View allAll Photos Tagged Defeat
Worcester is a Cathedral City and the county town of Worcestershire in the West Midlands of England.
The city is located some 17 miles (27 km) south-west of the southern suburbs of Birmingham, and 23 miles (37 km) north of Gloucester. The population is approximately 100,000. The River Severn flanks the western side of the city centre, which is overlooked by the 12th-century Worcester Cathedral.
The site of the final battle of the Civil War, Worcester was where Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army defeated King Charles I's Cavaliers, cementing the eleven-year Interregnum. Worcester was the home of Royal Worcester Porcelain, and for much of his life, the composer Sir Edward Elgar. It houses the Lea & Perrins factory where traditional Worcestershire Sauce is made. The University of Worcester is one of the UK's fastest-growing universities.
History
The trade route past Worcester which later formed part of the Roman Ryknild Street dates to Neolithic times. The position commanded a ford over the River Severn (the river was tidal past Worcester prior to public works projects in the 1840s) and was fortified by the Britons around 400 bc. It would have been on the northern border of the Dobunni and probably subject to the larger communities of the Malvern hillforts. The Roman settlement at the site passes unmentioned by Ptolemy's Geography, the Antonine Itinerary and the Register of Dignitaries but would have grown up on the road opened between Glevum (Gloucester) and Viroconium (Wroxeter) in the ad 40s and 50s. It may have been the "Vertis" mentioned in the 7th-century Ravenna Cosmography. Using charcoal from the Forest of Dean, the Romans operated pottery kilns and ironworks at the site and may have built a small fort.
In the 3rd century, Roman Worcester occupied a larger area than the subsequent medieval city, but silting of the Diglis Basin caused the abandonment of Sidbury. Industrial production ceased and the settlement contracted to a defended position along the lines of the old British fort at the river terrace's southern end. This settlement is generally identified with the Cair Guiragon listed among the 28 cities of Britain by the History of the Britons attributed to Nennius. This is not a British name but an adaption of its Old English name Weorgoran ceaster, "fort of the Weorgoran". The Weorgoran (the "people of the winding river") were precursors of Hwicce and probably West Saxons who entered the area some time after the 577 Battle of Dyrham. In 680, their fort at Worcester was chosen—in preference to both the much larger Gloucester and the royal court at Winchcombe—to be the seat of a new bishopric, suggesting there was already a well-established and powerful Christian community when the site fell into English hands. The oldest known church was St Helen's, which was certainly British; the Saxon cathedral was dedicated to St Peter.
The town was almost destroyed in 1041 after a rebellion against the punitive taxation of Harthacanute. During this time, the townsfolk relocated to (and at times were besieged at) the nearby Bevere Island, 2 miles upriver. The following century, the town (then better defended) was attacked several times (in 1139, 1150 and 1151) during "The Anarchy", i.e. civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I. This is the background to the well-researched historical novel The Virgin in the Ice, part of Ellis Peters' "Cadfael" series, which begins with the words:
"It was early in November of 1139 that the tide of civil war, lately so sluggish and inactive, rose suddenly to wash over the city of Worcester, wash away half of its lifestock, property and women and send all those of its inhabitants who could get away in time scurrying for their lives northwards away from the marauders". (These are mentioned as having arrived from Gloucester, leaving a long lasting legacy of bitterness between the two cities.)
By late medieval times the population had grown to around 10,000 as the manufacture of cloth started to become a large local industry. The town was designated a county corporate, giving it autonomy from local government.
Worcester was the site of the Battle of Worcester (3 September 1651), when Charles II attempted to forcefully regain the crown, in the fields a little to the west and south of the city, near the village of Powick. However, Charles II was defeated and returned to his headquarters in what is now known as King Charles house in the Cornmarket, before fleeing in disguise to Boscobel House in Shropshire from where he eventually escaped to France. Worcester had supported the Parliamentary cause before the outbreak of war in 1642 but spent most of the war under Royalist occupation. After the war it cleverly used its location as the site of the final battles of the First Civil War (1646) and Third Civil War (1651) to try to mount an appeal for compensation from the new King Charles II. As part of this and not based upon any historical fact, it invented the epithet "Fidelis Civitas" (The Faithful City) and this motto has since been incorporated into the city's coat of arms.
In 1670, the River Severn broke its banks and the subsequent flood was the worst ever seen by Worcester. A brass plate can be found on a wall on the path to the cathedral by the path along the river showing how high this flood went and other flood heights of more recent times are also shown in stone bricks. The closest flood height to what is known as The Flood of 1670 was when the Severn flooded in the torrential rains of July 2007.
The Royal Worcester Porcelain Company factory was founded by Dr John Wall in 1751, although it no longer produces goods. A handful of decorators are still employed at the factory and the Museum is still open.
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Worcester was a major centre for glove making, employing nearly half the glovers in England at its peak (over 30,000 people). In 1815 the Worcester and Birmingham Canal opened, allowing Worcester goods to be transported to a larger conurbation.
The British Medical Association (BMA) was founded in the Board Room of the old Worcester Royal Infirmary building in Castle Street in 1832. While part of the Royal Infirmary has now been demolished to make way for the University of Worcester's new city campus, the original Georgian building has been preserved. One of the old wards opened as a medical museum, The Infirmary, in 2012.
In 1882 Worcester hosted the Worcestershire Exhibition, inspired by the Great Exhibition in London.There were sections for exhibits of fine arts (over 600 paintings), historical manuscripts and industrial items.The profit was £1,867.9s.6d. The number of visitors is recorded as 222,807. Some of the profit from the exhibition was used to build the Victoria Institute in Foregate Street, Worcester. This was opened on 1 October 1896 and now houses the city art gallery and museum. Further information about the exhibition can be found at the museum.
During World War II, the city was chosen to be the seat of an evacuated government in case of mass German invasion. The War Cabinet, along with Winston Churchill and some 16.000 state workers, would have moved to Hindlip Hall (now part of the complex forming the Headquarters of West Mercia Police), 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Worcester and Parliament would have temporarily seated in Stratford-upon-Avon. The former RAF station RAF Worcester was located east of Northwick.
In the 1950s and 1960s large areas of the medieval centre of Worcester were demolished and rebuilt as a result of decisions by town planners. This was condemned by many such as Nikolaus Pevsner who described it as a "totally incomprehensible... act of self-mutilation". There is still a significant area of medieval Worcester remaining, but it is a small fraction of what was present before the redevelopments.
The current city boundaries date from 1974, when the Local Government Act 1972 transferred the parishes of Warndon and St. Peter the Great County into the city.
Governance
The Conservatives had a majority on the council from 2003 to 2007, when they lost a by-election to Labour meaning the council had no overall control. The Conservatives remained with the most seats overall with 17 out of 35 seats after the 2008 election.
Worcester has one member of Parliament, Robin Walker of the Conservative Party, who represents the Worcester constituency as of the May 2010 general election.
The County of Worcestershire's local government arrangement is formed of a non-metropolitan county council (Worcestershire County Council) and six non-metropolitan district councils, with Worcester City Council being the district council for most of Worcester, with a small area of the St. Peters suburb actually falling within the neighbouring Wychavon District council. The Worcester City Council area includes two parish councils, these being Warndon Parish Council and St Peter the Great Parish Council.
Worcester Guildhall, the seat of local government, dates from 1721; it replaced an earlier hall on the same site. The Grade I listed Queen Anne style building is described by Pevsner as 'a splendid town hall, as splendid as any of C18 England'.
Economy
The city of Worcester, located on the River Severn and with transport links to Birmingham and other parts of the Midlands through the vast canal network, became an important centre for many light industries. The late-Victorian period saw the growth of ironfounders, like Heenan & Froude, Hardy & Padmore and McKenzie & Holland.
Glove industry
Gloves, Worcester City Art Gallery & Museum
One of the flourishing industries of Worcester was glove making. Worcester's Gloving industry peaked between 1790 and 1820 when about 30,000 were employed by 150 companies. At this time nearly half of the Glove manufacturers of Britain were located in Worcestershire.
In the 19th century the industry declined because import taxes on foreign competitors, mainly from France, were greatly reduced. By the middle of the 20th century, only a few Worcester gloving companies survived since gloves became less fashionable and free trade allowed in cheaper imports from the Far East.
Nevertheless, at least 3 large glove manufacturing companies still survived until the late 20th century: Dent Allcroft, Fownes and Milore. Queen Elizabeth II's coronation gloves were designed by Emil Rich and manufactured in the Worcester-based Milore factory.
Manufacturing
Lea & Perrins advertisement (1900)
The inter-war years saw the rapid growth of engineering, producing machine tools James Archdale, H.W. Ward, castings for the motor industry Worcester Windshields and Casements, mining machinery Mining Engineering Company (MECO) which later became part of Joy Mining Machinery and open-top cans Williamsons, though G H Williamson and Sons had become part of the Metal Box Co in 1930. Later the company became Carnaud Metal Box PLC.
Worcester Porcelain operated in Worcester until 2008, when the factory closed down due to the recession. However, the site of Worcester Porcelain still houses the Museum of Royal Worcester which is open daily to visitors.
One of Worcester's most famous products, Lea & Perrins Worcestershire sauce is made and bottled at the Midland Road factory in Worcester, which has been the home of Lea & Perrins since 16 October 1897. Mr Lea and Mr Perrins originally met in a chemist's shop on the site of the now Debenhams store in the Crowngate Shopping Centre.
The surprising foundry heritage of the city is represented by Morganite Crucible at Norton which produces graphitic shaped products and cements for use in the modern industry.
Worcester is the home of what is claimed to be the oldest newspaper in the world, Berrow's Worcester Journal, which traces its descent from a news-sheet that started publication in 1690. The city is also a major retail centre with several covered shopping centres that has most major chains represented as well as a host of independent shops and restaurants, particularly in Friar Street and New Street.
The city is home to the European manufacturing plant of Yamazaki Mazak Corporation, a global Japanese machine tool builder, which was established in 1980.
Retail trade
The Kays mail order business was founded in Worcester in the 1880s and operated from numerous premises in the city until 2007. It was then bought out by Reality, owner of the Grattan catalogue. Kays' former warehouse building was demolished in 2008.
Worcester’s main shopping centre is the High Street, home to the stores of a number of major retail chains. Part of the High Street was modernised in 2005 amid much controversy.[citation needed] Many of the issues focussed on the felling of old trees, the duration of the works (caused by the weather and an archaeological find) and the removal of flagstones outside the city’s 18th-century Guildhall. The other main thoroughfares are The Shambles and Broad Street, while The Cross (and its immediate surrounding area) is the city’s financial centre and location of the majority of Worcester’s main bank branches.
There are three main covered shopping centres in the city centre, these being CrownGate Shopping Centre, Cathedral Plaza and Reindeer Court. There is also an unenclosed shopping area located immediately east of the city centre called St. Martin's Quarter. There are three retail parks, the Elgar and Blackpole Retail Parks, which are located in the inner suburb of Blackpole and the Shrub Hill Retail Park neighbouring St. Martin's Quarter.
Landmarks
The most famous landmark in Worcester is its imposing Anglican Cathedral. The current building; known as Worcester Priory before the English Reformation, is officially named The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin Mary. Construction begun in 1084 while its crypt dates from the 10th century. The chapter house is the only circular one in the country while the cathedral also has the distinction of having the tomb of King John.
The Hive, situated on the northern side of the River Severn at the former cattle market site, is Worcester's joint public and university library and archive centre, heralded as "the first of its kind in Europe". It is a prominent landmark feature on the Worcester skyline. With seven towers and a golden rooftop, The Hive has gained recognition winning two international awards for building design and sustainability.
There are three main parks in Worcester, Cripplegate Park, Gheluvelt Park and Fort Royal Park, the latter being on one of the battles sites of the English Civil War. In addition, there is a large open area known as Pitchcroft to the North of the city centre on the east bank of the River Severn, which, apart from those days when it is being used for horse racing, is a public space.
Gheluvelt Park was opened as a memorial to commemorate the Worcestershire Regiment's 2nd Battalion after their part in the Battle of Gheluvelt, during the First World War.
The statue of Sir Edward Elgar, commissioned from Kenneth Potts and unveiled in 1981, stands at the end of Worcester High Street facing the Cathedral, only yards from the original location of his father's music shop, which was demolished in the 1960s. Elgar's birthplace is a short way from Worcester, in the village of Broadheath.
There are also two large woodlands in the city, Perry Wood, at twelve hectares and Nunnery Wood, covering twenty-one hectares. Perry Wood is often said to be the place where Oliver Cromwell met and made a pact with the devil. Nunnery Wood is an integral part of the adjacent and popular Worcester Woods Country Park, itself next door to County Hall on the east side of the city.
Armour Boys, by Laura Ford, are five child-sized figures in suits of armour, cast in bronze, found lying as if defeated in battle on the Terrace at Harewood.
Armour Boys, Terrace Garden, Harewood House, Harewood, West Yorkshire.
04 October 2009.
They were a little teary eyed after a long season. They were 11-0 and lost the very last Super Bowl game. I guess it's a lesson you learn early in life (they are 10 years old) pull your socks up and try again next year :)
Website: www.gettyimages.co.uk/photos/cuppyuppycake?excludenudity=...
More death... this from my last day in Memphis last month. (With a hat tip to my friend/conference roomie Arie for telling me about it.)
HOFSTRA RALLIES FROM EARLY DEFICIT TO DEFEAT BUFFALO
157: Chris Mauriello (HOFS) over Kobe Garrehy (BUFF) (Dec 7-6)
JAN 27, 2018
Hempstead, NY – The Hofstra Pride Wrestling Team rallied back from an early 14-0 after three weight classes to win six of the next seven weights and post a 22-17 victory over the Bulls of Buffalo in a non-conference match at the David S. Mack Sports and Exhibition Complex Saturday afternoon.
Hofstra 22, Buffalo 17
125: Kyle Akins (BUFF) over Jacob Martin (HOFS) (Dec 6-4)
133: Bryan Lantry (BUFF) over Garrett Lambert (HOFS) (Fall 5:36)
141: Jason Estevez (BUFF) over Charlie Kane (HOFS) (TF 25-10 7:00)
149: Ryan Burkert (HOFS) over Nicholas Palumbo (BUFF) (Dec 7-3)
157: Chris Mauriello (HOFS) over Kobe Garrehy (BUFF) (Dec 7-6)
165: Ricky Stamm (HOFS) over Noah Grover (BUFF) (Dec 5-3)
174: Sage Heller (HOFS) over Ryan Kromer (BUFF) (Fall 6:00)
184: Brett Perry (BUFF) over Cory Damiana (HOFS) (Dec 6-5)
197: Nezar Haddad (HOFS) over Joe Ariola (BUFF) (Dec 10-5)
285: Mike Hughes (HOFS) over Nolan Terrance (BUFF) (MD 8-0)
"O God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, we call upon Thy holy Name, and as supplicants, we implore Thy clemency, that by the intercession of Mary, ever Virgin Immaculate and our Mother, and of the glorious St. Michael the Archangel, Thou wouldst deign to help us against Satan and all the other unclean spirits who wander about the world for the injury of the human race and the ruin of souls. Amen."
– Today, 29th September, is the feast of the Archangels Michael, Gabriel and Raphael.
This altar dedicated to St Michael who is shown defeating the Devil is in Valletta's Co-Cathedral of St John the Baptist, in Malta.
Cristian Fernandez del seleccionado de Salta los Mayuatos, quienes hoy cayeron ante el Seleccionado de Buenos Aires " Las Águilas " por 28 a 24 . #rugby #sport
Having attached a six-stop neutral density filter to my lens, upon discovering I'd been taking pictures the entire time with the ISO set to 500 (from picture-taking the day before), it made being splashed over and over by freezing seawater seem like a poor bargain for fun :-P
Not observant, of me. Stark evidence of an extreme over-reliance on trial and error.
The very gray, gauzy tonality is a result of heavy salt spray in the air. For a few years I did so much shooting along the ocean and other saltwater, I basically rusted my D700 over. It still has an L-bracket permanently attached to it.
Stormy, gloomy day in Seattle. Manning the fort this afternoon, my youngest is sick with a sore throat and sleeping soundly after a round of puerile Adam Sandler movies that were almost tailor-made for twelve year olds. My oldest and his mom are up in Everett, he's playing a music festival there.
The Senate Judiciary Committee hearings on the nomination of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court were political drama not seen in at least a generation. And, perhaps never imbued with such emotion and vitriol. It was the perfect storm for the partisanship clash between the left and the right, and between the haves and the have-nots, one that has only grown more destructive during the last decade. The Trump presidency has only exacerbated that frustration and divide. And, the #metoo movement has stripped away any pretense that men and women are treated equally.
The problem has been magnified by the actions of old white Republican Senators who don't have a clue. They have become anachronisms. It's not just their age. Conservatives, by their nature, feel more comfortable with tradition —the way things always have been. Twenty-first century cultural and religious fundamentalists, while acknowledging a woman's place might now include working outside the home, have made it clear that patriarchy is still their rule of law.
But, the ongoing behavior of Donald Trump, and Kavanaugh's emotional accusations, especially when compared to the strong and steady testimony of Dr.Christine Blasey Ford, his sexual assault accuser, have exposed this fracture in ways that shocked and riveted the country.
This is a defining moment. Studying the trajectory of gender and racial inequality, this event shouldn't be surprising. But, it is, given how quickly and simply it came together. A woman and a man, speaking one after the other during one day on Capitol Hill.
As an old white man, I've had enough. I'm exhausted by gender politics. We need to put our energies towards adapting to our quickly changing world. We need to stave off the effects of climate change. And, we need to get back to the hopes our founding fathers and mothers had for America. It's time accept women as strong, smart, and capable of doing anything they want. It's time to acknowledge that no government has a right to dictate how a woman treats her own body. This must become the accepted "Rule of Law." The fight over Roe verses Wade must end.
Gender, like race, is no determinate of the curiosity and intelligence required to succeed. Acceptance of this is long past due. Growing up in the 1960s and 1970s, I began to realize the next generation of men would do a better job of accepting women as equals and with respect. It never happened. Boys will still be boys. But, we know now, these kind of boys can be defeated.
See all the posters from the Chamomile Tea Party! Digital high res downloads are free here (click the down arrow on the lower right side of the image). Other options are available. And join our Facebook group.
New! Follow the history of the last eight years of our country's political intransigence through a six-part exhibit of these posters on Google Arts & Culture.
We got a new game at the weekend and as yesterday I actually managed to beat Tom at something Warhammer related, I was, for a brief moment undefeated Blood Bowl champion. That was until tonight when I was put back in my rightful place!
I have a wheel bearing going. Subaru part nearing £500 but with effort, found a pattern one for £123. Unfortunately the 32mm driveshaft nut beat us as the socket we had did not go deep enough. Needs a specific 12 point one.
Showing Link's many poses. Submitted to LEGO Ideas: ideas.lego.com/projects/154024. Help with supporting and sharing is much appreciated!
((Allomyrina dichotoma tunobosonis)
Several weeks ago, I'd found my first ever Japanese rhinoceros beetles fighting on this same tree. I was really surprised to see that they were still here and still battling away. The tree is starting to look a little worse for wear now.
1. ~~*~~, 2. Have a wonderful day! (^!~)..., 3. Austin 360 Tower construction with nearby CG strike, 4. Blue Puff, 5. ~~*~~, 6. Untitled, 7. Arms Raised, 8. "The heart wants what it wants.... There's no logic to those things.", 9. Thank you, 10. Softly Spoken, 11. www.flickr.com/photos/jamieray/2358151348/, 12. colorful spring, 13. come fly with me..., 14. sun dance, 15. .i solemly swear., 16. Untitled, 17. all is full of love 007, 18. the needy mothers and children, 19. Look I am flying with the sea gulls!, 20. class IV computation, 21. Alien Arms, 22. A Winter's Landmark, 23. ~ Light ~, 24. 133: SOTTS will make you jump!, 25. Dupatta....
Created with fd's Flickr Toys.
I give up.
I tried to stand up for myself, and I was made to be the bad guy.
I give in and let myself be walked all over, and give what is wanted, and I am still the bad guy.
I am chastised for my inexperience, but when I beg for help told I am doing fine.
I feel like I am not given a chance to prove what I keep trying to say and DO.
I hear hear hear but have yet to see.
I am not listened to.
My thoughts are not considered, or called ridiculous.
I am not unreasonable. Far from it.
It is okay for me to stand up for myself,
since I don't see anyone else doing it.
I don't know what else to do.
But they can't get rid of me that easily.
They have already won in some ways but they will not win in what they want most.
I am not going to disappear.
I just wish I did not feel so alone, helpless, unloved, and forgotten.
50 Random Facts About Me
#6: I am not jealous of Dave's ex-wife, especially considering how much interaction we (well, he) has with her. I have no worries that he will ever want her back. And while I do not worry about Dave pining away for his ex, I worry that he will decide someone else is better than me, and more worth the effort.
HOFSTRA RALLIES FROM EARLY DEFICIT TO DEFEAT BUFFALO
197: Nezar Haddad (HOFS) over Joe Ariola (BUFF) (Dec 10-5)
JAN 27, 2018
Hempstead, NY – The Hofstra Pride Wrestling Team rallied back from an early 14-0 after three weight classes to win six of the next seven weights and post a 22-17 victory over the Bulls of Buffalo in a non-conference match at the David S. Mack Sports and Exhibition Complex Saturday afternoon.
Hofstra 22, Buffalo 17
125: Kyle Akins (BUFF) over Jacob Martin (HOFS) (Dec 6-4)
133: Bryan Lantry (BUFF) over Garrett Lambert (HOFS) (Fall 5:36)
141: Jason Estevez (BUFF) over Charlie Kane (HOFS) (TF 25-10 7:00)
149: Ryan Burkert (HOFS) over Nicholas Palumbo (BUFF) (Dec 7-3)
157: Chris Mauriello (HOFS) over Kobe Garrehy (BUFF) (Dec 7-6)
165: Ricky Stamm (HOFS) over Noah Grover (BUFF) (Dec 5-3)
174: Sage Heller (HOFS) over Ryan Kromer (BUFF) (Fall 6:00)
184: Brett Perry (BUFF) over Cory Damiana (HOFS) (Dec 6-5)
197: Nezar Haddad (HOFS) over Joe Ariola (BUFF) (Dec 10-5)
285: Mike Hughes (HOFS) over Nolan Terrance (BUFF) (MD 8-0)
To dishearten or dispirit
------------------
HIT THE 'L' KEY FOR A BETTER VIEW! Thanks for the favs and comments. Much Appreciated.
-------------
All of my photographs are under copyright ©. None of these photographs may be reproduced and/or used in any way without my permission.
© VanveenJF Photography
Turret 7B
Turret 7B (Denton Hall Turret or Denton Turret) is located in West Denton opposite East Denton Hall (also known as Bishops House) on West Road. The turret is up to six courses high and is made from sandstone. It is recessed by 5 feet (1.5 m) into a section of the broad part of Hadrian's Wall that measures 65m long. Turret 7B is 13 feet (4.0 m) wide north to south and 14 feet (4.3 m) east to west with a 3 feet 8 inches (1.12 m) wide entrance in its south side. The wall associated with Turret 7B is the furthest east of the known surviving sections. Small sections of consolidated wall lie between Turret 7B and 7A at 54.98287°N 1.68616°W and 54.98271°N 1.68546°W.
The turret was first located in 1928 and excavated by the Office of Works in 1929. The excavation discovered a heap of pottery in the centre of the east wall, which has been suggested as the location of a window. Three different levels of floor were found suggesting three stages of occupation of 122–196, 205–295 and 300–367 AD. The original floor was constructed of clay and contained a hearth and a stone box, with a stone bowl on it, the floor had been partially repaired with flagstones. A spearhead and the binding from a shield were discovered within the repair. A building had been constructed over the turret and 18th-century pottery remains associated with this were also found. Another excavation was carried out in 1936. It has been proposed that Turret 7B was one of the structures garrisoned by soldiers based at the Condercum fort to the east in Benwell.
The turret was placed under English Heritage guardianship by 1971. The turret and attached wall are maintained as a single property by English Heritage (known as "Denton Hall Turret"). The organisation operates the property as an open access site with no entrance fees. Turret 7B was the first site on Hadrian's Wall visited in Guy de la Bédoyère's BBC Radio 4 series The Romans in Britain.
Location: 54.984139°N 1.691234°W
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe
Newcastle upon Tyne, or simply Newcastle is a cathedral city and metropolitan borough in Tyne and Wear, England. It is located on the River Tyne's northern bank, opposite Gateshead to the south. It is the most populous settlement in the Tyneside conurbation and North East England.
Newcastle developed around a Roman settlement called Pons Aelius, the settlement became known as Monkchester before taking on the name of a castle built in 1080 by William the Conqueror's eldest son, Robert Curthose. It was one of the world's largest ship building and repair centres during the industrial revolution. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it separated and formed a county of itself. In 1974, Newcastle became part of Tyne and Wear. Since 2018, the city council has been part of the North of Tyne Combined Authority.
The history of Newcastle upon Tyne dates back almost 2,000 years, during which it has been controlled by the Romans, the Angles and the Norsemen amongst others. Newcastle upon Tyne was originally known by its Roman name Pons Aelius. The name "Newcastle" has been used since the Norman conquest of England. Due to its prime location on the River Tyne, the town developed greatly during the Middle Ages and it was to play a major role in the Industrial Revolution, being granted city status in 1882. Today, the city is a major retail, commercial and cultural centre.
Roman settlement
The history of Newcastle dates from AD 122, when the Romans built the first bridge to cross the River Tyne at that point. The bridge was called Pons Aelius or 'Bridge of Aelius', Aelius being the family name of Roman Emperor Hadrian, who was responsible for the Roman wall built across northern England along the Tyne–Solway gap. Hadrian's Wall ran through present-day Newcastle, with stretches of wall and turrets visible along the West Road, and at a temple in Benwell. Traces of a milecastle were found on Westgate Road, midway between Clayton Street and Grainger Street, and it is likely that the course of the wall corresponded to present-day Westgate Road. The course of the wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort at Wallsend, with the fort of Arbeia down-river at the mouth of the Tyne, on the south bank in what is now South Shields. The Tyne was then a wider, shallower river at this point and it is thought that the bridge was probably about 700 feet (210 m) long, made of wood and supported on stone piers. It is probable that it was sited near the current Swing Bridge, due to the fact that Roman artefacts were found there during the building of the latter bridge. Hadrian himself probably visited the site in 122. A shrine was set up on the completed bridge in 123 by the 6th Legion, with two altars to Neptune and Oceanus respectively. The two altars were subsequently found in the river and are on display in the Great North Museum in Newcastle.
The Romans built a stone-walled fort in 150 to protect the river crossing which was at the foot of the Tyne Gorge, and this took the name of the bridge so that the whole settlement was known as Pons Aelius. The fort was situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the new bridge, on the site of the present Castle Keep. Pons Aelius is last mentioned in 400, in a Roman document listing all of the Roman military outposts. It is likely that nestling in the shadow of the fort would have been a small vicus, or village. Unfortunately, no buildings have been detected; only a few pieces of flagging. It is clear that there was a Roman cemetery near Clavering Place, behind the Central station, as a number of Roman coffins and sarcophagi have been unearthed there.
Despite the presence of the bridge, the settlement of Pons Aelius was not particularly important among the northern Roman settlements. The most important stations were those on the highway of Dere Street running from Eboracum (York) through Corstopitum (Corbridge) and to the lands north of the Wall. Corstopitum, being a major arsenal and supply centre, was much larger and more populous than Pons Aelius.
Anglo-Saxon development
The Angles arrived in the North-East of England in about 500 and may have landed on the Tyne. There is no evidence of an Anglo-Saxon settlement on or near the site of Pons Aelius during the Anglo-Saxon age. The bridge probably survived and there may well have been a small village at the northern end, but no evidence survives. At that time the region was dominated by two kingdoms, Bernicia, north of the Tees and ruled from Bamburgh, and Deira, south of the Tees and ruled from York. Bernicia and Deira combined to form the kingdom of Northanhymbra (Northumbria) early in the 7th century. There were three local kings who held the title of Bretwalda – 'Lord of Britain', Edwin of Deira (627–632), Oswald of Bernicia (633–641) and Oswy of Northumbria (641–658). The 7th century became known as the 'Golden Age of Northumbria', when the area was a beacon of culture and learning in Europe. The greatness of this period was based on its generally Christian culture and resulted in the Lindisfarne Gospels amongst other treasures. The Tyne valley was dotted with monasteries, with those at Monkwearmouth, Hexham and Jarrow being the most famous. Bede, who was based at Jarrow, wrote of a royal estate, known as Ad Murum, 'at the Wall', 12 miles (19 km) from the sea. It is thought that this estate may have been in what is now Newcastle. At some unknown time, the site of Newcastle came to be known as Monkchester. The reason for this title is unknown, as we are unaware of any specific monasteries at the site, and Bede made no reference to it. In 875 Halfdan Ragnarsson, the Danish Viking conqueror of York, led
Apollo Crews, Kalisto, Goldust & R-Truth defeat Bo Dallas, Curt Hawkins, Curtis Axel, Titus O'Neil (in Eight Man Tag Team Match)
( Le vendredi 12 mai, la WWE Live Tour fera escale au Country Hall a Liege pour le spectacle de catch de l'annee! Au programme: des duels impitoyables et des rencontres captivantes entre les meilleures equipes et les plus grands rivaux. )
Product of a rainy day while on holiday in the Lake District last week and learning how to use my new flash off camera for macro work. The chess set came in quite handy as an indoor subject to work on.
22/52
Today I was trying to take a tunnel photo but some workers started coming so I panicked and put all my stuff (remote + props) in my hoodie pocket and ran off. I walked into some local woods and tried to find a good location, but alas when I did I realized I had dropped my remote somewhere along the way. I tried retracing my steps but it started to get dark. So then I laid on the pavement and mentally cried.
Day 18/100
Envious:
I was envious of the powers that the baby was getting for doing nothing but be born; I worked so hard everyday, yet i’m not a monster like she was. Well, they just needed to an even more scared ritual to make her, well, completely Envy. Sure they already ripped out half of a beating heart and pathetic brain and implanted the same microchip I had into her at least eighteen thousand times. “What would we do if Amaris is defeated?” I asked.
“We get Amberlee.” Nathan was still right beside me, and was still smoking. Gosh, I hated that smell. Stop smoking, daddy, it will kill you.
“And what happens when she falls?” Shut up child. Was my dad high? What the...what was going on. Why did I even care about this?
“Ha, we would probably had made something better.” Master was acting like a know-it-all, but I knew he didn’t know something. The answer to the next question.
“Master, what would happen if somebody figured out how to unleash the Wrath Crystals?”
“That will never happen.”
“But, what if it does?” The Wrath Crystals were more powerful than us; the only reason they were gone because Mona hid them somewhere.
“Excuse us, we need to go outside.” He opened the door, and pulled me outside with him. Kimberly, stop being a b*tch.
“What was that about, Kimber?”
“To become more powerful we have to think about the future. We already failed so much because we never got a step higher than the foe, and we need to stop failing!”
“We aren’t failing.” I gave Nathan the eyes; we hadn’t even seen the pink haired girl for years.
“The last time we killed somebody was years ago.” Yuni, why had that name stuck with me after all these years? She was dead, she was a Dark Priest, she was not a good girl anymore. You fail as a father!
“Bu-”
“No, you have to listen to me.” I grabbed the cigarette from Nathan, and threw it onto the ground. “Listen.”
“I’m your master.”
“And, i’m trying to help you.” Missy, take that back or I WILL KILL YOU! I crossed my arms knowing that he didn’t. “If you want to succeed listen.” Then the name Luka popped up in my head, but I did not know why I kept remembering this boy’s name.
“Are you saying i’m not good enough.” After that, Nathan grabbed a see through bag that had something that looked like dust in it. Something in my head made me scared of this thing. No!
“What?” But, the dust covered my body and the bag was empty. There was something different about me...why did all the sudden Nathan looked like a blonde version of the old movie star Tom Cruise? He was cuter, he was sexier, he was hotter. What was I just saying, what?
“Kimber, what do you think now?” No! What was that voice inside my head, nah, nothing mattered but master.
“The same as I ever did.” The expression on Nathan’s face told me something, but I didn’t know what. It was a smile, yet a grin at the same freaking time. How did that work, I pondered. I didn’t need an answer. Well, Nathan did and I was spending way too much time thinking to myself. “And, I will do anything for you, master.”
“Good.” What was up? Why was Nathan asking me all of these questions? Why am I asking myself all of these questions? Nothing felt wrong, but at the same time everything felt wrong. There was too many questions I had; MARKA employees wasn’t supposed to be the questioning kind.
“Why are you asking?”
“Just to make sure.”
“Okay.” Then a name came inside my head, Luka. What, oh great here I went again questioning myself, but what were these voices in my head? Was Mona trying to get to me? Not the questioning kind, not the questioning kind. “Is there something else?”
“Yes, commander Kimber?”
“What is it?” Luka, Luka, Luka. But, I tried to slap the thoughts out of my head; it didn’t work whatsoever. Luka, Luka, Luka. Why are you doing this to me, daddy?
“This.” What was th-. He silenced my thoughts by a kiss, what was happening? But, then my thoughts, my wonders, went away. The most powerful man in the universe liked me of all women, me Kimber. Then we broke apart when we heard footsteps in the hallway.
“Sir, we think we have sightings of the rebels.” I would normally go with him, yet something made me his little yorkie. Was it the dust, no way its puberty. I’m twenty-seven how could it be puberty?
“What do you want me to do?” Nathan handed me a box after that, a white box with a red bow.
“Open it in your room.” Why, I wanted to ask, but Nathan already was gone. Godd*mn teleportation powers.
“I guess I have to do what he says.” Then I continued down the hallway and went up the stairs till the fourth level, where I turned. When I reached my door I opened it.
“Home sweet home.” So, I closed the door, and quickly opened up the package. When I opened it I was sprayed with dust. All of this dust started to make me sick, but why should I care. Then ,the next layer, I saw striper clothes, but I didn’t care. Do exactly what master says, no questions. And, the last layer was a note.
Dear Kimber,
Come to the throne room right after you get ready because I have a surprise for you. And, I know you will come, but I just like writing letters, it’s a hobby for some reason. Well, see you later.
From your master, Nathan
All hail the king, all hail the master. So, I did what he said, still no questions, no weird useless memories, no anything that master didn’t like.
t the throne room:
Nobody was there yet, I always seemed to be the first person to many things. Then Rikku appeared from nowhere, and so did Andrea, Yuni, Tyler, and many other people the rebels love, well used to love. I was the only person in the room that was alive or was I? “Oh, you came.”
“Of course, master, when did I ever not obey you?”
“Good girl.” I could tell my skin was shining because all of that dust, all of the love.
“I’m never good,” I laughed.
“Just go over there.” He pointed at one of the sides of the throne. If I actually could ask something I would ask why do this seem to be like hell, not like that was a bad thing.
“Yes.” I was like his puppet; I did everything he wanted me to do. Give me a sandwich, yes because that was what I always did. Make me have fun, yes because that was what I always did. Then he directed all the other people around. We were ready for what he wanted, we always were.
“Time for war.” No questions about the war. I just stood there with very revealing clothes that would make any movie PG-13, but it didn’t make me disgusted. Nothing did expect if it made master so. Nothing. Murder, rape, anything. “Bring them in.”
“Yes sir.” Then I saw Fatima, pink haired girl, other pink haired girl, Fatima’s husband, Andru, Suki, and that annoying girl that used to be in the cage; they weren’t all here, but this was a big chunk of them still. I wasn’t disappointed; I couldn’t be.
“What the...that is just sick.” Pinky’s eyes widened till the size of Anime, well, eyes.
“Give up now,” master demanded.
“Why should we listen to you?” Fatima’s husband was usually the quiet one; I knew because I looked at his record a little time ago, quiet. Now I still didn’t feel anything.
“You will.” Nathan snapped his fingers, and Amberlee, Amaya, Enya, two babies, Von, and Violet somehow appeared. Yes, things were coming better and better.
“That’s impossible, we watched them escape!” Suki’s face showed feelings of sadness and anger, but not envy. No envy in the room.
“They will join your other dead friends if you don’t listen.” He got up from his chair, and pointed at me. “Or you will be like Kimber.” But, then he went up to Rikku and also pointed at her.
“Why are you doing this to us?” Andru questioned. No questioning allowed in the MARKA alliance, none whatsoever.
“It’s my job.”
“Your my father, that is not what fathers are supposed to do.” Nathan rolled my eyes, so I did also.
“How do you know that, Andru, you never had kids. Well, you did get married when you were sixteen, but nah I still hate you. Now to continue on with the thing I was doing.”
“You f*cker.” But, Nathan ignored Andru’s insult, and did what he wanted to do.
“Rikku, the brilliant weapon specialist whom had a wicked past, tee hee.” He continued walking down the line of the evil deceased. “Next, Andrea who was a loyal person who would do anything for her friends, and that was how she fell. And, Yuni the love-seeking magician who had a few problems with her stomach...yep. Tyler the real savior that just couldn’t take it...” blah blah blah blah. I wanted to fall asleep, but I needed to please master.
“This crappy time...urgh,” complained the other pink haired girl.
“Shut up.” I was kind of shocked, don’t feel shocked I told myself. Master Nathan usually scolded people who talked when they weren’t supposed to talk, yet he didn’t do anything to me.
“Where is Amaris and Luka!” Pinky demanded while getting up; Nathan’s glare made her sit down again. Luka, that was...why was I rebelling? Don’t rebel, don’t betray.
“Oh, I perfectly know where they are, but I will never tell you.” Nathan sat back down in the chair, crossing his legs. Don’t rebel now I told myself. You need every inch of your body to be covered in the word rebel my blood because that is the only thing you ever be. And, this would have been a time I would usually rebel, but not now. “But, because you asked I will show you Amaris.” He snapped his fingers for the billionth time this evening.
“S*IT!” All the rebels looked at Amaris in pure terror, and I thought she was more beautiful than before being Envy; like I was evil at the time you know?
“You are becoming more of a f*cker everyday.” Then Nathan glared at his only living son; don’t ask me what happened to the other two, wait Envy.
“Thanks for the compliment, Andru.” The black muck was all over Amaris, and a robot was being built around her, perfect.
“Are you going to do anything to us?” Vy asked. The people just wouldn’t stop questioning but the children, whom where too scared to move a move a muscle.
“Agents, give Suki to me and put the rest in the cells.”
“Yes, sir.” We were all his puppets, but who says being a puppet is a bad thing?
“And, commander Kimber and Dark Priests you can go.” Before I went out of the door, I was the last one, I looked at Suki. The look on her would scar me forever and ever; the look of real horror, she was scared of her own father. Stop scaring me ,daddy, stop it! I was still having memories of the old me and a completely different person.
“AHHH!” That was the last word I heard from the room that day, a scream.
“It is what we have to do kid.”
The next day:
I decided to go to the cells, it was my free day of the week and I needed something to do to kill time. So, I went there not knowing what would happen next.
“Hey b*tches.” At least I had my normal MARKA jumpsuit on, but it was too small for me, of course.
“What do you want?” I went to the one with pinky because they put the people in different cells in different cell blocks. What do you want kid scam before I hurt ya, Kimber.
“To talk Pinky.”
“Oh, like i’m going to talk to you.” Then I took out my gun, which I had a better grip now so I wouldn’t drop it and have to use a sword again.
“I want you to tell me something about Luka; I keep hearing his name in my head, why?”
“First, Luka is a girl with a boy name. Second, don’t call me Pinky my name is Thunder.”
“Yeah this tell me.” This girl was making me a little bit impatient, and I hated that.
“Well, I guess I can tell you because I don’t want my brains to be blown out today. She was part of our team, and MARKA took her three years ago and we never saw her again.” She laid down on her bed which was exactly like the one I had, weird. Mommy, can I have a bedtime story; I just had a nightmare. No. Please Mother.
“So, we took her, but that doesn’t explain why I hear her name in my freaking head.”
“You don’t remember this, but you were looking for her years on end with me. And, when we decided to look at MARKA...well they took you.” Thunder started to cry, the tough girl.
“You’re lying.”
“No, i’m not, Kimber.” Her eyes were turning red because of how much she was crying. Wimp, but I didn’t want myself to think that for some reason. Something didn’t feel right once again, oh great.
“That is commander Kimber to you.”
“I’m not one of you.”
“Who says you would never be?” I questioned while fixing my long brown hair. Who says he will ever be sober mother? Get out of my head VOICES; freaking f*cking voices that were driving me insane.
“Me.” That answer made me laugh like an idiot, but Thunder’s glare could stop everybody from giggling. She was dead serious about what she said. Crap. CRAP, RUN MARKA IS HERE!
“Forget it, Thunder, your team will never win.” I put the gun back into my pocket, and Thunder was watching my every move. She was an eagle and I was a mouse it felt like. But, I should have been the eagle not the freaking mouse, the weak creature.
“You can kill me, but you can never kill the hope of the people.” Really, that was easy to do.
“We can just kill everybody not part of us.” Take every kid here, guys, hurry before the crystals come. And, I moved uncomfortably; Thunder scared the crap out of me.
“Then more people in MARKA will turn up to be like Fatima and the old you.” Wait, I pondered, that couldn’t be possible, right? Then I remembered of a door that I never seen the inside of; maybe that door would have answers.
“I have to go.” I bolted out of the cell block because I needed to check it out before it was too late. My hips hurt, I didn’t care. The only thing I wanted then was answers not pleasure.
At the door:
It was wooden for some reason Nathan never told me, but that made the door stand out from the rest of the metal agency. So, I made sure nobody saw me enter because MARKA never had locked doors for some reason. Then I quickly opened the door and it made no sound, thank Mona. Wait, why was I thinking of Mona? Whatever, I just needed to know what was in here.
“Oh my god.” It was a woman, a woman called Luka. My microchip fell out; I remembered my past, my life. Luka was dead; there were a thousand knives pierced in her. No way she would have survived that, but seeing that made me know what exactly happened the unfaithful day.
I was on a helicopter:
There were other kids I knew with me, but I didn’t know their names. They just went to the same school as me, that was it. “What are you going to do with us?” A girl with red hair asked next to me.
“Whatever master said.” I looked out the side of the plane, nobody was coming to rescue us.
“Who is your master?” Another kid with sparkly blue eyes was staring at the guy in the same jumpsuit I was in.
“You will see little kid.” The guy crossed his arms, annoyed of all the kids with him. But, the pilot did not seem to mind our questions. I just looked at my hands, which were covered in blood. My whole family was murdered in front of me.
“Tell me now.” The foul stood up from his seat, headstrong and an idiot.
“I am not supposed to tell anybody kid.” The guy was still crossing his arms keeping a sharp eyes out for the rebel. “So, to pass the time everybody tell their life stories until they are gone forever.” He uncrossed his arms, and then pointed at me, the quiet one. “You first.”
“Me?”
“Yes you. I see greatness in you kid, and if you don’t you die.” Then he pressed the gun on the side of my head. I was scared of this guy, so I freely told my story.
“Well, i’m Kimber Greene the youngest of three kids. But, my father was addicted to meth and my mother was just crazy. My two other siblings committed suicide, so I was the last one left. And, well, they treated me like s*it. That is about it.” For a moment, I felt glad I got that dirty secret off my chest, but I realized they were probably going to kill me. They kind of did; they killed the real me. I was lucky that something was wrong with me.
Back to reality:
I knew my real purpose, but I felt somebody breathing down my neck, crap. So, I turned around to see the person. He had blonde hair, he was Nathan. Doomed, that what I was right at that moment. “You’re back on their side.”
“You are a real b*tch.” But, I couldn’t move and he was coming closer to me. He was going to kill me.
“Tell me something I don’t know.” He came closer and closer to me, yet Nathan didn’t have a weapon. Wait...he didn’t want to kill me, he wanted to rape me, no way. Then I got a plan, so I pretended to not care.
“Don’t you know everything?”
“Nobody knows everything,” he responded. This was a different Nathan; the one that told the truth and accepted his flaws. No, don’t make the potion control you again I told myself. Never. It was agony when I made it take over my body when Nathan kissed me, and that wasn’t the first time. In the past, I was his so-called ‘make out buddy’.
“Mona does.” And, this was a different me, the real me. The one that wasn’t his to take, not his puppet.
“She doesn’t know a thing.” His mouth went closer to my neck, pretend you don’t notice. I was right next to Luka’s decaying body, it smelled like s*it.
“Yes, she does.” Then he started to kiss my neck, plan working. When he was distracted, I pulled a knife from Luka, and stabbed him on the side.
“YOU B*TCH!” I quickly pulled him out of me, and ran out of the wooden door. But, it was locked, what? The doors locked people from the inside, a hidden cell. I was truely was doomed. So, I had no choice but to search Nathan.
“This is bad.” I reached him and started to put my hands in his pockets, a bag, a coin, and a pocket watch that was all I found.
“Got ya!”
“What?” Then, when I was getting up to search the rest of him, he pulled on my leg with such might. I tried to shake him off, but he wouldn’t let go.
“F*cker, get off of me!” But, then I sketched to Luka’s body to get another knife, yet Nathan saw that and let go of me to stop me which didn’t make sense until he nailed me to a wall.
“You can’t defeat me, Kimber.”
“Nathan, you may kill me but you would never kill hope.” He grabbed the knife I stabbed him with and put it closely to my neck; he just loved doing stuff with my ‘pretty’ neck.
“Really?” The knife was coming closer and closer to my neck, crap. This part made me scared; I was waiting to die.
“Yes, you don’t control me anymore. I die free, I die myself.” I couldn’t move, but he could. Blood was still coming out of the side of him. It was staining Nathan’s white shirt, and redness was going all over. Time to die a hero not a villain.
“If you say so.” Then Nathan got off of me, and walked over to my microchip, the thing that made all of this happen. If that wasn’t ever created I would have been living a normal life. I would of had a normal job, a big house, a loving husband, kid(s), and all the stuff normal people had. “Kimber, if you stay with us I will stare your life.”
“Who says I have a life anymore?” I answered. No way I was freely making him putting that thing back in my eye, no freaking way. Not even for a trillion dollars. I would just kill everybody, and that wouldn’t be good.
“Alright then, be mine and I won’t kill you.” Then I was slowly going towards Luka’s slowly.
“There is no way I’m doing any of those things.” After that, I looked at the bag that was in his pocket; there was only a little bit of dust leaf in it, thank god. I then stood still when I felt Nathan’s glare. “Thank god I’m wearing a freaking jumpsuit,” I whispered.
“Suite yourself.” He was still glaring at me with his eyes of rivers.
“You aren’t going to suite me.” Thank god, I was near Luka. So, I jumped over to her, and grabbed out a knife. “Now we have an equal fight.”
“There is no way you will ever win against me.”
“Well, I already stabbed you once.” There was no way I was letting him win, Nathan was the one that made the stupid decision to not kill me when I was completely defenseless.
“Then this is going to be like a show.” He licked, god he liked licking his weapons, which had his own blood and guts on it. Gross, that was what Nathan was.
“A show with a happy ending,” I said. Then a smile crossed my face. B*tch, I was good now so worry, I thought. After that, he lunged at me. I was ready for him.
“Go down, take a bow.” No. So, I protected my neck with my knife. But, I felt sudden pain in my left arm, and I dropped the knife in agony. This was it. I couldn’t fight or run or defend myself. There were footsteps in the hallway, and Nathan rushed to cover my mouth, but I bite him. He took his hand away from me, he was in agony.
“Do you really think I will do that?”
“Yes,” he responded while I got up. I tried to pick my knife with my right arm, but I couldn’t do so. It was time to accept the truth, I told myself, you are wounded, and you can’t do anything. When I was still trying to pick up my only hope, I felt something on me. “Are you sure you don’-”
“I’m not going to be your doll anymore.” That was the moment that I could not stop myself, I cried. It was time to accept the truth; your all precious virginity might be lost in this room. Then I turned around, and forced him off me with the little strength I had. Why wasn’t he failing or at least in plan? For Mona’s sake I stabbed him.
“You were.” He then stabbed my right arm and my legs and my hips. I was shocked I was alive. Nathan was going to kill me, and probably rape my dead body or rape me when I was about to die. There was nothing I could use now, no arms, no legs. Well, I still had them, but they were useless.
“That wasn’t me.”
“It was.”
“But, I wasn’t in control of my body. I was a completely different person.” After I said that, he brought out one of the cigars he had in his front pockets of his pants. Nathan blew the smoke right in my face.
“Yet, it was your body, your DNA, your blood.” He grabbed my chin, and looked at my neck, of course. Everybody loved my neck.
“I wasn’t commander Kimber, you were. Kissing yourself, crushing yourself, controlling yourself.” At this time, I found never left in life but to not get killed by Nathan is this room. So, I was egging him on. It was fun to egg people on. Their reactions were all different, but most of them replied angrily.
“Shut up, Kimber. Because, I can slowly kill you right now.” I could feel the knife barely on my neck.
“No way.”
“Die then.”
“Kill me if you want to.” I felt like I was in one of the videogames that you decide the person’s fate, Nathan was the player and I was the AI waiting for the answer given by the console remote. Would he press x: kill me or b: leave me for dead?
“Ha, enjoy your last moment because this is it.” The knife was starting to cut my skin lightly, and I did enjoyed the pain.
“I am.” Then I saw the door burst open, what? What was going on?
“Hi Nathan.” Suki was at the door, she was holding a gun. The gun was aimed at Nathan’s head.
“Help me.” I could hardly talk because of the knife going in my neck.
“You’re back, and now the others owe me ten dollars. Back to subject, Nathan don’t kill her or I will make sure a bullet is in your head.” She walked towards her father, and smiled. Why the heck was Suki smiling in this situation? I WAS DYING HERE!
“I’m f*cked here.” Nathan then disappeared, coward.
“Thank god.” My heart was beating crazily, but I didn’t give the f*ck. Suki was now 15, and she was stunning. Her blonde hair was straight and punky, and Suki’s grassy eyes pierced me.
“I’m a life saver now.” She looked like a blonde version of me with her off-shoulder shirt and ripped jeans, goth ha ha she joined the club. Her eyes had tons of eye shadow, mascara, and eyeliner on them; she was totally inspired by me.
“Yep, you are now carry me slave,” I joked.
“No.”
“Seriously, I kind of can’t walk.” Then she took me in her arms, and raised me. Gosh, this girl was strong.
Two hours later:
Now I was in a wheelchair, and I was stuck in one for the rest of my life. It wasn’t that bad like I could make people literally my slaves. The ship only had me and Thunder on it because the others were chickened out by ships now. “Hey girl, thinking to yourself again?” We were in the control room again, weird.
“Yeah, can I ask you something?” I had to ask her because I couldn’t do it because, well, I couldn’t freaking move. Rot in hell. I still was having the memories, and could not make sense out of some.
“Sure thing, Kimber. What is it? My sister’s baby, well she is named Maura. Horrible name, but I didn’t name her.” That wasn’t what I wanted to know, but it was still good to know.
“That’s not it.”
“Then what is it?” She was staring at me, waiting for an answer. Thunder probably thought the fact that she was now an aunt was more important than anything else. But, I knew she was going to freak when she heard my question.
“Can you-”
“Can I what?” Thunder interrupted. That girl was in a good mood because she had her best friend back and a little niece, yippee. Everything was good for her, yet not for me. Was I supposed to be happy? No.
“Can you...kill me?” Oh it came out, no turning back. There was never a point you could turn back on. Then the look on Thunder’s face was one of pure horror.
“What? There is no way i’m not letting anybody else die.” She crossed her arms, and that was when I noticed her gun. One bullet, that was it. I wasn’t suicidal, right? Somebody else was doing it for me. Thank god attempts were somehow legal; I could not take the pain anymore. Nathan always haunted my mind, Yuni always haunted my mind.
“It will be making a favor.” I looked at Thunder’s gun, I was eyeing it. Amaris would come and destroy the world, and it would be all my fault. Tyler killing himself was my fault, Yuni’s death was my fault, Amaris being Envy was my fault, the downfall of that once perfect family was all my fault.
“You would go to hell,” Thunder protested. Not like I cared about that fact whatsoever. Kill me, and make this demon get off of Earth.
“I am already the devil.” Then Thunder backed away in horror, but I kept my eyes on that gun.
“No, stay here I need you to be here.” Thunder started to cry and cry and cry...but it still didn’t change my mind. I needed to die, now.
“I can’t.” I used my arms to get away from there, and somewhere else.
“Stop, think about it.”My friend tried to catch up to me; I was too fast for her. I punched in the code for the door ,which was made of glass, and locked her in the control room. Then I went down the hallway of the living hell.
“Time to end this.” I pressed the code again so the door would open. The endless sky was under my feet, and the plane was going about two thousand miles per hour. Wind was hitting my face, but the stupid alarm was ringing and saying ‘DOOR OPENED’, f*ck. I continued on, ignoring the alarm, and fell out the plane. Why? I only thing I ever wanted was to be happy.
In the face of death
It was a merry afternoon until Fatima, Suki, Kirami, Vy, and Hail gotten a distress call from their friend Thunder. “Hello Thunder,” Suki welcomed while crossing her arms. She was trying to be more like her idol, a woman named Kimberly Greene.
“Guys, Kimber is going nuts. She locked me in the control room just because I wouldn’t kill her and, oh s*it, I think she is going to kill herself now.” Thunder’s voice revealed that she was scared out of her mind, and was about to pee herself.
“DOOR OPENED. DOOR OPENED.” An alarm went on and on about the door opening, and it annoyed the crap out of Suki until she knew what was happening. That is when she noticed it would be too late to do anything to save her beloved hero from herself. Suki broke into tears, and so did everybody else but Fatima and the babies Maura and Hawk, what Suki liked to call Fatima and Kirami’s child because the actual name was too hard to say in her opinion.
“Why?”
“She wanted to be happy.”
"No, there is neither defeat nor victory for me!
Because I have already decided that victory will always be with me.
Defeat remains for the others:
With those who moan when they fall,
With those who cry when they are torn"
(part of the poem by. Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana (STA) 4 Mei 1944)
snatching defeat from the jaws of victory?
this landscape represents a virtual 100% defeat for the indigenous biological communities of south australia - but what have we (the victors) gained?
biodiversity has crashed from hundreds of plants and dozens of animals to half a dozen exotic weeds supporting a monoculture of sheep
the topsoil washed away decades ago, or blew across the tasman sea to stain the snowcaps of new zealand's alps pink (this actually happens!)
now as we experience the worst drought ever recorded in southern australia, we are faced not just with economic disaster, but with a landscape where the original vegetatation has been 95% removed, and so discover that we have no biological capital to fall back on! this landscape is not robust - as the state heats up and dries out, where will the few remaining original species go - how will they cross these vast, barren wastelands?
i am not blaming the pastoralists - almost all of the ones i've met have sincerely wanted to undo the damage done in earlier eras when it was assumed the europeanization of australia was not only inevitable, it was god ordained!
in fact, the entire australian community bears the responsibility for finding a new way of living with this most ancient of lands, rather than despite it...
ps - i haven't colour-treated this image, and no, it didn't rain...
Moscow. Kubinka tank museum.
The Iosif Stalin tank (or IS tank, named after the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin), was a heavy tank developed by the Soviet Union during World War II. The tanks in the series are also sometimes called JS or ИС tanks.
The heavy tank was designed with thick armour to counter the German 88 mm guns, and sported a main gun that was capable of defeating the German Tiger and Panther tanks. It was mainly a breakthrough tank, firing a heavy high-explosive shell that was useful against entrenchments and bunkers. The IS-2 was put into service in April 1944, and was used as a spearhead in the Battle for Berlin by the Red Army in the final stage of the war.
The IS-3 had a superior armour layout, with a hemispherical turret like many later Soviet tanks
In late 1944 the design was upgraded to the IS-3. This tank had improved armour layout, and a hemispherical cast turret (resembling an overturned "soup bowl") which was to be the hallmark of post-war Soviet tanks. While this low, hemispherical turret may have made the IS-3 a smaller target, it also imposed severe penalties inside the tank by significantly diminishing the working headroom, especially for the loader (Soviet tanks in general are characterized by uncomfortably small interior space compared to Western tanks). The low turret also limited the maximum depression of the main gun, since the gun breech had little room inside the turret to pivot on its vertical axis. As a result, the IS-3 was less able to take advantage of hull-down positions, a tactic at which Western tanks were better suited (Perrett 1987:21). The IS-3's pointed prow earned it the nickname Shchuka (Pike) by its crews. It weighed slightly less and stood 30 cm lower.
The IS-3 came too late to see action in World War II. Though some older sources claim that the tank saw action at the end of the war in Europe, there are no official reports to confirm this. It is now generally accepted that the tank saw no action against the Germans, although one regiment may have been deployed against the Japanese in Manchuria.
In 1952, a further development was put into production, the IS-10. Due of the political climate in the wake of Stalin's 1953 death, it was renamed T-10.
In the mid-1950s, the remaining IS-2 tanks (mostly model 1944 variants) were upgraded to keep them battle-worthy. This upgrade produced the IS-2M, which introduced fittings such as external fuel tanks on the rear hull (the basic IS-2 had these only on the hull sides), stowage bins on both sides of the hull, and protective skirting along the top edges of the tracks. IS-3 was also slightly modernized as IS-3M.
[edit] Operational history
The IS-2 tank first saw combat in the spring of 1944. IS-2s were assigned to separate heavy tank regiments, normally of 21 tanks each. These regiments were used to reinforce the most important attack sectors during major offensive operations. Tactically, they were employed as breakthrough tanks. Their role was to support infantry in the assault, using their large guns to destroy bunkers, buildings, dug-in crew-served weapons, and other 'soft' targets. They were also capable of taking on any German AFVs if required. Once a breakthrough was achieved, lighter, more mobile T-34s would take over the exploitation.
Frontal view of an IS-3. The squat, solid-looking front profile and pointed prow are highly distinctive.
The IS-3 first appeared to Western observers at the Allied Victory Parade in Berlin in September 1945. The IS-3 was an impressive development in the eyes of Western military observers, the British in particular, who responded with heavy tank designs of their own.
By the 1950s, the emergence of the main battle tank concept - combining medium tank mobility with the firepower of the heavy tank - had rendered heavy tanks obsolete in Soviet operational doctrine. In the late 1960s, the remaining Soviet heavy tanks were transferred to Red Army reserve service and storage. The IS-2 Model 1944 remained in active service much longer in the armies of Cuba, China and North Korea. A regiment of Chinese IS-2s was available for use in the Korean War, but saw no service there. In response to border disputes between the Soviet Union and China, some Soviet IS-3s were dug in as fixed pillboxes along the Soviet-Chinese border. The IS-3 was used in the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Prague Spring in 1968.
During the early 1950s all IS-3s were modernised as IS-3M models. The Egyptian Army acquired about 100 IS-3M tanks in all from the Soviet Union.[5] During the Six Day War, a single regiment of IS-3M tanks was stationed with the 7th Infantry Division at Rafah and the 125th Tank Brigade of the 6th Mechanized Division at Kuntilla was also equipped with about 60 IS-3M tanks.[6] Israeli infantry and paratrooper units had considerable difficulty with the IS-3M when it was encountered due to its thick armour, which shrugged off hits from normal infantry anti-tank weapons such as the bazooka.[6] Even the 90mm AP shell fired by the main gun of the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) M-48A2 Patton tanks could not penetrate the frontal armour of the IS-3s at normal battle ranges.[6] There were a number of engagements between the M48A2 Pattons of the IDF 7th Armoured Brigade and IS-3s supporting Egyptian positions at Rafah in which several M48A2s were knocked out in the fighting.[6] Despite this, the slow rate of fire, poor engine performance (the engine was not well suited to hot-climate operations), and rudimentary fire control of the IS-3s proved to be a significant handicap, and about 73 IS-3s were lost in the 1967 war.[6] Most Egyptian IS-3 tanks were withdrawn from service, though at least one regiment of IS-3 tanks was retained in service as late as the 1973 October war.[6] The IDF itself experimented with a few captured IS-3M tanks, but found them ill-suited to fast moving desert tank warfare; those that were not scrapped were turned into stationary defensive pillbox emplacements in the Jordan River area.[6]
After the Korean War, China attempted to reverse-engineer the IS-2/IS-3 as Type 122 medium tank.[7] The project was cancelled in favour of the Type 59, a copy of the Soviet T-54A.