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Nº 24B.
Peugeot 403 Berline (1955-1966).
Grey, chrome convex hubs with repro black tyres (originally with white tyres).
Escala 1/43.
Dinky Toys.
Made in France by Meccano.
"Issued in june 1956 as 24 b, the Dinky 403 has been renumbered 521 in 1959 and deleted in 1961."
More info:
www.talkmodeltoys.com/discus/messages/27668/33411.html?11...
patrick.miniatures.free.fr/peugeot/peugeot 403.htm
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LES 403 DINKY TOYS
"C'est au salon de l'automobile d'octobre 1955 que le public, sans cesse plus nombreux, découvre le nouveau modèle phare de Peugeot : la 403.
La sortie de la 403 donne à l'époque un sacré coup de vieux à la 203. Pour répondre à la concurrence sans cesse plus mordante de l'Aronde, le constructeur franc-comtois dévoile cette berline à l'esthétique aussi sage.
Son moteur de 1500 cm3 développant 58 chevaux ne fait pas d'elle un foudre de guerre, mais qu'importe, Peugeot mise sur sa robustesse et sa fiabilité qui permettent de fidéliser sa clientèle. Malgré la sortie de ce nouveau modèle, Peugeot décide de poursuivre la production de la 203.
Encore une fois dans un temps record, Bobigny comble les voeux des jeunes amateurs en sortant la reproduction de la 403. La berline mesure 104 millimètres.
La carrosserie finement moulée en Zamak, possède un plancher en tôle, riveté, maintenant en place les essieux aux roues convexes chromés et chaussées de pneumatiques blancs.
La référence 24B, commercialisée en boîte individuelle jaune illustrée, est , dans premier temps disponible en bleu et noir.
De nouvelles teintes, gris clair et jaune paille, font rapidement leur apparition pour le plus grand bonheur des collectionneurs."
(...)
Source: www.aquitaine33.com/dinky/403/403.htm
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Peugeot 403
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"The Peugeot 403 is a car produced by French automobile manufacturer Peugeot between May 1955 and October 1966.
A total of 1,214,121 of all types, including commercial models, were produced, making it the first Peugeot to break through the one million barrier."
"The 403 made its debut in saloon body style on 20 April 1955 at the Trocadéro Palace in Paris.
For several months before it was launched numerous 403s, their badges removed, were circulating on the local roads near the manufacturer's PSA Sochaux factory, (...)"
"Styled by Pininfarina, the 403 featured ponton, three-box styling incorporating, except on the most basic models, an opening roof panel.
The collaboration with Pininfarina marked the start of a partnership which would see the Italian designer producing designs for Peugeot, including those many mainstream volume models, for more than fifty years.
Regarding the 403 itself there were persistent rumours that the design was one originally intended for a replacement Fiat 1900 which had been rejected when Turin had decided to defer replacement of the Fiat for another four years.
Unusual in Europe at the time, but appreciated by customers, was the way that the rear doors opened wide - to a full 90 degrees. Also unusual were the windows in the rear doors that opened fully into the door frame to the point where they disappeared, (...)"
"Superseded by the Peugeot 404 in 1960, the 403 remained in production as a budget alternative until 1966."
(...)
Peugeot 403
Manufacturer
Peugeot SA
Production
1955–1966
1,014,111 cars
Assembly
France
Australia
Argentina
New Zealand (Motor Holdings)
Class
Large family car (D)
Body style
4-door sedan
5-door estate
2-door convertible (1956-1961)
2-door pickup
3-door van
Engine
1290 cc TM5 I4
1468 cc TN3 I4
1816 cc TMD85/XDP85 diesel I4
Successor
Peugeot 404
here is another build i am currently building its the duel truck from the movie .it is r/c and i will be building the tanker trailer also .its not complete yet but will be posting more pics onse the other details get added like the rusted licence plates and the little convex mirror hope you like it so far,please leave a comment
ONE WEEK! it's been one wholllllle week. I thought I'd celebrate by showing off my amazing convex mirror.
My friend was in my room when I took this one, hence the silly face.
cardigan: thrifted
t-shirt: from a friend
belt: thrifted
pants: some crap store
shoes: red. that's all you need to know!
nail polish: amazing (and turquoise!)
song of the day: Kings of Leon - Four Kicks
(damn I miss living in London)
Because of the great fire wall of Chinese policy, it's so hard to cross the limit to visit flickr, so I could not reply my dear friends, I'm so sorry about that and please forgive me,thank you so much and hope my friends can still hit on me！由于中国网络原因，访问flickr很困难，速度很慢，所有暂时没有办法一一回应各位好友，请朋友们见谅！还请各位好友继续关注我！
My pro account is out of time，thank you my friends here for supporting me what a long time！！May I have a pleasure to receive a pro gift from you？我的pro账号到期了，感谢朋友们长期以来的热心支持！！有好心人能赞助一个pro账号给我吗，在此先表感谢！！
If you want to use or buy this image，please contact me. 版权所有，转载请联系本人。
Photo © Tristan Savatier - All Rights Reserved - License this photo on www.loupiote.com/7995349685
Share this photo on: facebook • twitter • more...
Man jumping in front of "Compound I" mirror sculpture.
This installation had to be cleaned after each dust storm! (see the top part of it still covered with dust).
"Compound Eye" aka "Compound I" was a sculpture covered with circular convex (or "bubble-shape") mirrors.by Kirsten Berg.
For more info, go to www.visualnews.com/2012/07/30/compound-i-kirsten-bergs-ne... and www.kickstarter.com/projects/cofone/compound-i-burning-ma....
Photo taken at the Burning Man 2012 festival (Black Rock Desert, Nevada).
If you like this photo, follow me on instagram (tristan_sf) and don't hesitate to leave a comment or email me.
I look just so serious in this self-portrait, taken with the aid of a convex mirror in my favorite early morning rest stop - McDonalds 24-hour restaurant in Manuka (Griffith).
To answer some of the (more or less) obvious questions ...
- It was not an intentional self-portrait (or else I would have smiled). I was actually concentrating on trying to compose the shot and time it for when the customers were approaching the counter. This was not as easy as it might seem when using a convex mirror!
- What's with the headphones? Well, I enjoy listening to technology and photography podcasts when I'm out on my early morning walk.
- Yes, it was cold (i.e., -5C outside if I recall correctly)
- I use a Bluetooth wireless shutter release in my right hand to take most of my iPhone photographs. This lets me concentrate on the composition, lighting and focus and not have to look away to find the shutter release. It also prevents camera shake when I activate the shutter.
- McDonald's? The bland answer would be that the options at this hour of the day are not very numerous. But regardless, the staff are friendly and fun to be with. And it is clean, warm and dry.
- What is the coffee like? Well, in the past, I would have answered by saying that it was warm. But since the installation of an espresso machine (i.e., turning it into a McCafe), the friendly staff actually produce a pretty decent cup to order.
Griffith, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
iPhone 6 - Photograph taken with the back-facing camera on an iPhone 6.
645 PRO - The 645 PRO Mk III camera replacement app was used to capture the image.
Photoshop Express - Cropped the image to square format.
Big Photo - Image resized to 2448 x 2448 pixels.
Handy Photo - Used the Retouch tool to remove some distracting smudges in the center of the image.
Snapseed - Applied the Structure filter. Then applied Overall lighting adjustments. Added some blur and dark vignette to the corners using the Lens Blur tool.
Photoshop Express - Applied the Sharpen filter.
ExifEditor - Transferred the EXIF data from the original photograph to the final image.
Today I was building a tower when I went to grab a Slope, Inverted 45 2 x 2 Double Convex in light blue grey and realised I didn't have any. Unless my search foo is not working, I couldn't find any existing in that colour either. So I took some regular convex slopes and turned them upside down. This was how. I tend to do things the first way I think of, may not always be the simplest!
BASILICA PONTIFICIA DE SAN MIGUEL
La Basílica de San Miguel (oficialmente, Basílica Pontificia de San Miguel) está ubicada en la calle de San Justo, en Madrid (España). Se encuentra junto al Palacio Arzobispal, en el corazón de la zona conocida como Madrid de los Austrias. Está adscrita a la Nunciatura apostólica en España, que la ha confiado al Opus Dei desde 1960, y es la sede de la Hermandad de los Estudiantes (Madrid). El actual nuncio es el Excmo. Sr. D. Renzo Fratini, que ostenta el cargo desde el otoño de 2009.
A pesar de sus pequeñas dimensiones, se trata de una de las construcciones arquitectónicas más relevantes del Barroco español, por la singular forma convexa de su fachada y su original planta, poco habitual en el país y única en el Barroco madrileño. El templo, que empezó a construirse en el año 1739, posee una notable influencia italiana.
La basílica fue declarada Monumento Histórico Artístico Nacional el 28 de noviembre de 1984, según Real decreto.
La Basílica de San Miguel se emplaza sobre el solar de la parroquia de los Santos Justo y Pastor, mártires cristianos que, según la tradición, murieron en Alcalá de Henares. Poco se conoce sobre esta desaparecida iglesia, una de las más antiguas de la ciudad. Su construcción era anterior al siglo XIII, o al menos eso se desprende del Fuero de 1202, en el que se la cita. El templo sufrió un incendio en 1690 y quedó completamente destruido.
En 1739 se iniciaron las obras de la construcción actual, a instancias del cardenal infante Luis Antonio de Borbón y Farnesio, arzobispo de Toledo, que costeó su ejecución con un presupuesto de 1.421.000 reales. En 1745 se concluyó el edificio.
En tiempos de José Bonaparte, la iglesia añadió una nueva advocación: a la original de los Santos Justo y Pastor, se le sumó la de San Miguel, santo que quedó sin feligresía ante la demolición de la vecina parroquia de San Miguel de los Octoes. En el siglo XIX, el templo quedó advocado únicamente a San Miguel y la feligresía de los Santos Justo y Pastor pasó a la iglesia del antiguo Convento de las Maravillas. En 1892 se entregó a la Nunciatura apostólica, adquiriendo el título de basílica pontificia, al trasladarse a Leganitos la parroquia de San Miguel.
En el siglo XX, el Opus Dei se hizo cargo del templo. Esta institución promovió diferentes reformas, como la supresión de los altares laterales y la construcción de una cripta bajo el edificio. En este siglo pasó a ser iglesia pontificia, con el nombre de Basílica Pontificia de San Miguel (es decir, es el templo de la Nunciatura apostólica de la Santa Sede en España).
El compositor de origen italiano Luigi Boccherini (1743-1805), fallecido en Madrid, fue enterrado en esta basílica, hasta que en 1927 Benito Mussolini ordenó llevar sus restos a Lucca (Italia), de donde el músico era natural. Se le dio sepultura en la iglesia de San Francisco, en el panteón de hijos ilustres de la citada ciudad toscana.
El edificio, de planta de cruz latina, se debe al arquitecto italiano Santiago Bonavía, si bien fue encargado inicialmente a Teodoro Ardemans, que llegó a realizar un diseño, y fue terminado por Virgilio Rabaglio. Especialmente llamativa es su fachada, de forma convexa, rematada por dos torres con chapiteles, de influencia oriental, y un frontón, igualmente curvo.
La fachada integra varios conjuntos escultóricos. Las alegorías de la Caridad, de la Fe, de la Esperanza y de la Fortaleza, realizadas por Roberto Michel y Nicolás Carisana, adornan los dos cuerpos superiores. En la parte superior de la puerta de entrada, aparece un bajorrelieve, realizado por Carisana, donde se muestra el Martirio de los Santos Justo y Pastor, a los que estaba advocado el templo en sus orígenes.
La basílica mantiene en toda la estructura de su única nave distintos juegos de equilibrios, dada la tensión cóncava-convexa de las superficies y la alternancia de tramos circulares y elípticos con otros de arcos cruzados. A ello se añade la disposición oblicua de las pilastras y columnas, con respecto al eje central, y el cruce en forma de aspa de los arcos torales, en la bóveda.
La nave se cubre con cúpula rebajada, que se sostiene sobre pechinas de aristas reforzadas entre dos tramos rectos con arcos cruzados. Sobre el crucero se levanta una cúpula oval sobre anillo con balaustres. El presbiterio se cubre con bóveda de arista y cuarto de esfera. Las bóvedas de la nave están decoradas con frescos de Bartolomé Rusca, realizados en 1745, en los que se representa la apoteosis celestial de los Santos Justo y Pastor con cuatro virtudes en las pechinas y los profetas Elías, Jeremías, David e Isaías pintados por Hatoy en las zonas triangulares de los tramos anterior y posterior. En las pechinas y cúpula del crucero y sobre el presbiterio las pinturas al fresco pertenecen a los hermanos Luis, Antonio y Alejandro González Velázquez, representando a los evangelistas (pechinas), Presentación de los santos Justo y Pastor ante el tirano y Martirio de los santos Justo y Pastor. En los laterales del presbiterio, pinturas de Hatoy de los arcángeles Barachiel, Gabriel y Jehudiel, a la izquierda, y Uriel, Rafael y Seatiel a la derecha. Algunas otras pinturas en grisalla se disponen sobre el crucero y retablos laterales, completando una rica decoración de mármoles fingidos y estucos. Al pie, coro en alto con cubierta plana.
En las poco profundas capillas laterales se disponían retablos de aire clásico de finales del siglo XVIII reconstruidos en el siglo XX, en parte sustituidos por confesonarios al ser entregada la iglesia al Opus Dei, con esculturas, y en algún caso vidrieras, también modernas. El presbiterio lo ocupa un lienzo de gran tamaño dedicado a San Miguel, obra de Alejandro Ferrant fechada en 1897.
Entre las tallas más notables de la iglesia, se encuentra la imagen del Santísimo Cristo de la Fe y del Perdón, del siglo XVIII, obra del escultor Luis Salvador Carmona, que sale en procesión cada Domingo de Ramos sacado por la Hermandad de los Estudiantes (Madrid), la primera de todas las que desfilan en la Semana Santa madrileña. Elías Tormo cita en el templo otra talla de Luis Salvador Carmona de Santa Librada crucificada, «muy bella», y un San Pascual Bailón a él atribuido, que podrían haber pasado a otras dependencias.
MADRID DE LOS AUSTRIAS
Por Madrid de los Austrias, también llamado barrio de los Austrias, se conoce una amplia zona de la capital española, sin entidad administrativa, correspondiente al primitivo trazado medieval de la ciudad y a la expansión urbanística iniciada por los monarcas de la Casa de Austria, a partir de los reinados de Carlos I y, especialmente, de Felipe II, que, en el año 1561, estableció la Corte en Madrid. A efectos turísticos, el nombre se emplea para promocionar los conjuntos monumentales de una gran parte de los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, que representa aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la citada zona. Además de su acepción geográfica, el término Madrid de los Austrias también tiene una acepción histórica. Según esta perspectiva, la expresión se emplea para designar la evolución, preferentemente urbanística, de la ciudad entre los reinados de Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primero de los Austrias, y Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), con el que se extinguió la rama española de esta dinastía.
Los límites del Madrid de los Austrias difieren significativamente según el punto de vista adoptado, ya sea histórico o turístico.
Límites históricos
Durante el reinado de Carlos I, Madrid estaba integrado por dos núcleos principales: el recinto comprendido dentro de la muralla cristiana, de origen medieval, y los arrabales. El casco urbano se extendía, de oeste a este, desde el Palacio Real hasta la Puerta del Sol; y, de norte a sur, desde la plaza de Santo Domingo hasta la plaza de la Cebada.
A partir de 1561, con la capitalidad, la ciudad creció de forma vertiginosa, expandiéndose principalmente hacia el este. El plano de Madrid realizado por Pedro Teixeira en el año 1656, casi un siglo después del establecimiento de la Corte, da una idea precisa de las dimensiones del casco urbano, en tiempos de Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665).
La villa estaba rodeada por una cerca, mandada construir por el citado monarca en el año 1625, levantada, hacia el norte, sobre las actuales calles de Génova, Sagasta, Carranza y Alberto Aguilera (conocidas popularmente como los bulevares); hacia el sur, sobre las rondas de Toledo, Valencia y Embajadores; hacia el este, sobre los paseos del Prado y Recoletos; y hacia el oeste, sobre los terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.
Extramuros, se situaban los jardines, parajes agrestes y recintos palaciegos del Buen Retiro, en la parte oriental de la ciudad; de la Casa de Campo, en la occidental; y del El Pardo, en la noroccidental.
La cerca de Felipe IV sustituyó a una anterior, promovida por Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) y que enseguida quedó obsoleta. Fue erigida para detener el crecimiento desordenado que estaba experimentando la ciudad y actuó como una auténtica barrera urbanística, que limitó la expansión de la urbe hasta el siglo XIX. Fue derribada en 1868.
A grandes rasgos, el espacio comprendido dentro de la cerca de Felipe IV se corresponde en la actualidad con el distrito Centro. Su superficie es de 523,73 hectáreas y comprende los barrios administrativos de Cortes, Embajadores, Justicia, Palacio, Sol y Universidad.
Límites turísticos
A diferencia de los límites históricos, perfectamente establecidos a través de la cerca de Felipe IV, la zona promocionada turísticamente como Madrid de los Austrias carece de una delimitación precisa. Se circunscribe a un ámbito sensiblemente menor, que comprende parcialmente los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, pertenecientes al distrito Centro de la capital.
Se estaría hablando de las áreas de influencia de las calles Mayor, Arenal, Segovia, carrera de San Francisco, Bailén y Toledo y de las plazas de la Cebada, de la Paja, Mayor, Puerta del Sol y de Oriente, donde se hallan barrios y áreas sin entidad administrativa, como La Latina, Ópera o Las Vistillas.
Aquí se encuentran conjuntos monumentales construidos tanto en los siglos XVI y XVII, cuando reinó en España la dinastía Habsburgo, como en épocas anteriores y posteriores. Por lo general, todos ellos quedan incluidos en los itinerarios turísticos que utilizan la expresión Madrid de los Austrias. Es el caso de las iglesias medievales de san Nicolás de los Servitas y san Pedro el Viejo, de los siglos XII y XIV, respectivamente, y del Palacio Real, erigido en el siglo XVIII.
En orden inverso, existen monumentos promovidos por los Austrias no integrados en las citadas rutas, al situarse fuera de los barrios de Sol y Palacio. Algunos ejemplos son el Salón de Reinos y el Casón del Buen Retiro, que formaron parte del desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, y los jardines homónimos.
También quedan excluidas de esta clasificación turística zonas de menor valor monumental, pero con un gran significado histórico en la época de los Austrias. Es el caso del barrio de las Letras, articulado alrededor de la calle de las Huertas, donde coincidieron algunos de los literatos más destacados del Siglo de Oro español, tales como Félix Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes o Francisco de Quevedo; o de la Casa de Campo, concebida por Felipe II como una finca de recreo y reserva de caza. En la primera mitad del siglo XVI, antes de su designación como capital, Madrid era una villa de tamaño medio entre las urbes castellanas, con cierta relevancia social e influencia política. Tenía entre 10 000 y 20 000 habitantes y formaba parte del grupo de dieciocho ciudades que disfrutaban del privilegio de tener voz y voto en las Cortes de Castilla.
Había acogido en numerosas ocasiones las Cortes del Reino y, desde la época de los Trastámara, era frecuentada por la monarquía, atraída por su riqueza cinegética. Además, uno de sus templos religiosos, San Jerónimo el Real, fue elegido por la monarquía como escenario oficial del acto de jura de los príncipes de Asturias como herederos de la Corona. El primero en hacerlo fue Felipe II (18 de abril de 1528), que 33 años después fijaría la Corte en Madrid, y la última Isabel II (20 de junio de 1883).
Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primer monarca de la Casa de Austria, mostró un interés especial por la villa, tal vez con la intención de establecer de forma definitiva la Corte en Madrid. Así sostiene el cronista Luis Cabrera de Córdoba (1559–1623), en un escrito referido a Felipe II
El emperador impulsó diferentes obras arquitectónicas y urbanísticas en Madrid. A él se debe la conversión del primitivo castillo de El Pardo en palacio, situado en las afueras del casco urbano. Las obras, dirigidas por el arquitecto Luis de Vega, se iniciaron en 1547 y concluyeron en 1558, durante el reinado de Felipe II. De este proyecto sólo se conservan algunos elementos que, como el Patio de los Austrias, quedaron integrados en la estructura definitiva del Palacio Real de El Pardo, fruto de la reconstrucción llevada a cabo en el siglo XVIII, tras el incendio de 1604.
Otro de los edificios que el monarca ordenó reformar fue el Real Alcázar de Madrid, un castillo de origen medieval, que fue pasto de las llamas en 1734 y en cuyo solar se levanta en la actualidad el Palacio Real. Duplicó su superficie con diferentes añadidos, entre los que destacan el Patio y las Salas de la Reina y la llamada Torre de Carlos I, a partir de un diseño de Luis de Vega y Alonso de Covarrubias.
Entre los proyectos urbanísticos promovidos por Carlos I, figura la demolición de la Puerta de Guadalaxara, el acceso principal de la antigua muralla cristiana de Madrid, y su sustitución por una más monumental, con tres arcos. Fue levantada hacia 1535 a la altura del número 49 de la actual calle Mayor y el 2 de septiembre de 1582 desapareció en un incendio.
Durante su reinado, se inauguraron algunos templos religiosos, entre ellos el santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, que data de 1523. Fue derribado en 1888, ante su mal estado, y reconstruido como basílica en el siglo XX.
En 1541, se dispuso la ampliación de la Iglesia de San Ginés, situada en la calle del Arenal, mediante un anejo parroquial en la calle de la Montera, que recibió el nombre de San Luis Obispo. Abrió sus puertas en 1689, en tiempos de Carlos II, y fue incendiado en 1935. Sólo se conserva su fachada principal, que fue trasladada e integrada en la estructura de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen, en la calle del Carmen.
El Convento de San Felipe el Real, de 1547, fue uno de los puntos de encuentro más importantes del Madrid de los Austrias. Su lonja recibió el sobrenombre de mentidero de la villa, por los rumores que allí se fraguaban. El edificio, destruido en 1838, poseía un relevante claustro renacentista, compuesto por 28 arcos en cada una de sus dos galerías.
Otro templo de la época es la Iglesia de San Sebastián (1554–1575), que tuvo que ser reconstruida tras ser alcanzada por una bomba durante la Guerra Civil.
La Capilla del Obispo es, sin duda, la construcción religiosa de mayor interés arquitectónico llevada a cabo en Madrid, en tiempos de Carlos I. Fue levantada entre 1520 y 1535, como un anejo de la iglesia medieval de San Andrés. Responde a una iniciativa de la familia de los Vargas, una de las más poderosas del Madrid medieval y renacentista. Debe su nombre a Gutierre de Vargas y Carvajal, obispo de Plasencia, su principal impulsor.
En el terreno social, el religioso Antón Martín creó en 1552 el Hospital de Nuestra Señora del Amor de Dios, que estuvo en la calle de Atocha, cerca de la plaza que lleva el nombre de su fundador.
En 1529, Carlos I ordenó que el Real Hospital de la Corte, de carácter itinerante ya que acompañaba a la Corte en sus desplazamientos, quedara establecido de forma fija en Madrid. Su edificio, conocido como Hospital del Buen Suceso, estaba integrado por un recinto hospitalario y una iglesia, que fueron concluidos en 1607. A mediados del siglo XIX, se procedió a su derribo dentro de las obras de ampliación de la Puerta del Sol, donde se encontraba.
En cuanto a las residencias palaciegas, cabe mencionar la de Alonso Gutiérrez de Madrid, tesorero del emperador, cuya estructura fue aprovechada, durante el reinado de Felipe II, para la fundación del Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales. Recientes intervenciones en este edificio han puesto al descubierto elementos originales del patio principal del citado palacio.
El Palacio de los condes de Paredes de Nava o Casa de San Isidro, donde tiene sus instalaciones el Museo de los Orígenes, se encuentra en la plaza de San Andrés. Fue construido en el solar de un antiguo edificio donde, según la tradición, vivió Iván de Vargas, quien, en el siglo XI, dio alojamiento y trabajo a san Isidro. Data de la primera mitad del siglo XVI.
Por su parte, la Casa de Cisneros data del año 1537 y está construida en estilo plateresco. Situada entre la calle del Sacramento y la plaza de la Villa, su primer propietario fue Benito Jiménez de Cisneros, sobrino del cardenal Cisneros (1436–1517), de quien toma su nombre.
Reinado de Felipe II
En 1561, Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) estableció la Corte en Madrid. Tal designación provocó un aumento de la población vertiginoso: de los 10 000 - 20 000 habitantes que podía haber en la villa antes de la capitalidad se pasó a 35 000 - 45 000 en el año 1575 y a más de 100 000 a finales del siglo XVI.
Para hacer frente a este crecimiento demográfico, el Concejo de Madrid, respaldado por la Corona, elaboró un proyecto de ordenación urbanística, consistente en la alineación y ensanchamiento de calles, el derribo de la antigua muralla medieval, la adecuación de la plaza del Arrabal (antecedente de la actual Plaza Mayor) y la construcción de edificios públicos como hospitales, hospicios, orfanatos, instalaciones de abastos y templos religiosos.
Felipe II puso al frente de este plan al arquitecto Juan Bautista de Toledo. Sin embargo, la falta de medios y lentitud burocrática del consistorio y el desinterés mostrado por la Corona en la aportación de recursos ralentizaron su desarrollo. La consecuencia fue un crecimiento urbano rápido y desordenado, que se realizó preferentemente hacia el este del centro histórico, dada la accidentada orografía de la parte occidental, orientada a los barrancos y terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.
Los nuevos edificios se construyeron siguiendo la dirección de los caminos que partían de la villa y, a su alrededor, surgió un entramado de calles estrechas, aunque dispuestas hipodámicamente. El que conducía hasta Alcalá de Henares (hoy calle de Alcalá) vertebró el crecimiento urbano hacia el este, al igual que el camino que llevaba a San Jerónimo el Real, sobre el que se originó la carrera de San Jerónimo. Por el sudeste, la expansión tomó como eje principal el camino del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha (actual calle de Atocha).
Hacia el sur, las nuevas casas se alinearon alrededor del camino de Toledo (calle de Toledo) y, por el norte, la referencia urbanística estuvo marcada por los caminos de Hortaleza y de Fuencarral (con sus respectivas calles homónimas), si bien hay que tener en cuenta que, en estos dos lados de la ciudad, el crecimiento fue más moderado.
Antes de la capitalidad, en 1535, la superficie de Madrid era de 72 hectáreas, cifra que aumentó hasta 134 en 1565, sólo cuatro años después de establecerse la Corte en la villa. A finales del reinado de Felipe II, el casco urbano ocupaba 282 hectáreas y tenía unos 7590 inmuebles, tres veces más que en 1563 (2250), al poco tiempo de la designación de Madrid como capital.
La intensa actividad inmobiliaria de este periodo no fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de viviendas, por parte de cortesanos y sirvientes de la Corona. Tal situación llevó al monarca a promulgar el edicto conocido como Regalía de Aposento, mediante el cual los propietarios de inmuebles de más de una planta estaban obligados a ceder una de ellas a una familia cortesana.
Este decreto favoreció el desarrollo de las llamadas casas a la malicia, un tipo de vivienda con el que sus propietarios intentaban evitar el cumplimiento de la norma, mediante diferentes soluciones (una única planta, compartimentación excesiva de los interiores, ocultación a la vía pública del piso superior...).
En 1590, la Corona y el Concejo crearon la Junta de Policía y Ornato, organismo presidido por el arquitecto Francisco de Mora, con el que se intentó poner fin a los desarreglos urbanísticos provocados por la rápida expansión de la ciudad. La correcta alineación de las calles, mediante la supresión de los recovecos existentes entre los inmuebles, fue uno de sus objetivos.
Felipe II promovió la realización de diferentes infraestructuras urbanas, caso del Puente de Segovia, la calle Real Nueva (actual calle de Segovia) y la Plaza Mayor. Los proyectos inicialmente previstos para estas tres obras no pudieron llevarse a cabo plenamente, adoptándose soluciones menos ambiciosas, ante las limitaciones presupuestarias.
Las dos primeras se enmarcaban dentro del mismo plan, consistente en la creación de una gran avenida, de aire monumental, que, salvando el río Manzanares por el oeste, conectase el antiguo camino de Segovia con el Real Alcázar. Finalmente, sólo pudo ejecutarse el puente (1582–1584), atribuido a Juan de Herrera, mientras que la avenida quedó reducida a unas nivelaciones del terreno sobre el barranco del arroyo de San Pedro y al derribo de varios edificios, que dieron origen a la calle de Segovia, terminada en 1577.
Con respecto a la Plaza Mayor, levantada sobre la antigua plaza del Arrabal, el centro comercial de la villa en aquel entonces, el monarca encargó su diseño a Juan de Herrera en el año 1580. Durante su reinado, se demolieron los edificios primitivos y dieron comienzo las obras de la Casa de la Panadería (1590), proyectada por Diego Sillero. Fue su sucesor, Felipe III, quien dio el impulso definitivo al recinto.
Felipe II continuó con las reformas y ampliaciones del Real Alcázar, iniciadas por su padre, con la edificación de la Torre Dorada, obra de Juan Bautista de Toledo, y la decoración de las distintas dependencias. También ordenó la construcción, en las inmediaciones del palacio, de la Casa del Tesoro, las Caballerizas Reales y la Armería Real. Todos estos conjuntos han desaparecido.
Pero tal vez su proyecto más personal fuese la Casa de Campo, paraje que convirtió en un recinto palaciego y ajardinado para su recreo. Se debe a un diseño de Juan Bautista de Toledo, que siguió el modelo de naturaleza urbanizada, acorde con el gusto renacentista de la época, a modo de conexión con el Monte de El Pardo. De este proyecto sólo se conservan partes del trazado de los jardines y algunos restos del palacete.
Asimismo, fueron levantados distintos edificios religiosos y civiles. El Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales fue fundado en 1559 por Juana de Austria, hermana del monarca, y en 1561 comenzaron las obras del Convento de la Victoria, que, como aquel, también estuvo muy vinculado con la Corona.
En 1583 abrió su puertas el corral de comedias del Teatro del Príncipe (en cuyo solar se levanta ahora el Teatro Español), institución clave en el Siglo de Oro español.15 En 1590, fue inaugurado el Colegio de María de Córdoba y Aragón (actual Palacio del Senado), que toma su nombre de una dama de la reina Ana de Austria, principal impulsora del proyecto.
Entre los palacios nobiliarios, hay que destacar la Casa de las Siete Chimeneas (1574–1577), actual sede del Ministerio de Cultura, situada en la plaza del Rey. Su primer propietario fue Pedro de Ledesma, secretario de Antonio Pérez.
En la calle de Atocha se encontraban las casas de Antonio Pérez y en la plaza de la Paja se halla el Palacio de los Vargas, cuya fachada fue transformada en el siglo XX, adoptándose una solución historicista, a modo de continuación de la contigua Capilla del Obispo.
Reinado de Felipe III
En 1601, pocos años después de subir al trono Felipe III (r. 1598–1621), Madrid perdió la capitalidad a favor de Valladolid. Consiguió recuperarla cinco años después, tras el pago a la Corona de 250 000 ducados y el compromiso por parte del Concejo de abastecer de agua potable al Real Alcázar, entre otras infraestructuras.
Con tal fin, el consistorio realizó los denominados viajes de agua (conducciones desde manantiales cercanos a la villa), entre los cuales cabe destacar el de Amaniel (1614–1616). De ellos también se beneficiaron algunos conventos y palacios, además de los propios vecinos, a través de las fuentes públicas. En 1617 fue creada la llamada Junta de Fuentes, organismo encargado de su mantenimiento y conservación.
Bajo el reinado de Felipe III, se proyectaron numerosos edificios religiosos y civiles, algunos de los cuales fueron inaugurados en la época de Felipe IV. Es el caso de la Colegiata de San Isidro; de la nueva fachada del Real Alcázar (1610–1636), obra de Juan Gómez de Mora, que perduró hasta el incendio del palacio en 1734; y del Convento de los Padres Capuchinos, en El Pardo, fundado por el rey en 1612, cuyo edificio definitivo no pudo comenzarse hasta 1638.
Las nuevas edificaciones se construyeron con mayor calidad arquitectónica que en los periodos anteriores, al tiempo que se impuso un estilo propio, típicamente madrileño, de aire clasicista y de clara influencia herreriana, aunque también se observan rasgos prebarrocos.
Además, se establecieron arquetipos arquitectónicos, que, en relación con las casas palaciegas, quedaron definidos en un trazado de planta rectangular, dos o más alturas de órdenes, portadas manieristas, cubiertas abuhardilladas de pizarra y torres cuadrangulares, por lo general dos, con chapiteles rematados en punta, en la línea escurialense.
Este esquema, uno de los que mejor definen la arquitectura madrileña de los Austrias y de periodos posteriores, empezó a gestarse en tiempos de Felipe III, con ejemplos tan notables como las Casas de la Panadería y de la Carnicería, en la Plaza Mayor; el Palacio del marqués de Camarasa, ubicado en la calle Mayor y sede actual de diferentes dependencias municipales; el proyecto de reconstrucción del Palacio Real de El Pardo, incendiado el 13 de marzo de 1604; y la ya citada fachada del Real Alcázar. No obstante, fue con Felipe IV cuando alcanzó su máxima expresión.
Por su parte, el Palacio de los Consejos (también llamado del duque de Uceda) puede ser considerado un precedente en lo que respecta a la organización del espacio y fachadas, si bien carece de las torres de inspiración herreriana. Fue diseñado por Francisco de Mora, quien contó con la colaboración de Alonso de Trujillo, al frente las obras entre 1608 y 1613.
En cuanto a los templos religiosos, la mayoría de las construcciones utilizó como referencia el modelo jesuítico, de planta de cruz latina, que tiene su origen en la Iglesia del Gesú (Roma, Italia). La Colegiata de San Isidro, que, como se ha referido, fue diseñada en tiempos de Felipe III y terminada con Felipe IV, responde a esta pauta.
Mención especial merece el Real Monasterio de la Encarnación (1611–1616), fundado por Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey. Su fachada, obra de Juan Gómez de Mora (aunque posiblemente proyectada por su tío, Francisco de Mora), fue una de las más imitadas en la arquitectura castellana del siglo XVII y buena parte del XVIII.
Un ejemplo es el Monasterio de la Inmaculada Concepción, en Loeches (Madrid), que, como aquel, presenta fachada rectangular con pórtico, pilastras a ambos lados y frontón en la parte superior.
La lista de edificios religiosos levantados durante el reinado de Felipe III es amplia. El Convento de San Ildefonso de las Trinitarias Descalzas (o, sencillamente, de las Trinitarias), del año 1609, se encuentra en el Barrio de las Letras y en él fue enterrado Miguel de Cervantes. Del Convento del Santísimo Sacramento, fundado en 1615 por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval y de la Cerda, valido del rey, sólo se conserva su iglesia (actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense), levantada en tiempos de Carlos II.
El Monasterio del Corpus Christi o de las Carboneras y la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen fueron empezados en 1607 y 1611, respectivamente, y ambos se deben a Miguel de Soria. La Iglesia de San Antonio de los Alemanes, de 1606, es una de las más singulares del primer tercio del siglo XVII, por su planta oval.21 Su interior está decorado al fresco por Lucas Jordán, Juan Carreño de Miranda y Francisco Rizi.
Las iglesias de San Ildefonso (1619) y de Santos Justo y Pastor (hacia 1620) se encuentran entre las últimas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo antes de la muerte del monarca en 1621. La primera, destruida completamente durante la Guerra Civil Española, fue reconstruida en la década de 1950.
Pero, sin duda, el proyecto urbanístico más importante llevado a cabo por el monarca fue la Plaza Mayor. En 1619, Felipe III finalizó las obras, que había iniciado su antecesor, con un nuevo diseño, firmado y desarrollado por Juan Gómez de Mora. Este arquitecto fue también responsable de la Casa de la Panadería, que preside el conjunto, si bien su aspecto actual corresponde a la reconstrucción realizada por Tomás Román, tras el incendio acaecido en 1672.
Además de este recinto, se procedió a adecuar otras plazas, como la de la Cebada y la desaparecida de Valnadú, esta última resultado de la demolición en el año 1567 de la puerta homónima, en la época de Felipe II. Otro de sus logros urbanísticos fue la reorganización del territorio en las riberas del río Manzanares y en el Real Camino de Valladolid, mediante la eliminación de las compartimentaciones internas y la estructuración de los plantíos.
En el terreno de la escultura, destaca la estatua ecuestre del propio rey, traída desde Italia como obsequio del Gran Duque de Florencia. Realizada en bronce, fue comenzada por Juan de Bolonia y terminada por su discípulo, Pietro Tacca, en 1616.
Estuvo emplazada en la Casa de Campo, recinto que fue objeto de una especial atención por parte del monarca con la construcción de nuevas salas en el palacete (del Mosaico y de las Burlas) y la instalación de diferentes fuentes y adornos en los jardines. En 1848, la escultura fue trasladada al centro de la Plaza Mayor, donde actualmente se exhibe, por orden de Isabel II.
Reinado de Felipe IV
Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665) accedió al trono a la edad de dieciséis años, tras la inesperada muerte de su padre. Tradicionalmente ha sido considerado como un mecenas de las letras y de las artes, principalmente de la pintura. Durante su reinado, Madrid se convirtió en uno de los principales focos culturales de Europa y en el escenario donde se fraguaron muchas de las grandes creaciones del Siglo de Oro español. Además, la ciudad albergó la mayor parte de la colección pictórica del monarca, una de las más importantes de la historia del coleccionismo español
En el ámbito de la arquitectura, se levantaron numerosos edificios civiles y religiosos, al tiempo que se construyó una nueva residencia regia en el entorno del Prado de los Jerónimos, en el lado oriental del casco urbano. El Palacio del Buen Retiro desplazó hacia el este buena parte de la actividad política, social y cultural de la villa, que hasta entonces gravitaba únicamente sobre el Real Alcázar, situado en el extremo occidental.
En líneas generales, la arquitectura palaciega del reinado de Felipe IV siguió el modelo post-escurialense, de rasgos barrocos contenidos, que comenzó a forjarse con Felipe III. Este estándar aparecía en estado puro en el desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, cuyo origen fue el llamado Cuarto Real, un anexo del Monasterio de los Jerónimos, que, desde tiempos de los Reyes Católicos, era frecuentado por la realeza para su descanso y retiro.
Siguiendo una iniciativa del Conde-Duque de Olivares,29 en 1632 Felipe IV ordenó al arquitecto Alonso Carbonel la ampliación del recinto y su conversión en residencia veraniega. El palacio fue concebido como un lugar de recreo, función que quedó remarcada mediante una configuración articulada alrededor de dos grandes patios, diseñados a modo de plazas urbanas.30 La Plaza Principal estaba reservada a la Familia Real, mientras que la Plaza Grande, de mayores dimensiones, era utilizada para la celebración de fiestas, actos lúdico-culturales y eventos taurinos.
La primera fase, correspondiente al núcleo central (Plaza Principal), se concluyó en 1633, sólo un año después de realizarse el encargo. Por su parte, las obras de la Plaza Grande, el Picadero, el Salón de Baile, el Coliseo y los jardines se prolongaron, a lo largo de diferentes etapas, hasta 1640.
El recinto palaciego sufrió graves desperfectos durante la Guerra de la Independencia y, finalmente, fue demolido en la época de Isabel II, ante la imposibilidad de recuperación. Sólo se conservan el Salón de Reinos y el Salón de Baile (o Casón del Buen Retiro), si bien con importantes transformaciones en relación con el diseño original.
En lo que respecta a los jardines, el Parque de El Retiro es heredero del trazado llevado a cabo en la época de Felipe IV, aunque su fisonomía actual responde a múltiples remodelaciones ejecutadas en periodos posteriores, principalmente en los siglos XVIII y XIX. Entre los elementos primitivos que aún se mantienen, cabe citar algunos complejos hidráulicos, como el Estanque Grande y la Ría Chica.
Además del Buen Retiro, el monarca mostró una especial predilección por el Real Sitio de El Pardo, donde mandó construir el Palacio de la Zarzuela, actual residencia de la Familia Real, y ampliar la Torre de la Parada, a partir de un diseño de Juan Gómez de Mora. Este último edificio fue erigido como pabellón de caza por Felipe II y resultó completamente destruido en el siglo XVIII.
La arquitectura civil tiene en el Palacio de Santa Cruz y en la Casa de la Villa, ambos proyectados por Juan Gómez de Mora en el año 1629, dos notables exponentes.
El primero albergó la Sala de Alcaldes de Casa y Corte y la Cárcel de Corte y, en la actualidad, acoge al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Se estructura alrededor de dos patios cuadrangulares simétricos, unidos mediante un eje central que sirve de distribuidor y acceso al edificio. La horizontalidad de su fachada principal, que da a la Plaza de la Provincia, queda rota por los torreones laterales de inspiración herreriana y la portada con dos niveles de triple vano. Fue terminado en 1636 y ha sido objeto de numerosas reformas en siglos posteriores.
Por su parte, la Casa de la Villa fue diseñada como sede del gobierno municipal y Cárcel de Villa. Sus obras comenzaron en 1644, quince años después de realizarse el proyecto, y finalizaron en 1696. Junto a Gómez de Mora, colaboraron José de Villarreal, a quien se debe el patio central, Teodoro Ardemans y José del Olmo.
Entre las residencias nobiliarias, figuran el Palacio del duque de Abrantes, construido por Juan Maza entre 1653 y 1655 y transformado sustancialmente en el siglo XIX, y el Palacio de la Moncloa. Este último fue erigido en el año 1642, a iniciativa de Melchor Antonio Portocarrero y Lasso de la Vega, conde de Monclova y virrey del Perú, su primer propietario. La estructura actual corresponde a la reconstrucción y ampliación llevadas a cabo en el siglo XX, tras los daños sufridos durante la Guerra Civil.
La arquitectura religiosa del reinado de Felipe IV presenta dos fases, coincidentes con los procesos evolutivos que se dieron en el arte barroco español a lo largo del siglo XVII.
En la primera mitad, se mantuvo la austeridad geométrica y espacial, arrastrada del estilo herreriano, con escasos y calculados motivos ornamentales, salvo en los interiores, que, en clara contraposición, aparecían profusamente decorados. En la segunda mitad del siglo, el gusto por las formas favoreció un progresivo alejamiento del clasicismo y la incorporación de motivos naturalistas en las fachadas.
Dentro de la primera corriente, que puede ser denominada como barroco clasicista, se encuentran la Colegiata de San Isidro, la Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses y el Convento de San Plácido.
La Colegiata de San Isidro (1622–1664) fue fundada como iglesia del antiguo Colegio Imperial, situado dentro del mismo complejo. El templo se debe a un proyecto del hermano jesuita Pedro Sánchez de hacia 1620, iniciándose su construcción en 1622. A su muerte, en 1633, se hará cargo de la obra el hermano Francisco Bautista junto con Melchor de Bueras. Es de planta de cruz latina y destaca por su fachada monumental, realizada en piedra de granito y flanqueada por dos torres en los lados. Fue la catedral provisional de Madrid desde 1885 hasta 1993.
La Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses estuvo ubicada en una isla artificial, en medio de un estanque lobulado, dentro de los Jardines del Buen Retiro. Fue edificada entre 1635 y 1637 por Alonso Carbonel y derribada en 1761, para levantar, sobre su solar, la Real Fábrica de Porcelana de la China, igualmente desaparecida. Su torre cuadrangular, rematada con chapitel herreriano, y su suntuosa portada, configurada por cuatro grandes columnas de mármol blanco y capiteles de mármol negro, eran sus elementos más notables.
El edificio actual del Convento de San Plácido, obra de Lorenzo de San Nicolás, data de 1641. La decoración interior es la parte más sobresaliente y en él se conserva un Cristo yacente de Gregorio Fernández.
Conforme fue avanzando el siglo XVII, los exteriores sobrios fueron perdiendo vigencia y se impuso un estilo plenamente barroco, sin apenas concesiones al clasicismo. Esta evolución puede apreciarse en la ya citada Casa de la Villa, que, dado su prolongado proceso de construcción (el diseño se hizo en 1629 y el edificio se terminó en 1696), fue incorporando diferentes elementos ornamentales en su fachada clasicista, acordes con las nuevas tendencias.
La Capilla de San Isidro ejemplifica el apogeo del barroco. Fue construida como un anejo de la iglesia de origen medieval de San Andrés para albergar los restos mortales de san Isidro. La primera piedra se puso en 1642, a partir de un proyecto de Pedro de la Torre. En 1657, José de Villarreal realizó un segundo proyecto, cuyas obras fueron inauguradas por Felipe IV y su esposa Mariana de Austria en un acto institucional. Fue terminada en 1699.
Junto a la basílica neoclásica de San Francisco el Grande (siglo XVIII), se halla la Capilla del santo Cristo de los Dolores para la Venerable Orden Tercera de San Francisco (1662–1668), realizada por el arquitecto Francisco Bautista. En su interior sobresale la decoración barroca, con especial mención al baldaquino, hecho en maderas, jaspes y mármoles, donde se guarda la talla del Cristo de los Dolores.
El Convento de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción o de las Góngoras es otro ejemplo del barroco madrileño. Debe su nombre a Juan Jiménez de Góngora, ministro del Consejo de Castilla, quien procedió a su creación, por encargo directo del rey, como ofrenda por el nacimiento de su hijo Carlos (a la postre Carlos II). Fue inaugurado en 1665 y ampliado en 1669, según un proyecto de Manuel del Olmo.
Dentro del capítulo de arquitectura religiosa, también hay que destacar la reconstrucción de la iglesia medieval de San Ginés, llevada a cabo, a partir de 1645, por el arquitecto Juan Ruiz. Es de planta de cruz latina, de tres naves, con crucero y cúpula.
Escultura
Las numerosas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo con Felipe IV generaron una importante actividad escultórica, destinada a la realización de tallas y retablos. Hacia 1646 se estableció en la Corte Manuel Pereira, a quien se debe el retablo de la Iglesia de San Andrés, desaparecido durante la Guerra Civil, y la estatua de San Bruno, considerada una de sus obras maestras, que se conserva en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.
Fuera del ámbito religioso, la producción escultórica se desarrolló a través de dos vías: la ornamentación de calles y plazas, mediante la construcción de fuentes artísticas (es el caso de la Fuente de Orfeo, diseñada por Juan Gómez de Mora y terminada en 1629), y los encargos reales, entre los que sobresale la estatua ecuestre de Felipe IV (1634–1640).
Se trata de las primera escultura a caballo del mundo en la que éste se sostiene únicamente sobre sus patas traseras.34 Es obra de Pietro Tacca, quien trabajó sobre unos bocetos hechos por Velázquez y, según la tradición, contó con el asesoramiento científico de Galileo Galilei. Conocida como el caballo de bronce, estuvo inialmente en el Palacio del Buen Retiro y, en tiempos de Isabel II, fue trasladada a la Plaza de Oriente, su actual ubicación.
En el terreno urbanístico, Felipe IV ordenó la construcción de una cerca alrededor del casco urbano, mediante la cual quedaron establecidos los nuevos límites de la villa, tras los procesos expansivos de los periodos anteriores. Desde la fundación de Madrid en el siglo IX, había sido costumbre cercar el caserío, bien con una finalidad defensiva (murallas musulmana y cristiana), bien para el control fiscal de los abastos e inmigración (cerca medieval de los arrabales y Cerca de Felipe II).
La Cerca de Felipe IV provocó varios efectos en el desarrollo urbano: por un lado, impidió la expansión horizontal de Madrid hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX, cuando fue demolida y pudieron acometerse los primeros ensanches; y, por otro, favoreció un cierto crecimiento vertical, dando lugar a las corralas, viviendas dispuestas en varias alturas y organizadas en corredera, alrededor de un gran patio común.
De la citada cerca, realizada en ladrillo y mampostería, aún se mantienen en pie algunos restos, como los situados en la Ronda de Segovia, en los alrededores de la Puerta de Toledo.
El Puente de Toledo es otro de los proyectos urbanísticos impulsados por el rey. Su función era enlazar directamente el casco urbano con el camino de Toledo, salvando el río Manzanares por la parte suroccidental de la ciudad. Fue construido por José de Villarreal entre 1649 y 1660, a partir de un proyecto de Juan Gómez de Mora.
El puente quedó destruido en una riada y en 1671, durante el reinado de Carlos II, se levantó uno nuevo, que también desapareció por los mismos motivos. La estructura definitiva que ha llegado a la actualidad corresponde al primer tercio del siglo XVIII y es obra de Pedro de Ribera.
Reinado de Carlos II
Con la llegada al trono de Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), se frenó el ritmo constructor del reinado anterior, sobre todo en lo que respecta a las edificaciones civiles. Entre éstas, tan sólo cabe mencionar la Puerta de Felipe IV (1680), que, pese a su nombre, fue erigida en honor de María Luisa de Orleáns, primera esposa de Carlos II. Trazada por Melchor Bueras, estuvo inicialmente emplazada en la Carrera de San Jerónimo, hasta su traslado, a mediados del siglo XIX, a la calle de Alfonso XII, donde sirve de acceso al Parque de El Retiro.
En cuanto a las fundaciones religiosas, se levantaron algunos templos de interés artístico, que abandonaron definitivamente el aspecto austero de la primera mitad del siglo XVII e incorporaron plenamente las tendencias barrocas.
Es el caso de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Montserrat, que forma parte del convento homónimo. Fue trazada en el año 1668 por el arquitecto Sebastián Herrera Barnuevo, si bien su proyecto fue transformado por Gaspar de la Peña, Juan de Torija, Pedro de la Torre, Francisco Aspur y Pedro de Ribera, que intervinieron, en diferentes fases, hasta la conclusión del conjunto en 1720. El edificio destaca por su exterior profusamente ornamentado, en especial la torre que flanquea uno de sus lados, con abundantes motivos naturalistas en su parte superior y alrededor de los vanos.
El gusto por las formas también está presente en la Iglesia de las Calatravas (1670–1678), situada en la calle de Alcalá. Se debe a un diseño de fray Lorenzo de San Nicolás, terminado por Isidro Martínez y Gregorio Garrote. Presenta planta de cruz latina y, en su crucero, se alza una cúpula con tambor de ocho vanos, cuatro abiertos y cuatro cegados. La capilla mayor está adornada con un retablo de José Benito de Churriguera, realizado en tiempos de Felipe V.
Del Monasterio del santísimo Sacramento, fundado por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval en la época de Felipe IV, sólo se conserva su iglesia, actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense. El templo se construyó con Carlos II, entre 1671 y 1744, a partir de un proyecto firmado por Francisco Bautista, Manuel del Olmo y Bartolomé Hurtado García.
Su fachada, labrada en sillares de granito, se estructura en tres niveles horizontales y está rematada por un frontón circular. La decoración exterior consiste en diferentes molduras que recorren los vanos, con motivos naturales, y en un relieve dedicado a san Benito y san Bernardo, instalado en el nivel intermedio.
Pese a las corrientes barrocas del momento, el Convento de las Comendadoras de Santiago se aproxima más al arquetipo arquitectónico de la primera mitad del reinado de Felipe IV, caracterizado por su sobriedad. El edificio, que empezó a construirse en 1667, destaca por su iglesia, de planta de cruz griega, fachada inspirada en el modelo del Real Monasterio de la Encarnación y torres con chapiteles herrerianos en los lados.
Hidden from the streets near Piazza Navona, the church of Sant Ivo rests at the end of an inner courtyard. It is part of the larger Palazzo Della Sapienza which was the seat the old university of Rome from the 15th century up until 1935. The church was designed by Borromini and the interior is a maze of undulating concave and convex shapes. It's simple design all in white is utterly breathtaking. You can clearly see the influence this may have exerted on today's modern architect, Santiago Calatrava. The church has rather erratic opening hours, but the courtyard is almost always viewable.
View On Black Larger for more detail.
Jan Davidsz. de Heem (1606-1683/84), active in Antwerp, Utrecht and Leiden
Eucharist, surrounded by fruit garlands, 1648
Amazing realism and variety of forms characterize the still life of de Heem. The niche with chalice and host is surrounded by sheaves of corn and grapes as allusions to the Eucharist. At the same time raised a no longer readable, addressed to archduke Leopold Wilhelm dedication inscription the gifts of Bacchus and Ceres (bread and wine) to symbols of the prosperous reign of the governor of the Southern Netherlands.
Jan Davidsz. de Heem (1606-1683/84), tätig in Antwerpen, Utrecht und Leiden
Eucharistie, von Fruchtgirlanden umgeben, 1648
Verblüffender Realismus und Formenreichtum kennzeichnen die Stillleben de Heems. Die Nische mit Kelch und Hostie wird von Ährenbündeln und Weintrauben als Anspielungen auf die Eucharistie umrahmt. Gleichzeitig erhob eine heute nicht mehr lesbare, an Erzherzog Leopold Wilhelm gerichtete Widmungsinschrift die Gaben von Bacchus und Ceres (Wein und Brot) zu Symbolen der glücklichen Regierung des Statthalters der Südlichen Niederlande.
Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum
Federal Museum
Logo KHM
Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture
Founded 17 October 1891
Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria
Management Sabine Haag
www.khm.at website
Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square
The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.
The museum
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.
History
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery
The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building.
Architectural History
The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währinger street/Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the Opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the Grain market (Getreidemarkt).
From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience of Joseph Semper with the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.
Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.
Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper subsequently moved to Vienna. From the beginning on, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, in 1878, the first windows installed, in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade finished, and from 1880 to 1881 the dome and the Tabernacle built. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.
The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times.
Dome hall
Entrance (by clicking on the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)
Grand staircase
Hall
Empire
The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891, the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol needs another two years.
1891, the Court museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:
Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection
The Egyptian Collection
The Antique Collection
The coins and medals collection
Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects
Weapons collection
Collection of industrial art objects
Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)
Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.
Restoration Office
Library
Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.
1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his "Estensische Sammlung (Collection)" passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d'Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.
The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The Court museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.
Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.
First Republic
The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.
It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain on 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.
On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House", by the Republic. On 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.
Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.
With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Collection of Ancient Coins
Collection of modern Coins and Medals
Weapons collection
Collection of Sculptures and Crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Picture gallery
The Museum 1938-1945
Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.
With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the German Reich.
After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to bring certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.
The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. To this end was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.
The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.
The museum today
Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.
In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.
Management
1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials
1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director
1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director
1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director
1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief, in 1941 as first director
1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections, in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation
1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections, in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation
1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director
1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation
1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director
1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director
1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director
1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director
1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director
1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director
1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director
1990: George Kugler as interim first director
1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director
Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director
Collections
To the Kunsthistorisches Museum also belon the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.
Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)
Picture Gallery
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Vienna Chamber of Art
Numismatic Collection
Library
New Castle
Ephesus Museum
Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Arms and Armour
Archive
Hofburg
The imperial crown in the Treasury
Imperial Treasury of Vienna
Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage
Insignia of imperial Austria
Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire
Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece
Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure
Ecclesiastical Treasury
Schönbrunn Palace
Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna
Armory in Ambras Castle
Ambras Castle
Collections of Ambras Castle
Major exhibits
Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:
Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438
Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80
Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16
Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526
Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24
Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07
Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)
Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75
Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68
Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06
Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508
Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32
The Little Fur, about 1638
Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66
Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559
Kids, 1560
Tower of Babel, 1563
Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564
Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565
Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565
Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565
Bauer and bird thief, 1568
Peasant Wedding, 1568/69
Peasant Dance, 1568/69
Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567
Cabinet of Curiosities:
Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543
Egyptian-Oriental Collection:
Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut
Collection of Classical Antiquities:
Gemma Augustea
Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós
Gallery: Major exhibits
Compound I” glistens like a totemic pillar of eyeballs as light undulates over its multifaceted orbs. Mirrored spheres, surfaced with lens-like convex mirrors, stack one atop the other to a height of 18’, referencing compound eyes of insects, forms of Buddha heads and the Mandelbrot fractal at once...Circling around “Compound I”, reflected light follows us…as if we are being watched. Looking into the shifting centers of the glistening lenses, we meet our own gaze. As we realize it is our own sight and form that animates these pupils, our sense of separate-ness from the art is challenged.
I have 2 versions of this but couldn't decide between them so I flipped a coin but the coin was wrong so I chose the other one.
Taken in an old convex mirror balanced precariously on the table. I threw most of the toolbox at this in some way or other, but thankfully, the black and white conversion takes the edge off the bits that were making me twitch. I mean, its still super processed, but that's how I'm liking it.
Hidden from the streets near Piazza Navona, the church of Sant Ivo rests at the end of an inner courtyard. It is part of the larger Palazzo Della Sapienza which was the seat the old university of Rome from the 15th century up until 1935. The church was designed by Borromini and the interior is a maze of undulating concave and convex shapes. It's simple design all in white is utterly breathtaking. You can clearly see the influence this may have exerted on today's modern architect, Santiago Calatrava. The church has rather erratic opening hours, but the courtyard is almost always viewable.
View On Black Larger for more detail.
Parmigianino (Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola), Parma 1503 - Casalmaggiore bei Parma 1540
Selbstporträt in einem konvexen Spiegel / Selfportrait in a convex Mirror / Autoritratto entro uno specchio convesso (1523/24)
Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien
Giorgio Vasari wrote in his Lives of the Artists on the nineteen years old Parmigianino:
"Then came upon him the desire to see Rome, hearing men greatly praise the works of the masters there, especially of Raffaello and Michael Angelo, and he told his desire to his old uncles. They, seeing nothing in the desire that was not praiseworthy, agreed, but said that it would be well to take something with him which would gain him an introduction to artists. And the counsel seeming good to Francesco, he painted three pictures, two small and one very large. Besides these, inquiring one day into the subtleties of art, he began to draw himself as he appeared in a barber's convex glass. He had a ball of wood made at a turner's and divided in half, and on this he set himself to paint all that he saw in the glass, and because the mirror enlarged everything that was near and diminished what was distant, he painted the hand a little large. Francesco himself, being of very beautiful countenance and more like an angel than a man, his portrait on the ball seemed a thing divine, and the work altogether was a happy success, having all the lustre of the glass, with every reflection and the light and shade so true, that nothing more could be hoped for from the human intellect.
The picture being finished and packed, together with the portrait, he set out, accompanied by one of his uncles, for Rome; and as soon as the Chancellor of the Pope had seen the pictures, he introduced the youth and his uncle to Pope Clement, who seeing the works produced and Francesco so young, was astonished, and all his court with him. And his Holiness gave him the charge of painting the Pope's hall."
The painting was given to Pope Clement VII as a gift by the young artist.
Source: Web Gallery of Art
[One of 7 images on the Heck-Andrews House] This is a creative commons image, which you may freely use by linking to this page. Please respect the photographer and his work.
“Among the first grand residences built in Raleigh after the Civil War, the Heck-Andrews House set the tone for the subsequent development of North Blount Street as an enclave of the well-to-do.” [www.nps.gov/nr/travel/raleigh/hec.htm] Contracted in 1869 by Jonathan Heck and finished in 1870, the house was designed by George S. H. Applegate (1831-1880) and constructed by John A. Waddell (1826-1883) of the firm of Wilson & Waddell. Heck, a Confederate officer in the Civil War, had been captured but paroled. His consequent fortune was made by manufacturing armaments for the Confederacy. “Life at the house was opulent and active. Photographs show the interior lavishly decorated in the style of the day, with heavy draperies, lace curtains, mahogany furniture and plush carpets.” [www.nps.gov/nr/travel/raleigh/hec.htm]
Jonathan Heck died in 1894 and his wife Mattie deeded the house to a daughter in 1916. In 1921 Raleigh attorney A. N. Andrews, Jr. acquired the property. After his death in 1946, the house went through a time of deterioration. In 1987 the state of North Carolina acquired majority interest in the building, completely refurbishing the exterior. Adaptive use had been planned for the interior, and I assume these plans have been realized.
A classic wood Second Empire-style mansion with blue and red trim, the Heck-Andrews House is marked by a tall 4-story front tower with convex mansard roof, 4 circular windows with decorated molding, and a balustrade at the top. Slate alternating rectangular with fish-scale shapes covers the tower. Dormers are the dominant feature of the structure’s concave mansard roof, the arched windows separated by exaggerated brackets and capped with wide pedimented hoods. Throughout the facade, the windows are slightly arched and have ornamental surrounds. A pediment is located just above the second level. Pairs of thick millwork brackets distinguish the overhang. The windows on the first level are taller than elsewhere, all with decorative surrounds of pale blue.
The bracketed porch roof mimics the concave aspect of the mansard roof, momentarily presenting an almost Oriental appearance. It uses the rectangular and fish-scale slate pattern of the main roof. Four steps lead upward to the porch leading to the entry with wooden door and heavily ornamented glass. A low porch railing of millwork is broken up by elaborately detailed posts set on decorated bases. Bay windows are prominent on the sides. At the rear right side is another porch and entry, utilizing the same patterns as the front porch but not as elaborately done.
The house was placed on the National Register of Historic Places 20 January 1972, NRHP #72001000.
Sources
1) National Register— www.nps.gov/nr/travel/raleigh/hec.htm
2) George S. H. Appleget— ncarchitects.lib.ncsu.edu/people/P000005
3) John A. Waddell— ncarchitects.lib.ncsu.edu/people/P000007
4) WRAL-TV (1999)— www.wral.com/news/local/story/137795/
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Deformations of the Sierpinski tetrahedron.
Elephants are large mammals of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea. Three species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), the African forest elephant (L. cyclotis), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Elephantidae is the only surviving family of the order Proboscidea; other, now extinct, members of the order include deinotheres, gomphotheres, mammoths, and mastodons.
All elephants have several distinctive features, the most notable of which is a long trunk (also called a proboscis), used for many purposes, particularly breathing, lifting water, and grasping objects. Their incisors grow into tusks, which can serve as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging. Elephants' large ear flaps help to control their body temperature. Their pillar-like legs can carry their great weight. African elephants have larger ears and concave backs while Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs.
Elephants are herbivorous and can be found in different habitats including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes. They prefer to stay near water. They are considered to be keystone species due to their impact on their environments. Other animals tend to keep their distance from elephants while predators, such as lions, tigers, hyenas, and any wild dogs, usually target only young elephants (or "calves"). Elephants have a fission–fusion society in which multiple family groups come together to socialise. Females ("cows") tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring. The groups are led by an individual known as the matriarch, often the oldest cow.
Males ("bulls") leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males. Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate and enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance and reproductive success. Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years. Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild. They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound, and seismic communication over long distances. Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans. They appear to have self-awareness and show empathy for dying or dead individuals of their kind.
African elephants are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) while the Asian elephant is classed as endangered. One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people. Elephants are used as working animals in Asia. In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses. Elephants are highly recognisable and have been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture.
ETYMOLOGY
The word "elephant" is based on the Latin elephas (genitive elephantis) ("elephant"), which is the Latinised form of the Greek ἐλέφας (elephas) (genitive ἐλέφαντος (elephantos)), probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician. It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script. As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal. The word "elephant" appears in Middle English as olyfaunt (c.1300) and was borrowed from Old French oliphant (12th century). Loxodonta, the generic name for the African elephants, is Greek for "oblique-sided tooth".
TAXONOMY
CLASSIFICATION, SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES
Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea which belongs to the superorder Afrotheria. Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria. Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria. Three species of elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) and forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) of sub-Saharan Africa, and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) of South and Southeast Asia. African elephants have larger ears, a concave back, more wrinkled skin, a sloping abdomen, and two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk. Asian elephants have smaller ears, a convex or level back, smoother skin, a horizontal abdomen that occasionally sags in the middle and one extension at the tip of the trunk. The looped ridges on the molars are narrower in the Asian elephant while those of the African are more diamond-shaped. The Asian elephant also has dorsal bumps on its head and some patches of depigmentation on its skin. In general, African elephants are larger than their Asian cousins.
Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Elephas and an elephant from Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon) under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758. In 1798, Georges Cuvier classified the Indian elephant under the binomial Elephas indicus. Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck described the Sumatran elephant in 1847 under the binomial Elephas sumatranus. English zoologist Frederick Nutter Chasen classified all three as subspecies of the Asian elephant in 1940. Asian elephants vary geographically in their colour and amount of depigmentation. The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) inhabits Sri Lanka, the Indian elephant (E. m. indicus) is native to mainland Asia (on the Indian subcontinent and Indochina), and the Sumatran elephant (E. m. sumatranus) is found in Sumatra. One disputed subspecies, the Borneo elephant, lives in northern Borneo and is smaller than all the other subspecies. It has larger ears, a longer tail, and straighter tusks than the typical elephant. Sri Lankan zoologist Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala described it in 1950 under the trinomial Elephas maximus borneensis, taking as his type an illustration in National Geographic. It was subsequently subsumed under either E. m. indicus or E. m. sumatranus. Results of a 2003 genetic analysis indicate its ancestors separated from the mainland population about 300,000 years ago. A 2008 study found that Borneo elephants are not indigenous to the island but were brought there before 1521 by the Sultan of Sulu from Java, where elephants are now extinct.
The African elephant was first named by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1797 as Elephas africanus. The genus Loxodonta was named by Frédéric Cuvier in 1825. Cuvier spelled it Loxodonte, but in 1827 an anonymous author romanised the spelling to Loxodonta; the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recognises this as the proper authority. In 1942, 18 subspecies of African elephant were recognised by Henry Fairfield Osborn, but further morphological data has reduced the number of classified subspecies, and by the 1990s, only two were recognised, the savannah or bush elephant (L. a. africana) and the forest elephant (L. a. cyclotis), the latter having been named in 1900 by German zoologist Paul Matschie. Forest elephants have smaller and more rounded ears and thinner and straighter tusks than bush elephants, and are limited in range to the forested areas of western and Central Africa. A 2000 study argued for the elevation of the two forms into separate species (L. africana and L. cyclotis respectively) based on differences in skull morphology. DNA studies published in 2001 and 2007 also suggested they were distinct species while studies in 2002 and 2005 concluded that they were the same species. Further studies (2010, 2011, 2015) have supported African savannah and forest elephants' status as separate species. The two species are believed to have diverged 6 million years ago. and have been completely genetically isolated for the past 500,000 years. In 2017, DNA sequence analysis showed that L. cyclotis is more closely related to the extinct Palaeoloxodon antiquus, than it is to L. africana, possibly undermining the genus Loxodonta as a whole. Some evidence suggests that elephants of western Africa are a separate species, although this is disputed. The pygmy elephants of the Congo Basin, which have been suggested to be a separate species (Loxodonta pumilio) are probably forest elephants whose small size and/or early maturity are due to environmental conditions.
EVOLUTION AND EXTINCT RELATIVES
Over 185 extinct members and three major evolutionary radiations of the order Proboscidea have been recorded. The earliest proboscids, the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium of the late Paleocene, heralded the first radiation. The Eocene included Numidotherium, Moeritherium, and Barytherium from Africa. These animals were relatively small and aquatic. Later on, genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose; the latter likely inhabited forests and open woodlands. Proboscidean diversity declined during the Oligocene. One notable species of this epoch was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa, which may have been an ancestor to several later species. The beginning of the Miocene saw the second diversification, with the appearance of the deinotheres and the mammutids. The former were related to Barytherium and lived in Africa and Eurasia, while the latter may have descended from Eritreum and spread to North America.
At the beginning of the Pleistocene, elephantids experienced a high rate of speciation. The Pleistocene also saw the arrival of Palaeoloxodon namadicus, the largest terrestrial mammal of all time. Loxodonta atlantica became the most common species in northern and southern Africa but was replaced by Elephas iolensis later in the Pleistocene. Only when Elephas disappeared from Africa did Loxodonta become dominant once again, this time in the form of the modern species. Elephas diversified into new species in Asia, such as E. hysudricus and E. platycephus; the latter the likely ancestor of the modern Asian elephant. Mammuthus evolved into several species, including the well-known woolly mammoth. Interbreeding appears to have been common among elephantid species, with some hybridisation which in some cases led to species with three ancestral genetic components, such as the straight-tusked elephants. In the Late Pleistocene, most proboscidean species vanished during the Quaternary glaciation which killed off 50% of genera weighing over 5 kg worldwide.
Proboscideans experienced several evolutionary trends, such as an increase in size, which led to many giant species that stood up to 5 m tall. As with other megaherbivores, including the extinct sauropod dinosaurs, the large size of elephants likely developed to allow them to survive on vegetation with low nutritional value. Their limbs grew longer and the feet shorter and broader. The feet were originally plantigrade and developed into a digitigrade stance with cushion pads and the sesamoid bone providing support. Early proboscideans developed longer mandibles and smaller craniums while more derived ones developed shorter mandibles, which shifted the head's centre of gravity. The skull grew larger, especially the cranium, while the neck shortened to provide better support for the skull. The increase in size led to the development and elongation of the mobile trunk to provide reach. The number of premolars, incisors and canines decreased. The cheek teeth (molars and premolars) became larger and more specialized, especially after elephants started to switch from C3-plants to C4-grasses, which caused their teeth to undergo a three-fold increase in teeth height as well as substantial multiplication of lamellae after about five million years ago. Only in the last million years or so did they return to a diet mainly consisting of C3 trees and shrubs. The upper second incisors grew into tusks, which varied in shape from straight, to curved (either upward or downward), to spiralled, depending on the species. Some proboscideans developed tusks from their lower incisors. Elephants retain certain features from their aquatic ancestry, such as their middle ear anatomy and the internal testes of the males.
There has been some debate over the relationship of Mammuthus to Loxodonta or Elephas. Some DNA studies suggest Mammuthus is more closely related to the former while others point to the latter. However, analysis of the complete mitochondrial genome profile of the woolly mammoth (sequenced in 2005) supports Mammuthus being more closely related to Elephas.Morphological evidence supports Mammuthus and Elephas as sister taxa while comparisons of protein albumin and collagen have concluded that all three genera are equally related to each other. Some scientists believe a cloned mammoth embryo could one day be implanted in an Asian elephant's womb.
DWARF SPECIES
Several species of proboscideans lived on islands and experienced insular dwarfism. This occurred primarily during the Pleistocene when some elephant populations became isolated by fluctuating sea levels, although dwarf elephants did exist earlier in the Pliocene. These elephants likely grew smaller on islands due to a lack of large or viable predator populations and limited resources. By contrast, small mammals such as rodents develop gigantism in these conditions. Dwarf proboscideans are known to have lived in Indonesia, the Channel Islands of California, and several islands of the Mediterranean.
Elephas celebensis of Sulawesi is believed to have descended from Elephas planifrons. Elephas falconeri of Malta and Sicily was only 1 m and had probably evolved from the straight-tusked elephant. Other descendants of the straight-tusked elephant existed in Cyprus. Dwarf elephants of uncertain descent lived in Crete, Cyclades, and Dodecanese while dwarf mammoths are known to have lived in Sardinia. The Columbian mammoth colonised the Channel Islands and evolved into the pygmy mammoth. This species reached a height of 1.2–1.8 m and weighed 200–2,000 kg. A population of small woolly mammoths survived on Wrangel Island, now 140 km north of the Siberian coast, as recently as 4,000 years ago. After their discovery in 1993, they were considered dwarf mammoths. This classification has been re-evaluated and since the Second International Mammoth Conference in 1999, these animals are no longer considered to be true "dwarf mammoths".
ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals. On average, male African bush elephants are 3.20 m tall at the shoulder and mass/weigh 6,000 kg, whereas females are 2.60 m tall at the shoulder and mass/weigh 3,000 kg. Asian elephants are smaller, with males 2.75 m tall at the shoulder and 4,000 kg on average, and females 2.40 m tall at the shoulder and 2,700 kg on average. African forest elephants are the smallest extant species, with the average height for the species 2.00 m at the shoulder and average mass/weight 2,000 kg. Male African elephants are typically 23% taller than females, whereas male Asian elephants are only around 15% taller than females. The skeleton of the elephant is made up of 326–351 bones. The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility. African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs.
An elephant's skull is resilient enough to withstand the forces generated by the leverage of the tusks and head-to-head collisions. The back of the skull is flattened and spread out, creating arches that protect the brain in every direction. The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength. These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance. The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head. The lower jaw is solid and heavy. Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support. Lacking a lacrimal apparatus, the eye relies on the harderian gland to keep it moist. A durable nictitating membrane protects the eye globe. The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes. Elephants are considered dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light. The core body temperature averages 35.9 °C, similar to that of a human. Like all mammals, an elephant can raise or lower its temperature a few degrees from the average in response to extreme environmental conditions
EARS
Elephant ears have thick bases with thin tips. The ear flaps, or pinnae, contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries. Warm blood flows into the capillaries, helping to release excess body heat into the environment. This occurs when the pinnae are still, and the animal can enhance the effect by flapping them. Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released. Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates, and have the largest ear flaps. Elephants are capable of hearing at low frequencies and are most sensitive at 1 kHz.
TRUNK
The trunk, or proboscis, is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, although in early fetal life, the upper lip and trunk are separated. The trunk is elongated and specialised to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. It contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles, with no bone and little fat. These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal. The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles. The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull. The nasal septum is composed of tiny muscle units that stretch horizontally between the nostrils. Cartilage divides the nostrils at the base. As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by precisely coordinated muscle contractions. The muscles work both with and against each other. A unique proboscis nerve – formed by the maxillary and facial nerves – runs along both sides of the trunk.
Elephant trunks have multiple functions, including breathing, olfaction, touching, grasping, and sound production. The animal's sense of smell may be four times as sensitive as that of a bloodhound. The trunk's ability to make powerful twisting and coiling movements allows it to collect food, wrestle with other elephants, and lift up to 350 kg). It can be used for delicate tasks, such as wiping an eye and checking an orifice, and is capable of cracking a peanut shell without breaking the seed. With its trunk, an elephant can reach items at heights of up to 7 m and dig for water under mud or sand. Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right. Elephants can suck up water both to drink and to spray on their bodies. An adult Asian elephant is capable of holding 8.5 L of water in its trunk. They will also spray dust or grass on themselves. When underwater, the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel.
The African elephant has two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow it to grasp and bring food to its mouth. The Asian elephant has only one, and relies more on wrapping around a food item and squeezing it into its mouth. Asian elephants have more muscle coordination and can perform more complex tasks. Losing the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival, although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones. One elephant has been observed to graze by kneeling on its front legs, raising on its hind legs and taking in grass with its lips. Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis in African bush elephants caused by the degradation of the peripheral nerves and muscles beginning at the tip.
TEETH
Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars. Unlike most mammals, which grow baby teeth and then replace them with a single permanent set of adult teeth, elephants are polyphyodonts that have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their lives. The chewing teeth are replaced six times in a typical elephant's lifetime. Teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically as in most mammals. Instead, new teeth grow in at the back of the mouth and move forward to push out the old ones. The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old. The second set of chewing teeth falls out at four to six years old. The third set falls out at 9–15 years of age, and set four lasts until 18–28 years of age. The fifth set of teeth falls out at the early 40s. The sixth (and usually final) set must last the elephant the rest of its life. Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are thicker and more diamond-shaped in African elephants.
TUSKS
The tusks of an elephant are modified second incisors in the upper jaw. They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and grow continuously at about 17 cm a year. A newly developed tusk has a smooth enamel cap that eventually wears off. The dentine is known as ivory and its cross-section consists of crisscrossing line patterns, known as "engine turning", which create diamond-shaped areas. As a piece of living tissue, a tusk is relatively soft; it is as hard as the mineral calcite. Much of the tusk can be seen outside; the rest is in a socket in the skull. At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves stretching to the tip. Thus it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal. When removed, ivory begins to dry up and crack if not kept cool and moist. Tusks serve multiple purposes. They are used for digging for water, salt, and roots; debarking or marking trees; and for moving trees and branches when clearing a path. When fighting, they are used to attack and defend, and to protect the trunk.
Like humans, who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally more worn down, as it is shorter with a rounder tip. For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in both sexes, reaching up to 3 m, but those of males tend to be thicker. In earlier times, elephant tusks weighing more than 90 kg were not uncommon, though it is rare today to see any over 45 kg.
In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all. Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants. Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was 3.02 m long and weighed 39 kg. Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for shorter tusks and tusklessness.
SKIN
An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at 2.5 cm thick on the back and parts of the head. The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner. Elephants typically have grey skin, but African elephants look brown or reddish after wallowing in coloured mud. Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the forehead and ears and the areas around them. Calves have brownish or reddish hair, especially on the head and back. As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the end of the tail as well as the chin, genitals and the areas around the eyes and ear openings. Normally the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart.An elephant uses mud as a sunscreen, protecting its skin from ultraviolet light. Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin suffers serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust. Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human. They have even been observed lifting up their legs, presumably in an effort to expose their soles to the air.
LEGS, LOCOMOTION AND POSTURE
To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals. The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities. This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis. Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front. Since the limb bones are placed on top of each other and under the body, an elephant can stand still for long periods of time without using much energy. Elephants are incapable of rotating their front legs, as the ulna and radius are fixed in pronation; the "palm" of the manus faces backward. The pronator quadratus and the pronator teres are either reduced or absent. The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or "cushion pads" beneath the manus or pes, which distribute the weight of the animal. They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra "toe" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra "thumb", that also helps in weight distribution. As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet.
Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but cannot trot, jump, or gallop. They use only two gaits when moving on land: the walk and a faster gait similar to running. In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foot is planted on the ground. With no "aerial phase", the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on the ground. Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of 25 km/h. At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length. Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals. During locomotion, the cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving. Elephants are capable swimmers. They have been recorded swimming for up to six hours without touching the bottom, and have travelled as far as 48 km at a stretch and at speeds of up to 2.1 km/h.
INTERNAL AND SEXUAL ORGANS
The brain of an elephant weighs 4.5–5.5 kg compared to 1.6 kg for a human brain. While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller. At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight. The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally. The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use.
The heart of an elephant weighs 12–21 kg. It has a double-pointed apex, an unusual trait among mammals. In addition, the ventricles separate near the top of the heart, a trait they share with sirenians. When standing, the elephant's heart beats approximately 30 times per minute. Unlike many other animals, the heart rate speeds up by 8 to 10 beats per minute when the elephant is lying down. The blood vessels in most of the body are wide and thick and can withstand high blood pressures. The lungs are attached to the diaphragm, and breathing relies mainly on the diaphragm rather than the expansion of the ribcage. Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity. This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air, although this explanation has been questioned. Another possible function for this adaptation is that it helps the animal suck up water through the trunk. Elephants inhale mostly through the trunk, although some air goes through the mouth. They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m in length. The majority of an elephant's food intake goes undigested despite the process lasting up to a day.
A male elephant's testes are located internally near the kidneys. The elephant's penis can reach a length of 100 cm and a diameter of 16 cm at the base. It is S-shaped when fully erect and has a Y-shaped orifice. The female has a well-developed clitoris at up to 40 cm. The vulva is located between the hind legs instead of near the tail as in most mammals. Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large abdominal cavity. The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk. Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head. This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth. Females have also been observed with secretions from the temporal glands.
BEHAVIOUR AND LIFE HISTORY
ECOLOGY AND ACTIVITIES
The African bush elephant can be found in habitats as diverse as dry savannahs, deserts, marshes, and lake shores, and in elevations from sea level to mountain areas above the snow line. Forest elephants mainly live in equatorial forests but will enter gallery forests and ecotones between forests and savannahs. Asian elephants prefer areas with a mix of grasses, low woody plants, and trees, primarily inhabiting dry thorn-scrub forests in southern India and Sri Lanka and evergreen forests in Malaya. Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass and roots. They are born with sterile intestines and require bacteria obtained from their mother's feces to digest vegetation. African elephants are mostly browsers while Asian elephants are mainly grazers. They can consume as much as 150 kg of food and 40 L (11 US gal) of water in a day. Elephants tend to stay near water sources. Major feeding bouts take place in the morning, afternoon and night. At midday, elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing. Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down. Elephants average 3–4 hours of sleep per day. Both males and family groups typically move 10–20 km a day, but distances as far as 90–180 km have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia. Elephants go on seasonal migrations in search of food, water, minerals, and mates. At Chobe National Park, Botswana, herds travel 325 km to visit the river when the local waterholes dry up.
Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species. Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; when they dig for water during drought, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals. They can enlarge waterholes when they bathe and wallow in them. At Mount Elgon, elephants excavate caves that are used by ungulates, hyraxes, bats, birds and insects. Elephants are important seed dispersers; African forest elephants ingest and defecate seeds, with either no effect or a positive effect on germination. The seeds are typically dispersed in large amounts over great distances. In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal. This ecological niche cannot be filled by the next largest herbivore, the tapir. Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys. Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems. At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda, the overabundance of elephants has threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands. Their weight can compact the soil, which causes the rain to run off, leading to erosion.
Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way. Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded. At Aberdare National Park, Kenya, a rhino attacked an elephant calf and was killed by the other elephants in the group. At Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa, introduced young orphan elephants went on a killing spree that claimed the lives of 36 rhinos during the 1990s, but ended with the introduction of older males. The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to predators, though there are rare reports of adult elephants falling prey to tigers. Calves may be preyed on by lions, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs in Africa and tigers in Asia. The lions of Savuti, Botswana, have adapted to hunting juvenile elephants during the dry season, and a pride of 30 lions has been recorded killing juvenile individuals between the ages of four and eleven years. Elephants appear to distinguish between the growls of larger predators like tigers and smaller predators like leopards (which have not been recorded killing calves); they react to leopards less fearfully and more aggressively. Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to other herbivores. This is due to lower predation pressures that would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit matrilineal family groups, some of which are made up of more than ten members, including three pairs of mothers with offspring, and are led by the matriarch which is often the eldest female. She remains leader of the group until death or if she no longer has the energy for the role; a study on zoo elephants showed that when the matriarch died, the levels of faecal corticosterone ('stress hormone') dramatically increased in the surviving elephants. When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place; this occurs even if her sister is present. The older matriarchs tend to be more effective decision-makers.
The social circle of the female elephant does not necessarily end with the small family unit. In the case of elephants in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, a female's life involves interaction with other families, clans, and subpopulations. Families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups. These are typically made of two family groups, which may be closely related due to previously being part of the same family group which split after becoming too large for the available resources. During the dry season, elephant families may cluster together and form another level of social organisation known as the clan. Groups within these clans do not form strong bonds, but they defend their dry-season ranges against other clans. There are typically nine groups in a clan. The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations.
Some elephant populations in India and Sri Lanka have similar basic social organisations. There appear to be cohesive family units and loose aggregations. They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units". In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups and possibly clans. Family groups tend to be small, consisting of one or two adult females and their offspring. A group containing more than two adult females plus offspring is known as a "joint family". Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units, and do not have any social organisation higher than a family or bond group. Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one adult female with one to three offspring. These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings.
The social life of the adult male is very different. As he matures, a male spends more time at the edge of his group and associates with outside males or even other families. At Amboseli, young males spend over 80% of their time away from their families when they are 14–15. When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males. The former is typical of bulls in dense forests. Asian males are usually solitary, but occasionally form groups of two or more individuals; the largest consisted of seven bulls. Larger bull groups consisting of over 10 members occur only among African bush elephants, the largest of which numbered up to 144 individuals. These elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for dominance or mates, and will form long-term relationships. A dominance hierarchy exists among males, whether they range socially or solitarily. Dominance depends on the age, size and sexual condition, and when in groups, males follow the lead of the dominant bull. Young bulls may seek out the company and leadership of older, more experienced males, whose presence appears to control their aggression and prevent them from exhibiting "deviant" behaviour. Adult males and females come together for reproduction. Bulls associate with family groups if an oestrous cow is present.
SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
MUSTH
Adult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth. In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at the age of 15, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25. At Amboseli, bulls under 24 do not go into musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 do. Young bulls appear to enter musth during the dry season (January–May), while older bulls go through it during the wet season (June–December). The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid secreted from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face. He may urinate with his penis still in his sheath, which causes the urine to spray on his hind legs. Behaviours associated with musth include walking with the head held high and swinging, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling and waving only one ear at a time. This can last from a day to four months.
Males become extremely aggressive during musth. Size is the determining factor in agonistic encounters when the individuals have the same condition. In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger. A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank. Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other. Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring with the tusks. Serious fights are rare.
MATING
Elephants are polygynous breeders, and copulations are most frequent during the peak of the wet season. A cow in oestrus releases chemical signals (pheromones) in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate. A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response, which requires the male to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and bring it to the vomeronasal organ. The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks with a 4–6-week follicular phase and an 8- to 10-week luteal phase. While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants have two. The first (or anovulatory) surge, could signal to males that the female is in oestrus by changing her scent, but ovulation does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge. Fertility rates in cows decline around 45–50 years of age.
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. . . for Part 2 go to: Elephants - 2
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This article is about a paraphyletic group. For close extinct relatives, see Elephantidae. For other uses, see Elephant (disambiguation).
Elephants
Temporal range: Pliocene–Present
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From top left to right: the African bush elephant, the Asian elephant and African forest elephant.
From top left to right: the African bush elephant, the Asian elephant and African forest elephant.
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Mammalia
Order:Proboscidea
Family:Elephantidae
Subfamily:Elephantinae
Groups included
Loxodonta Anonymous, 1827
Elephas Linnaeus, 1758
†Palaeoloxodon Matsumoto, 1925
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa
†Mammuthus Brookes, 1828
†Primelephas Maglio, 1970
Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are an informal grouping within the proboscidean family Elephantidae. Elephantidae is the only surviving family of proboscideans; extinct members include the mastodons. Elephantidae also contains several extinct groups, including the mammoths and straight-tusked elephants. African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears, and convex or level backs. Distinctive features of all elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, massive legs, and tough but sensitive skin. The trunk is used for breathing, bringing food and water to the mouth, and grasping objects. Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging. The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication. The pillar-like legs carry their great weight.
Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are found in different habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes. They are herbivorous, and they stay near water when it is accessible. They are considered to be keystone species, due to their impact on their environments. Elephants have a fission–fusion society, in which multiple family groups come together to socialise. Females (cows) tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring. The groups, which do not include bulls, are usually led by the oldest cow, known as the matriarch.
Males (bulls) leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males. Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate. They enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance over other males as well as reproductive success. Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years. Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild. They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound, and seismic communication over long distances. Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans. They appear to have self-awareness, and appear to show empathy for dying and dead family members.
African bush elephants and Asian elephants are listed as endangered and African forest elephants as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people. Elephants are used as working animals in Asia. In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses. Elephants are highly recognisable and have been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture.
Etymology
The word "elephant" is based on the Latin elephas (genitive elephantis) ("elephant"), which is the Latinised form of the Greek ἐλέφας (elephas) (genitive ἐλέφαντος (elephantos[1]), probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician.[2] It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script.[3][4] As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal.[1] The word "elephant" appears in Middle English as olyfaunt (c.1300) and was borrowed from Old French oliphant (12th century).[2]
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Afrotheria
Afroinsectiphilia
Tubulidentata
Orycteropodidae Aardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png
Afroinsectivora
Macroscelidea
Macroscelididae Rhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg
Afrosoricida
Chrysochloridae The animal kingdom, arranged according to its organization, serving as a foundation for the natural history of animals (Pl. 18) (Chrysochloris asiatica).jpg
Tenrecidae Brehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg
Paenungulata
Hyracoidea
Procaviidae DendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg
Tethytheria
Proboscidea
Elephantidae Elephas africanus - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - (white background).jpg
Sirenia
Dugongidae Dugong dugon Hardwicke white background.jpg
Trichechidae Manatee white background.jpg
A cladogram of the elephants within Afrotheria based on molecular evidence[5]
Proboscidea
early proboscideans, e.g. Moeritherium Moeritherium NT small.jpg
Deinotheriidae Deinotherium12.jpg
Elephantiformes
Mammutidae BlankMastodon.jpg
Gomphotheriidae Gomphotherium NT small.jpg
Stegodontidae Stegodon Siwalik Hills.jpg
Elephantidae
Loxodonta African Bush Elephant.jpg
Mammuthus Mammuthus trogontherii122DB.jpg
Elephas Elephas maximus (Bandipur).jpg
Proboscidea phylogeny based on upper molars.[6]
Elephantimorpha
Elephantidae
Mammuthus primigenius Woolly mammoth model Royal BC Museum in Victoria.jpg
Mammuthus columbi Archidiskodon imperator121.jpg
Elephas maximus Elephas maximus (Bandipur).jpg
Loxodonta cyclotis African Forest Elephant.jpg
Palaeoloxodon antiquus Elephas-antiquus.jpg
Loxodonta africana African Bush Elephant.jpg
Mammut americanum BlankMastodon.jpg
Phylogeny of modern elephants and close extinct relatives based on molecular evidence[7]
See also: List of elephant species
Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea which belongs to the superorder Afrotheria. Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria.[8] Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria.[9]
Three species of elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) and forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) of sub-Saharan Africa, and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) of South and Southeast Asia.[10] African elephants have larger ears, a concave back, more wrinkled skin, a sloping abdomen, and two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk. Asian elephants have smaller ears, a convex or level back, smoother skin, a horizontal abdomen that occasionally sags in the middle and one extension at the tip of the trunk. The looped ridges on the molars are narrower in the Asian elephant while those of the African are more diamond-shaped. The Asian elephant also has dorsal bumps on its head and some patches of depigmentation on its skin.[11]
Among African elephants, forest elephants have smaller and more rounded ears and thinner and straighter tusks than bush elephants and are limited in range to the forested areas of western and Central Africa.[12] Both were traditionally considered a single species, Loxodonta africana, but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species.[13][14][15] In 2017, DNA sequence analysis showed that L. cyclotis is more closely related to the extinct Palaeoloxodon antiquus, than it is to L. africana, possibly undermining the genus Loxodonta as a whole.[16]
Evolution and extinct relatives
Over 180 extinct members and three major evolutionary radiations of the order Proboscidea have been recorded.[17] The earliest proboscids, the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium of the late Paleocene, heralded the first radiation.[18] The Eocene included Numidotherium, Moeritherium, and Barytherium from Africa. These animals were relatively small and aquatic. Later on, genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose; the latter likely inhabited forests and open woodlands. Proboscidean diversity declined during the Oligocene.[19] One notable species of this epoch was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa, which may have been an ancestor to several later species.[20] The beginning of the Miocene saw the second diversification, with the appearance of the deinotheres and the mammutids. The former were related to Barytherium and lived in Africa and Eurasia,[21] while the latter may have descended from Eritreum[20] and spread to North America.[21]
The second radiation was represented by the emergence of the gomphotheres in the Miocene,[21] which likely evolved from Eritreum[20] and originated in Africa, spreading to every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Members of this group included Gomphotherium and Platybelodon.[21] The third radiation started in the late Miocene and led to the arrival of the elephantids, which descended from, and slowly replaced, the gomphotheres.[22] The African Primelephas gomphotheroides gave rise to Loxodonta, Mammuthus, and Elephas. Loxodonta branched off earliest around the Miocene and Pliocene boundary while Mammuthus and Elephas diverged later during the early Pliocene. Loxodonta remained in Africa while Mammuthus and Elephas spread to Eurasia, and the former reached North America. At the same time, the stegodontids, another proboscidean group descended from gomphotheres, spread throughout Asia, including the Indian subcontinent, China, southeast Asia, and Japan. Mammutids continued to evolve into new species, such as the American mastodon.[23]
At the beginning of the Pleistocene, elephantids experienced a high rate of speciation.[24] The Pleistocene also saw the arrival of Palaeoloxodon namadicus, the largest terrestrial mammal of all time.[25] Loxodonta atlantica became the most common species in northern and southern Africa but was replaced by Elephas iolensis later in the Pleistocene. Only when Elephas disappeared from Africa did Loxodonta become dominant once again, this time in the form of the modern species. Elephas diversified into new species in Asia, such as E. hysudricus and E. platycephus;[26] the latter the likely ancestor of the modern Asian elephant.[24] Mammuthus evolved into several species, including the well-known woolly mammoth.[26] Interbreeding appears to have been common among elephantid species, which in some cases led to species with three ancestral genetic components, such as the Palaeoloxodon antiquus.[7] In the Late Pleistocene, most proboscidean species vanished during the Quaternary glaciation which killed off 50% of genera weighing over 5 kg (11 lb) worldwide.[27]
Proboscideans experienced several evolutionary trends, such as an increase in size, which led to many giant species that stood up to 500 cm (16 ft 5 in) tall.[25] As with other megaherbivores, including the extinct sauropod dinosaurs, the large size of elephants likely developed to allow them to survive on vegetation with low nutritional value.[28] Their limbs grew longer and the feet shorter and broader.[6] The feet were originally plantigrade and developed into a digitigrade stance with cushion pads and the sesamoid bone providing support.[29] Early proboscideans developed longer mandibles and smaller craniums while more derived ones developed shorter mandibles, which shifted the head's centre of gravity. The skull grew larger, especially the cranium, while the neck shortened to provide better support for the skull. The increase in size led to the development and elongation of the mobile trunk to provide reach. The number of premolars, incisors and canines decreased.[6]
The cheek teeth (molars and premolars) of proboscideans became larger and more specialized, especially after elephants started to switch from C3-plants to C4-grasses, which caused their teeth to undergo a three-fold increase in teeth height as well as substantial multiplication of lamellae after about five million years ago. Only in the last million years or so did they return to a diet mainly consisting of C3 trees and shrubs.[30][31] The upper second incisors grew into tusks, which varied in shape from straight, to curved (either upward or downward), to spiralled, depending on the species. Some proboscideans developed tusks from their lower incisors.[6] Elephants retain certain features from their aquatic ancestry, such as their middle ear anatomy.[32]
Several species of proboscideans lived on islands and experienced insular dwarfism. This occurred primarily during the Pleistocene when some elephant populations became isolated by fluctuating sea levels, although dwarf elephants did exist earlier in the Pliocene. These elephants likely grew smaller on islands due to a lack of large or viable predator populations and limited resources. By contrast, small mammals such as rodents develop gigantism in these conditions. Dwarf elephants are known to have lived in Indonesia, the Channel Islands of California, and several islands of the Mediterranean.[33]
Anatomy and morphology
Size
African bush elephant skeleton
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals. African bush elephants are the largest species, with males being 304–336 cm (10 ft 0 in–11 ft 0 in) tall at the shoulder with a body mass of 5.2–6.9 t (5.7–7.6 short tons) and females standing 247–273 cm (8 ft 1 in–8 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder with a body mass of 2.6–3.5 t (2.9–3.9 short tons). Male Asian elephants are usually about 261–289 cm (8 ft 7 in–9 ft 6 in) tall at the shoulder and 3.5–4.6 t (3.9–5.1 short tons) whereas females are 228–252 cm (7 ft 6 in–8 ft 3 in) tall at the shoulder and 2.3–3.1 t (2.5–3.4 short tons). African forest elephants are the smallest species, with males usually being around 209–231 cm (6 ft 10 in–7 ft 7 in) tall at the shoulder and 1.7–2.3 t (1.9–2.5 short tons). Male African bush elephants are typically 23% taller than females, whereas male Asian elephants are only around 15% taller than females.[25]
Bones
The skeleton of the elephant is made up of 326–351 bones.[34] The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility. African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs.[35]
Head
An elephant's skull is resilient enough to withstand the forces generated by the leverage of the tusks and head-to-head collisions. The back of the skull is flattened and spread out, creating arches that protect the brain in every direction.[36] The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength. These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance. The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head. The lower jaw is solid and heavy.[34] Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support.[6] Lacking a lacrimal apparatus, the eye relies on the harderian gland to keep it moist. A durable nictitating membrane protects the eye globe. The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes.[37] Elephants are considered dichromats[38] and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light.[39]
African bush elephant with ears spread in a threat or attentive position; note the visible blood vessels
Ears
Elephant ears have thick bases with thin tips. The ear flaps, or pinnae, contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries. Warm blood flows into the capillaries, helping to release excess body heat into the environment. This occurs when the pinnae are still, and the animal can enhance the effect by flapping them. Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released. Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates, and have the largest ear flaps.[40] Elephants are capable of hearing at low frequencies and are most sensitive at 1 kHz (in close proximity to the Soprano C).[41]
Trunk
African bush elephant with its trunk raised, a behaviour often adopted when trumpeting
Asian elephant drinking water with trunk
The trunk, or proboscis, is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, although in early fetal life, the upper lip and trunk are separated.[6] The trunk is elongated and specialised to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. It contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles,[42] with no bone and little fat. These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal. The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles. The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull. The nasal septum is composed of tiny muscle units that stretch horizontally between the nostrils. Cartilage divides the nostrils at the base.[43] As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by precisely coordinated muscle contractions. The muscles work both with and against each other. A unique proboscis nerve – formed by the maxillary and facial nerves – runs along both sides of the trunk.[44]
Elephant trunks have multiple functions, including breathing, olfaction, touching, grasping, and sound production.[6] The animal's sense of smell may be four times as sensitive as that of a bloodhound.[45] The trunk's ability to make powerful twisting and coiling movements allows it to collect food, wrestle with other elephants,[46] and lift up to 350 kg (770 lb).[6] It can be used for delicate tasks, such as wiping an eye and checking an orifice,[46] and is capable of cracking a peanut shell without breaking the seed.[6] With its trunk, an elephant can reach items at heights of up to 7 m (23 ft) and dig for water under mud or sand.[46] Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right.[44] Elephants are capable of dilating their nostrils at a radius of nearly 30%, increasing the nasal volume by 64%, and can inhale at over 150 m/s (490 ft/s) which is around 30 times the speed of a human sneeze.[47] Elephants can suck up food and water both to spray in the mouth and, in the case of the later, to sprinkle on their bodies.[6][47] An adult Asian elephant is capable of holding 8.5 L (2.2 US gal) of water in its trunk.[43] They will also spray dust or grass on themselves.[6] When underwater, the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel.[32]
The African elephant has two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow it to grasp and bring food to its mouth. The Asian elephant has only one and relies more on wrapping around a food item and squeezing it into its mouth.[11] Asian elephants have more muscle coordination and can perform more complex tasks.[43] Losing the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival,[6] although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones. One elephant has been observed to graze by kneeling on its front legs, raising on its hind legs and taking in grass with its lips.[43] Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis in African bush elephants caused by the degradation of the peripheral nerves and muscles beginning at the tip.[48]
Teeth
Closeup of the cheek teeth of a dead juvenile bush elephant
Asian elephant eating tree bark, using its tusks to peel it off.
Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars. Unlike most mammals, which grow baby teeth and then replace them with a single permanent set of adult teeth, elephants are polyphyodonts that have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their lives. The chewing teeth are replaced six times in a typical elephant's lifetime. Teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically as in most mammals. Instead, new teeth grow in at the back of the mouth and move forward to push out the old ones. The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old. The second set of chewing teeth falls out at four to six years old. The third set falls out at 9–15 years of age and set four lasts until 18–28 years of age. The fifth set of teeth falls out at the early 40s. The sixth (and usually final) set must last the elephant the rest of its life. Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are thicker and more diamond-shaped in African elephants.[49]
Tusks
The tusks of an elephant are modified second incisors in the upper jaw. They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and grow continuously at about 17 cm (7 in) a year. A newly developed tusk has a smooth enamel cap that eventually wears off. The dentine is known as ivory and its cross-section consists of crisscrossing line patterns, known as "engine turning", which create diamond-shaped areas. As a piece of living tissue, a tusk is relatively soft; it is as hard as the mineral calcite. Much of the tusk can be seen outside; the rest is in a socket in the skull. At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves stretching to the tip. Thus it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal. When removed, ivory begins to dry up and crack if not kept cool and moist. Tusks serve multiple purposes. They are used for digging for water, salt, and roots; debarking or marking trees; and for moving trees and branches when clearing a path. When fighting, they are used to attack and defend, and to protect the trunk.[50]
Like humans, who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally more worn down, as it is shorter with a rounder tip. For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in both sexes, reaching up to 300 cm (9 ft 10 in),[50] but those of males tend to be thicker.[51] In earlier times, elephant tusks weighing over 200 pounds (more than 90 kg) were not uncommon, though it is rare today to see any over 100 pounds (45 kg).[52]
In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all.[50] Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants.[53] Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was 302 cm (9 ft 11 in) long and weighed 39 kg (86 lb). Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa[54] and Asia[55] has led to natural selection for shorter tusks[56][57] and tusklessness.[58][59]
Skin
An African forest elephant covering its skin with mud
An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at 2.5 cm (1 in) thick on the back and parts of the head. The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner. Elephants typically have grey skin, but African elephants look brown or reddish after wallowing in coloured mud. Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the forehead and ears and the areas around them. Calves have brownish or reddish hair, especially on the head and back. As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the end of the tail as well as the chin, genitals and the areas around the eyes and ear openings. Normally the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart.[60] Their hair is thought to be for thermoregulation, helping them lose heat in their hot environments.[61]
An elephant uses mud as a sunscreen, protecting its skin from ultraviolet light. Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin suffers serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust. Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human. They have even been observed lifting up their legs, presumably in an effort to expose their soles to the air.[60]
Legs, locomotion, and posture
An Asian elephant walking
To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals. The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities. This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis.[62] Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front.[63] Since the limb bones are placed on top of each other and under the body, an elephant can stand still for long periods of time without using much energy. Elephants are incapable of rotating their front legs, as the ulna and radius are fixed in pronation; the "palm" of the manus faces backward.[62] The pronator quadratus and the pronator teres are either reduced or absent.[64] The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or "cushion pads" beneath the manus or pes, which distribute the weight of the animal.[63] They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra "toe" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra "thumb", that also helps in weight distribution.[65] As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet.[11]
Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but cannot trot, jump, or gallop. They use only two gaits when moving on land: the walk and a faster gait similar to running.[62] In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foot is planted on the ground. With no "aerial phase", the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on the ground.[66] Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of 25 km/h (16 mph).[67] At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length. Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals.[67] During locomotion, the cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving.[63] Elephants are capable swimmers. They have been recorded swimming for up to six hours without touching the bottom, and have travelled as far as 48 km (30 mi) at a stretch and at speeds of up to 2.1 km/h (1 mph).[68]
Organs
African elephant heart in a jar
The brain of an elephant weighs 4.5–5.5 kg (10–12 lb) compared to 1.6 kg (4 lb) for a human brain. While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller. At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight. The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally.[69] The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use.[6] The larynx of the elephant is the largest known among mammals. The vocal folds are long and are attached close to the epiglottis base. When comparing an elephant's vocal folds to those of a human, an elephant's are longer, thicker, and have a larger cross-sectional area. In addition, they are tilted at 45 degrees and positioned more anteriorly than a human's vocal folds.[70]
The heart of an elephant weighs 12–21 kg (26–46 lb). It has a double-pointed apex, an unusual trait among mammals.[69] In addition, the ventricles separate near the top of the heart, a trait they share with sirenians.[71] When standing, the elephant's heart beats approximately 30 times per minute. Unlike many other animals, the heart rate speeds up by 8 to 10 beats per minute when the elephant is lying down.[72] The blood vessels in most of the body are wide and thick and can withstand high blood pressures.[71] The lungs are attached to the diaphragm, and breathing relies mainly on the diaphragm rather than the expansion of the ribcage.[69] Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity. This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air,[32] although this explanation has been questioned.[73] Another possible function for this adaptation is that it helps the animal suck up water through the trunk.[32] Elephants inhale mostly through the trunk, although some air goes through the mouth. They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m (115 ft) in length. The majority of an elephant's food intake goes undigested despite the process lasting up to a day.[69]
A male elephant's testes are located internally near the kidneys.[74] The elephant's penis can reach a length of 100 cm (39 in) and a diameter of 16 cm (6 in) at the base. It is S-shaped when fully erect and has a Y-shaped orifice. The female has a well-developed clitoris at up to 40 cm (16 in). The vulva is located between the hind legs instead of near the tail as in most mammals. Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large abdominal cavity. The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk.[69] Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head. This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth.[75] Females have also been observed with secretions from the temporal glands.[45]
Body temperature
Elephants are homeotherms, and maintain their average body temperature at ~ 36 °C, with minimum 35.2 °C during cool season, and maximum 38.0 °C during hot dry season.[76] Sweat glands are absent in the elephant's skin, but water diffuses through the skin, allowing cooling by evaporative loss.[77][78][79] Other physiological or behavioral features may assist with thermoregulation such as flapping ears,[80] mud bathing, spraying water on the skin, seeking shade,[76][81] and adopting different walking patterns.[82] In addition, the interconnected crevices in the elephant's skin is thought to impede dehydration and improve thermal regulation over a long period of time.[83]
This vintage and highly stylish convex shaped enamel cap badge would have been worn in the 1950s/60s by a regional truck driver distributing Coca Cola from a bottling plant/s throughout the State of Queensland, Australia. The abbreviation QLD located at the bottom of this badge codes the piece to Queensland - identical badges from other Australian States used the following abbreviations: (NSW) New South Wales, (SA) South Australia, (VIC) Victoria, (WA) Western Australia and (TAS) Tasmania.
The badge was made by the Melbourne maker, Swann & Hudson, a company that along with other Melbourne makers such as KG Lukes, Brim Medallions and Wheelen's Castings made the majority of badges/pins, medallions and key chains between the 1900s and the 1980s. All these companies were, at different stages, amalgamated under the name 'JJ Cash' in the late 1980s which has since become Cash's Awards and Promotions Solutions.
Coca Cola debuted in Australia in 1938 and by 1939 numerous plants had opened all over the country. Indeed, the plants served both American and Australian Forces covering both urban bases and 'jungle units' stationed in the Pacific theatre. After the immediate post-war period, Coca Cola began granting franchises across the country. This grew rapidly and at one stage the Coca Cola drink was bottled in thirty different locations throughout Australia from small single-town bottlers e.g. Inverell and Cairns, to large conglomerate bottlers spanning regional States. Over the years these operations were rationalised and consolidated into one overarching territiory that is still held by Coca Cola Amatil today.
The Coca Cola beverage originated in the 19th Century and was invented in the USA by Dr John S Pemberton in 1886. His friend and business partner, Frank M Robinson, named the beverage 'Coca Cola' and created the familiar scripted logotype that was handwritten using classic letterforms from the Spencerian Script of the day. The logotype is one of the world's unique and instantly recognisable trademarks, evidenced by its longevity - bridging the 19th, 20th and 21st Centuries.
Photography, layout and design: Argy58
(This image also exists as a high resolution jpeg and tiff - ideal for a
variety of print sizes e.g. A4, A3, A2 and A1. The current uploaded
format is for screen based viewing only: 72pi)
No retouch but only pushed the shutter button.
This art work was designed by Ikemath.
Do you want to know the secret?
convex and concave is the title of M. C. Escher's work.
2007-10-02 Kakamigahara, Gifu, Japan
Pentax *istDS2
Valencia, la splendida facciata concavo-convessa della Cattedrale (1703). A sinistra la celebre torre campanaria medievale del Micalet.
Valencia, the splendid concave-convex façade of the Cathedral (1703). To the left the famous medieval bell tower of the Micalet.
They are so pretty, that they are best viewed large.
I think we all know by now that I am a bit of a magpie and I have several collections within my glass/crystal collection.
I have quite a lot of depression ware (and TEN large boxes still not unpacked - do I hear a sigh of relief !!!!) and in particular quite a lot of depression ware candleholders.
I actually spent five hours yesterday photographing my depression ware for a friends new web site and I thought over the next week or so I would pop up a few of my favourites that haven't been seen yet.
Now I BELIEVE these are Fostoria, one of the biggest makers of Depression ware in America. I have scoured the Internet and other makers and I cannot seem to confirm it. Bill Barber can you??
These are my favourite's as they are so unusual. Matching pair, flared curves at the top (very Fostoria), etched pedestals and in the centre it is actually convex glass.
I have not seen another pair like it in 8 years of collecting.
If anyone can identify them I would be so grateful!!
Taken from the sidewalk, reflected in a restaurant window, with a convex mirror inside.
I posted a version of this photo about a year ago, and it took a few months to get its first comment (thanks, Nino!) and almost a year to get its first fave (thanks, Zita!)
I think it deserves another look, not because I'm a great subject, but as a photograph.
In this version I cropped it square, desaturated a bit, did some cloning, and tried to find a better balance between sharpness and blur.
Convex and concave buddles on the floor of the buddle house, below the frue vanner house.
For more photographs of the Basset Mines click here: www.jhluxton.com/Industrial-Archaeology/Mines-of-Devon-Co...
A simple wireframe design with a convex hull of a truncated tetrahedron.
It is the sketch of something bigger and more sophisticated... Four Interlocking Hexagonal Prisms.
Designer: Me.
Paper: Kami.
Unit count: 24.
Paper's size: 1:3 rectangle.
Various views from the 19th floor of our hotel on Hornby Street, Vancouver - convex mirror windows make for interesting reflections - must be a selfie in there somewhere
2012 Hong Kong Bodybuilding Championships & 3rd South China Invitational Championships
2012 全港健美錦標賽 暨 華南地區健美邀請賽
I have a ton more pictures from the HK Bodybuilding Campionships, so if you competed, get in touch with me as I may have taken your picture.
[One of 7 images on the Heck-Andrews House] This is a creative commons image, which you may freely use by linking to this page. Please respect the photographer and his work.
“Among the first grand residences built in Raleigh after the Civil War, the Heck-Andrews House set the tone for the subsequent development of North Blount Street as an enclave of the well-to-do.” [www.nps.gov/nr/travel/raleigh/hec.htm] Contracted in 1869 by Jonathan Heck and finished in 1870, the house was designed by George S. H. Applegate (1831-1880) and constructed by John A. Waddell (1826-1883) of the firm of Wilson & Waddell. Heck, a Confederate officer in the Civil War, had been captured but paroled. His consequent fortune was made by manufacturing armaments for the Confederacy. “Life at the house was opulent and active. Photographs show the interior lavishly decorated in the style of the day, with heavy draperies, lace curtains, mahogany furniture and plush carpets.” [www.nps.gov/nr/travel/raleigh/hec.htm]
Jonathan Heck died in 1894 and his wife Mattie deeded the house to a daughter in 1916. In 1921 Raleigh attorney A. N. Andrews, Jr. acquired the property. After his death in 1946, the house went through a time of deterioration. In 1987 the state of North Carolina acquired majority interest in the building, completely refurbishing the exterior. Adaptive use had been planned for the interior, and I assume these plans have been realized.
A classic wood Second Empire-style mansion with blue and red trim, the Heck-Andrews House is marked by a tall 4-story front tower with convex mansard roof, 4 circular windows with decorated molding, and a balustrade at the top. Slate alternating rectangular with fish-scale shapes covers the tower. Dormers are the dominant feature of the structure’s concave mansard roof, the arched windows separated by exaggerated brackets and capped with wide pedimented hoods. Throughout the facade, the windows are slightly arched and have ornamental surrounds. A pediment is located just above the second level. Pairs of thick millwork brackets distinguish the overhang. The windows on the first level are taller than elsewhere, all with decorative surrounds of pale blue.
The bracketed porch roof mimics the concave aspect of the mansard roof, momentarily presenting an almost Oriental appearance. It uses the rectangular and fish-scale slate pattern of the main roof. Four steps lead upward to the porch leading to the entry with wooden door and heavily ornamented glass. A low porch railing of millwork is broken up by elaborately detailed posts set on decorated bases. Bay windows are prominent on the sides. At the rear right side is another porch and entry, utilizing the same patterns as the front porch but not as elaborately done.
The house was placed on the National Register of Historic Places 20 January 1972, NRHP #72001000.
Sources
1) National Register— www.nps.gov/nr/travel/raleigh/hec.htm
2) George S. H. Appleget— ncarchitects.lib.ncsu.edu/people/P000005
3) John A. Waddell— ncarchitects.lib.ncsu.edu/people/P000007
4) WRAL-TV (1999)— www.wral.com/news/local/story/137795/
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