMC Motorhome starting in 1972.

 

The new Eldorado was a great departure from the previous generation, which had become little more than a dressed-up version of Cadillac's De Ville. Its crisp styling, initiated by GM styling chief Bill Mitchell, was distinctive and unique, more angular than the streamlined Riviera and Toronado. This was the only production Cadillac to be equipped with concealed headlights behind vacuum operated doors.

 

Performance was 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in less than nine seconds and a top speed of 120 mph (192 km/h). Roadability and handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.

 

In 1968, the Eldorado received Cadillac's new 375 hp (280 kW) (SAE gross) 7.7 L V8, and disc brakes became standard. Only slight exterior changes were made to comply with new federal safety legislation. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorados accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

In 1969 hidden headlamps were eliminated, and a halo vinyl roof was available as an option, joined later in the model year by a power sunroof.

 

In 1970 the Eldorado introduced the new 8.2 L V8 engine, the largest-ever production V8, rated SAE gross 400 hp (298 kW) and 550 lb·ft (746 N·m), which would remain exclusive until it became standard on all full size Cadillacs in the 1975 model year.

 

SEVENTH GENERATION (1971–1978)

The Eldorado underwent a substantial redesign in 1971, growing two inches in length but six in wheelbase. The result was a rounder, much heavier looking automobile, made even more rotund by the return of standard fender skirts. While Eldorado door glass remained frameless, the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A convertible model rejoined the line-up. This 126.3-inch (3,210 mm) wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving facelifts in 1973 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.

 

In 1972 sales rose to 40,074.

 

Performance was not competitive with contemporary premium personal luxury cars. However, none but the Lincoln were 6 passenger vehicles.

 

In 1973 the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The '73 models received a facelift featuring new front and rear bumpers, egg-crate grille, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps.

 

The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the pace car for the Indy 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Total sales soared to 51,451, over a sixth of all Cadillac sales.

 

1974 models featured a redesigned rear bumper, to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Styling changes include horizontal taillamps, and a fine mesh grille. Inside, there was a new, redesigned instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.

 

For 1975, the Eldorado was given rectangular headlamps, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and crisper lines which resulted in a much sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967-70 models.

 

In 1976 GM heavily promoted the Eldorado convertibles as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. These cars were white with a dual-color red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside. When GM reintroduced Eldorado convertibles for the 1984 model year, owners of 1976 Eldorados felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit.

 

In 1977 the Eldorado received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few new 1977 and 1978s Eldorados into coach convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The 8.2L V8 of 1970-76 gave way to a new 7L V8 with 180 bhp (134 kW). For the first time in 1977 all GM E-body cars were front-wheel drive, as the Riviera underwent a two-year hiatus before joining them in 1979.

 

A new grille was the only major change in 1978. The Eldorado was totally redisigned for 1979.

 

ELDORADO BIARRITZ

Unlike the Cadillac Sixty Special and De Ville, Eldorado did not have a unique luxury package to provide it with a title change (such as the "d'Elegance" package). This was rectified in mid-year 1976 with the Biarritz package. A unique trim feature of Biarritz, a name that had not been used since the 1964 model year (although the Eldorado was Fleetwood bodied from the 1963 model year on, the Fleetwood designation was only applied to all Eldorados produced from the 1965 through 1972 model years) was a brushed stainless steel roof covering the front passenger compartment for model years 1979-1985. This was a styling cue reminiscent of the 1957/58 Eldorado Brougham. The rear half of the roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. The interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" velour or leather seating, with contrasting piping, along with an array of other options available.

 

The 1978 Biarritz option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom Biarritz ($1,865.00); w/Astroroof ($2,946.00); w/Sunroof ($2,746.00) and Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classic ($2,466.00); w/Astroroof ($3,547.00); w/Sunroof ($3,347.00).

 

For the 1978 Eldorado model year only, 2,000 Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classics were produced in Two-Tone Arizona Beige/Demitasse Brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no Sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with Sunroofs and one (1) was produced with a Power Sliding T-Top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Division.

 

The Biarritz option stayed with the Eldorado through the 1991 model year. Some of the original styling cues vanished after the 1985 model year, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing and the interior seating designs, but the Biarritz remained unique just the same.

 

EIGHTH GENERATION (1979–1985)

A new, trimmer Eldorado was introduced for 1979, for the first time sharing its chassis with both the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. Smaller, more fuel efficient 350 and 368 in³ (5.7 and 6.0 L) V8's replaced the 500 and 425 in³ (8.2 and 7.0 L) engines. A diesel 350 was available as an option.

 

In 1980, the gas 350 was replaced with the 368 except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was used. In both the 1980 Seville and Eldorado (which shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI (later known as throttle body injection when it was later used with other GM corporate engines), whereas in the larger RWD Cadillacs it came only with a 4-barrel Quadrajet carburetor. Independent rear suspension was adopted, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado Biarritz model resurrected the stainless-steel roof concept from the first Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and the rear quarter windows re-appeared as they did before 1971, without a thick "B" pillar. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed. Sales set a new record at 67,436.[citation needed]

 

For 1981, Cadillac offered the V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate some cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy ("CAFE") averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-year 1977–1979 425. The engine itself was extremely rugged and durable, but its complex electronics were the source of customer complaints.

 

Another engine was introduced for 1982. The 4.1 L HT-4100 was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Some HT-4100s were replaced under warranty.

 

From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered an 'Eldorado Touring Coupe', with heavier duty suspension, alloy wheels, blackwall tires, minimal exterior ornamentation and limited paint colors. These were marketed as 'driver's cars' and included bucket seats and a center console.

 

In 1984, Cadillac also introduced a convertible version of Eldorado Biarritz. It was 91 kg heavier featuring the same interior as other Biarritz versions. The model year of 1985 was the last year for the ASC, Inc., aftermarket conversion Eldorado convertible. Total sales set an all-time record of 77,806, accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

Prior to the 'official' 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979-83 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. American Sunroof Corporation, Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio - this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles), Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coachbuilders also converted the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera into a ragtop.

 

Late in the 1985 model year, an optional 'Commemorative Edition' package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a "Commemorative Edition" badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in Dark Blue or White, or a two-tone with Dark Blue and White) was included in the package, along with a Dark Blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were Cotillion White or Commodore Blue.

 

NINTH GENERATION (1986–1991)

The Eldorado was downsized again in 1986. In a fairly extreme makeover it lost about 16" in length and some 350 pounds in weight. Just like in previous generations, the Eldorado shared its chassis with the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera, as well as Eldorado's four-door companion, the Cadillac Seville. However, the coupés from Buick and Oldsmobile both utilized Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while Cadillac continued to use their exclusive 4.1 liter V8. The convertible bodystyle was ceded to the Cadillac Allanté roadster.

 

The $24,251 Eldorado was now the same size that GM's own compact cars had been only a few years earlier, and considerably smaller than Lincoln's competing Mark VII, and no similar offering from Chrysler as the Imperial coupe was discontinued in 1983. Its styling seemed uninspired and stubby, and in a final unfortunate flourish, for the first time the Eldorado abandoned its "hardtop" heritage and featured framed door glass. News reports later indicated that GM had been led astray by a consultant's prediction that gasoline would be at $3 per gallon in the U.S. by 1986, and that smaller luxury cars would be in demand. In fact, gasoline prices were less than half that. With a sales drop of 60%, seldom has any model experienced a more precipitous fall. Production was only about a fifth of what it had been just two years earlier.

 

Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, Eldorado received very few changes for 1987. A price drop, to $23,740, did not raise sales any, as only 17,775 were made this year (21,342 for 1986). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) Touring Suspension, with deflected-disc strut valves and 15" alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of Eldorado's most expensive singluar options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850, it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a hidden microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a clever radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use at the same time, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone. On an interesting note, the square marker lamp, located on the bumper extension molding just behind the rear wheel well on 1986 and '87 Eldorado models, would suddenly re-appear on the 1990 & '91 Seville (base models only) and Eldorado Touring Coupé.

1988 was met with an extensive restyle, and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. While the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged, new body panels gave the 1988 model a more identifiable "Eldorado" appearance. Now available in just 17 exterior colors (previously 19), the new Eldorado was 3" longer than last year. Underneath the restyled hood was Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Longer front fenders held "bladed" tips, and a new grille above the revamped front bumper. In back, new three-sided tail lamps - reminiscent of the 1987 Deville - appeared along with a new bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14" aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15" snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the Touring Suspension option. The interior held wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles (replacing the former door pull straps). New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter bringing back the tufted-button design - last seen in the 1985 Eldorado Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full roof top, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows - similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the roof top, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and '87, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976 - 1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the roof top, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Pricing went up this year - to $24,891. This 1988 restyle would be the last, until the model was replaced by an all-new Eldorado for 1992.

 

TENTH GENERATION (1992–2002)

The 1992 Eldorado was all new, drawing both interior and exterior styling cues from the 1988 Cadillac Solitaire show car. It was significantly larger than its predecessor – approximately 11" longer, 3" wider, and substantially heavier. Window glass was once again frameless, and shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and 295 hp (220 kW) variants, replacing the 200 hp (150 kW) 4.9 L. Sales were up, though never again at record heights.

 

The Eldorado continued for the rest of the decade with incremental changes and tapering sales. A passenger side airbag was added as standard equipment in 1993. Styling was freshened in 1995, with updated bumpers front and rear, side cladding, and a new grille. In 1996, the interior received attention, with a new upholstery style, larger analog gauge cluster, relocated climate control system, updated stereo faces and standard daytime running lights. The ETC receives rain-sensing wipers called "Rainsense."

 

In 1997, the Integrated Chassis Control System was added. It involved microprocessor integration of engine, traction control, Stabilitrak electronic stability control, steering, and adaptive continuously variable road sensing suspension CVRSS, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. Similar to Toyota/Lexus Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management VDIM.

 

In the wake of declining sales, circulating reports that the Eldorado would get a redesign for 1999 — similar to that which the Seville underwent for 1998 — would prove false as the car soldiered on largely unchanged into the new millennium, although it did get some upgrades from the 1999 Seville.

 

The car was sold under Cadillac ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) and ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) trim.

 

In 2001 GM announced that the Eldorado's 50th model year (2002) would be its last. To mark the end of the nameplate, a limited production run of 1,596 cars in red or white - the colors available on the original 1953 convertible - were produced in three batches of 532, signifying the Eldorado's first year of production. These last cars featured specially tuned exhaust notes imitating their forerunners from a half-century earlier, and a dash-mounted plaque indicating each car's sequence in production.

 

Production ended on April 22, 2002, with the Lansing Craft Centre retooled to build the Chevrolet SSR.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

Chetham's library, the oldest public Library in the English speaking world, Long Millgate, Manchester Greater Manchester.

 

The Library was established in 1653 under the will of Humphrey Chetham for the education of "the sons of honest, industrious and painful parents". It has been in continuous use as a free public library for the 350 years since.

 

The Library began acquiring books in August 1655, and has been adding to its collections ever since. It holds more than 100,000 volumes of printed books, of which 60,000 were published before 1851. They include collections of 16th- and 17th-century printed works, periodicals and journals, local history sources, broadsides and ephemera. The entire collection at Chetham’s Library has been designated as one of national and international importance.

 

Chetham's was the meeting place of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels when Marx visited Manchester in the summer of 1845. The economics books Marx was reading at the time can be seen on a shelf in the library, as can the window seat where Marx and Engels would meet. The research they undertook during this series of visits to the library led ultimately to their work on The Communist Manifesto.

 

Chetham's Library has been accredited by Arts Council England, and is one of 1,800 museums across the nation to have qualified as an institution acting in accordance with Arts Council England's new Designation Scheme. Such designation declares Chetham's Library collections of great national importance.

 

Paintings featured as a part of the library's vast fine arts collection library include portraits of William Whitaker, the Reverend John Radcliffe, Robert Thyer, the Reverend Francis Robert Raines, and Elizabeth Leigh. An Allegory with Putti and Satyrs, oil on canvas, attributed to sixteenth century artist and Netherlander Vincent Sellaer, is also a prominent part of the Chetham's Library collection

 

It is housed in a beautiful sandstone building dating from 1421 which was built to accommodate the priests of Manchester’s Collegiate Church.

 

Information Source:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetham's_Library

 

Flying around Pat Bay and YYJ today - The McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet (official military designation CF-188) is a Royal Canadian Air Force.

The Sycamore Gap Tree or Robin Hood Tree was a sycamore tree standing next to Hadrian's Wall near Crag Lough in Northumberland, England. It was located in a dramatic dip in the landscape, which was created by glacial meltwater and was a popular photographic subject, described as one of the most photographed trees in the country and an emblem for the North East of England. It derived its alternative name from featuring in a prominent scene in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves. The tree won the 2016 England Tree of the Year award. It was felled in the early morning of 28 September 2023 in what the authorities described as "an act of vandalism". The felling of the tree led to an outpouring of anger and sadness.

 

Location

The Sycamore Gap Tree was by Hadrian's Wall at grid reference NY 761677, between Milecastle 39 and Crag Lough, about 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Housesteads Roman Fort in Northumberland, northern England. This section of the wall follows the edge of a cliff – an outcrop of the Whin Sill – and several sharp dips in it caused by melting glacial waters. The tree stood within one of these dips with the cliff and wall rising dramatically either side of it. The wall and adjacent land, including the site of the tree, are owned by the National Trust.

 

A popular attraction, the tree was described as one of the most photographed in the country and the location may be the most photographed point in all of Northumberland National Park. It was visible from the nearby B6318 Military Road. The name "Sycamore Gap" was coined by a National Trust employee when the Ordnance Survey were remapping the area and asked if the previously unnamed spot had a designation

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

Wiehl's House is a designation for the Neo-Renaissance house on Wenceslas Square No. 792 situated on the corner of Wenceslas Square and Vodičkova Street.

 

"The central motif of the painting decoration consists of two cycles from the life of a burgher . In the spirit of the contemporary notion of virtues, he is depicted as a merchant , scholar and defender of his city. Mikoláš Aleš worked on the theme by painting six figures in the fields of the third floor . Below them, on the second floor, are painted significant scenes from bourgeois life, which complement the sayings in cartouches above the upper figures. The cycle of life has as its motto the inscription "Life - pilgrimage to God". The first four paintings are (from left to right) painted on the facade of Wenceslas Square and the last two (again from left to right) are painted on the facade in Vodičkova Street."

 

The house was built for his needs in the years 1894 - 96 according to his own project by a prominent Czech architect of the 19th century Antonín Wiehl .

 

The authors of the paintings on the facade are Mikoláš Aleš and Josef Fanta . The house was built on land after the demolition of the original building, which Wiehl bought in 1894.

 

Wiehl bequeathed the house on Wenceslas Square in his will to the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts . [1] and according to Wiehl's wishes, since his death, it has served as the property of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic for the needs of the Academia publishing house .

 

The house is registered in the Central List of Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic . [2]

 

Basic information

 

Style :neo-renaissance

 

Architects: Antonín Wiehl ; author fig. paintings Mikoláš Aleš , ornamental decoration by Josef Fanta

 

Construction: 1894–1896

 

Reconstruction: reconstruction after 1945

 

Current owner: The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

 

Address: Wenceslas Square 792/34, Prague , Czech Republic Czechia

 

Street: Wenceslas Square and Vodickova

 

Coordinates: 50 ° 4′55.03 ″ N , 14 ° 25′33.61 ″ E

 

Wiehl's house is situated as a corner on the corner of Wenceslas Square and Vodičkova Street. [3]

 

It has four floors, 4 × 11 window axes , decorative gables and dormers on the gable roof .

 

On the ridge of the roof is a turret with a gallery. There is a portal on the facade to Vodičkova street. Plasters are mostly painted.

 

The plastic elements of the facade are made partly in stucco , partly from sandstone

 

In the extreme axis on the 2nd and 4th floor bay window connected by a balcony .

 

Business premises were designed on the ground floor, a café on the first floor, and apartments and offices on the other floors. [4]

 

Wiehl's house is one of the most striking Neo-Renaissance houses in Prague. [5]

 

The area and thematic breadth of the painting decoration is unparalleled among the houses in Prague built at the end of the 19th century.

 

Wiehl himself designed the artistic decoration of the facade and the themes of the paintings. [6]

 

It was based on its concept of the "Czech" Renaissance and determined the areas of the facade for decoration and its composition .

 

Wiehl used his collection of stories on historic buildings to decorate the house in the style of so-called "talking architecture".

 

He chose the ones he liked as bearers of " wit , humor , irony , but also wisdom and morality ." [7]

 

The paintings cover practically the entire facade to the square and a substantial area of ​​the facade to Vodičkova Street .

 

The paintings do not only affect the shop window on the ground floor and part of the first floor.

 

The author of the ornamental decoration is Josef Fanta . The figural decoration was realized according to the design of Mikoláš Alš . [10]

 

The paintings on the house according to these designs were made by painters Láďa Novák and A. Hofbauer, assisted by František Urban and Vilém Trsek.

 

The painting decoration of the house is very rich. Contains ornaments , cartouches , masks , camomiles , containers , floral decor, fruit festoons , ribbons in Czech national colors. Naked figures in typical Michelangelo's poses and children with musical instruments are represented.

 

On the top floor of the façade to Wenceslas Square, allegories of virtues are painted between the windows, cupids, shields and symbols of Day and Night are painted in the gable in Vodičková Street, and the masks of War and Peace are painted under the crown ledge .

 

The central motif of the painting decoration consists of two cycles from the life of a burgher . In the spirit of the contemporary notion of virtues, he is depicted as a merchant , scholar and defender of his city. Mikoláš Aleš worked on the theme by painting six figures in the fields of the third floor . Below them, on the second floor, are painted significant scenes from bourgeois life, which complement the sayings in cartouches above the upper figures. The cycle of life has as its motto the inscription "Life - pilgrimage to God". The first four paintings are (from left to right) painted on the facade of Wenceslas Square and the last two (again from left to right) are painted on the facade in Vodičkova Street.

 

The judge with the child and the inscription "Baba in front, God only leads the thread" is placed above the scene of baptism

the student with the inscription "A tree grows and stands" is above a child and a teacher, equipped with a globe , a book, weapons and a horse.

Half-naked girl with an apple with the inscription "You have me - you don't care, you lose - you know" and a picture of the couple

 

Aleš's paintings from Vodičkova street. Citizen defender and old man with family

 

A burgher with the inscription "We are good - no one is wrong" and below him a businessman with bills, a helper and a boy with a boat.

On the facade of Vodičkova Street, a knight is painted with the slogan "If you don't defend, you don't ask" and a scene of the king passing a burgher to a knight.

An image of an old man in a family circle as a symbol of a full life and above it Moran with the memento "There is no root against Moraine".

 

The façade of Wiehl's house contains traditional Renaissance motifs in its painting decoration. From the Czech national tradition, folklore, scenes from history and Slavic mythology ( Morana ) are represented as comments on the paintings. He shows the image of human life as a contemporary ideal of an active and successful burgher. [7]

House history

Antonín Wiehl - architect, builder and patron

 

Wiehl has lived in the new house since 1896 and also had his office as an architect and builder . He had his extensive art collections, a library and other antiques stored in the house. In the last years of his life after completing active construction work, he devoted himself to organizing his collections and working on documents for the Commission for the Inventory of Architectural , Artistic and Historical Monuments of the Royal Capital City of Prague [11] He also prepared documents for his will , according to which the house on Wenceslas Square bequeathed. Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts (in addition to his property to establish the Institute of National Economy, which he drafted. [1] Wiehl also died in this house. His patronage was fulfilled and the house has been owned by the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts and its legal successors: after 1918 the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts (ČAVU) the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences of Czechoslovakia and after 1992 the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic [12] It is currently managed by the Center for Joint Activities of the ASCR, vvi [13] Academia , which has on the ground floor and on the 1st floor rep [14] Due to its architectural value, the Wiehl House was declared a cultural monument with effect from 3 May 1958 and is entered in the Central List of Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic with register number 39967 / 1-1138. [2] During the May Uprising of 1945, Wiehl's house was damaged by the German bombing of Wenceslas Square and repaired in the 1950s. [15] The paintings on the facades of the house were repeatedly restored. [16] The ground floor of the house was modified in connection with the construction of an underpass on Wenceslas Square in the years 1967 - 1968 , when the arcade on the ground floor in Vodičkova Street was modified, from which the house is connected to the underpass by a staircase. The original rustication of the ground floor (its continuation on the 1st floor is visible) has been replaced by polished stone tiles. Subsequently, in connection with the construction of the Můstek station of line A of the Prague metro, the house is connected to the metro station by this underpass. Wiehl's house is presented to tourists and visitors to Prague as an important tourist destination. [17] An information board is located on the ground floor of the facade of Wenceslas Square. [18] [19]

 

In 2016, a more extensive repair of the house took place (facades, roofs, interiors).

Wiehl's house in the context of Wiehl's neo-Renaissance

 

The facades of the buildings designed by Antonín Wiehl have been welcomed by the public and experts since the 1970s as a new element in the decoration of houses and in the atmosphere of Prague's streets. [20] Wiehl gradually refined his conception of the Czech Neo-Renaissance in the decoration of his houses. Wiehl's house is the tenth tenement house designed by Wiehl in Prague. [21] [22] On his designs of houses, two directions can be observed: the first direction are houses with facade decoration formed by a combination of gray masonry, sgraffito and Renaissance gables (or lunette cornices). Wiehl's house belongs to the second group, where painting and sgraffito dominate the entire facade. [23] In the project, Wiehl defined the area for sgraffito and his own decoration designs were made in cartons by the painter Mikoláš Aleš, who collaborated with Wiehl in the 1970s and 1980s on the decoration of a number of houses (eg House No. 1682 Na Poříčí , Old Town Waterworks ). The culmination of this collaboration is undoubtedly Aleš's allegories on the monumental decoration of Wiehl's house. The architect entrusted the ornamental sgraffito, which began to appear on Prague's facades in the 1970s, mainly thanks to Wiehl, to Josef Fant. [24] [25] Wiehl's colleague architect Jan Koula Wiehl's efforts were defined in 1883 in the Reports of the Association of Architects as "an interpretation of the development and style of A. Wiehl" "... Wiehl fights for a new architectural expression based on patterns, for Prague and Bohemia Of the 16th and 17th centuries, typical and pointed to them for the first time when he built his "sgraffito house" in Poštovská Street, and since then he has diligently collected monuments of our Renaissance, studied them and, where possible, sought to enjoy them on his buildings. by reason of which we speak of "the Czech Renaissance; we feel the legitimacy of this name, but no one has yet determined exactly what the character of those buildings matters ... " [26] [27]

Wiehl's link

The tomb of Antonín Wiehl in the arcades of the Vyšehrad cemetery

 

Wiehl left behind several dozen Neo-Renaissance buildings, the vast majority of which were declared a cultural monument. [28] Influenced a wide range of younger architects. [29] (The name Wiehl's house is also used for the house that his brother Julius Wiehl built in Slaný in 1879–1880 according to Wiehl's design). [30] and is entered in the Central List of Cultural Monuments [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] ). He remained faithful to his unpretentious patriotism even in his last will. Wiehl bequeathed the house on Wenceslas Square to the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts in his will . [1] and according to Wiehl's wishes, since his death, it has served as the property of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic for the needs of the Academia publishing house . A commemorative plaque on the ground floor of Wiehl's house reminds visitors of the publishing house and bookstore:

 

CK BUILDING BOARD ARCHITECT / ANTONÍN WIEHL / AND HIS WIFE / MARIE WIEHL / ROD. LUKÁŠOVÁ / DEDICATED THIS HOUSE / AND OTHERS THEIR OWNS / CZECH ACADEMY OF THE EMPEROR / FRANCIS JOSEF FOR SCIENCE / SLOVAKIA AND ART, / IN ORDER IT WAS ESTABLISHED BY / THE ARCHITECT FUND / ANT. WIEHLA AND THE WIFE / HIS MARIE TO ENCOURAGING / SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES / AND TECHNICAL INVENTIONS.

 

—Wiehl House Memorial Plaque [36]

 

He also gave equally generously to other Czech institutions in science, education and the arts. [37] The inscription on Wiehl's tomb in the arcades of the Vyšehrad cemetery faithfully captures the significance and scope of his support for Czech science, education and art: ... having the honor and glory of his nation at heart and human progress determined millions of assets to Czech scientific and technical inventions , lives ....

 

Chassis No V2 (the second of three prototypes).

Official designations:- Sd Kfz 182 Panzerkampfwagen VI Ausf B, VK45.03(H).

Built January 1944 by Henschel & Sohn.

The Tiger II was developed from the legendary Tiger I and combine thick armour with the Panzer style sloping hull design. Production began in 1944 and 492 had been built by the end of the war.

The type was informally known ‘Königstiger’ which is German for ‘Bengal Tiger’. The literal translation, however, is ‘Royal Tiger’ which led to it being known to Allied troops as the ‘King Tiger’ (which seems somehow appropriate!).

The type saw significant use in several major battles in the last year of WW2, including in Normandy in July 1944 as well as Operation Panzerfaust (the taking of Budapest) in October 1944, the Ardennes Offensive (The Battle of the Bulge) in December 1944 and the Battle of Berlin leading up to the final days of the war.

At least eight are known to survive of which two are at Bovington.

This is the second prototype of the production design. It was retained by Henschel for trials, eventually being captured at the Henschel testing ground at Haustenbeck. It is fitted with the Krupp turret originally designed for both the Henschel or Porsche prototype designs, the VK45.01(H) and VK45.02(P). After unsuccessful trials these two types were abandoned in favour of a third design, the VK45.03(H), which became production Tiger II. Several Krupp turrets had already been manufactured so the first fifty Tiger IIs were fitted with these left-over Krupp turrets, the remaining Tiger II production having the standard turret.

Along with a late production Tiger II, this rare prototype is on display at The Tank Museum, Bovington, Dorset, UK.

26th July 2016

 

The following info is partly from the excellent Tank Museum website:-

 

“Known variously as the Tiger Ausf. B, Tiger II or Königstiger (the British also referred to it as the `Royal Tiger’), 489 Tiger IIs, were produced at the Henschel assembly plant, between January 1944 and March 1945. However, despite lacking in numbers, and being prone to mechanical and mobility issues based on its size and weight, the Tiger IIs combination of devastating firepower, and thick sloped armour plate, made it a formidable adversary for Allied forces on the rare occasions it was encountered on the battlefield.

 

In May 1942 the German Ordnance Department Waffenprüfamt 6 (weapons Proving Office) identified the key characteristics of the tank design which was intended to replace the Tiger I. It was identified as having a gun capable of defeating 100mm of rolled homogenous armour at 1,500m, armour protection of 150mm front, and 80mm side and rear, and the mobility to move at 40kph.

 

Both the Henschel and Porsche designs teams were tasked with working on this project and they developed two different prototypes VK45.01(H) and VK45.02(P) respectively (VK refers to Volketten – fully tracked). Flaws in these two designs; VK45.01(H) a 45 tonne design mounting a tapered bored gun which used increasingly rare tungsten ammunition was cancelled, and the Porsche design; VK45.02(P) was based on the earlier rejected design for the Tiger I with enhanced armament, Rheinmetall-Borisg’s 8.8cm Flak 41 L/74 gun. The Porsche design was also rejected due to issues over mechanical reliability, its electric drive train, and the use of scarce materials. Improving on their original design, and hitting the design criteria, Henschel’s VK45.03 (H) design was subsequently chosen incorporating the new 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun.

 

Construction of turrets and hulls were undertaken by Krupp, with Dortmund Hörder Hutten Verein and Skoda Works of Czechoslovakia producing armour components. Turrets were assembled at Wegmann and Company before arrival at Henschel’s assembly plant for marrying up with the hulls. Although an order for 1,500 Tiger IIs was tendered the impact of RAF bombing from October 1943 onwards had a severe impact on Henschel’s facilities and production was limited to less than a third of this figure.

 

Designed and produced by Krupp, the Tiger IIs longer more powerful 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun had been developed to increase its armour piercing effectiveness at longer ranges over that of the original 8.8cm KwK 36 L/56 gun fitted to the Tiger I. Using a sectional Monobloc design, which simplified manufacturing and improved barrel wear, the KwK 43 gun had been redesigned to fit inside the tank turret and featured improvements to its recoil system, fume evacuation and breech.

 

Firing at a higher velocity, and on a flatter trajectory, the penetration figures for the Tiger IIs gun show that using Pzgr. 39/43 armour piercing ammunition the 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun was capable of penetrating the frontal armour of a Sherman, Cromwell, Churchill and T-34-85 tank at ranges out to at least 2,600 metres.

 

The first fifty Tiger IIs were fitted with the Porsche and Krupp designed turrets from the abandoned VK 45.02 (P) project, following that a new, simpler production design was introduced to enable mass production. This turret, frequently, and incorrectly named, the ‘Henschel’ turret, was much easier to build as it eliminated many of the complicated curved forgings and extensive machining which the original turret had demanded. The slightly sloped front plate of this new turret also eliminated the shot trap which had existed on the old design and had the benefit of providing greater internal turret room space allowing 86 rounds of ammunition to the Porsche designed turret’s 80.

 

Complementing the Tiger IIs formidable gun was the use of 150mm thick sloped armour plates for the glacis plate (including a cut-out in the plate for the driver’s periscope), as well as 180mm of armour for the turret, factoring in the angled plate and the increased chance of ricochets, the Tiger IIs armour was thick enough to make it effectively invulnerable to frontal penetration (although theoretically the 17-pdr firing APDS could penetrate it). Consequently, Allied forces had to target the weaker side and rear armour plates, which were 80mm thick, if they were to stand a chance of overmatching the Tiger IIs armour protection.

 

Modifications to the Tiger during its production run included the application of Zimmeritt paste, a turret ring guard, hangers for spare track links, and a monocular TZF 9d Telescopic Sight.

 

Unfortunately, the enhanced armour protection afforded to the Tiger II had helped to increase in size and the (combat) weight of the design to 69.8 tonnes. This had a detrimental effect on the Tiger II in terms of its strategic mobility; that is its ability to cross obstacles such as bridges, and transportation to the battlefield. Moreover once on the battlefield the Tiger IIs weight size meant that manoeuvrability through unsuitable country, such as close and boggy terrain, tended to slow or hamper the Tiger IIs battlefield mobility, a situation which was compounded by mechanical problems, and the lack of a suitable armoured recovery vehicle to assist in recovery, which either meant trying to recover the vehicle with another Tiger II or destroying the vehicle.

 

Tiger IIs were issued to existing independent heavy tank battalions (Schwere Panzer-Abteilung) of the Army and Waffen SS and in small numbers to the Panzer Lehr trials unit and the Feldherrnhalle Division. Ideally these independent heavy tank battalions would be organised with 45 Tiger IIs in three companies of 14 Tiger IIs each with the remaining 3 Tiger IIs making up the headquarters. The first Tiger II heavy tank battalion to engage in combat was the Army’s 503rd Schwere Panzer-Abteilung in Normandy on the 11th July 1944 with the 501st Schwere Panzer-Abteilung being the first to employ Tiger IIs on the Eastern Front. No Tiger IIs were deployed to the fighting in Italy.

 

This Tiger II was the second prototype of three built by Henschel, with the Chassis Number V2 (Versuchs-Fahrgestell No. V2 (Trial Chassis V2)), and completed in January 1944. It was not issued to a combat unit, remaining with Henschel were it was used for various trials. It was later captured by the British at the Henschel testing area in Haustenbeck, Germany at the end of the War. It is still fitted with a modified exhaust pipe that Henschel were using to test exhaust pressure.

 

The turret rear was designed to be removable to allow the removal and refitting of the 8.8 cm KwK 43 gun. On our example the rear wall was removed and lost at some time Post-War and it has been replaced with a wooden panel. Also lost, presumably at the same time, was the commander’s cupola.

 

After its capture the vehicle had its original tracks replaced with a set of Kgs 73/800/152 single link cross-country tracks removed from a second Tiger Ausf. B (Chassis Number 280009 or 280012) that was also on site at Haustenbeck. These tracks had only been introduced in March 1945.”

The Cadillac Eldorado is a personal luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1953 to 2002 over ten generations. Competitors and similar vehicles included the Lincoln Mark series, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado and Chrysler's Imperial Coupe.

 

The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line during early model years. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years, and the Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 until 1966. Eldorados carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972.

 

NAME

The nameplate Eldorado is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical South American "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.

 

Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating the company's golden anniversary, the name Eldorado was proposed by Mary-Ann Marini (née Zukosky), a secretary in Cadillac's merchandising department — and was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.

 

Palm Springs Life magazine incorrectly attributes the name to the Eldorado Country Club in Indian Wells, California, a favorite resort of General Motors executives in the Coachella Valley — though the resort opened in 1957, five years after Cadillac's own naming competition.

 

Cadillac began using the nameplates 'Eldorado Seville' and 'Eldorado Biarritz' to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The 'Seville' name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1977.

 

FIRST GENERATION (1953)

The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets (aka dagmars) from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.

 

The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheetmetal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors (Aztec red, Alpine white, azure blue and artisan ochre — the last is a yellow hue, although it was shown erroneously as black in the color folder issued on this rare model). Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option, as were wire wheels. The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top in the open car version.

 

Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible, sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750. The 5,610 mm long, 2,030 mm wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. The Eldorado comprised only 5% of Cadillac's sales in 1953.

 

SECOND GENERATION (1954–1956)

In 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price and see a substantial increase in sales. The Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fenderbreaks and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear bodysides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum and also appeared on a unique one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. Two thousand one hundred and fifty Eldorados were sold, nearly four times as many as in 1953.

 

For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender, pointed tailfins. These contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time and were an example of the Eldorado once again pointing the way forward. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.

 

For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version appeared, called the Eldorado Seville at which point the convertible was named the "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Eldorados accounted for nearly 4% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

THIRD GENERATION (1957-1960)

1957 saw the Eldorado (in both convertible and Seville hardtop bodystyles) with a revised rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by a pointed, in-board fin. The rear fenders were commonly referred to as "chipmunk cheeks". This concept was used for two years, but did not spawn any imitators. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The rear fender and deck contour was trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels. Also seen were "shark" style fins pointing towards the back of the cars. A three section built in front bumper was another exclusive trait of the Series 62 Eldorados, which came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sedan Sevilles were also built in 1957.

 

1957 was chiefly notable for the introduction of one of GM's most memorable designs, the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham. Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the Eldorado Brougham was a hand-built, limited car derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953-54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, it featured the first appearance of quad headlights and totally unique trim. The exterior ornamentation included wide, ribbed lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. This four-door hardtop with rear-hinged rear doors was an ultra-luxury car that cost an astonishing $13,074 — twice the price of any other 1957 Eldorado and more than the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud of the same year. It featured a stainless steel roof, self leveling air suspension, the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener, cruise control, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, automatic-release parking brake, electric door locks, dual heating system, silver magnetized glovebox, drink tumblers, cigarette and tissue dispensers, lipstick and cologne, ladies' compact with powder puff, mirror and matching leather notebook, comb and mirror, Arpège atomizer with Lanvin perfume, automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.

 

There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.

 

The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name. The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. Only 400 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1957.

 

An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco Radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.

 

For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.

 

On 1958 2-door Eldorados, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script were mounted to the deck lid. Two-door Eldorados also had ten vertical chevron slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. Broad, sculptured beauty panels decorated the lower rear quarters on all Series 62 Eldorados and extended around the wheel opening to stretch along the body sills. All-new was a special-order Series 62 Eldorado Seville, of which only one was actually built.

 

The major changes to the Eldorado Brougham in 1958 were seen inside the car. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors. A total of 304 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy.

 

The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels. In 1959 the Series 62 became the Series 6200. De Villes and 2-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the Series 6300 and Series 6400 respectively, though they all, including the 4-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to Series 6900), shared the same 3,302 mm wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert, but other trim and equipment features varied. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even 345 hp (257 kW) from the 6.4 L engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with Air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, acruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.

 

The 1960 Cadillacs had smoother, more restrained styling. General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins with oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Cambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.

 

A different Eldorado Brougham was sold for 1959 and 1960. These cars were not quite so extravagantly styled but were very unusual pieces in themselves. Priced at $13,075, they cost $1 more, each, than their older siblings. The company contracted out the assembly to Pininfarina of Italy, with whom the division has had a long-running relationship, and these Eldorados were essentially hand-built in Italy. Ironically only now did it acquire Fleetwood wheel discs and doorsill moldings, presumably because the design work and final touches were still being done by Fleetwood. Discreet, narrow taillights integrated into modest tailfins, and a squared-off rear roof line with rear ventiplanes caused the Italian-built Brougham to contrast sharply to the rounded roof lines, and especially the new "rocketship" taillights and flamboyant fins of the standard 1959 Cadillacs, which are a feature only of that year. A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. It did not sport Eldorado front fender letters or body sill headlights. A fin-like crest, or "skeg," ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodysides and there were special crest medallions on the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The Brougham's styling cues would prove to indicate where standard Cadillac styling would head from 1960 through the early-mid-1960s. The standard equipment list was pared down to match those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass. The Brougham build-quality was not nearly to the standard of the Detroit hand-built 1957–1958 models, and thus the 1959–1960 Broughams did not sell as well as their forebears. However, collector interest and values for these cars remain high. The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 for its remaining two years.

 

The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series Northern Exposure.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (1961–1964)

Cadillac was restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plan, and sat between dual headlamps. New forward slanting front pillars with non-wraparound windshield glass were seen. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back up lights, windshield washer, dual speed wipers, wheel discs, plain fender skirts, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, 6-way power bench seat or bucket seats, power vent windows, whitewall tires, and remote control trunk lock. Rubberized front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone sales fell to 1,450.

 

A mild face lift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertical nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the radiator grille. Standard equipment included all of last year’s equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.

 

In 1963 Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies and immediately acquired Fleetwood crests on its rear quarters[26] and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. Exterior changes imparted a bolder and longer look. Hoods and deck lids were redesigned. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was entirely eliminated. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the flush-fender dual headlamps. Smaller circular front parking lamps were mounted in those extensions. The Eldorado also had a rectangular grid pattern rear decorative grille. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, 6.4 l and 325 hp (242 kW).

It was time for another facelift in 1964 and really a minor one. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes. The main horizontal grille bar was now carried around the body sides. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to 7 l, with 340 hp (253.5 kW) available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at 30 to 80 km/h traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special.

 

FITH GENERATION (1965–1966)

The Eldorado became a Fleetwood sub-series in 1965, although there was strictly speaking no separate Fleetwood series at this time. It was consequently marketed as the Cadillac Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Cadillac Fleetwood Series 75 and the Cadillac Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long absent Seville and Brougham. This was the last generation to be installed with rear wheel drive.

 

In 1966 changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac crests and V-shaped moldings, front and rear, were identifiers. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.

 

SIXTH GENERATION (1967–1970)

The Eldorado was radically redesigned in 1967 to capitalize on the burgeoning era's personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year. To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adopted the Toronado's front-wheel drive Unified Powerplant Package, adapted to a standard Cadillac 429 V8 coupled to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Based on the Turbo-Hydramatic 400, the THM425 placed the torque converter next to the planetary gearbox, which it drove through a metal, motorcycle-style roller chain. Disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel. The Unified Powerplant Package was later shared with the GMC Motorhome starting in 1972.

 

The new Eldorado was a great departure from the previous generation, which had become little more than a dressed-up version of Cadillac's De Ville. Its crisp styling, initiated by GM styling chief Bill Mitchell, was distinctive and unique, more angular than the streamlined Riviera and Toronado. This was the only production Cadillac to be equipped with concealed headlights behind vacuum operated doors.

 

Performance was 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in less than nine seconds and a top speed of 120 mph (192 km/h). Roadability and handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.

 

In 1968, the Eldorado received Cadillac's new 375 hp (280 kW) (SAE gross) 7.7 L V8, and disc brakes became standard. Only slight exterior changes were made to comply with new federal safety legislation. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorados accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

In 1969 hidden headlamps were eliminated, and a halo vinyl roof was available as an option, joined later in the model year by a power sunroof.

 

In 1970 the Eldorado introduced the new 8.2 L V8 engine, the largest-ever production V8, rated SAE gross 400 hp (298 kW) and 550 lb·ft (746 N·m), which would remain exclusive until it became standard on all full size Cadillacs in the 1975 model year.

 

SEVENTH GENERATION (1971–1978)

The Eldorado underwent a substantial redesign in 1971, growing two inches in length but six in wheelbase. The result was a rounder, much heavier looking automobile, made even more rotund by the return of standard fender skirts. While Eldorado door glass remained frameless, the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A convertible model rejoined the line-up. This 126.3-inch (3,210 mm) wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving facelifts in 1973 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.

 

In 1972 sales rose to 40,074.

 

Performance was not competitive with contemporary premium personal luxury cars. However, none but the Lincoln were 6 passenger vehicles.

 

In 1973 the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The '73 models received a facelift featuring new front and rear bumpers, egg-crate grille, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps.

 

The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the pace car for the Indy 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Total sales soared to 51,451, over a sixth of all Cadillac sales.

 

1974 models featured a redesigned rear bumper, to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Styling changes include horizontal taillamps, and a fine mesh grille. Inside, there was a new, redesigned instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.

 

For 1975, the Eldorado was given rectangular headlamps, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and crisper lines which resulted in a much sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967-70 models.

 

In 1976 GM heavily promoted the Eldorado convertibles as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. These cars were white with a dual-color red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside. When GM reintroduced Eldorado convertibles for the 1984 model year, owners of 1976 Eldorados felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit.

 

In 1977 the Eldorado received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few new 1977 and 1978s Eldorados into coach convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The 8.2L V8 of 1970-76 gave way to a new 7L V8 with 180 bhp (134 kW). For the first time in 1977 all GM E-body cars were front-wheel drive, as the Riviera underwent a two-year hiatus before joining them in 1979.

 

A new grille was the only major change in 1978. The Eldorado was totally redisigned for 1979.

 

ELDORADO BIARRITZ

Unlike the Cadillac Sixty Special and De Ville, Eldorado did not have a unique luxury package to provide it with a title change (such as the "d'Elegance" package). This was rectified in mid-year 1976 with the Biarritz package. A unique trim feature of Biarritz, a name that had not been used since the 1964 model year (although the Eldorado was Fleetwood bodied from the 1963 model year on, the Fleetwood designation was only applied to all Eldorados produced from the 1965 through 1972 model years) was a brushed stainless steel roof covering the front passenger compartment for model years 1979-1985. This was a styling cue reminiscent of the 1957/58 Eldorado Brougham. The rear half of the roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. The interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" velour or leather seating, with contrasting piping, along with an array of other options available.

 

The 1978 Biarritz option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom Biarritz ($1,865.00); w/Astroroof ($2,946.00); w/Sunroof ($2,746.00) and Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classic ($2,466.00); w/Astroroof ($3,547.00); w/Sunroof ($3,347.00).

 

For the 1978 Eldorado model year only, 2,000 Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classics were produced in Two-Tone Arizona Beige/Demitasse Brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no Sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with Sunroofs and one (1) was produced with a Power Sliding T-Top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Division.

 

The Biarritz option stayed with the Eldorado through the 1991 model year. Some of the original styling cues vanished after the 1985 model year, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing and the interior seating designs, but the Biarritz remained unique just the same.

 

EIGHTH GENERATION (1979–1985)

A new, trimmer Eldorado was introduced for 1979, for the first time sharing its chassis with both the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. Smaller, more fuel efficient 350 and 368 in³ (5.7 and 6.0 L) V8's replaced the 500 and 425 in³ (8.2 and 7.0 L) engines. A diesel 350 was available as an option.

 

In 1980, the gas 350 was replaced with the 368 except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was used. In both the 1980 Seville and Eldorado (which shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI (later known as throttle body injection when it was later used with other GM corporate engines), whereas in the larger RWD Cadillacs it came only with a 4-barrel Quadrajet carburetor. Independent rear suspension was adopted, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado Biarritz model resurrected the stainless-steel roof concept from the first Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and the rear quarter windows re-appeared as they did before 1971, without a thick "B" pillar. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed. Sales set a new record at 67,436.[citation needed]

 

For 1981, Cadillac offered the V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate some cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy ("CAFE") averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-year 1977–1979 425. The engine itself was extremely rugged and durable, but its complex electronics were the source of customer complaints.

 

Another engine was introduced for 1982. The 4.1 L HT-4100 was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Some HT-4100s were replaced under warranty.

 

From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered an 'Eldorado Touring Coupe', with heavier duty suspension, alloy wheels, blackwall tires, minimal exterior ornamentation and limited paint colors. These were marketed as 'driver's cars' and included bucket seats and a center console.

 

In 1984, Cadillac also introduced a convertible version of Eldorado Biarritz. It was 91 kg heavier featuring the same interior as other Biarritz versions. The model year of 1985 was the last year for the ASC, Inc., aftermarket conversion Eldorado convertible. Total sales set an all-time record of 77,806, accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

Prior to the 'official' 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979-83 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. American Sunroof Corporation, Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio - this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles), Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coachbuilders also converted the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera into a ragtop.

 

Late in the 1985 model year, an optional 'Commemorative Edition' package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a "Commemorative Edition" badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in Dark Blue or White, or a two-tone with Dark Blue and White) was included in the package, along with a Dark Blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were Cotillion White or Commodore Blue.

 

NINTH GENERATION (1986–1991)

The Eldorado was downsized again in 1986. In a fairly extreme makeover it lost about 16" in length and some 350 pounds in weight. Just like in previous generations, the Eldorado shared its chassis with the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera, as well as Eldorado's four-door companion, the Cadillac Seville. However, the coupés from Buick and Oldsmobile both utilized Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while Cadillac continued to use their exclusive 4.1 liter V8. The convertible bodystyle was ceded to the Cadillac Allanté roadster.

 

The $24,251 Eldorado was now the same size that GM's own compact cars had been only a few years earlier, and considerably smaller than Lincoln's competing Mark VII, and no similar offering from Chrysler as the Imperial coupe was discontinued in 1983. Its styling seemed uninspired and stubby, and in a final unfortunate flourish, for the first time the Eldorado abandoned its "hardtop" heritage and featured framed door glass. News reports later indicated that GM had been led astray by a consultant's prediction that gasoline would be at $3 per gallon in the U.S. by 1986, and that smaller luxury cars would be in demand. In fact, gasoline prices were less than half that. With a sales drop of 60%, seldom has any model experienced a more precipitous fall. Production was only about a fifth of what it had been just two years earlier.

 

Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, Eldorado received very few changes for 1987. A price drop, to $23,740, did not raise sales any, as only 17,775 were made this year (21,342 for 1986). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) Touring Suspension, with deflected-disc strut valves and 15" alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of Eldorado's most expensive singluar options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850, it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a hidden microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a clever radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use at the same time, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone. On an interesting note, the square marker lamp, located on the bumper extension molding just behind the rear wheel well on 1986 and '87 Eldorado models, would suddenly re-appear on the 1990 & '91 Seville (base models only) and Eldorado Touring Coupé.

1988 was met with an extensive restyle, and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. While the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged, new body panels gave the 1988 model a more identifiable "Eldorado" appearance. Now available in just 17 exterior colors (previously 19), the new Eldorado was 3" longer than last year. Underneath the restyled hood was Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Longer front fenders held "bladed" tips, and a new grille above the revamped front bumper. In back, new three-sided tail lamps - reminiscent of the 1987 Deville - appeared along with a new bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14" aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15" snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the Touring Suspension option. The interior held wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles (replacing the former door pull straps). New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter bringing back the tufted-button design - last seen in the 1985 Eldorado Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full roof top, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows - similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the roof top, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and '87, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976 - 1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the roof top, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Pricing went up this year - to $24,891. This 1988 restyle would be the last, until the model was replaced by an all-new Eldorado for 1992.

 

TENTH GENERATION (1992–2002)

The 1992 Eldorado was all new, drawing both interior and exterior styling cues from the 1988 Cadillac Solitaire show car. It was significantly larger than its predecessor – approximately 11" longer, 3" wider, and substantially heavier. Window glass was once again frameless, and shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and 295 hp (220 kW) variants, replacing the 200 hp (150 kW) 4.9 L. Sales were up, though never again at record heights.

 

The Eldorado continued for the rest of the decade with incremental changes and tapering sales. A passenger side airbag was added as standard equipment in 1993. Styling was freshened in 1995, with updated bumpers front and rear, side cladding, and a new grille. In 1996, the interior received attention, with a new upholstery style, larger analog gauge cluster, relocated climate control system, updated stereo faces and standard daytime running lights. The ETC receives rain-sensing wipers called "Rainsense."

 

In 1997, the Integrated Chassis Control System was added. It involved microprocessor integration of engine, traction control, Stabilitrak electronic stability control, steering, and adaptive continuously variable road sensing suspension CVRSS, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. Similar to Toyota/Lexus Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management VDIM.

 

In the wake of declining sales, circulating reports that the Eldorado would get a redesign for 1999 — similar to that which the Seville underwent for 1998 — would prove false as the car soldiered on largely unchanged into the new millennium, although it did get some upgrades from the 1999 Seville.

 

The car was sold under Cadillac ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) and ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) trim.

 

In 2001 GM announced that the Eldorado's 50th model year (2002) would be its last. To mark the end of the nameplate, a limited production run of 1,596 cars in red or white - the colors available on the original 1953 convertible - were produced in three batches of 532, signifying the Eldorado's first year of production. These last cars featured specially tuned exhaust notes imitating their forerunners from a half-century earlier, and a dash-mounted plaque indicating each car's sequence in production.

 

Production ended on April 22, 2002, with the Lansing Craft Centre retooled to build the Chevrolet SSR.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

The Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery in Sha Tin, Hong Kong.

 

Its designation as a monastery is a misnomer because there are no monks residing at the complex, which is managed solely by laypersons. Both the main temple building, and the pagoda are listed as Grade III historic buildings by the Government of Hong Kong.

 

Groundbreaking and construction of the temple began in 1951 under Yuet Kai and his followers, and the structure was finished six years later. It closed for three years at the end of the 20th century after one of its caretakers was killed in a mudslide caused by poorly maintained slopes nearby. The main journey up to the monastery is an attraction itself, as the path is lined on both sides with golden Buddhas, each unique and in different poses. Despite the common translation of its name, the monastery contains nearly 13,000 Buddha statues.

 

The Monastery was founded in 1951 by the Venerable Yuet Kai, who moved to Hong Kong from mainland China almost two decades before in 1933 to proselytize the teachings of Buddhism. The site previously housed a temple to Kwun Yam where a nun was killed during World War II. After the land was purchased by the owner of a local tobacco company, he consequently donated it to Yuet Kai for the purpose of establishing a Buddhist college. This, however, did not come to fruition and the Monastery was built in its stead. Yuet Kai and his followers carried out the building "by hand" and personally transported supplies from the base of the hill. This endeavour was funded through donations from the lay public; the construction of the Monastery was eventually completed in 1957, although the installation of Buddhist statues throughout the monastery complex continued into the new millennium.

 

Yuet Kai died in 1965, eight years after the Monastery first opened. An apocryphal story written by his followers claims that his body was found to be incorruptible eight months after his death, a result of the seated lotus position he was buried in. However, newspapers maintain that he was in fact embalmed; his intact body is exhibited in the main hall of the monastery.

 

Unlike an actual monastery, the Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery does not have any monks living on site; the complex is instead maintained by laypeople. After Yuet Kai's death, his nephews assumed the role of overseeing the maintenance of the building. It was at this time that the Monastery began to decline in popularity. This was partly owing to the disruption caused by the construction of the Sha Tin New Town during the 1970s. Renovations to the Monastery buildings have taken place since; the latest renovation was described by the Antiquities Advisory Board as having compromised the building's historic "authenticity".

 

Information Source:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Thousand_Buddhas_Monastery

 

Old Town is the historic original town site of Albuquerque, New Mexico, for the provincial kingdom of Santa Fe de Nuevo México, established in 1706 by New Mexico governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés. It is listed on the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties as the Old Albuquerque Historic District, and is protected by a special historic zoning designation by the city. However, prior to its establishment as a city in the Santa Fe de Nuevo México province, many indigenous tribes lived there including Diné, Pueblo, Apache, Tiwa, and others.The present-day district contains about ten blocks of historic adobe buildings surrounding Old Town Plaza. On the plaza's north side stands San Felipe de Neri Church, a Spanish colonial church constructed in 1793.

 

Old Town is a popular tourist destination with a large number of restaurants, shops, and galleries, and is also home to the Albuquerque Museum of Art and History. The New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science and the Explora science center are located a short distance to the northeast. Old Town is known for its luminaria displays during the holiday season, particularly on Christmas Eve.

 

Layout

 

Old Town occupies an area of about 0.8 square miles (2.1 km2), roughly bounded by Rio Grande Boulevard, Mountain Road, 19th Street, and Central Avenue. At the center is Old Town Plaza, surrounded by approximately ten blocks of one- and two-story buildings. The central plaza layout was favored by Spanish colonial authorities and is found in many other cities and towns throughout New Mexico, including Santa Fe, Taos, Las Vegas, and Mesilla. The area around Old Town was originally acequia fed farmland, but it has been covered over by 20th century urban development, however, land to the north and south of the plaza continues to operate for agricultural purposes with the acequia traditions, including Los Ranchos, Corrales, South Valley, and Isleta Village Proper.

 

History

 

Prior to 1706, indigenous tribes traveled through and occupied the land on which Old Town Albuquerque now stands. These indigenous peoples include the Anasazi, Diné, Pueblo, Apache, and Tiwa communities. While it is unknown approximately how long the area has been inhabited by indigenous peoples, their long-standing presence in the Albuquerque area is exemplified by the thousands of years old Petroglyphs found in the Sandia mountains to the Acoma pueblo which is still inhabited by the Acoma tribe today. During this time, the region that is now known as Albuquerque was known as Paak'u. The indigenous peoples residing in the Paak'u region engaged in subsistence farming and hunting, managing complex, intertwined systems of government and religion. The Pueblo peoples of modern Albuquerque originally stemmed from one tribe called the Tamayame or Santa Ana tribe. As they discovered the resources that the Sandia mountains and the Rio Grande had to offer, they slowly spread into different pueblos as far as Angostura, a village 131 miles northeast of Albuquerque. The spread led into the development of five distinct language groups and many more dialects based off those languages. Today, because of the combination of smaller and larger pueblos due to colonization by both the Spanish and Anglo Americans, there is a total of nineteen pueblos which are recognized as sovereign nations in and around Albuquerque.

 

Arrival of the Spanish

 

Spanish relations with indigenous peoples in Albuquerque were complex and violent. In New Mexico, the first interaction that Puebloans had was at the Zuni pueblo of Vacapa when the Spanish explorer Frey Marcos de Niza sent his African slave Esteban to interact with the Zuni people. Estaban was subsequently killed by the Zuni, establishing a tone for Spanish-Indigenous relations throughout New Mexico which carried into the founding of Albuquerque. The Spanish first had contact with the Pueblos in the area that would become Old Town Albuquerque when in 1540 Fransisco Vásquez de Coronado’s expedition searching for the Seven Cities of Cibola lead him to the Pueblos. Coronado was able to peacefully trade small gifts and items with them at first, but as winter overtook the unprepared conquistadors, they steadily became more and more violent with the Pueblo peoples, demanding more food and supplies and progressively conquering a few of the Puebloan’s smaller villages. The Tiwa people of Albuquerque fought back against the Spanish until they left to return to Mexico in the Spring of 1541. However, the violent interactions between the two parties gave each a long-lasting impression of the other, further contributing to negative relations between the Spanish and Indigenous peoples of Albuquerque. This paved the way for the violent conquest of Oñate, and his ouster from New Mexico by the indigenous peoples in 1680 during the Pueblo Revolts.

 

Albuquerque began to be settled by a group of people traveling in the Spanish “Reconquista” led by Don Diego de Vargas in 1693. Several families in this group split off and asked permission to settle the Middle Valley which was the area south of the Sandia and Alameda pueblos. The settlement grew progressively to encompass around forty-five Spanish estate and what is known as Old Town Albuquerque was established in 1702 and recognized by Francisco Cuervo y Valdes, the governor of Spanish New Mexico, as a municipality in 1706. In 1784, over 3500 Spaniards and 600 Indigenous people were recognized by the census to be residents of Old Town. However, for many of the Indigenous tribes living around Old Town, the rapid growth of Old Town served as a reminder to the continuing conquest of their people. Cuervo reported that the new settlement was home to 252 residents and had been laid out with streets, a plaza, and a church in accordance with the town planning regulations set forth in the Laws of the Indies. Cuervo's account had been exaggerated in order to offer a centralized Villa to better serve the already existent Hispano and Pueblo communities. Those communities included Barelas, Corrales, Isleta Pueblo, Los Ranchos, Sandia Pueblo, and others along the Rio Grande rather than a centralized settlement. After a formal investigation, the villa was allowed to keep its title, especially as it was established to serve those communities as an outpost on Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

 

Women also played an overlooked role in Old Town Albuquerque. At least twenty women are known to have been a part of the Spanish colonization of Albuquerque and the subsequent founding of Old Town. While many were subjugated to more traditional colonial roles like cooking, cleaning, and homemaking, some quickly became heads of their respective families due to the death of their husbands. Those who were designated heads of households were able to inherit land as a result of Spanish law and became the breadwinners for their families. The twenty women who are known to have helped colonize Old Town have come to be acknowledged as the "founding women of Albuquerque" and are listed on a plaque in Old Town Plaza provided by the New Mexico Historic Women Marker Program.

 

Like other Spanish colonial settlements, Albuquerque consisted of a central plaza surrounded by houses, government offices, and a church. For much of the 18th century, the homes around the plaza were inhabited only on Sundays as the residents spent the rest of the week on their farms. It was not until the late 1700s that a permanent population was established at the plaza.

 

Toward the Modern Age

 

Possession of Albuquerque, along with the rest of New Mexico, passed to Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence and later to the United States in 1846 when General Stephen Kearny took control of Santa Fe and the Santa Fe trail in 1846. The territory was officially recognized as US territory on February 2, 1848 under the signature of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, representing yet another change in the power dynamics for Indigenous people and Mexicans living in New Mexico alike. Kearny's troops established a U.S. Army post near the plaza, which brought an influx of goods and people over the next twenty years. The 1860 Census showed a population of 1,608, of which the army garrison made up about a third. During the U.S. Civil War, Confederate troops under Henry Hopkins Sibley captured the town in March 1862 but were later forced to retreat back to Texas after losing most of their supplies at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Albuquerque saw minor action when the retreating Confederates were involved in a skirmish with Union troops in the Battle of Albuquerque. For the most part, however, the town remained a quiet agricultural community.

 

The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway reached Albuquerque in 1880, building a depot about 2 miles (3.2 km) east of the plaza. This led to the creation of a rival "New Albuquerque" (now Downtown Albuquerque) which quickly boomed thanks to the railroad and was incorporated as the City of Albuquerque in 1891. The original town, now called Old Albuquerque, entered a decline as businesses and institutions moved to New Town. The county courthouse was moved in 1926, and by the 1930s barely any businesses were still operating around the plaza. Old Town's fortunes began to improve in the 1940s as Albuquerque citizens began to take note of Old Town's historic value, and the Old Albuquerque Historical Society was established in 1946. Old Town was annexed by the city in 1949, bringing municipal improvements like paved streets and sidewalks for the first time. Since then, Old Town has developed into a popular tourist attraction, with most of the adobe houses re-purposed into shops, restaurants, and galleries.

 

The Plaza

 

Old Town Plaza dates to the original founding of the city in the early 1700s and remains the center of Old Town. It was originally larger than today, extending to the south and east, but was reduced to its present size by the late 1800s. In the 1850s, a 121-foot (37 m) flagpole was erected in the center of the plaza by the U.S. Army.  The adobe wall surrounding the plaza was replaced with a picket fence in 1881 and then a stone wall built by the Works Progress Administration in 1937. The WPA's walls and bandstand were unpopular and were removed just eleven years later through a grassroots effort organized by the Old Albuquerque Historical Society. The historical society also oversaw construction of a new bandstand, new landscaping, and installation of 16 wrought iron benches purchased from Chihuahua, Mexico.

 

At the east end of the plaza is a display of two replica M1835 mountain howitzers. During the civil war, the guns originally belonged to the Union until the Confederacy captured the guns and used them against the Union. Retreating Confederate forces buried eight howitzers near the plaza in 1862 to prevent them from falling into Union hands. he guns were rediscovered in 1889 with the help of the former Confederate artillery commander, who still remembered their location. Two of the howitzers were put on display in the plaza but were later moved to the Albuquerque Museum of Art and History and replaced with replicas.  Accompanying the guns is a plaque that is controversial for having pro-confederate sentiments, mentioning the name of a Confederate Major Trevanion Teel. The plaque was partially funded by his ancestors, however, Teel was a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle, a group like the Ku Klux Klan, that sought to conquer territory in Latin America with the purpose of establishing an empire based on slavery. At the west end of the plaza is a display of various flags which have flown over the city, including those of Spain, Mexico, and the United States. There was also a Confederate flag reflecting the brief occupation of the city by Confederate forces, but it was removed in 2015 amid the ongoing controversy surrounding such symbols. Two other plaques, both which have created controversy due to their historical flaws in the portrayal of events, that commemorated the Skirmish of Albuquerque and buried Confederate soldiers respectively were also removed at that time. At this time, the plaque that accompanies the howitzers remains in tact.

 

La Journada Statue

 

A controversial statue known as La Journada featuring the Spanish conquistador Juan de Oñate formerly sat in the middle of Old Town Plaza. The statue was commissioned by the City of Albuquerque in 1998 and created by New Mexico artists Betty Sabo and Reynaldo "Sunny" Rivera. It depicts several Spanish settlers and an Indigenous guide led by Oñate who is one of the first Spanish conquistadors to travel to and settle in the New Mexico territory. However, much of Oñate's success were at the expense of Indigenous peoples, most notably the Acoma people, who he tortured and massacred. Oñate was later removed and prosecuted by the Spanish crown in 1614, however, the pain and generational trauma he has inflicted on many Indigenous peoples in New Mexico have caused continuing controversy around the statue. In the wake of the George Floyd murder, during a protest that rose at the site of the statue, a gunman opened fire on the protesters, prompting the Albuquerque mayor Tim Keller have the statue removed the next day. The incident occurred when armed counter protesters from the New Mexico Civil Guard, a paramilitary group, attempted to act in a law enforcement capacity, trying to detain protestors. A judge later ruled that the group did not have the right to act in the capacity as law enforcement or national guard as well as barring them from having any law enforcement powers independent of the state government of New Mexico. As of 2023, the statue remains in storage with its new home still undetermined by the Albuquerque city council.

 

Buildings

 

Most of the historic buildings in Old Town were built between 1870 and 1900, though some are older. Only one building, San Felipe de Neri Church, is proven to date to the Spanish colonial period. During the 20th century, many of the buildings were remodeled to facilitate modern commercial use, often including historically insensitive conversion of authentic vernacular and Victorian architectural details to a more idealized Territorial or Pueblo Revival style. Other buildings have been better preserved.

 

Five properties in Old Town are listed on the National Register of Historic Places:

 

Salvador Armijo House, built c. 1840

Charles A. Bottger House, built in 1912

Our Lady of the Angels School, built in 1878

San Felipe de Neri Church, built in 1793

Antonio Vigil House, built in 1879

 

(Wikipedia)

////DESIGNATION: MAKO

////ROLE: STEALTH/RECON

 

////SYSTEMS LOADOUT:

>>SYSTEM 01: MOVEMENT

>>SYSTEM 02: COMMS

>>SYSTEM 03: COMMS

>>SYSTEM 04: DIRECT FIRE WEAPON

 

////NOTES:

Sideline support frame. Average range, firepower, and mobility. Poor survivability. Superior targeting capabilities. Avoid direct confrontations. Relay enemy positional data to company for neutralization.

Designation: CT-3529

Nickname: 'Vis'

Weapon: Medium Blaster

Backstory: CT-3529, 'Vis' was a clone trooper in Squad 27. He was the comm expert of the group. His lack of combat skills were made up for by his tactical knowledge on the battlefield.

Official designation:- Army Type 99 Twin-engined Light Bomber

Allied reporting name:- Lily

The full Japanese name of the type was “shiki-souhatu-keibaku”, which was shortened to “Sokei”.

Rebuilt using the wreckage that I photographed back in 2012, this ‘Lily’ uses a considerable amount of new components and a fair amount of imagination. As with many of the exhibits in this museum, it captures the spirit of the original without letting accuracy get in the way.

Having said that, when you compare this exhibit with the tangled pile in my 2012 shots, see:- www.flickr.com/photos/ajw1970/8036153143/

then you have to give the museum full marks for effort!

On display in ‘Victory Park’, Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Poklonnaya Hill, Moscow, Russia.

26th August 2017

Chassis No V2 (the second of three prototypes).

Official designations:- Sd Kfz 182 Panzerkampfwagen VI Ausf B, VK45.03(H).

Built January 1944 by Henschel & Sohn.

The Tiger II was developed from the legendary Tiger I and combine thick armour with the Panzer style sloping hull design. Production began in 1944 and 492 had been built by the end of the war.

The type was informally known ‘Königstiger’ which is German for ‘Bengal Tiger’. The literal translation, however, is ‘Royal Tiger’ which led to it being known to Allied troops as the ‘King Tiger’ (which seems somehow appropriate!).

The type saw significant use in several major battles in the last year of WW2, including in Normandy in July 1944 as well as Operation Panzerfaust (the taking of Budapest) in October 1944, the Ardennes Offensive (The Battle of the Bulge) in December 1944 and the Battle of Berlin leading up to the final days of the war.

At least eight are known to survive of which two are at Bovington.

This is the second prototype of the production design. It was retained by Henschel for trials, eventually being captured at the Henschel testing ground at Haustenbeck. It is fitted with the Krupp turret originally designed for both the Henschel or Porsche prototype designs, the VK45.01(H) and VK45.02(P). After unsuccessful trials these two types were abandoned in favour of a third design, the VK45.03(H), which became production Tiger II. Several Krupp turrets had already been manufactured so the first fifty Tiger IIs were fitted with these left-over Krupp turrets, the remaining Tiger II production having the standard turret.

Along with a late production Tiger II, this rare prototype is on display at The Tank Museum, Bovington, Dorset, UK.

26th July 2016

 

The following info is partly from the excellent Tank Museum website:-

 

“Known variously as the Tiger Ausf. B, Tiger II or Königstiger (the British also referred to it as the `Royal Tiger’), 489 Tiger IIs, were produced at the Henschel assembly plant, between January 1944 and March 1945. However, despite lacking in numbers, and being prone to mechanical and mobility issues based on its size and weight, the Tiger IIs combination of devastating firepower, and thick sloped armour plate, made it a formidable adversary for Allied forces on the rare occasions it was encountered on the battlefield.

 

In May 1942 the German Ordnance Department Waffenprüfamt 6 (weapons Proving Office) identified the key characteristics of the tank design which was intended to replace the Tiger I. It was identified as having a gun capable of defeating 100mm of rolled homogenous armour at 1,500m, armour protection of 150mm front, and 80mm side and rear, and the mobility to move at 40kph.

 

Both the Henschel and Porsche designs teams were tasked with working on this project and they developed two different prototypes VK45.01(H) and VK45.02(P) respectively (VK refers to Volketten – fully tracked). Flaws in these two designs; VK45.01(H) a 45 tonne design mounting a tapered bored gun which used increasingly rare tungsten ammunition was cancelled, and the Porsche design; VK45.02(P) was based on the earlier rejected design for the Tiger I with enhanced armament, Rheinmetall-Borisg’s 8.8cm Flak 41 L/74 gun. The Porsche design was also rejected due to issues over mechanical reliability, its electric drive train, and the use of scarce materials. Improving on their original design, and hitting the design criteria, Henschel’s VK45.03 (H) design was subsequently chosen incorporating the new 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun.

 

Construction of turrets and hulls were undertaken by Krupp, with Dortmund Hörder Hutten Verein and Skoda Works of Czechoslovakia producing armour components. Turrets were assembled at Wegmann and Company before arrival at Henschel’s assembly plant for marrying up with the hulls. Although an order for 1,500 Tiger IIs was tendered the impact of RAF bombing from October 1943 onwards had a severe impact on Henschel’s facilities and production was limited to less than a third of this figure.

 

Designed and produced by Krupp, the Tiger IIs longer more powerful 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun had been developed to increase its armour piercing effectiveness at longer ranges over that of the original 8.8cm KwK 36 L/56 gun fitted to the Tiger I. Using a sectional Monobloc design, which simplified manufacturing and improved barrel wear, the KwK 43 gun had been redesigned to fit inside the tank turret and featured improvements to its recoil system, fume evacuation and breech.

 

Firing at a higher velocity, and on a flatter trajectory, the penetration figures for the Tiger IIs gun show that using Pzgr. 39/43 armour piercing ammunition the 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun was capable of penetrating the frontal armour of a Sherman, Cromwell, Churchill and T-34-85 tank at ranges out to at least 2,600 metres.

 

The first fifty Tiger IIs were fitted with the Porsche and Krupp designed turrets from the abandoned VK 45.02 (P) project, following that a new, simpler production design was introduced to enable mass production. This turret, frequently, and incorrectly named, the ‘Henschel’ turret, was much easier to build as it eliminated many of the complicated curved forgings and extensive machining which the original turret had demanded. The slightly sloped front plate of this new turret also eliminated the shot trap which had existed on the old design and had the benefit of providing greater internal turret room space allowing 86 rounds of ammunition to the Porsche designed turret’s 80.

 

Complementing the Tiger IIs formidable gun was the use of 150mm thick sloped armour plates for the glacis plate (including a cut-out in the plate for the driver’s periscope), as well as 180mm of armour for the turret, factoring in the angled plate and the increased chance of ricochets, the Tiger IIs armour was thick enough to make it effectively invulnerable to frontal penetration (although theoretically the 17-pdr firing APDS could penetrate it). Consequently, Allied forces had to target the weaker side and rear armour plates, which were 80mm thick, if they were to stand a chance of overmatching the Tiger IIs armour protection.

 

Modifications to the Tiger during its production run included the application of Zimmeritt paste, a turret ring guard, hangers for spare track links, and a monocular TZF 9d Telescopic Sight.

 

Unfortunately, the enhanced armour protection afforded to the Tiger II had helped to increase in size and the (combat) weight of the design to 69.8 tonnes. This had a detrimental effect on the Tiger II in terms of its strategic mobility; that is its ability to cross obstacles such as bridges, and transportation to the battlefield. Moreover once on the battlefield the Tiger IIs weight size meant that manoeuvrability through unsuitable country, such as close and boggy terrain, tended to slow or hamper the Tiger IIs battlefield mobility, a situation which was compounded by mechanical problems, and the lack of a suitable armoured recovery vehicle to assist in recovery, which either meant trying to recover the vehicle with another Tiger II or destroying the vehicle.

 

Tiger IIs were issued to existing independent heavy tank battalions (Schwere Panzer-Abteilung) of the Army and Waffen SS and in small numbers to the Panzer Lehr trials unit and the Feldherrnhalle Division. Ideally these independent heavy tank battalions would be organised with 45 Tiger IIs in three companies of 14 Tiger IIs each with the remaining 3 Tiger IIs making up the headquarters. The first Tiger II heavy tank battalion to engage in combat was the Army’s 503rd Schwere Panzer-Abteilung in Normandy on the 11th July 1944 with the 501st Schwere Panzer-Abteilung being the first to employ Tiger IIs on the Eastern Front. No Tiger IIs were deployed to the fighting in Italy.

 

This Tiger II was the second prototype of three built by Henschel, with the Chassis Number V2 (Versuchs-Fahrgestell No. V2 (Trial Chassis V2)), and completed in January 1944. It was not issued to a combat unit, remaining with Henschel were it was used for various trials. It was later captured by the British at the Henschel testing area in Haustenbeck, Germany at the end of the War. It is still fitted with a modified exhaust pipe that Henschel were using to test exhaust pressure.

 

The turret rear was designed to be removable to allow the removal and refitting of the 8.8 cm KwK 43 gun. On our example the rear wall was removed and lost at some time Post-War and it has been replaced with a wooden panel. Also lost, presumably at the same time, was the commander’s cupola.

 

After its capture the vehicle had its original tracks replaced with a set of Kgs 73/800/152 single link cross-country tracks removed from a second Tiger Ausf. B (Chassis Number 280009 or 280012) that was also on site at Haustenbeck. These tracks had only been introduced in March 1945.”

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The ASJA J13 was a Swedish fighter aircraft of the 1930s. It was designed and produced by the AB Svenska Järnvägsverkstädernas Aeroplanavdelning (Swedish Railroad Workshops' Air Plane Department, ASJA) in limited quantities as a transitional aircraft between the last of the biplanes and the first monoplane fighters.

 

Development under the project designation L13, work on the fighter started in 1930. From the start, the aircraft was to be a monoplane with a parasol layout and a wide, fixed landing gear that could easily be switched between spatted wheels and skis for winter operations. Optimized for the harsh climatic conditions in Northern Europe and with ruggedness and ease of field operations in mind, the L13 was to be powered by a robust Gnome-Rhône 9Krsd radial engine with 500 hp, driving a fixed, wooden two-blade propeller. The airframe was an all-metal construction, covered with fabric except for the front fuselage section (with the engine mount, the main tank and the wings’ main attachment points), which was sheathed with duralumin. The armament consisted of a pair of 8 mm ksp m/22 machine guns (license built .30 AN/M2's) with 500 rounds each, mounted in front of the open cockpit and synchronized to fire through the propeller arc.

 

The first prototype made its maiden flight in summer 1932, and after successful flight tests, the new fighter was accepted by the Swedish Air Force as J13 and series production started at once, even though at a slow pace because the engines had to be imported and French production was primarily allocated to domestic aircraft production. However, at the same time, the Swedish government was in negotiations with France concerning the procurement of complete aircraft like the Breguet 694 (which later became the S10 reconnaissance aircraft), and in the wake of these discussions, the import of the compact, but also more powerful, Hispano-Suiza 14AB radial engine with ~650 hp for the J13 (and other Swedish types on the drawing board) was considered.

 

Three initial Hispano-Suiza 14AB engines were delivered in 1933 for tests and development, and the sixth production J13 was modified to carry one of these new engines. Changes primarily consisted of a slightly extended cowling and a new, variable all-metal three-blade propeller, which significantly improved the aircraft’s performance and handling. As another measure to improve the type’s effectiveness, the light 8mm machine guns were replaced by F.N. Mitrailleuse d'Avion Browning 13,2 mm heavy machine guns (later license-built in Sweden as the Akan m/39).

 

However, during test flights, powerful vibrations were encountered, and the bigger engine as well as the heavier weapons caused stability problems, as the aircraft’s center of gravity had moved forward. However, the new engine raised the aircraft’s top speed by almost 50 km/h (30 mph), bringing the L13 on par with foreign contemporary fighters, so that the project pursued. Both engine problems were eventually cured through a stiffened internal structure around the engine mount and modified wings, which now featured a slight sweep and shifted the center of lift forward. In this form, the aircraft was designated J13B (while the initial version, of which only sixteen aircraft were built, was re-designated J13A) and entered production and service in early 1935. A total of 53 J13Bs were delivered to the Swedish Air Force until November 1936. Argentine and Japanese military representatives tested the rugged aircraft, but placed no orders.

 

As the J13B entered service, however, it was, despite the improvements, already obsolete. Nevertheless, the J13B received the opportunity to show its qualities: During the Winter War with the Soviet Union. Stalin launched all-out war on Nov. 30, 1939, and the Red Army assaulted the Mannerheim Line, also invading central Finland to sever supply lines from Sweden. The Soviet Navy prowled the coast. Aloft, VVS fighters and bombers struck at ports, cities, and installations. At that time, the Finnish Air Force (FAF) operated 30 Gloster Gladiator fighters, obtained from the UK. Besides the FAF Gladiators, the Swedish Voluntary Air Force came to aide and became responsible for the air defense of northernmost Finland during the conflict. The Swedish Voluntary Air Force’s Flying Regiment F 19 arrived in Finnish Lapland on 10 January 1940 and remained there until the end of hostilities. It fielded twelve Gladiator Mk II fighters (known in Sweden as the J8), six ASJA J13B fighters, five Hawker Hart dive bombers, plus a Raab-Katzenstein RK-26 liaison aircraft and a Junkers F.13 transport aircraft. The aircraft belonged to and were crewed by the Swedish Air Force, but flew with Finnish nationality markings.

 

While the Finns put up a spirited resistance during the winter of 1939-1940, their troops were ultimately no match for the sheer immensity of the Red Army. In February 1940, following one of the largest artillery bombardments since World War I, the Soviets renewed their onslaught and overran the Finnish defenses on the Karelian Isthmus. With its forces low on ammunition and nearing the brink of exhaustion, Finland agreed to peace terms the following month. Until then, the Swedes of F 19 managed to shoot down at least 10 Soviet planes. The most successful Finnish ace, Oiva Tuominenn, scored 4 victories flying a Swedish J8B (a Gladiator Mk.II).

 

The J13Bs were less successful, only a single air victory was claimed. This could not be attributed to the J13B’s fighter performance, though, but rather to the fact that the type was primarily used for reconnaissance duties (its parasol design afforded a very good field of view) and ground attacks. The J13B’s heavy machine guns proved to be very effective in the latter role, e.g. strafing troops and vehicles trying to cross Lake Ladoga, Viipuri Bay and other iced-over waterways. Furthermore, the pilots in the outdated Finnish and Swedish aircraft tried in general to avoid aerial combat with Soviet fighters whenever possible, rather attacking bombers. One J13B was lost in aerial combat (shot down by an I-16 monoplane), while another one was destroyed on the ground during an air raid.

 

In early March 1940, Sweden announced it would not permit any foreign forces to cross its territory to fight in Finland. On March 6, after much debate, a Finnish delegation left for Stockholm, then flew on to Moscow, arriving the next day. There, on March 12, Finnish and Russian conferees signed a treaty of peace. The next day, at 11 a.m. Helsinki time, an uneasy peace returned. The treaty ending the Winter War forced Finland to cede 11 percent of its territory to the Soviet Union, yet the country maintained its independence and later squared off against Russia a second time during World War II. For the Soviets, meanwhile, victory came at a heavy cost. During just three months of fighting, their forces suffered over 300,000 casualties compared to around 65,000 for the Finns.

 

When the aircraft of the Swedish Voluntary Air Force’s Flying Regiment F 19 returned to Sweden, all remaining J13Bs were retired from frontline fighter service and relegated to advanced training, liaison and reconnaissance duties. The type was eventually retired in 1946.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: one, pilot

Length: 7.45 m (24 ft 4¾ in)

Wingspan: 10.56 m (34 ft 7⅔ in)

Height: 3.26 m (10 ft 8½ in)

Wing area: 17.20 m² (185.1 ft²)

Empty weight: 1,290 kg (2,841 lb)

Loaded weight: 1,725 kg (3,800 lb)

 

Powerplant:

1× Gnome-Rhône 14AB 14-cylinder radial engine, 477 kW (650 hp)

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 364 km/h (196 knots, 226 mph) at 3,850 m (12,630 ft)

Range: 700 km (378 nm, 435 mi)

Service ceiling: 10,000 m (32,810 ft)

Rate of climb: 6.12 meters per second (1,200 feet per minute)

Time to altitude: 5.7 min to 3,000 m (9,840 ft):

 

Armament:

2× Automatkanon (a.k.a. Akan) m/39/F.N. Mitrailleuse d'Avion Browning 13,2 mm machine guns with 250 RPG

  

The kit and its assembly:

A rather simple affair – this is a SMER Morane Saulnier MS 225, a rather unknown pre-WWII design (and actually a fighter for the French navy), in a whiffy guise and with some small changes. I somehow found that the aircraft had a Swedish look to it (maybe because of the original, green livery?), so I built an according story for it.

 

The model was mostly built OOB. At some time, I considered a closed cockpit, similar to the Gloster Gladiator, but I eventually went for the OOB solution, I just added a pilot figure. The only changes I made are a different engine in the cowling (so that the 14 cylinder idea would work, it’s a Jaguar radial from a Matchbox A. W. Siskin), a new three-blade propeller with a spinner (not certain from which model they came) and short but wide skis instead of the original, spatted wheels (left over from a PM Model Fokker XXI), for the intended winter operations with F 19. A scratched small ski was added to the tailskid, too.

 

After painting the model received some rigging with heated, black plastic sprue material, following the MS 225’s pattern. Thankfully, only a few wires had to be added!

  

Painting and markings:

For a Swedish early-WWII aircraft, there’s basically only one livery option: uniform olive green upper and light blue-grey undersides. Very simple, but also boring... An interesting alternative are import aircraft, which mostly retained their original livery (e.g. those imported from Italy), but this would not work in this case.

However, an interesting alternative are the Gladiators of the Swedish Voluntary Air Force during the Winter War, which had their original green/grey camouflage overpainted with bands of aluminum dope and the Swedish roundels replaced with Finnish swastikas or, after their deployment, black discs over the fuselage roundels. The latter is what I went for – also because I wanted to build such an aircraft for a long time.

 

Even though FS 34079 is recommended for the dark green tone, I rather went for a slightly lighter tone, Humbrol 163 (RAF Dark Green), which is also more brownish than the USAF Forest Green. The undersides of Swedish aircraft are frequently described as FS 36176 (USAF Neutral Grey), but this is IMHO again too dark for the model and lacks IMHO blue, so I rather used Humbrol 87 (Steel Grey).

The aluminum dope camouflage was added over the basic colors, just as in real life, and consists of Humbrol 56. This tone is IMHO a very good representation of the paint-soaked fabric, a rather dull, metallic grey than a shiny metallizer finish. The silver cammo was applied onto all upper wing surfaces and also wrapped around the whole fuselage, including the undersides, just as on the real aircraft.

 

The spinner became red (Humbrol 19), indicating a fictional second F 19 squadron, all Gladiators of the unit carried yellow markings for the 1st squadron. An appropriate red code letter came from a Heller J21 (just the right size and shape for the standard position on the rudder). The black circles on the fuselage come from a grid number sheet for slot cars, the thistle emblem came from a Belgian Sopwith Camel (PrintScale). Many F 19 machines received, after their hot duty, similar individual decorations, so this is a plausible addition. No roundels were added to the wings at all – the late aircraft of the Swedish Voluntary Air Force only carried the overpainted fuselage markings, while no national markings were ever applied to the upper wing surfaces. On the wings’ undersides, I added fields in a slightly different blue-grey tone, as if the original Finnish swastikas had been overpainted.

 

The kit received a light weathering wash with thinned black ink and was dry-brushed with lighter shades of the basic tones and medium grey in order to bring out the surface structures. Finally, some soot stains were added with grinded graphite and snow residue simulated on the skis with acrylic white paint, and the kit was sealed with a coat of matt acrylic varnish. Rigging was the final step.

  

A relatively simple build, but I think the travesty of the French MS 225 into a contemporary fighter from Sweden works well. However, if I build another MS 225, I will certainly look for the original Heller kit, since the SMER kit show the age and the wear of the molds, with a lot of flash, need for cleaning and PSR. I assume that the Heller molds are/were much more crisp. The engine and propeller swap is very subtle, but esp. the three-blade propeller with the spinner change the aircraft’s look well, making the J13 look a couple of years younger than it actually is. The unique camouflage with the alu dope bands also looks odd, but it works well over the snowy landscape of Finland!