The Chemin du Roy is a historic road along the north shore of the St. Lawrence River in Quebec. The road begins in Repentigny and extends almost 280 kilometres (170 mi) eastward towards Quebec City. In 1706, the Conseil supérieur of New France decreed that a road be built to connect the settlements along the north shore of the St. Lawrence River. Work began in 1731 and was completed in 1737. Upon completion, the Chemin du Roy was 7.4 metres (24 ft) wide, over 280 kilometres (170 mi) long, and crossed 37 seignories. The Chemin du Roy was the longest road in existence at the time north of Mexico.

You may view more of my images of Ickworth House, Park and gardens, by clicking "here" !

 

From the Archieves, reprocessed, using Photoshop CC 2024.

 

With over 1,800 acres of parkland designed by Capability Brown, the house and its grounds were created as an homage to Italy, the country so beloved by Frederick Augustus Hervey, the 4th Earl of Bristol. The Earl-Bishop spent his life travelling the continent, gathering together a vast collection of paintings, sculpture and artefacts. Already possessed of several houses, he conceived Ickworth primarily as a museum for his treasures. At his death only the Rotunda - the giant circular structure at the centre of the two wings, described by Hervey's wife as 'a stupendous moment of Folly' - was nearing completion. The house was eventually finished by his son. Although Hervey's treasures, confiscated during the French invasion of Italy, were destined never to occupy Ickworth, his descendants made it their life's work to rebuild what has become an exceptional collection of art and silver. Paintings housed in the galleries include works by Velázquez, Titian and Poussin, while the collection of 18th-century portraits of the family is exceptionally fine, featuring canvases by Gainsborough, Reynolds, Vigée-Lebrun and Hogarth. In addition to one of the very best British collections of Georgian Huguenot silver, Ickworth is also home to an impressive array of Regency furniture, porcelain, and domestic objects. More made a career of producing idealised Italian landscapes. His Landscape with Classical Figures, Cicero at his Villa, painted in 1780 and funded in 1993, is a typical work, the misty soft-focus and pastel light adding to its appeal. Hugh Douglas Hamilton's The Earl Bishop of Bristol and Derry Seated before the Prospect of Rome shows Hervey seated at what is thought to be the southern tip of the Borghese Gardens. Ickworth's parklands and gardens can provide a day's activity in their own right. The south gardens are modelled on the formal Italian style, while the gardens to the west of the house are more informal. Visitors can walk or cycle out into the park itself and up to the Fairy Lake. Bright and modern, The West Wing Restaurant overlooks the gardens and can be guaranteed to catch any sunlight on offer. It serves everything from hot meals to snacks, and at weekends the restaurant is open for breakfast. If you're after something rather more formal, try Frederick's restaurant at Ickworth Hotel in the grounds.

 

Completion of the Jefferson Highway through Minnesota and Iowa commemorated on October 28, 1930 here at the interstate border between Gordonsville, MN and Northwood, IA.

Aga cookers are simply the best! Old fashioned in style and concept, after twenty years of constant, perfect service, cooking the food and heating the kitchen (Zac the dog's favourite thing) ours needed a new part, and so was inoperative for some time. These two snaps are a celebration of it's return to normal service. Whilst (modestly - hah!) I've kept us well-fed using the microwave, an old camping stove, and a borrowed ceramic hob, NOTHING makes toast like an Aga! Breakfast on a sunny morning in spring! Yum!

Previously the plate looked like this: flic.kr/p/FknJ8r

Nikolái Andréyevich Rimski-Kórsakov (Tijvin, 6 de marzo/ 18 de marzo de 1844greg. - finca Lubensk, 8 de juniojul./ 21 de junio de 1908greg.) fue un compositor, director de orquesta y pedagogo ruso miembro del grupo de compositores conocido como Los Cinco. Considerado un maestro de la orquestación, sus obras orquestales más conocidas —el Capricho español, la Obertura de la gran Pascua rusa y la suite sinfónica Scheherezade— son valoradas entre las principales del repertorio de música clásica, así como las suites y fragmentos de alguna de sus quince óperas. Scheherezade es un ejemplo de su empleo frecuente de los cuentos de hadas y temas populares.

Rimski-Kórsakov, al igual que su colega compositor Mili Balákirev o el crítico Vladímir Stásov, creía firmemente en el desarrollo de un estilo nacionalista de música clásica. Este estilo consistía en el empleo de canciones populares tradicionales rusas, así como de elementos armónicos, melódicos y rítmicos exóticos —práctica conocida como orientalismo musical—, evitando los métodos compositivos tradicionales occidentales. Sin embargo, Rimski Kórsakov llegaría a valorar también las técnicas occidentales al ocupar el puesto de profesor de composición, armonía e instrumentación (orquestación) musical en el Conservatorio de San Petersburgo a partir de 1871. Con objeto de perfeccionarse y de forma autodidacta estudió la armonía y el contrapunto occidentales, incorporando al mismo tiempo las influencias de Mijaíl Glinka y el resto de compañeros de Los Cinco. Posteriormente sus técnicas compositivas y de orquestación se vieron enriquecidas con el descubrimiento de las obras de Richard Wagner.

Rimski-Kórsakov combinó la composición y la enseñanza con la carrera militar, primero como oficial de la Armada Imperial Rusa, luego como inspector civil de bandas de música navales. Escribió en sus memorias que la pasión por el océano comenzó en su niñez, al leer libros y escuchar las hazañas de su hermano mayor en la marina. Su amor por el mar pudo haberle influido para escribir dos de sus obras orquestales más conocidas, el cuadro musical Sadkó (no confundir con su ópera posterior del mismo nombre) y Scheherezade. Su labor como inspector de bandas navales le sirvió para ampliar su conocimiento técnico de los instrumentos de viento-madera y metal, perfeccionando sus habilidades en el campo de la orquestación. Además de transmitir estos conocimientos a sus estudiantes, los pudo transmitir póstumamente a través de un manual sobre orquestación que fue finalizado por su yerno Maksimilián Steinberg.

Rimski-Kórsakov legó muchas composiciones nacionalistas rusas de gran creatividad y originalidad. Además, realizó arreglos de las obras de Los Cinco para que pudieran ser interpretadas en público, convirtiéndolas en parte del repertorio clásico (aunque existe controversia acerca de sus correcciones en las obras de Modest Músorgski). Formó una generación de jóvenes compositores y músicos durante las décadas que ejerció como pedagogo, por lo que se le ha llegado a calificar como el «principal arquitecto» de lo que el público aficionado a la música clásica considera el estilo ruso de composición.1 El estilo de Rimski Kórsakov se basaba en el de Glinka, Balákirev, Hector Berlioz y Franz Liszt, «transmitiendo este estilo directamente a dos generaciones de compositores rusos» e influyendo en compositores no rusos, tales como Maurice Ravel, Claude Debussy, Paul Dukas y Ottorino Respighi.

Rimski-Kórsakov nació en Tijvin, unos 140 km al este de San Petersburgo, en el seno de una familia aristocrática con antecedentes militares. Su hermano mayor, Voin, veintidós años mayor que él, fue un conocido navegante y explorador marino.

Rimski-Kórsakov hace referencia en sus memorias que su madre tocaba un poco el piano y su padre sabía tocar de oído algunas piezas en este instrumento. Según el musicólogo Abraham, Rimski Kórsakov heredó la tendencia de su madre de tocar demasiado despacio. A la edad de seis años empezó a tomar clases de piano con varios profesores locales y mostró talento en destrezas auditivas, pero manifestaba poco interés, tocando, como más tarde escribiría, «mal, de manera descuidada,[...] manteniendo un tempo correcto a duras penas».

En el periodo en que fue a la escuela, Rimski Kórsakov tomó lecciones de piano de un hombre llamado Ulij. Estas clases recibieron la aprobación de Voin, director de la escuela en aquel entonces, porque ayudarían al joven a desarrollar sus habilidades sociales y a superar su timidez. Rimski Kórsakov escribe que mientras se mostraba «indiferente» a las lecciones, creció dentro de él el amor por la música, fomentada por las asiduas visitas a la ópera y a conciertos orquestales. Ulij se dio cuenta de que tenía un importante talento musical y le recomendó un nuevo profesor, F. A. Canille (Théodore Canillé). Empezó las lecciones de piano y composición en otoño de 1859 con Canille, del que más tarde diría ser el motivo por el que dedicó su vida a la composición. Gracias a Canille accedió a gran cantidad de música nueva para él, incluyendo la de Mijaíl Glinka y Robert Schumann. A pesar de que al joven músico le gustaban las clases de música, Voin las canceló cuando Rimski Kórsakov contaba con diecisiete años, al no parecerle ya de utilidad práctica. Canille le pidió a Rimski Kórsakov que continuara yendo a su casa cada domingo, no para clases formales, sino para tocar duetos y hablar de música. En noviembre de 1861, Canille presentó al joven de dieciocho años a Mili Balákirev. Balákirev a su vez le presentó a César Cui y Modest Músorgski. Estos tres hombres eran ya conocidos compositores a pesar de estar en la veintena. Rimski Kórsakov posteriormente escribió: «¡Con qué deleite escuchaba discusiones de temas de verdad [cursiva enfática de Rimski Kórsakov] sobre instrumentación, escritura de partes, etc.! ¡Y además, la mayor parte de lo que se hablaba era sobre asuntos musicales de actualidad! De golpe me sumergí en un nuevo mundo, desconocido para mí, del cual sólo había oído hablar en la sociedad de mis amigos diletantes. Me causó una gran impresión».

Balákirev animó a Rimski Kórsakov a que compusiera y le enseñó lo básico para empezar, aprovechando el tiempo que no pasaba en alta mar Balákirev también le urgió a que se enriqueciera leyendo libros de historia, literatura y crítica literaria. Cuando le mostró a Balákirev los primeros compases de una primera sinfonía (en mi bemol mayor) que había compuesto, éste insistió en que debía seguir trabajando en ella a pesar de su desconocimiento de las formas musicales. Durante dos años y ocho meses Rimski Kórsakov navegó en el velero clíper Almaz. A finales de 1862, ya había completado y orquestado tres movimientos de la sinfonía. Compuso el movimiento lento durante una escala en Inglaterra y le envió por correo la partitura a Balákirev antes de volver a alta mar. Al principio, el trabajo en la sinfonía mantuvo al joven ruso ocupado durante su travesía. Compró partituras en cada puerto en el que hacían escala, así como un piano para interpretarlas y ocupaba sus horas de ocio estudiando el tratado de orquestación de Berlioz. Encontró tiempo para leer las obras de Homero, William Shakespeare, Friedrich Schiller y Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, visitando Londres, las Cataratas del Niágara y Río de Janeiro durante sus escalas en puertos. Finalmente, la falta de estímulo musical exterior apagó las ansias de aprender del joven marinero y le confesó a Balákirev que tras dos años en el mar había descuidado sus clases de música por meses. «La idea de ser un músico y compositor poco a poco fue perdiendo fuerza», recordaría posteriormente, «las tierras lejanas me empezaron a seducir, de alguna forma, aunque, siendo sincero, el servicio naval nunca me gustó mucho y a duras penas se adecuaba a mi forma de ser».

De vuelta en San Petersburgo en mayo de 1865, las obligaciones de Rimski Kórsakov consistían en un par de horas de tareas de oficina cada día, pero recordaba que su deseo de componer «había sido reprimido [...] ya no tengo ningún interés por la música». En sus memorias cuenta que el contacto con Balákirev en septiembre de 1865 lo alentó «a habituarse a la música para más adelante sumergirse de lleno en ella». Siguiendo una indicación de Balákirev, compuso el trío restante del scherzo de su Primera Sinfonía y revisó la orquestación por completo. En diciembre de ese mismo año, la obra se estrenó bajo la dirección de Balákirev en San Petersburgo. Hubo una segunda interpretación en marzo de 1866 bajo la batuta de Konstantín Liádov (padre del compositor Anatoli Liádov).

El intercambio epistolar entre Rimski Kórsakov y Balákirev claramente muestra que algunas de las ideas para la sinfonía surgieron gracias a Balákirev. Este siempre iba más allá y no se limitaba a corregir la pieza musical, recomponiéndola al piano en algunas ocasiones. Rimski Kórsakov recordaba lo siguiente:

Un alumno como yo tenía que presentar a Balákirev una propuesta de composición en forma embrionaria, esto es, aunque fueran tan sólo los primeros cuatro u ocho compases. Balákirev se dedicaba a hacer correcciones, indicando cómo rehacer dicho embrión: lo examinaba de arriba a abajo, alabando y ensalzando los primeros dos compases, pero censuraba los siguientes dos, los ridiculizaba y hacía todo lo posible para que el autor se sintiera a disgusto con ellos. Que la composición fuera viva y fértil no siempre era un factor a favor, se requerían frecuentes correcciones y la tarea de componer se alargaba durante un largo periodo de tiempo bajo el frío control de la autocrítica.

Rimski-Kórsakov recuerda que «Balákirev y yo nos llevábamos bastante bien y sin problemas. A instancias de él accedí de buena gana a reescribir los movimientos sinfónicos que compuse y logré acabarlos con la ayuda de sus consejos e improvisaciones». Aunque posteriormente la influencia de Balákirev le llegó a resultar agobiante a Rimski Kórsakov y se desligó de él, esto no impidió que en sus memorias reconociera y alabara el talento de su mentor como crítico e improvisador. Bajo la guía de Balákirev, Rimski Kórsakov cambió su enfoque hacia otro tipo de composiciones. Comenzó una sinfonía en si menor, pero resultó ser demasiado parecida a la Novena Sinfonía de Beethoven y la abandonó. Completó una Obertura sobre tres temas rusos basándose en las oberturas sobre temas populares de Balákirev, así como una Fantasía sobre temas serbios, obras que se estrenaron en un concierto en honor de los delegados del Congreso Eslavo de 1867. En su artículo sobre el concierto, el crítico nacionalista Vladímir Stásov acuñaría la frase Mogúchaya kuchka para el círculo de Balákirev (Mogúchaya kuchka se suele traducir como «El Gran Puñado» o «Los Cinco»). Rimski Kórsakov también compuso las versiones primigenias (serían posteriormente revisadas) de Sadkó y Antar, que cimentaron su reputación como compositor de obras orquestales.

Rimski-Kórsakov se relacionaba y discutía sobre música con otros miembros de Los Cinco; criticaban las piezas de cada uno de ellos y colaboraban en la creación de nuevas obras. Se hizo amigo de Aleksandr Borodín —cuya música le «fascinaba»—, y cada vez pasaba más tiempo con Músorgski. Balákirev y este último tocaban música para piano a cuatro manos, Músorgski a veces cantaba y continuamente opinaban sobre la música de otros compositores, siendo sus gustos favoritos «cercanos a Glinka, Schumann y los últimos cuartetos de cuerda de Beethoven». Felix Mendelssohn no era considerado de categoría elevada, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart y Joseph Haydn «estaban pasados de moda y componían una música ingenua» y Johann Sebastian Bach era pura matemática carente de sentimientos. Berlioz «era muy apreciado», Liszt era «un minusválido pervertido desde un punto de vista musical [...] una burda caricatura» y apenas se hablaba de Wagner. Rimski Kórsakov «escuchaba estas opiniones con avidez y absorbía los gustos de Balákirev, Cui y Músorgski sin cuestionarlos ni ponerlos en duda». A menudo, las obras musicales discutidas «eran tocadas ante mí, pero sólo algunos fragmentos y no podía formarme una opinión en profundidad». Esto, escribe, no le impidió aceptar estos juicios al pie de la letra y repetirlos «como si estuviera profundamente convencido de su verdad».

Rimski-Kórsakov fue especialmente apreciado dentro de Los Cinco y por todos aquellos que visitaban el círculo, debido a su talento como orquestador. Balákirev le pidió que orquestara una marcha de Franz Schubert para un concierto en mayo de 1868; de Cui, su ópera William Ratcliff y de Aleksandr Dargomyzhski, cuyas obras eran muy apreciadas por Los Cinco y estaba a punto de fallecer, su ópera El convidado de piedra.

En el otoño de 1871, Rimski Kórsakov se trasladó al anterior apartamento de su hermano Voin e invitó a Músorgski a que fuera su compañero de habitación. Llegaron a un acuerdo de trabajo que consistía en que Músorgski usaba el piano por las mañanas mientras Rimski Kórsakov trabajaba copiando u orquestando. Cuando su compañero de habitación se iba para realizar su trabajo de funcionario civil al mediodía, el piano quedaba entonces a disposición de Rimski Kórsakov. El tiempo por las tardes se distribuyó de mutuo acuerdo. «Ese otoño e invierno los dos llegamos a un buen acuerdo», escribe Rimski Kórsakov, «con un intercambio constante de ideas y proyectos. Músorgski compuso y orquestó el acto polaco de Borís Godunov y la escena popular "Cerca de Kromy". Yo orquesté y acabé mi Dama de Pskov».

En 1871, el compositor, que contaba con 27 años, fue nombrado Catedrático de composición e instrumentación (orquestación) en el Conservatorio de San Petersburgo, así como director de la clase de orquesta. Mantuvo su puesto en el servicio naval activo e impartía sus clases en uniforme (los oficiales militares estaban obligados a llevar su uniforme durante todo el día, dado que se consideraba que siempre estaban en servicio).

Rimski Kórsakov explica en sus memorias que Mijaíl Azanchevski, al tomar el puesto de director del Conservatorio ese año, quería sangre nueva para refrescar la enseñanza de esas asignaturas, y le había hecho una generosa oferta por sus servicios. El biógrafo Mijaíl Zetlin sugiere que Azanchevski había tenido un doble motivo. En primer lugar, Rimski Kórsakov fue el miembro de Los Cinco menos criticado por sus oponentes e invitarlo a dar clases en el Conservatorio habría sido una manera segura de decir a todos los músicos serios que eran bienvenidos allí. En segundo lugar, la oferta pudo haber sido deliberada para exponerlo a un clima académico en el cual él compondría en un estilo occidental más conservador. Balákirev se oponía a la enseñanza académica de la música con tremendo vigor, pero lo animó a que aceptara el puesto para convencer a otros a que se unieran a la causa nacionalista musical.

La reputación de Rimski Kórsakov en ese momento era la de un maestro de la orquestación, sobre la base de sus obras Sadkó y Antar. Sin embargo, había compuesto esas obras en su mayor parte de manera intuitiva. Sus conocimientos de teoría musical eran elementales; nunca había escrito ningún contrapunto, no podía armonizar una simple coral ni siquiera sabía los nombres o intervalos de los acordes musicales. Nunca había dirigido una orquesta y la marina le había disuadido de que lo hiciera, porque no aprobaban que saliera al podio en uniforme. Consciente de sus limitaciones técnicas, Rimski Kórsakov pidió consejo a Piotr Ilich Chaikovski, con el que había mantenido algún contacto ocasional. Chaikovski, a diferencia de Los Cinco, había recibido enseñanzas académicas de composición en el Conservatorio de San Petersburgo, y ejercía de catedrático de Teoría Musical en el Conservatorio de Moscú. Chaikovski le aconsejó que estudiara.

Rimski-Kórsakov escribe que mientras daba clases en el Conservatorio pronto «¡me convertí posiblemente en su mejor pupilo [cursiva enfática de Rimski Kórsakov], a juzgar por la cantidad y calidad de la información que me suministró!». Para prepararse a sí mismo, y para mantenerse al menos un paso por delante de sus estudiantes, se tomó tres años sabáticos en los que no compuso nada propio, y estudió con asiduidad en casa mientras seguía impartiendo lecciones en el Conservatorio. De manera autodidacta aprendió de manuales de texto, y siguió una estricta rutina de componer ejercicios de contrapunto, fugas, corales y coros a capela.

Rimski-Kórsakov finalmente llegó a ser un maestro excelente y un ferviente defensor de las enseñanzas académicas. Revisó todo lo que había compuesto anterior a 1874, incluso obras aclamadas por el público como Sadkó y Antar, en una búsqueda de la perfección que perseguiría hasta el final de su vida. Al haber sido asignado para dirigir los ensayos de la clase de orquesta, perfeccionó el arte de la dirección orquestal. Enfrentarse a las texturas orquestales como director y el hecho de tener que hacer arreglos adecuados de obras musicales para dicha clase, lo llevó a interesarse cada vez más en el arte de la orquestación, un área que le haría descuidar sus estudios como inspector de orquestas navales. La partitura de su Tercera Sinfonía, escrita justo después de haber completado su programa de tres años de superación personal, refleja la experiencia de sus prácticas con la orquesta.

La cátedra en el Conservatorio conllevó seguridad económica para Rimski Kórsakov, lo cual le indujo a asentarse y formar una familia. En diciembre de 1871 le pidió matrimonio a Nadezhda Purgold, con quien había mantenido una estrecha relación a través de las reuniones semanales de Los Cinco en la residencia de la familia Purgold. Contrajeron matrimonio en julio de 1872, siendo Músorgski el padrino. La familia Rimski Kórsakov tuvo seis hijos; uno de los cuales, Andréi, se hizo musicólogo, se casó con la compositora Yulia Veisberg y escribió un estudio en varios volúmenes de la vida y obra de su padre.

En la primavera de 1873, la marina creó el puesto de inspector naval de bandas y designó a Rimski Kórsakov para el cargo. A pesar de que se mantuvo en la nómina de la marina y en las listas del Ministerio de la Marina, le dieron permiso para que dejara de prestar sus servicios militares. Como inspector, hacía visitas periódicas a las bandas navales de toda Rusia, supervisaba a los directores de las bandas y sus compromisos, revisaba su repertorio e inspeccionaba la calidad de sus instrumentos. Redactó un programa de estudios como complemento a los estudiantes de música que tenían una beca de la marina en el Conservatorio e hizo de intermediario entre el Conservatorio y la marina. El puesto de inspector de bandas vino con una promoción a asesor colegiado, un rango de funcionario. «Me desprendí con alegría tanto de mi estatus militar como de mi uniforme de oficial», escribió posteriormente. «Desde ese momento en adelante fui músico oficialmente y de manera indiscutible».

Rimski-Kórsakov se dedicó con celo a sus deberes y satisfizo el antiguo deseo de familiarizarse con la construcción y la técnica interpretativa de los instrumentos musicales. Estos estudios lo llevaron a escribir un libro de texto sobre orquestación. Usó los privilegios del rango para ejercitar y extender su conocimiento. Debatía sobre arreglos musicales para banda militar con los directores, animó y revisó sus esfuerzos, celebró conciertos para oír estas piezas y orquestó obras originales y de otros compositores para bandas militares.

En marzo de 1884, una orden imperial abolió el cargo de Inspector de bandas navales, y Rimski Kórsakov quedó relevado de sus funciones. Trabajó a las órdenes de Balákirev en la Capilla de la Corte como director adjunto hasta 1894, lo que le permitió estudiar la música ortodoxa rusa. También impartió clases en la Capilla y escribió un manual sobre armonía para su empleo allí y en el Conservatorio.

os estudios de Rimski Kórsakov y su cambio de actitud hacia la educación musical provocaron el desdén de sus colegas nacionalistas, que opinaban que estaba abandonando su herencia rusa para componer fugas y sonatas. Tras esforzarse «por meter el máximo contrapunto posible» en su Tercera Sinfonía, compuso obras de música de cámara adheridas estrictamente a modelos clásicos, incluyendo un sexteto de cuerdas, un cuartero de cuerdas en fa menor y un quinteto para flauta, clarinete, trompa, fagot y piano. Sobre el cuarteto y la sinfonía Chaikovski escribió a su mecenas Nadezhda von Meck que «estaban llenas de cosas inteligentes pero [...] [estaban] imbuidas de un carácter seco y pedante». Tras escuchar la sinfonía, Borodín comentó que mantuvo «la sensación de que se trata de la obra de un tipo alemán Herr Professor que se ha puesto sus gafas y está a punto de escribir Eine grosse Symphonie in C».

Según Rimski-Kórsakov, los otros miembros de Los Cinco mostraron escaso entusiasmo por la sinfonía, y menos aún por el cuarteto. Tampoco lo fue su debut en público como director en un concierto benéfico en 1874 en el cual dirigió a la orquesta con la nueva sinfonía, considerado positivamente por sus compatriotas rusos. Posteriormente escribiría que «comenzaron, de hecho, a mirarme por encima del hombro como si fuera un fracasado». Peor aún para el ruso fueron los débiles elogios dados por Antón Rubinstein, un compositor opuesto a la música y filosofía de los nacionalistas. Rimski Kórsakov escribió que después de que Rubinstein escuchara el cuarteto, este comentó que ya «podría llegar a algo» como compositor. Escribió también que Chaikovski continuó dándole apoyo moral, diciéndole que aplaudía sin reparos todo lo que hacía y admiraba tanto su modestia artística como su fuerte personalidad. De manera privada, Chaikovski le confió a Nadezhda von Meck lo siguiente: «aparentemente ahora [Rimski Kórsakov] está pasando por una crisis y cómo acabará será difícil de predecir. O bien surge de él un gran maestro o quedará atrapado al final en sus trucos contrapuntísticos».

Dos proyectos hicieron que Rimski Kórsakov se centrara menos en hacer música de estilo académico. El primero de ellos fueron dos colecciones de canciones populares en 1874. Transcribió cuarenta canciones rusas para voz y piano a partir de las interpretaciones del cantante folclórico Tvorti Filípov, a sugerencia de Balákirev. Tras esta recopilación realizó una segunda más ambiciosa de cien canciones que le proporcionaron amigos y sirvientes, o que extrajo de colecciones raras o descatalogadas. Posteriormente, Rimski Kórsakov escribiría que haber realizado este trabajo tuvo una gran influencia en él como compositor; además le proporcionó una ingente cantidad de material al cual podría recurrir en futuros proyectos, bien para citarlos directamente o como modelos para componer pasajes «fakelóricos» (del inglés fake, falso, traducido como «pseudo-folclore» o «folclore de pega»). El segundo proyecto consistió en la edición de partituras del pionero compositor ruso Mijaíl Glinka (1804–1857) con la colaboración y ayuda de Balákirev y Anatoli Liádov. La hermana de Glinka, Liudmila Ivánovna Shestakova, quería preservar el legado musical de su hermano mediante su publicación e impresión y pagó de su propio bolsillo todos los gastos del proyecto. No se había realizado ningún proyecto similar en la historia de la música rusa, y tuvieron que establecerse y ponerse de acuerdo en pautas y directrices para la edición escolástica de las obras. Balákirev era partidario de realizar cambios en la música de Glinka con el fin de «corregir» lo que él veía como defectos de composición, mientras que Rimski Kórsakov defendía un punto de vista menos intrusivo, que, finalmente, acabaría prevaleciendo. Como posteriormente escribiría: «la oportunidad de trabajar sobre las partituras de Glinka fue una inesperada fuente de aprendizaje para mí. Incluso antes de esto ya conocía y adoraba sus óperas; pero, como editor de las partituras que iban a publicarse, tuve que analizar hasta la última nota, con lo que pude apreciar el estilo e instrumentación de Glinka. Y esto fue un trabajo beneficioso para mí, conduciéndome al camino de la música moderna, tras mis vicisitudes con el contrapunto y un estilo más estricto».

Durante el verano de 1877, Rimski Kórsakov reflexionaba sobre la historia corta titulada La noche de mayo de Nikolái Gógol. Era uno de sus cuentos favoritos desde hacía mucho tiempo y su mujer Nadezhda le había estado insistiendo en que escribiera una ópera basada en dicha historia desde el día en que se comprometieron, cuando la leyeron juntos. Las ideas musicales para tal obra databan de antes de 1877, pero ahora surgían con mayor persistencia. En invierno, La noche de mayo obtuvo cada vez más su atención; en febrero de 1878 empezó a componer en serio y acabó la ópera a principios de noviembre de ese año. Rimski Kórsakov dijo de La noche de mayo que fue de gran importancia porque, a pesar de que la obra contenía bastante música contrapuntísitca, logró «liberarse de los grilletes del contrapunto [cursivas enfáticas de Rimski Kórsakov]». Ideó la ópera en un idioma que imitaba las melodías populares y la orquestó de una manera transparente, más del estilo de Glinka. Sin embargo, pese a la facilidad con la que escribió esta ópera y la siguiente, La doncella de nieve, de vez en cuando sufrió parálisis creativas en el periodo desde 1881 a 1888. Se mantuvo ocupado durante este tiempo editando las obras de Músorgski y completando la ópera de Borodín titulada El príncipe Ígor (Músorgski falleció en 1881 y Borodín en 1887).

Rimski Kórsakov escribe que entabló relaciones con el mecenas musical en ciernes Mitrofán Beliáyev en Moscú en 1882. Beliáyev pertenecía a un creciente círculo de empresarios nuevos ricos rusos que llegaron a ser mecenas de las artes a mediados y finales del siglo XIX en Rusia, entre los que se cuentan el magnate de los ferrocarriles Sava Mámontov y el fabricante textil Pável Tretiakov. Beliáyev, Mámontov y Tretiakov «querían contribuir notablemente en la vida pública». Los tres habían labrado su camino hasta lograr la fortuna y al ser «eslavófilos» en su perfil cultural creían en la gran gloria de Rusia. Debido a esta creencia, estaban más predispuestos que la aristocracia a apoyar al talento autóctono y más inclinados a ayudar económicamente a artistas nacionalistas por encima de los más cosmopolitas. Esta preferencia era paralela al resurgimiento general del nacionalismo y la «rusofilia» que era la corriente más extendida en el arte y la sociedad rusas.

Hacia el invierno de 1883, Rimski Kórsakov era asiduo a «los cuartetos de los viernes» (Les Vendredis) que tenían lugar en la casa de Beliáyev en San Petersburgo cada semana. Beliáyev, quién había mostrado un gran interés en el futuro musical del joven Aleksandr Glazunov, alquiló una sala y una orquesta en 1884 para estrenar la Primera Sinfonía (1881) de Glazunov así como una suite orquestal que dicho compositor acababa de componer. Este concierto y los ensayos del año anterior hicieron que Rimski Kórsakov tuviera la idea de ofrecer conciertos en los que las composiciones rusas fueran las protagonistas, perspectiva que a Beliáyev le parecía excelente. Los Conciertos Sinfónicos Rusos se inauguraron durante la temporada 1886–87, siendo Rimski Kórsakov codirector junto con Anatoli Liádov. Logró dar por concluida la revisión de la Una noche en el Monte Pelado de Músorgski y la dirigió en el concierto inaugural. Estos conciertos lo sacaron de su sequía creativa, para ellos compuso ex profeso sus obras más notables: Scheherezade, el Capricho español y la Obertura de la gran Pascua rusa. Hace referencia en sus memorias que estas obras «muestran un considerable desuso de recursos contrapuntísticos [...] [reemplazados] por un desarrollo poderoso y virtuosístico de cualquier tipo de figuración, sosteniendo el interés técnico de mis composiciones».

Rimski-Kórsakov recibió una petición de consejo y asesoramiento, no sólo sobre los Conciertos Sinfónicos, sino en otros proyectos en los que Beliáyev ayudaba a compositores rusos. «Dentro de las cuestiones puramente musicales resultó que yo era la cabeza del círculo Beliáyev», escribe el compositor. «También Baliáyev me consideraba así, consultándome sobre cualquier cosa y todo el mundo se refería a mí según a ese puesto». En 1884, Beliáyev creó con carácter anual el Premio Glinka y en 1885 fundó su propia editorial de partituras de música, en la cual publicó obras de Borodín, Glazunov, Liádov y Rimski Kórsakov corriendo con todos los gastos. Para elegir a qué compositores había que ayudar económicamente, publicar o interpretar sus obras de los muchos que solicitaban su asistencia, Beliáyev estableció un consejo formado por Glazunov, Liádov y Rimski Kórsakov. Su función era la de revisar todas las composiciones y solicitudes presentadas y sugerir qué compositores eran merecedores del patrocinio y la atención pública.

El grupo de compositores que aglutinaba a Glazunov, Liádov y Rimski Kórsakov era conocido con el nombre de Círculo Beliáyev, en honor a su benefactor. Dichos compositores eran nacionalistas desde el punto de vista musical como Los Cinco. Como ellos, creían en un estilo ruso singular de música clásica que empleara temas populares y elementos melódicos, armónicos y rítmicos exóticos, cuyo paradigma es la música de Balákirev, Borodín y Rimski Kórsakov. Pero, a diferencia de Los Cinco, estos compositores creían en la necesidad de una base académica influida por la música occidental a la hora de componer, la cual Rimski Kórsakov había inculcado durante los años que ejerció en el Conservatorio de San Petersburgo. En comparación con los compositores revolucionarios del Círculo Balákirev, a Rimski Kórsakov le pareció que los del Círculo Beliáyev eran «progresivos [...] eso, unido a una gran consideración a la perfección técnica, pero [..] al mismo tiempo abriendo nuevos caminos, de manera más segura, aunque no tan rápidamente [...]».

En noviembre de 1887, Chaikovski llegó al Conservatorio de San Petersburgo, y pudo asistir a varios de los Conciertos Sinfónicos Rusos. Uno de ellos incluía una interpretación completa de su Primera Sinfonía, subtitulada Sueños de invierno, en su última versión. Otro concierto estuvo protagonizado por el estreno de la Tercera Sinfonía de Rimski Kórsakov en una versión revisada. Rimski Kórsakov y Chaikovski intercambiaron correspondencia antes de la visita y pasaron mucho tiempo juntos, también en compañía de Glazunov y Liádov. Aunque Chaikovski ya había sido un huésped habitual en casa de Rimski Kórsakov desde 1876, y que se ofreció a organizar el nombramiento de Rimski Kórsakov como director del Conservatorio de Moscú, esto supuso el comienzo de una relación más cercana entre ambos. «En cuestión de dos años», escribe Rimski Kórsakov, «las visitas de Chaikovski se volvieron mucho más frecuentes».

Durante esas visitas y sobre todo en público, Rimski Kórsakov se ocultaba tras una máscara de simpatía. En privado, la situación se le antojaba complicada emocionalmente y le confesó sus miedos y temores a su amigo, el crítico musical moscovita Semión Krúglikov. Estaba fresco en el recuerdo la tensión entre Chaikovski y Los Cinco sobre las diferencias en sus filosofías musicales; tensión tan aguda que Modest, el hermano de Chaikovski, comparó su relación en esa época como «la de dos Estados vecinos y amigos [...] preparados cuidadosamente para encontrarse en terreno neutral, pero guardando celosamente sus intereses particulares». Rimski Kórsakov observaba, no sin evitar sentirse irritado, cómo Chaikovski cada vez era más y más popular entre sus propios seguidores. Esta envidia personal se tornó también en profesional, dado que la música de Chaikovski ganaba popularidad entre los compositores del Círculo Beliáyev y permaneció en conjunto más exitosa que la de él. A pesar de todo, cuando Chaikovski asistió a la fiesta del santo de Rimski Kórsakov en mayo de 1893, este le preguntó a Chaikovski personalmente si querría dirigir cuatro conciertos de la Sociedad Musical Rusa en San Petersburgo durante la siguiente temporada. Tras pensárselo detenidamente, aceptó. Su muerte repentina a finales de 1893 evitó que cumpliera con su compromiso en su totalidad, no obstante, en la lista de obras que había pensado dirigir se contaba la Tercera Sinfonía de Rimski Kórsakov.

En marzo de 1889, el «teatro ambulante Richard Wagner» de Angelo Neumann llegó a San Petersburgo, ofreciendo cuatro ciclos de El anillo del nibelungo bajo la dirección de Karl Muck. Los Cinco habían ignorado la música de Wagner, pero dicha obra impresionó a Rimski Kórsakov, que quedó asombrado con su dominio de la orquestación. Asistió a los ensayos con Glazunov e iba siguiendo la partitura. Tras escuchar estas interpretaciones, Rimski Kórsakov se dedicó prácticamente sólo a componer óperas por el resto de su vida creativa. El uso de la plantilla instrumental por parte de Wagner influyó en su orquestación, comenzando con el arreglo que Rimski Kórsakov hizo de la polonesa de la ópera Borís Godunov de Músorgski con el fin de emplearla en conciertos en 1889.

Rimsky-Korsakov mantenía su mente cerrada en lo referente a música más aventurada que la de Wagner, especialmente la de Richard Strauss y más tarde Claude Debussy. Llegó a mostrarse enojado durante días cuando escuchó al pianista Félix Blumenfeld tocar Estampes, de Debussy, tras lo cual escribió en su diario: «pobre y mezquino hasta más no poder; no hay técnica, y mucho menos imaginación.» Esto se debía a un creciente conservadurismo por su parte (su «conciencia musical», tal y cómo él mismo lo describió), bajo el cual ahora escrutaba su música, así como la de otros. Las composiciones de sus antiguos compatriotas en Los Cinco no eran inmunes a esto; en 1895, mientras se encontraba trabajando en su primera revisión de Borís Godunov, de Músorgski, le dijo a su amanuense Vasily Yastrebtsev: «Es increíble que alguna vez me hubiera podido gustar esta música y aun así parece que hubo un tiempo en que lo hizo.» En 1901 escribiría acerca de estar crecientemente «indignado con todos los desatinos [de Wagner] para el oído», sobre la misma música que había acaparado su atención en 1889.

En 1892 Rimski Kórsakov padeció una segunda sequía creativa, debido a una enfermedad psicosomática. Se le subía la sangre a la cabeza, tenía pérdidas de memoria, confusiones y desagradables obsesiones, que lo llevaron al diagnóstico médico de neurastenia. Las crisis dentro del círculo familiar de Rimski Kórsakov podrían haber sido el factor desencadenante: las graves enfermedades de su mujer y uno de sus hijos debido a la difteria en 1890, las muertes de su madre e hijo de menor edad, así como el comienzo de una prolongada y finalmente fatal enfermedad de su segundo hijo más joven. Dejó sus puestos tanto en los Conciertos Sinfónicos Rusos como en la Capilla de la Corte de San Petersburgo y se planteó dejar de componer para siempre. Tras realizar la tercera versión del cuadro musical Sadkó y la ópera La doncella de Pskov, dio por cerrada su cuenta musical con el pasado, ninguna de sus obras previas a La noche de mayo conservaba su edición original.

Otro fallecimiento, el de Chaikovski, fue sin embargo la causa que lo llevó de nuevo a componer, puesto que esta defunción se presentó como una doble oportunidad: por un lado compondría para los Teatros Imperiales y además una ópera basada en la historia corta de Nikolái Gógol titulada La noche de Navidad (Nochebuena), una obra en la que Chaikovski también se había inspirado para componer su ópera Vakula el herrero. El éxito de la ópera La noche de Navidad lo animó a completar una ópera cada 18 meses de media entre 1893 y 1908, con un total de once a lo largo de este periodo. También comenzó otro borrador sobre su tratado de orquestación que finalmente abandonó, pero hizo un tercer intento y lo dejó casi acabado en sus últimos cuatro años de vida (lo completaría su yerno Maksimilián Steinberg en 1912). El tratamiento científico y académico de la orquestación que hace Rimski Kórsakov, ilustrado con más de 300 ejemplos de su propia obra, se convirtió en referencia para los textos de su categoría.

En 1905, hubo manifestaciones en el Conservatorio de San Petersburgo como parte de la Revolución de 1905; éstas, escribe Rimski Kórsakov, fueron desencadenadas por disturbios de la misma índole en la Universidad Estatal de San Petersburgo, en la que los estudiantes solicitaban reformas políticas y el establecimiento de una monarquía constitucional en Rusia. «Fui elegido como miembro del comité que debía solventar las diferencias con los agitados pupilos», recuerda; sin embargo, tan pronto como el comité se hubo formado, «se recomendaron todo tipo de medidas para que los cabecillas fueran expulsados, alojar a la policía en el conservatorio o cerrar el conservatorio entero». Considerado a sí mismo de siempre un liberal en lo político, escribió que sentía que alguien debía proteger el derecho de los estudiantes a manifestarse, especialmente cuando las disputas y riñas con las autoridades cada vez eran más violentas. En una misiva abierta, se puso de lado de los estudiantes en contra de lo que él veía como una interferencia sin justificación alguna en la dirección del conservatorio y la Sociedad Musical Rusa. En una segunda carta, esta vez firmada por todo el cuerpo docente Rimski Kórsakov inclusive, exigía la dimisión del director del conservatorio. En parte debido a las consecuencias de ambas cartas, escribe, aproximadamente 100 alumnos fueron expulsados y él fue destituido de su cátedra. Justo antes de que la dimisión fuera efectiva, Rimski Kórsakov recibió una carta de uno de los miembros de la directiva del centro, sugiriéndole que tomara la dirección con fines de calmar el descontento estudiantil. «Probablemente el miembro de la directiva que envió la carta representaría una opinión minoritaria, pero la firmó de todas formas» escribe. «Respondí con una negativa».

No mucho después de la destitución de Rimski Kórsakov, una producción estudiantil de su ópera Kaschéi, el inmortal provocó, en lugar del concierto que estaba programado, una manifestación política, lo que causó que la policía prohibiera la obra de Rimski Kórsakov. A consecuencia, gracias en parte a la cobertura que hizo la prensa de estos eventos, inmediatamente surgió por toda Rusia y el extranjero una ola de indignación frente a la prohibición; liberales e intelectuales inundaban la residencia del compositor con cartas de apoyo y simpatía, e incluso campesinos que nunca habían oído una sola nota de la música de Rimski Kórsakov enviaron pequeñas donaciones monetarias. Varios miembros del profesorado del Conservatorio de San Petersburgo renunciaron a su empleo en señal de protesta, incluyendo Glazunov y Liádov. Al final, unos 300 estudiantes abandonaron el conservatorio en señal de solidaridad con Rimski Kórsakov Hacia diciembre había sido rehabilitado en su cargo bajo un nuevo director, Glazunov; pero se retiró en 1906. La controversia política continuó con su ópera El gallo de oro, cuya crítica implícita a la monarquía, al imperialismo ruso y a la Guerra Ruso-Japonesa daban escasas posibilidades a pasar la censura. El estreno se retrasó hasta 1909, después del fallecimiento del compositor, e incluso entonces se interpretó en una versión adaptada.

En abril de 1907, Rimski Kórsakov dirigió un par de conciertos en París, organizados por el empresario Serguéi Diáguilev, en donde se ponía de relieve la música de la escuela nacionalista rusa. Dichos conciertos tuvieron un gran éxito a la hora de popularizar la música clásica rusa de este género en Europa, particularmente la de Rimski Kórsakov. Al año siguiente, su ópera Sadkó fue puesta en escena en la Ópera de París y La doncella de nieve en la Opéra-Comique. También tuvo la oportunidad de escuchar los últimos estrenos de compositores europeos; silbó sin tapujos al escuchar la ópera de Richard Strauss Salomé y le dijo a Diáguilev tras escuchar la ópera Pelléas et Mélisande de Claude Debussy: «¡no me hagas escuchar todos estos horrores o acabarán gustándome!» El hecho de escuchar dichas obras le permitió comprender su lugar dentro de la música clásica. Admitió ser «un kuchkista convencido» —en alusión al término kuchka (puñado), una manera en ruso de referirse a Los Cinco— y que sus obras pertenecían a una era cuyas tendencias musicales ya habían quedado atrás.

Desde principios de 1890, Rimski Kórsakov venía padeciendo angina de pecho. Este mal al principio lo iba desgastando lentamente, pero el estrés que le ocasionaron los sucesos que tuvieron lugar en la Revolución de 1905 y sus secuelas aceleraron el proceso, llegando en diciembre de 1907 a ser la enfermedad de tal gravedad que ya no podía trabajar. Falleció en 1908 en su finca de Liúbensk, cerca de Luga (hoy en día Pliúski, distrito de la Óblast de Pskov), unos 200 km al sur de San Petersburgo, y fue enterrado en el Cementerio Tijvin en el Monasterio de Alejandro Nevski de San Petersburgo, cerca de las tumbas de Borodín, Glinka, Músorgski y Stásov.

 

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Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov (Russian: Николай Андреевич Римский-Корсаков; 18 March [O.S. 6 March] 1844 – 21 June [O.S. 8 June] 1908) was a Russian composer, and a member of the group of composers known as The Five. He was a master of orchestration. His best-known orchestral compositions—Capriccio Espagnol, the Russian Easter Festival Overture, and the symphonic suite Scheherazade—are staples of the classical music repertoire, along with suites and excerpts from some of his 15 operas. Scheherazade is an example of his frequent use of fairy-tale and folk subjects.

Rimsky-Korsakov believed in developing a nationalistic style of classical music, as did his fellow-composer Mily Balakirev and the critic Vladimir Stasov. This style employed Russian folk song and lore along with exotic harmonic, melodic and rhythmic elements in a practice known as musical orientalism, and eschewed traditional Western compositional methods. Rimsky-Korsakov appreciated Western musical techniques after he became a professor of musical composition, harmony, and orchestration at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1871. He undertook a rigorous three-year program of self-education and became a master of Western methods, incorporating them alongside the influences of Mikhail Glinka and fellow members of The Five. Rimsky-Korsakov's techniques of composition and orchestration were further enriched by his exposure to the works of Richard Wagner.

For much of his life, Rimsky-Korsakov combined his composition and teaching with a career in the Russian military—at first as an officer in the Imperial Russian Navy, then as the civilian Inspector of Naval Bands. He wrote that he developed a passion for the ocean in childhood from reading books and hearing of his older brother's exploits in the navy. This love of the sea may have influenced him to write two of his best-known orchestral works, the musical tableau Sadko (not to be confused with his later opera of the same name) and Scheherazade. As Inspector of Naval Bands, Rimsky-Korsakov expanded his knowledge of woodwind and brass playing, which enhanced his abilities in orchestration. He passed this knowledge to his students, and also posthumously through a textbook on orchestration that was completed by his son-in-law, Maximilian Steinberg.

Rimsky-Korsakov left a considerable body of original Russian nationalist compositions. He prepared works by The Five for performance, which brought them into the active classical repertoire (although there is controversy over his editing of the works of Modest Mussorgsky), and shaped a generation of younger composers and musicians during his decades as an educator. Rimsky-Korsakov is therefore considered "the main architect" of what the classical-music public considers the "Russian style" of composition. His influence on younger composers was especially important, as he served as a transitional figure between the autodidactism exemplified by Glinka and The Five, and professionally trained composers which would become the norm in Russia by the closing years of the 19th century. While Rimsky-Korsakov's style was based on those of Glinka, Balakirev, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt and, for a brief period, Wagner, he "transmitted this style directly to two generations of Russian composers" and influenced non-Russian composers including Maurice Ravel, Claude Debussy, Paul Dukas, and Ottorino Respighi.

Rimsky-Korsakov was born in Tikhvin, 200 kilometers (120 miles) east of Saint Petersburg, into a Russian noble family. The Rimsky-Korsakov dynasty traced their roots to Zhigimunt Korsak, a Czech who arrived in Lithuania from the Holy Roman Empire and founded the Polish-Lithuanian Korsak coat of arms. In 1390, his sons Vyacheslav (originally Vaclav) and Miloslav escorted Sophia of Lithuania, then a wife of Vasily I Dmitriyevich, to Moscow and took Russian citizenship under the Korsakov and Miloslavsky surnames, respectively. Some of Vyacheslav's descendants were granted permission to add "Rimsky" to their surnames in 1677 to celebrate their so-called Roman roots.

Throughout history, members of the family served in Russian government and took various positions as governors and war generals. Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov was famously a lover of Catherine the Great.

The father of the composer, Andrei Petrovich Rimsky-Korsakov (1784–1862), was one of the six illegitimate sons of Avdotya Yakovlevna, daughter of a simple Orthodox priest from Pskov, and lieutenant general Peter Voinovich Rimsky-Korsakov who had to officially adopt his own children as he couldn't marry their mother because of her lower social status. Using his friendship with Aleksey Arakcheyev, he managed to grant them all the privileges of the noble family. Andrei went on to serve in the Interior Ministry of the Russian Empire, then as the vice-governor of Novgorod, and then in the Volhynian Governorate. The composer's mother, Sofya Vasilievna Rimskaya-Korsakova (1802–1890), was also born as an illegitimate daughter of a peasant serf and Vasily Fedorovich Skaryatin, a wealthy landlord who belonged to the noble Russian family that originated during the 16th century.

She was raised by her father in full comfort, yet under an improvised surname Vasilieva and with no legal status. By the time Andrei Petrovich met her, he was already a widower: his first wife, knyazna Ekaterina Meshcherskaya, died just nine months after their marriage. Nevertheless, they fell in love with each other at first sight. Since Skaryatin found him unsuitable for his daughter, Andrei secretly "stole" his bride from the father's house and brought her to Saint Petersburg where they got married.

The Rimsky-Korsakov family had a long line of military and naval service. Nikolai's older brother Voin, 22 years his senior, became a well-known navigator and explorer and had a powerful influence on Nikolai's life. He later recalled that his mother played the piano a little, and his father could play a few songs on the piano by ear. Beginning at six, he took piano lessons from local teachers and showed a talent for aural skills, but he showed a lack of interest, playing, as he later wrote, "badly, carelessly, ... poor at keeping time".

Although he started composing by age 10, Rimsky-Korsakov preferred literature over music. He later wrote that from his reading, and tales of his brother's exploits, he developed a poetic love for the sea "without ever having seen it". This love, and prompting from Voin, encouraged the 12-year-old to join the Imperial Russian Navy. He studied at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Saint Petersburg and, at 18, took his final examination in April 1862.

While at school, Rimsky-Korsakov took piano lessons from a man named Ulikh. These lessons were sanctioned by Voin, who now served as director of the school, because he hoped they would help the youth to develop social skills and overcome his shyness. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that, while "indifferent" to lessons, he developed a love for music, fostered by visits to the opera and, later, orchestral concerts.

Ulikh perceived Rimsky-Korsakov's musical talent and recommended another teacher, Feodor A. Kanille (Théodore Canillé). Beginning in late 1859, Rimsky-Korsakov took lessons in piano and composition from Kanille, whom he later credited as the inspiration for devoting his life to musical composition. Through Kanille, he was exposed to a great deal of new music, including Mikhail Glinka and Robert Schumann. Voin cancelled his younger brother's musical lessons when the latter reached the age of 17, feeling they no longer served a practical purpose.

Kanille told Rimsky-Korsakov to continue coming to him every Sunday, not for formal lessons but to play duets and discuss music. In November 1861, Kanille introduced the 18-year-old Nikolai to Mily Balakirev. Balakirev in turn introduced him to César Cui and Modest Mussorgsky; all three were known as composers, despite only being in their 20s. Rimsky-Korsakov later wrote, "With what delight I listened to real business discussions [Rimsky-Korsakov's emphasis] of instrumentation, part writing, etc! And besides, how much talking there was about current musical matters! All at once I had been plunged into a new world, unknown to me, formerly only heard of in the society of my dilettante friends. That was truly a strong impression."

Balakirev encouraged Rimsky-Korsakov to compose and taught him the rudiments when he was not at sea. Balakirev prompted him to enrich himself in history, literature and criticism. When he showed Balakirev the beginning of a symphony in E-flat minor that he had written, Balakirev insisted he continue working on it despite his lack of formal musical training.

By the time Rimsky-Korsakov sailed on a two-year-and-eight-month cruise aboard the clipper Almaz in late 1862, he had completed and orchestrated three movements of the symphony. He composed the slow movement during a stop in England and mailed the score to Balakirev before going back to sea.

At first, his work on the symphony kept Rimsky-Korsakov occupied during his cruise. He purchased scores at every port of call, along with a piano on which to play them, and filled his idle hours studying Berlioz's Treatise on Instrumentation. He found time to read the works of Homer, William Shakespeare, Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; he saw London, Niagara Falls, and Rio de Janeiro during his stops in port. Eventually, the lack of outside musical stimuli dulled the young midshipman's hunger to learn.

Once back in Saint Petersburg in May 1865, Rimsky-Korsakov's onshore duties consisted of a couple of hours of clerical duty each day, but he recalled that his desire to compose "had been stifled ... I did not concern myself with music at all." He wrote that contact with Balakirev in September 1865 encouraged him "to get accustomed to music and later to plunge into it". At Balakirev's suggestion, he wrote a trio to the scherzo of the E-flat minor symphony, which it had lacked up to that point, and reorchestrated the entire symphony. Its first performance came in December of that year under Balakirev's direction in Saint Petersburg. A second performance followed in March 1866 under the direction of Konstantin Lyadov (father of composer Anatoly Lyadov).

Correspondence between Rimsky-Korsakov and Balakirev clearly shows that some ideas for the symphony originated with Balakirev. Balakirev seldom stopped at merely correcting a piece of music, and would often recompose it at the piano. Rimsky-Korsakov recalled,

Rimsky-Korsakov recalled that "Balakirev had no difficulty in getting along with me. At his suggestion I most readily rewrote the symphonic movements composed by me and brought them to completion with the help of his advice and improvisations". Though Rimsky-Korsakov later found Balakirev's influence stifling, and broke free from it, this did not stop him in his memoirs from extolling the older composer's talents as a critic and improviser. Under Balakirev's mentoring, Rimsky-Korsakov turned to other compositions. He began a symphony in B minor, but felt it too closely followed Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and abandoned it. He completed an Overture on Three Russian Themes, based on Balakirev's folksong overtures, as well as a Fantasia on Serbian Themes that was performed at a concert given for the delegates of the Slavonic Congress in 1867. In his review of this concert, nationalist critic Vladimir Stasov coined the phrase Moguchaya kuchka for the Balakirev circle (Moguchaya kuchka is usually translated as "The Mighty Handful" or "The Five"). Rimsky-Korsakov also composed the initial versions of Sadko and Antar, which cemented his reputation as a writer of orchestral works.

Rimsky-Korsakov socialized and discussed music with the other members of The Five; they critiqued one another's works in progress and collaborated on new pieces. He became friends with Alexander Borodin, whose music "astonished" him. He spent an increasing amount of time with Mussorgsky. Balakirev and Mussorgsky played piano four-hand music, Mussorgsky would sing, and they frequently discussed other composers' works, with preferred tastes running "toward Glinka, Schumann and Beethoven's late quartets". Mendelssohn was not thought of highly, Mozart and Haydn "were considered out of date and naïve", and J.S. Bach merely mathematical and unfeeling. Berlioz "was highly esteemed", Liszt "crippled and perverted from a musical point of view ... even a caricature", and Wagner discussed little. Rimsky-Korsakov "listened to these opinions with avidity and absorbed the tastes of Balakirev, Cui and Mussorgsky without reasoning or examination". Often, the musical works in question "were played before me only in fragments, and I had no idea of the whole work". This, he wrote, did not stop him from accepting these judgments at face value and repeating them "as if I were thoroughly convinced of their truth".

Rimsky-Korsakov became especially appreciated within The Five, and among those who visited the circle, for his talents as an orchestrator. He was asked by Balakirev to orchestrate a Schubert march for a concert in May 1868, by Cui to orchestrate the opening chorus of his opera William Ratcliff and by Alexander Dargomyzhsky, whose works were greatly appreciated by The Five and who was close to death, to orchestrate his opera The Stone Guest.

In late 1871, Rimsky-Korsakov moved into Voin's former apartment, and invited Mussorgsky to be his roommate. The working arrangement they agreed upon was that Mussorgsky used the piano in the mornings while Rimsky-Korsakov worked on copying or orchestration. When Mussorgsky left for his civil service job at noon, Rimsky-Korsakov then used the piano. Time in the evenings was allotted by mutual agreement. "That autumn and winter the two of us accomplished a good deal", Rimsky-Korsakov wrote, "with constant exchange of ideas and plans. Mussorgsky composed and orchestrated the Polish act of Boris Godunov and the folk scene 'Near Kromy.' I orchestrated and finished my Maid of Pskov."

In 1871, the 27-year-old Rimsky-Korsakov became Professor of Practical Composition and Instrumentation (orchestration) at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, as well as leader of the Orchestra Class. He retained his position in active naval service, and taught his classes in uniform (military officers in Russia were required to wear their uniforms every day, as they were considered to be always on duty).

Rimsky-Korsakov explained in his memoirs that Mikhaíl Azanchevsky had taken over that year as director of the Conservatory, and wanting new blood to freshen up teaching in those subjects, had offered to pay generously for Rimsky-Korsakov's services. Biographer Mikhail Zetlin suggests that Azanchevsky's motives might have been twofold. First, Rimsky-Korsakov was the member of the Five least criticized by its opponents, and inviting him to teach at the Conservatory may have been considered a safe way to show that all serious musicians were welcome there. Second, the offer may have been calculated to expose him to an academic climate in which he would write in a more conservative, Western-based style. Balakirev had opposed academic training in music with tremendous vigor, but encouraged him to accept the post to convince others to join the nationalist musical cause.

Rimsky-Korsakov's reputation at this time was as a master of orchestration, based on Sadko and Antar. He had written these works mainly by intuition. His knowledge of musical theory was elemental; he had never written any counterpoint, could not harmonize a simple chorale, nor knew the names or intervals of musical chords. He had never conducted an orchestra, and had been discouraged from doing so by the navy, which did not approve of his appearing on the podium in uniform. Aware of his technical shortcomings, Rimsky-Korsakov consulted Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, with whom he and the others in The Five had been in occasional contact. Tchaikovsky, unlike The Five, had received academic training in composition at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, and was serving as Professor of Music Theory at the Moscow Conservatory. Tchaikovsky advised him to study.

Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that while teaching at the Conservatory he soon became "possibly its very best pupil [Rimsky-Korsakov's emphasis], judging by the quantity and value of the information it gave me!" To prepare himself, and to stay at least one step ahead of his students, he took a three-year sabbatical from composing original works, and assiduously studied at home while he lectured at the Conservatory. He taught himself from textbooks, and followed a strict regimen of composing contrapuntal exercises, fugues, chorales and a cappella choruses.

Rimsky-Korsakov eventually became an excellent teacher and a fervent believer in academic training. He revised everything he had composed prior to 1874, even acclaimed works such as Sadko and Antar, in a search for perfection that would remain with him throughout the rest of his life. Assigned to rehearse the Orchestra Class, he mastered the art of conducting. Dealing with orchestral textures as a conductor, and making suitable arrangements of musical works for the Orchestra Class, led to an increased interest in the art of orchestration, an area into which he would further indulge his studies as Inspector of Navy Bands. The score of his Third Symphony, written just after he had completed his three-year program of self-improvement, reflects his hands-on experience with the orchestra.

Professorship brought Rimsky-Korsakov financial security, which encouraged him to settle down and to start a family. In December 1871 he proposed to Nadezhda Purgold, with whom he had developed a close relationship over weekly gatherings of The Five at the Purgold household. They married in July 1872, with Mussorgsky serving as best man. The Rimsky-Korsakovs had seven children. One of their sons, Andrei, became a musicologist, married the composer Yuliya Veysberg and wrote a multi-volume study of his father's life and work.

Nadezhda became a musical as well as domestic partner with her husband, much as Clara Schumann had been with her own husband Robert. She was beautiful, capable, strong-willed, and far better trained musically than her husband at the time they married—she had attended the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in the mid-1860s, studying piano with Anton Gerke (one of whose private students was Mussorgsky) and music theory with Nikolai Zaremba, who also taught Tchaikovsky. Nadezhda proved a fine and most demanding critic of her husband's work; her influence over him in musical matters was strong enough for Balakirev and Stasov to wonder whether she was leading him astray from their musical preferences. Musicologist Lyle Neff wrote that while Nadezhda gave up her own compositional career when she married Rimsky-Korsakov, she "had a considerable influence on the creation of [Rimsky-Korsakov's] first three operas. She travelled with her husband, attended rehearsals and arranged compositions by him and others" for piano four hands, which she played with her husband. "Her last years were dedicated to issuing her husband's posthumous literary and musical legacy, maintaining standards for performance of his works ... and preparing material for a museum in his name."

In early 1873, the navy created the civilian post of Inspector of Naval Bands, with a rank of Collegiate Assessor, and appointed Rimsky-Korsakov. This kept him on the navy payroll and listed on the roster of the Chancellery of the Navy Department but allowed him to resign his commission. The composer commented, "I parted with delight with both my military status and my officer's uniform", he later wrote. "Henceforth I was a musician officially and incontestably." As Inspector, Rimsky-Korsakov applied himself with zeal to his duties. He visited naval bands throughout Russia, supervised the bandmasters and their appointments, reviewed the bands' repertoire, and inspected the quality of their instruments. He wrote a study program for a complement of music students who held navy fellowships at the Conservatory, and acted as an intermediary between the Conservatory and the navy. He also indulged in a long-standing desire to familiarize himself with the construction and playing technique of orchestral instruments. These studies prompted him to write a textbook on orchestration. He used the privileges of rank to exercise and expand upon his knowledge. He discussed arrangements of musical works for military band with bandmasters, encouraged and reviewed their efforts, held concerts at which he could hear these pieces, and orchestrated original works, and works by other composers, for military bands.

In March 1884, an Imperial Order abolished the navy office of Inspector of Bands, and Rimsky-Korsakov was relieved of his duties. He worked under Balakirev in the Court Chapel as a deputy until 1894, which allowed him to study Russian Orthodox church music. He also taught classes at the Chapel, and wrote his textbook on harmony for use there and at the Conservatory.

Rimsky-Korsakov's studies and his change in attitude regarding music education brought him the scorn of his fellow nationalists, who thought he was throwing away his Russian heritage to compose fugues and sonatas. After he strove "to crowd in as much counterpoint as possible" into his Third Symphony,[70] he wrote chamber works adhering strictly to classical models, including a string sextet, a string quartet in F minor and a quintet for flute, clarinet, horn, bassoon and piano. About the quartet and the symphony, Tchaikovsky wrote to his patroness, Nadezhda von Meck, that they "were filled with a host of clever thi

With the completion of its latest series of milestone tests, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has now survived all of the harsh conditions associated with a rocket launch to space.

 

Webb’s recent tests have validated that the fully assembled observatory will endure the deafening noise, and the jarring shakes, rattles and vibrations that the observatory will endure during liftoff. Known as “acoustic” and “sine-sibration” testing, NASA has worked carefully with its international partners to match Webb’s testing environment precisely to what Webb will experience both on launch day, and when operating in orbit.

 

Though each component of the telescope has been rigorously tested during development, demonstrating that the assembled flight hardware is able to safely pass through a simulated launch environment is a significant achievement for the mission. Completed in two separate facilities within Northrop Grumman’s Space Park in Redondo Beach, California, these tests represent Webb’s final two, in a long series of environmental tests before Webb is shipped to French Guiana for launch.

 

The next environment Webb will experience is space.

 

Read the full feature on this milestone: go.nasa.gov/3d5Kuhh

 

Now that environmental testing has been successfully concluded, Webb will move forward into the last full extension of its iconic primary mirror and sunshield, followed by a full systems evaluation before being encapsulated in a specialized shipping container for transport to South America.

 

Image credit: NASA/Chris Gunn

 

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From Wikipedia / the free encyclopedia

 

~ Willis Tower, formerly named Sears Tower, is a 108-story, 1451-foot (442 m) skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois. At the time of its completion in 1974, it was the tallest building in the world, surpassing the World Trade Center towers in New York, and it held this rank for nearly 25 years. The Willis Tower is the tallest building in the United States and the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the world, as well as the fifth tallest building in the world to the roof.

..... The Sears Tower observation deck, called the Skydeck, opened on June 22, 1974. Located on the 103rd floor of the tower, it is 1,353 feet (412 m) above ground and is one of the most famous tourist attractions in Chicago. Tourists can experience how the building sways on a windy day. They can see far over the plains of Illinois and across Lake Michigan to Indiana, Michigan and Wisconsin on a clear day. Elevators take tourists to the top in about 60 seconds. The Skydeck competes with the John Hancock Center's observation floor a mile and a half away, which is 323 feet (98 m) lower. Some 1.3 million tourists visit the Skydeck annually. A second Skydeck on the 99th floor is used when the 103rd floor is closed. The tourist entrance can be found on the south side of the building along Jackson Boulevard.

... In January 2009, the Willis Tower owners began a major renovation of the Skydeck, to include the installation of glass balconies, extending approximately four feet over Wacker Drive from the 103rd floor. The all-glass boxes allow visitors to look through the floor to the street 1,353 feet (412 m) below. The boxes, which can bear five short tons of weight (about 4.5 metric tons), opened to the public on July 2, 2009.

... In August 1999 French urban climber Alain "Spiderman" Robert, using only his bare hands and feet, scaled the building's exterior glass and steel wall all the way to the top. A thick fog settled in near the end of his climb, making the last 20 floors of the building's glass and steel slippery ...

.... Willis Tower remains the tallest building in the Americas. With a pinnacle height of 1730 feet (527 m), it is the second tallest freestanding structure in the Americas, as it is 86 feet (26 m) shorter than Toronto's CN Tower, and is the only other freestanding structure in the Americas to exceed 1500 feet (457.2 m) in height. As of August 2009, Willis Tower is the fifth tallest freestanding structure in the world (by pinnacle height), after the Burj Khalifa, the Guangzhou TV & Sightseeing Tower, the CN Tower and the Ostankino Tower....

... Until 2000, the Sears Tower did not hold the record for the tallest building by pinnacle height. From 1969 to 1978, this record was held by the John Hancock Center, whose antenna reached a height of 1,500 ft (457.2 m), or 49 ft (14.8 m) taller than the Sears Tower's original height of 1,451 ft (442 m). In 1978, One World Trade Center became taller by pinnacle height due to the addition of a 359 ft (109.3 m) antenna, which brought its total height to 1,727 ft (526.8 m). In 1982, two antennas were installed on top of the Sears Tower which brought its total height to 1,707 ft (520.3 m), making it taller than the John Hancock Center but not One World Trade Center. However, the extension of the Sears Tower's western antenna in June 2000 to 1,730 feet (527 m) allowed it to just barely claim the title of tallest building by pinnacle height....

THE CLOCK TOWER SECTION

 

Hi guys, finally here we have this MOC that I have been working on during months. This Diorama represents from the left to de right; The Whomping Willow, the Stone Circle entrance that connects to the Wooden Bridge that I have omitted for space reasons in this MOC, and Hagrid’s Hut. In the Back we have the section of Hogwarts that represents the Gryffindor Tower, the Clock Tower and also the North Tower, where the Divination classroom is located.

 

After the completion of my last MOC, I decided that from then on each MOC that made the Hogwarts Castle would be based only on one or two films in order to recreate them as completely as possible. Because the clock tower is a new section in the Azkaban prisoner film, I decided to focus on this film, but when LEGO released the new Harry Potter sets I finally dedicated the castle to the first three Harry Potter films, thus recreating the final scenes of the philosopher's stone and the secret chamber.

 

Effective January 1 1870, the U.K. and the U.S. agreed to slash the letter rate to 6 cents per half oz. The rate for letters sent from Canada to the U.K. via New York including U.S. transit was thus reduced from 15 cents to 8 cents per half oz., considerably cheaper than the Canadian packet 12 1/2 cents rate. The Canadian Post Office responded by lowering the Canadian packet rate from 12 1/2 cents to 6 cents also effective on January 1, 1870.

 

On September 1, 1875, Canada Post Office announced that postage rate on letters from Canada to the United Kingdom from October 1, 1875 would be 5 cents per half ounce by Canada packet or by closed mail via the United States. The 5 cent rate was a preferred rate matching the 5 cent General Postal Union (later Universal Postal Union) rate.

 

- so, according to the above directive the postage on this cover should only have been 5 cents....

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From the book - "A New Westminster Album: Glimpses of the City as it was" - written by Gavin Hainsworth & Katherine Freund-Hainsworth - Postal service in New Westminster of some form dates back as long as the city and environs have been settled. The first Post Office in New Westminster was in the house of Captain William Spalding District Magistrate for New Westminster. He was tasked with the establishment of the city's first Post Office and was eventually made the Postmaster of the Colony of British Columbia. A Post Office was built in second empire style in 1883, but was burnt in the 1898 fire. A second Post Office was quickly built to replace it at the corner of Sixth Street and Columbia in 1900. This Post Office was torn down in 1958 to make way for the Federal Building.

 

sent from - / NEW WESTMINSTER / OC 12 / 75 / BRIT • COL / - split ring cancel

 

1875 NEW WESTMINSTER, B.C. CORK NW-4 (reported - 19 November 1875 to - 5 February 1877), 23 - 24 mm fancy 8-petal flower cork on (#39) franked cover dated - 12 October 1875, this is the ERD reported for this NW-4 flower type cork from New Westminster, B.C.

 

LINK to NEW-WESTMINSTER-BC Cork Cancels 1873-1891 - stampauctionnetwork.com/zi/zi4912.cfm and stampauctionnetwork.com/zi/49/240.jpg

 

Addressed to: Mrs. A. Burrell / M. F. Brewers / Truro / Cornwall / England (i was unable to solve this one)

 

For British Columbia, the twice-across-the-border connection with eastern Canada was needed a few years later than for the Prairies. Victoria (the main settlement) had mail service similar to that at Fort Garry. In other words, all its mail came via the United States until the through mail began on the CPR in 1886. Until late 1859, all mail from eastern Canada went to New York, then by ship to Panama, across the Isthmus of Panama, and then by ship to San Francisco. Starting in the fall of 1859, some mail went by the overland mail through San Francisco. Aside from the odd cover that has an overland handstamp or endorsement, there is no way yet to tell whether a cover went via Panama or overland. The overland route became a fixture with the completion of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads across the U.S. in 1869. All of BC’s mail continued to travel through San Francisco until a U.S. transcontinental railway reached the Pacific Northwest. In 1870, the Northern Pacific Railroad started building west from Lake Superior (near Duluth). Work started the same year at Kalama, Washington (on the Columbia River), heading both north toward the western terminal Tacoma, and east. The 100-mile western segment between Kalama and Tacoma was soon completed, but the transcontinental link was not made until 1883. From the early 1870s (soon after British Columbia joined Canada), closed mail between BC and eastern Canada still went through San Francisco, but letters were often carried by railway and stage routes, and by ship only between Victoria and either Olympia, Tacoma, or Port Townsend, Washington. Direct ships between Victoria and San Francisco continued, but they were not as frequent as the service to Puget Sound. Date stamps were made in the summer of 1877 with the indicia SF and T to indicate the route via either San Francisco (SF) or Tacoma (T). As with the Manitoba mail of this period, all the BC mail to or from eastern Canada passed through Detroit and Windsor. LINK to the complete article - (page 56) - www.rpsc.org/CP_scans/Canadian%20Philatelist,%20Vol.%2052...

 

- via - / VICTORIA / OC 13 / 75 / BRIT • COL / - split ring transit backstamp

 

- via - / WINDSOR / OC 27 / 75 / ONT / - split ring transit backstamp

 

- via - / HAMILTON / OC 28 / ONT / - split ring transit backstamp

 

- arrival - / TRURO / NO 13 / 75 / - cds arrival backstamp

 

Truro is a cathedral city and civil parish in Cornwall, England, UK. It is Cornwall's county town and only city, and its centre for administration, leisure and retail. Its population was recorded as 18,766 in the 2011 census. People from Truro are known as Truronians. Truro grew as a trade centre through its port and then as a stannary town for the tin-mining industry. It gained city status in 1876 with the founding of the Diocese of Truro, and so became mainland Britain's southernmost city.

2017 marked the 200th Anniversary of the completion and opening of the Tavistock Canal, construction of which commenced in 1803. It was the first canal to use iron boats.

 

The granary warehouse straddles the canal. The low air draught iron canal boats could pass under what appears to be quite a low bridge to berth under the warehouse whose floor was removable for cargo handling.

 

When the canal closed the warehouse became a furniture store until 1930 when it was sold to the Girl Guides who still operate from the building. Just under the bridge a water main pipe can be seen, obviously this was not in place when the canal was operational for navigation purposes. Since the 1930s the canal has been maintained as a feed for the Morwellham Hydro Electric Power Station.

 

For more photographs of the Tavistock Canal please click here: www.jhluxton.com/Canals/Tavistock-Canal/

Postcard X-102, published by Pacific Novelty Co., San Francisco

 

“The palace is shown reflected in the lagoon in front of the Fine Arts Building and gives a good idea of the artistic surroundings of the Exposition.” [Text on back]

 

The Panama Pacific Expo was a world’s fair whose stated purpose was to celebrate the completion of the Panama Canal, but it was widely seen in the city as an opportunity to showcase its recovery from the 1906 earthquake. The fair was held from February 20 to December 4, 1915 on a one-square-mile site along the northern shore, now known as the Marina District. Among the exhibits was the Liberty Bell from Philadelphia, the Southern Pacific Railroad’s first steam locomotive, and the first demonstration of a transcontinental telephone call.

  

Completion of She Art Girl #1

Nearing completion at Belfast, July 22, 1981.

 

Renamed Stena Caledonia in 1991.

KIDWELLY was originally the name of the district which included part of the coastlands lying between the estuaries of the Towy and the Loughor. In 1106, after the death of Howell ap Gronw, Henry I granted these lands to his minister, Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, who erected a castle at the mouth of the Gwaendraeth Fach. This formed one of a series of Norman strongholds designed to secure their newly won conquests in South Wales and to command the passage of the rivers across which the road to the west passed. A mention of the hall of the Castle in a document of 1115 or earlier shows that the building of Kidwelly must have been practically completed by that year. During the rising which followed the death of Henry I, the Battle of Maes Gwenllian was fought a short distance away from the castle (1136). The account speaks of Maurice de Londres, Lord of Kidwelly, and Geoffrey, Constable of the Bishop, as leaders of the Norman army. Maurice, who is mentioned for the first time in connection with this district, already possessed Ogmore in Glamorgan, where his father William de Londres appears to have been one of the original conquerors. The coupling of the two names suggests that Roger of Salisbury, while retaining possession of the castle, had granted the lordship of the district to Maurice de Londres, who probably acquired the castle also when the bishop died in the following year.

 

The Welsh chronicles record that, in 1190, the Lord Rhys built the castle of Kidwelly. This entry probably reflects a native conquest of the settlement, but the Normans must have recovered it before 1201, when Meredith, son of Rhys, was slain by the garrison of the castle. In 1215 Rhys Grug, another son of the Lord Rhys, captured Kidwelly and burnt the castle. He remained in possession until 1220, when Llywelyn the Great forced him to restore these conquests. The male line of the de Londres had become extinct during these troubles, and Kidwelly had passed to an heiress, Hawise. In 1225 she married Walter de Braose, who died during the campaign of 1233-4. Kidwelly Castle was by that date again in the possession of the Welsh as a result of the rising of 1231, when Llywelyn the Great, previously a supporter of the royal authority, had turned his arms against Henry III. Hawise de Londres, left a widow, was unable to regain possession of Kidwelly which, in 1242, was still held by Rhys's son Meredith. Two years later Hawise married Patrick de Chaworth, who seems to have recovered these lands soon after this date. The Welsh rising of 1257 involved the destruction of the settlement at Kidwelly, but the invaders failed to capture the castle. Patrick was slain during the campaign of the following year, and the wardship of his lands was granted to Hawise during the minority of their son Payn.

 

Payn de Chaworth must have attained his majority about 1270, as in that year he and his younger brother Patrick took the Cross. Hawise survived until 1274, and her death was soon followed by that of her two sons, Payn in 1279 and Patrick four years later. The elder brother died childless, and the younger left only an infant daughter, Matilda, who inherited Kidwelly and Ogmore. In 1291 the marriage of the young heiress was granted to the king's brother, Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, for the use of his second son, Henry, the union being celebrated in 1298.

 

The prominent part taken by Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, in the civil wars of Edward II's reign led to his execution after the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322, but the forefeited title and estates were later restored to his younger brother, Henry. The extinction of the male line in 1361 caused a temporary partition of the Lancastrian possessions, but on the death of the elder co-heiress, Matilda, in the following year, the whole inheritance fell to her sister Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, who became Earl and later Duke of Lancaster. On the accession of Henry IV, Kidwelly, together with the other Lancastrian possessions, passed into the hands of the Crown, and was of little importance during the fifteenth century. Henry VII granted the castle to Sir Rhys ap Tudor, whose grandson Rhys ap Griffith forefeited it in 1531. Later it was again alienated and passed to the Earls of Cawdor. The castle had long ceased to be habitable, but certain repairs were carried out during the nineteenth century. In 1927 the owner placed the ruins under the guardianship of the Commissioners of Works (now the Department of the Environment).

 

Since that date extensive works of preservation have been undertaken. In 1930 and 1931 excavations were carried out by Sir Cyril Fox and the writer in order to recover the earlier history of the castle. The results are embodied in the present guide, and the interesting series of relics recovered may be seen in the National Museum of Wales.

 

PERIODS OF CONSTRUCTION

 

THE earliest remains at Kidwelly, dating from the beginning of the twelfth century, are the semi-circular moat surrounding the castle together with the rampart under the outer curtain, the true meaning of which was revealed by the investigations of 1930-1. Of the hall mentioned in the deed of 1115 and the other buildings of the twelfth century no trace remains, though it is possible that an extensive search under the 2ft to 7ft of debris with which the whole interior of the castle was levelled in the early fourteenth century would lead to the recovery of their plan. The only tangible relic of Norman buildings is a small capital belonging to an attached column and probably forming part of a fireplace. This was found walled into the masonry of the hall of c1300, and may be ascribed to a date at the end of the twelfth century. The ramparts and moats surrounding the northern and southern outworks cannot be exactly dated, but analogy with other sites shows that they may well belong to this early period.

The oldest surviving masonry is that of the towers and the curtain enclosing the inner ward. This occupies a rectangular area with a circular tower at each angle. There are two gates, on the south and north sides, each protected by a portcullis. The erection of these defences within the circuit of the original bank and stockade marks the beginning of the refortification of the castle in accordance with the ideas of the late thirteenth century. The awkward way in which the two western towers are brought close to the foot of the earlier bank can only be understood when the pre-existence of this defence is realised, while the simple character of the gates, so different from the elaborate gatehouses of the normal concentric castle, must be similarly explained. The south-east tower was designed for occupation, but the hall and other structures of the earlier castle probably remained in use. Most of the dressed stonework of this period has disappeared, but the few remaining details are of thirteenth-century character, and this taken in conjunction with the plan suggests that the construction of the inner ward was carried out by Payn de Chaworth, c1275.

 

The replacement of the older buildings by a new hall, solar and kitchen and the erection of a chapel, form the next stage in the development of the castle. The different character of the masonry and the unusual position of the best-appointed private apartments in the southeast tower behind the screens of the hall prove that these additions were planned and built after the completion of the inner ward. The mouldings of the doors and windows belonging to this stage are all of late thirteenth- century character, and none need be earlier than 1300. The absence of glass grooves in the trefoiled lancet windows of the hall and chapel is also an early feature. It is perhaps unlikely that an extensive building programme would have been carried out during the minority of Matilda de Chaworth (1283-98), and a date before the death of her father Patrick is earlier than the architectural evidence would justify. The work should therefore in all probability be attributed to c1300, directly after the marriage of Matilda to Henry of Lancaster.

 

The design of the inner ward at Kidwelly presupposes an outer defensive zone, and the replacement of the original stockade with a stone curtain followed the completion of the living-quarters. The main gatehouse, the lesser northern gate, the outer curtain with its four flanking towers, and the mantlet between the north-eastern tower and the chapel, are part of a single design intended to bring Kidwelly into line with other concentric castles of this period. The position of the elaborate gatehouse, which could in case of need act as a separate defensive unit, on the line of the outer instead of the inner curtain is an abnormal feature imposed by the pre-existing layout of the site. The new masonry curtain of the outer ward was higher than the original stockade and necessitated the addition of a further storey to the towers of the inner ward in order that they might still command the outer defences. The details of this reconstruction are all of early fourteenth-century character, and the fortification of the outer ward must have been carried out during the first quarter of that century. On the completion of this work the surplus material from the bank and other rubbish was used to level up the interior of the castle, which it now covers to a depth varying from 2ft to 7ft. The closing of the open gorges of the towers of the outer curtain marks the last stage in the military development of Kidwelly and may also be ascribed to the fourteenth century. The existing gate in the south wall of the town also appears to be of fourteenth-century date, and it might be expected that the erection of these walls would have followed rather than preceded the reconstruction of the castle. But grants of murage in 1282 suggest an earlier date, and the solution of this problem must await further research.

 

There is reason to think that the great gatehouse may have stood unfinished through most of the fourteenth century and that the opening of a quarry `for the work of the new tower', recorded in 1388-9, may mark the beginning of the works needed to complete it. Ten years later, between 1399 and 1401, when the lord of the castle had become king in the person of Henry IV, there is another record of nearly £100 being spent ‘on the new work of the tower over the gates of the castle’, the near completion of which at this time can be inferred from an order of 1402 for it to be roofed in lead. But in the autumn of the following year the castle was besieged by the Welsh rebels, aided by a naval force from France and Brittany, and subsequent documents leave very little doubt that they succeeded in setting fire to the gatehouse and inflicting serious damage to it; so much so that between 1408 and 1422 a further £500-£600 had to be spent on it, and only in the latter year was it finally roofed with lead shipped from Bristol. A superficial indication of the new work may be seen in the patches of thin flat slabs which contrast with the irregularly coursed boulders of the original masonry. To it belong the triple machicolis high up on the outward face, the upper part of, the wall towards the courtyard, all the square-headed windows, the rectangular stair turret at the north-west corner, and the stone vaults inserted at different levels in the flanking towers as a protection against fire.

 

The last significant addition to the castle, probably made towards the end of the fifteenth century, was a large hall placed on the west side of the outer ward. This was connected with a kitchen in the south-west corner of the inner ward by the enlargement of a thirteenth century embrasure so as to form a passage-way. Buildings placed against the outer curtain reflect the increased complexity of life in the Tudor period, but the provision of an entirely new hall and kitchen suggests that the earlier hall was already ruinous.

 

KIDWELLY is one of the Norman foundations strung out along the coastal plain of South Wales. There is no evidence of any occupation before the grant to Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, and even if a small Celtic settlement existed, it has been without influence on the subsequent development of the site. Like many other Norman settlements which were then continually threatened by a hostile attack from the mountains, Kidwelly stands at the head of an estuary where the river was still navigable at high tide. This situation ensured a line of communications when the castle was surrounded and the roads cut by a Welsh rising.

 

THE SETTLEMENT

 

The settlement consists of two parts, the castle and the walled town on the west bank, and the priory church with the new town on the other side of the river. The two are joined by a two-arched bridge of fourteenth- or fiftecnth-century date. This carried the great road to West Wales, probably replacing an earlier structure. Modern development has greatly altered the appearance of the new town, the last of the picturesque medieval houses having recently been destroyed (1931). The priory church of St. Mary was founded by Bishop Roger before 1115, and became a cell of the abbey of Sherborne. Such foundations are typical of the Norman settlements in South Wales, the alien monks being introduced as a counterpoise to the patriotic sentiments of the native monasteries which too often served as focuses of anti-Norman feeling. The present building dates from the fourteenth century.

From the bridge the road to the castle leads through the defences of the old town. The walls have mostly disappeared, but the main gateway, apparently of early fourtheenth-century date, still spans the road. The line of the defences can still be traced by the earthen bank which preceded the walls. It encloses about eight acres including the castle which it surrounds on all sides except the east. A transverse ditch running west from the castle moat divides it into two nearly equal halves, of which it is probable that only the southern was walled. The defences consist of an earth bank and ditch except on the east, where the steep scarp above the river formed a natural protection. The date of these ramparts is not certainly known, but as the walling of the southern part is to be connected with grants of murage, c1280, and the erection of the gatehouse during the following century, there is good reason for suggesting that they form part of the original Norman settlement.

 

Although the medieval buildings within the walls have been replaced with modern houses, the line of the existing roads probably follows the original layout. Another feature of exceptional interest is the ruins of the medieval mill which with the contemporary weir and leat can be traced on the low ground between the old town and the river. At a comparatively modern date this was replaced by a more efficient type of mill, which in its turn is now disused.

 

THE CASTLE

 

After passing through the south gate of the town the road crosses the settlement and turning to the right reaches the gatehouse of the castle. The original bridge has been replaced by a causeway, the outer end of which starts from a small knoll. Trial excavations failed to recover the plan of the structure which this represented, and as the castle stood within the walled settlement, it is possible that the builders considered a barbican unnecessary.

The gatehall was closed at each end by a double gate preceded by a portcullis. On entering the outer ward the inner gate is seen in the centre of the south curtain of the inner ward. It is a simple structure, a mere arch through the curtain defended by a gate and a portcullis. The inner ward is rectangular with a circular tower at each angle. The earlier hall and solar lie on the east side, with the kitchen between the former and the gate. Behind the hall is the chapel, contained in a bastion projecting down the steep scarp above the river. A later kitchen occupies the south-west corner of the courtyard. The outer defences form a semi-circle based on the river. The masonry curtain and towers date from the fourteenth century, but they follow the lines of the original rampart which was disclosed by the 1931 excavations, and which can still be traced on the north and west sides. The Tudor hall standing free on the west side and several later buildings have encroached on the already restricted area of the outer ward. On the east, where the outer defences do not surround the inner ward, a small mantlet joins the north-east tower and the chapel.

 

The earlier domestic buildings

 

The thirteenth-century domestic buildings occupy the whole of one side of the inner ward. The hall and the solar together form a long range connecting the two eastern towers which are of slightly earlier date. The principal chambers were on the upper floor, below which were low rooms probably used as storehouses. The latter were lighted by narrow widely splayed windows looking on to the courtyard. The present divisions date from the period when the castle was put to base uses, as does the doorway piercing the east curtain and leading to the mantlet and the chapel. The entrance from the courtyard appears to be original. The upper part of the building is almost entirely destroyed. In the outer wall of the solar two trefoiled lancets and a fireplace with quoins and a hood of dressed Sutton stone are preserved. The splay of another window opening into the courtyard can be traced in the west wall, while a recess in the same side marks the position of the door leading into the hall. At the other end of this wall, where it joined the south curtain, the jamb of the doorway leading to the kitchen is visible. The kitchen is a small room with a large fireplace in the thickness of the south curtain. Outside the walls of the kitchen an irregular block of masonry marks the base of the stairs leading up to the hall. The exact position of the screens cannot be determined. From the passage behind them are doors leading to the chapel and the rooms below it, while further entrances give access to the tower.

The south-east tower

 

The south-east tower consists of five storeys. The lowest, a basement lighted by narrow loops, is reached by a door from the storeroom under the hall. The next stage, which has two narrow windows and a fireplace with quoins and hood of Sutton stone, seems originally to have been intended for residence, though after the hall was erected its position would suggest that it served as a buttery. This is confirmed by the contemporary blocking of the archway leading directly from the entrance passage to the circular staircase by which the upper rooms are reached. Like the ground floor, the next two storeys of this tower are decently appointed and seem to have been the private apartments of the castle. One of the narrow windows on the first floor was widened in Tudor times, the jambs of Sutton stone being replaced with a more perishable sandstone. The highest stage is a fourteenth century addition, the earlier battlements being traceable about eight feet below the existing parapet.

The chapel

 

The chapel is in two stages, the semi-octagonal eastern end rising above massive spurs. The clerestory has an unbroken range of trefoiled lancet windows. They are rebated for shutters, but there is no groove for glass. In the lower stage a double piscina and a wide sedile occupy the angle south of the altar. On this side of the building a small rectangular projection forms a sacristy, of which the groined vault is covered with a cruciform roof of stone. Below the chapel are two further storeys. The upper is reached by stairs descending from the passage behind the screens. It has a fireplace on the north side. The small room under the sacristy probably formed the living-quarters of the priest, for whom a garderobe was contrived in the south wall of the main room. The lowest storey was reached by a stair in the thickness of the north wall. The northern entrance to the room below the chapel is later.

The north-east tower

 

The arrangement of this tower differs little from that already described. From the ground floor a narrow passage leads to the outer face of the east curtain. This was designed to give access to the mantlet, and was formed by an alteration of the passage which had led to the wall walk along the eastern curtain. The addition of the hall and the consequent heightening of the curtain has blocked this passage. Here, as in the other towers, access to the wall walk on the remaining sides is obtained from the first floor. The curtain between the two northern towers is pierced by a small postern, closed by a gate and portcullis, and by two embrasures.

The north-west tower

 

The inner side of this tower is recessed so that on plan it appears heart-shaped instead of circular. In this and the following tower the higher level of the courtyard prevented the provision of a separate entrance to the basement, which must have been reached by a trapdoor. The upper part of this tower is particularly well preserved. Not only can the main battlements be traced, but some of those surrounding the small turret which covers the stairs are still in position.

The south-west tower

 

This tower is distinguished from the others by the flat saucer vaults with which each stage is covered. At some period, probably in the sixteenth century, the bottom of the circular staircase was blocked so that access to the upper rooms could only be obtained from the wall walk. This corner of the inner ward is occupied by the Tudor kitchen, which will be described in connection with the hall of that period. Above the inner gate the south wall walk passes through a small ruined chamber from which the portcullis was worked.

The gatehouse

 

The gatehouse is a building of three storeys. The plan is rectangular with two semi-circular towers flanking the entrance, while an elliptical projection on the eastern side commands the defences above the river. The ground floor is occupied by small vaulted chambers lighted by narrow loops through the outer walls. Below the rooms in the two flanking towers are vaulted cellars similarly lighted and approached by stairs opening out of the gate passage. Originally the upper storey was reached by a circular stair leading out of the front room on the west side of the gate, but this was replaced in the early fifteenth century rebuilding by a more convenient staircase in an added turret at the north-west angle.

The principal chambers were on the first floor. The inner side formed the hall lighted by windows with cusped heads looking into the courtyard. Early in the fifteenth-century these were enlarged and traces of the hood-mould surmounting the new rectangular-headed windows can be seen. Originally this hall could only be reached by the inconvenient stairs already mentioned, but later, probably as part of the general remodelling of the gatehouse, a wide external stairway was added leading up from the outer ward and entering the hall by a doorway inserted behind the screens. To the east of the hall lay the vaulted kitchen with a large fireplace and oven. The towers were occupied by two smaller rooms, while a third filled the space to the west of the hall. From the kitchen a door led to the wall walk along the eastern ramparts, while that to the west was reached from a small lobby opening out of the narrow room beyond the hall. Above the hall and stretching over the vault of the kitchen was the solar, reached originally by a small staircase contrived in the inner wall of the hall. The rest of this storey contained three smaller rooms corresponding to those on the floor below. With the exception of the solar all the rooms on the highest storey are covered with flat stone vaults, but the former, like the hall and the smaller chambers on the first floor, had wooden ceilings. From the hall the circular stairs in the added northwest turret led up to the solar and the roof.

 

The outer curtain

 

The curtain enclosing the outer ward follows the crest of the earlier rampart, on which it is built with very shallow foundations. There is a smaller gatehouse with two flanking towers through which the northern outworks could be reached. The western curtain between the two gates was reinforced by three semi-circular towers, while a fourth covered the north-eastern angle of the defences. There is evidence that the shallow foundations built on the top of an artificial bank were already giving trouble during the Middle Ages, and that the western and north-eastern towers with a portion of the adjacent curtain had collapsed before 1500. The latter was replaced by a thinner wall built slightly behind the line of the fourteenth-century curtain, but the slight wall closing the gorge was considered sufficient to replace the former. Access to the wall walk was through the gatehouses or by stairs leading up from the west side of the outer ward. The northern gatehouse is too far ruined to allow its internal arrangement to be reconstructed, but like the towers it was of three storeys. Of the latter that on the south-west is the best preserved. Originally this must have had a half-timbered inner wall, but during the fourteenth or fifteenth century this was replaced by a stone wall which projects beyond the inner face of the curtain. The ground floor was entered from the outer ward, but the upper floors could be reached from the wall walk. The presence of a fireplace on the first floor shows that the towers were intended for occupation.

The later domestic buildings

 

Changes carried out towards the close of the fifteenth century, probably by Sir Rhys ap Tudor, included the provision of more spacious buildings in the outer ward. On the west side a large hall with a high-pitched roof was erected parallel to the inner curtain. Of this only the two gables and the base of the side walls remain. The kitchen to serve this new hall was placed in the south-west angle of the inner ward, a passage being driven through the curtain by the enlargement of one of the original embrasures. The kitchen, a simple rectangular building, has two large fireplaces occupying the whole of each end of the room.

To the same period belong the buildings standing against the east, north and west curtains of the outer ward. The purpose of the first, a large chamber which is very similar in appearance to the late, hall, cannot be determined. The building to the west of the north gate has a large oven built in the thickness of the side wall and was the bakehouse. The remaining structure by the south-west towers has two long narrow rooms, one of which is provided with a fireplace.

 

The invading Normans took only a few years to conquer England after the Battle of Hastings in 1066. But Wales held out for two-and-a-half centuries.

 

Kidwelly Castle is a symbol of this enduring conflict. And it was here in 1136 that a warrior princess turned herself into one of Welsh history’s greatest heroines.

 

Gwenllian was authentic Welsh royalty – sister of the northern prince Owain Gwynedd and wife of Gruffudd ap Rhys, lord of Deheubarth. But she definitely didn’t live the life of a pampered princess.

 

Under constant threat from the Normans she was forced to hide away in the deep forests, where she raised four sons. Her husband was busy building an army and plotting lightning raids. But he chose the wrong time to head north for help.

 

In his absence Maurice de Londres, lord of Kidwelly Castle, began to gather forces for a counter-attack. He had to be stopped. So Gwenllian donned her battledress and entered the field herself.

 

She was ‘like some second Queen of the Amazons’, said the admiring historian Gerald of Wales. Some call her the Welsh Boudicca – the only woman to lead a medieval Welsh army into battle.

 

But they were no match for the Normans. She was captured and beheaded for treason. It’s said a spring welled up where she died – still known as Maes Gwenllian, or the Field of Gwenllian.

 

Her death wasn’t in vain. She inspired a popular uprising that swept the Normans out of West Wales. Finally true poetic justice was achieved by her youngest son, Rhys ap Gruffudd, who was just four years old when his mother died.

 

The Lord Rhys, as he was later known, captured Kidwelly Castle in 1159 and was recognised by King Henry II as the undisputed ruler of the region. But his death in 1197 provoked a power struggle. Just four years later the castle was back in Anglo-Norman hands.

 

You can pay tribute to brave and beautiful Princess Gwenllian at her monument near the castle gatehouse. You might even spot the headless ghost that’s reputed to stalk the grounds.

 

Carmarthenshire is a county in the south-west of Wales. The three largest towns are Llanelli, Carmarthen and Ammanford. Carmarthen is the county town and administrative centre. The county is known as the "Garden of Wales" and is also home to the National Botanic Garden of Wales.

 

Carmarthenshire has been inhabited since prehistoric times. The county town was founded by the Romans, and the region was part of the Kingdom of Deheubarth in the High Middle Ages. After invasion by the Normans in the 12th and 13th centuries it was subjugated, along with other parts of Wales, by Edward I of England. There was further unrest in the early 15th century, when the Welsh rebelled under Owain Glyndŵr, and during the English Civil War.

 

Carmarthenshire is mainly an agricultural county, apart from the southeastern part which was once heavily industrialised with coal mining, steel-making and tin-plating. In the north of the county, the woollen industry was very important in the 18th century. The economy depends on agriculture, forestry, fishing and tourism. West Wales was identified in 2014 as the worst-performing region in the United Kingdom along with the South Wales Valleys with the decline in its industrial base, and the low profitability of the livestock sector.

 

Carmarthenshire, as a tourist destination, offers a wide range of outdoor activities. Much of the coast is fairly flat; it includes the Millennium Coastal Park, which extends for ten miles to the west of Llanelli; the National Wetlands Centre; a championship golf course; and the harbours of Burry Port and Pembrey. The sandy beaches at Llansteffan and Pendine are further west. Carmarthenshire has a number of medieval castles, hillforts and standing stones. The Dylan Thomas Boathouse is at Laugharne.

 

Stone tools found in Coygan Cave, near Laugharne indicate the presence of hominins, probably neanderthals, at least 40,000 years ago, though, as in the rest of the British Isles, continuous habitation by modern humans is not known before the end of the Younger Dryas, around 11,500 years BP. Before the Romans arrived in Britain, the land now forming the county of Carmarthenshire was part of the kingdom of the Demetae who gave their name to the county of Dyfed; it contained one of their chief settlements, Moridunum, now known as Carmarthen. The Romans established two forts in South Wales, one at Caerwent to control the southeast of the country, and one at Carmarthen to control the southwest. The fort at Carmarthen dates from around 75 AD, and there is a Roman amphitheatre nearby, so this probably makes Carmarthen the oldest continually occupied town in Wales.

 

Carmarthenshire has its early roots in the region formerly known as Ystrad Tywi ("Vale of [the river] Tywi") and part of the Kingdom of Deheubarth during the High Middle Ages, with the court at Dinefwr. After the Normans had subjugated England they tried to subdue Wales. Carmarthenshire was disputed between the Normans and the Welsh lords and many of the castles built around this time, first of wood and then stone, changed hands several times. Following the Conquest of Wales by Edward I, the region was reorganized by the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 into Carmarthenshire. Edward I made Carmarthen the capital of this new county, establishing his courts of chancery and his exchequer there, and holding the Court of Great Sessions in Wales in the town.

 

The Normans transformed Carmarthen into an international trading port, the only staple port in Wales. Merchants imported food and French wines and exported wool, pelts, leather, lead and tin. In the late medieval period the county's fortunes varied, as good and bad harvests occurred, increased taxes were levied by England, there were episodes of plague, and recruitment for wars removed the young men. Carmarthen was particularly susceptible to plague as it was brought in by flea-infested rats on board ships from southern France.

 

In 1405, Owain Glyndŵr captured Carmarthen Castle and several other strongholds in the neighbourhood. However, when his support dwindled, the principal men of the county returned their allegiance to King Henry V. During the English Civil War, Parliamentary forces under Colonel Roland Laugharne besieged and captured Carmarthen Castle but later abandoned the cause, and joined the Royalists. In 1648, Carmarthen Castle was recaptured by the Parliamentarians, and Oliver Cromwell ordered it to be slighted.

 

The first industrial canal in Wales was built in 1768 to convey coal from the Gwendraeth Valley to the coast, and the following year, the earliest tramroad bridge was on the tramroad built alongside the canal. During the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) there was increased demand for coal, iron and agricultural goods, and the county prospered. The landscape changed as much woodland was cleared to make way for more food production, and mills, power stations, mines and factories sprang up between Llanelli and Pembrey. Carmarthenshire was at the centre of the Rebecca Riots around 1840, when local farmers and agricultural workers dressed as women and rebelled against higher taxes and tolls.

 

On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, Carmarthenshire joined Cardiganshire and Pembrokeshire in the new county of Dyfed; Carmarthenshire was divided into three districts: Carmarthen, Llanelli and Dinefwr. Twenty-two years later this amalgamation was reversed when, under the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994, the original county boundaries were reinstated.

 

The county is bounded to the north by Ceredigion, to the east by Powys (historic county Brecknockshire), Neath Port Talbot (historic county Glamorgan) and Swansea (also Glamorgan), to the south by the Bristol Channel and to the west by Pembrokeshire. Much of the county is upland and hilly. The Black Mountain range dominates the east of the county, with the lower foothills of the Cambrian Mountains to the north across the valley of the River Towy. The south coast contains many fishing villages and sandy beaches. The highest point (county top) is the minor summit of Fan Foel, height 781 metres (2,562 ft), which is a subsidiary top of the higher mountain of Fan Brycheiniog, height 802.5 metres (2,633 ft) (the higher summit, as its name suggests, is actually across the border in Brecknockshire/Powys). Carmarthenshire is the largest historic county by area in Wales.

 

The county is drained by several important rivers which flow southwards into the Bristol Channel, especially the River Towy, and its several tributaries, such as the River Cothi. The Towy is the longest river flowing entirely within Wales. Other rivers include the Loughor (which forms the eastern boundary with Glamorgan), the River Gwendraeth and the River Taf. The River Teifi forms much of the border between Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion, and there are a number of towns in the Teifi Valley which have communities living on either side of the river and hence in different counties. Carmarthenshire has a long coastline which is deeply cut by the estuaries of the Loughor in the east and the Gwendraeth, Tywi and Taf, which enter the sea on the east side of Carmarthen Bay. The coastline includes notable beaches such as Pendine Sands and Cefn Sidan sands, and large areas of foreshore are uncovered at low tide along the Loughor and Towy estuaries.

 

The principal towns in the county are Ammanford, Burry Port, Carmarthen, Kidwelly, Llanelli, Llandeilo, Newcastle Emlyn, Llandovery, St Clears, and Whitland. The principal industries are agriculture, forestry, fishing and tourism. Although Llanelli is by far the largest town in the county, the county town remains Carmarthen, mainly due to its central location.

 

Carmarthenshire is predominantly an agricultural county, with only the southeastern area having any significant amount of industry. The best agricultural land is in the broad Tywi Valley, especially its lower reaches. With its fertile land and agricultural produce, Carmarthenshire is known as the "Garden of Wales". The lowest bridge over the river is at Carmarthen, and the Towi Estuary cuts the southwesterly part of the county, including Llansteffan and Laugharne, off from the more urban southeastern region. This area is also bypassed by the main communication routes into Pembrokeshire. A passenger ferry service used to connect Ferryside with Llansteffan until the early part of the twentieth century.

 

Agriculture and forestry are the main sources of income over most of the county of Carmarthenshire. On improved pastures, dairying is important and in the past, the presence of the railway enabled milk to be transported to the urban areas of England. The creamery at Whitland is now closed but milk processing still takes place at Newcastle Emlyn where mozzarella cheese is made. On upland pastures and marginal land, livestock rearing of cattle and sheep is the main agricultural activity. The estuaries of the Loughor and Towy provide pickings for the cockle industry.

 

Llanelli, Ammanford and the upper parts of the Gwendraeth Valley are situated on the South Wales Coalfield. The opencast mining activities in this region have now ceased but the old mining settlements with terraced housing remain, often centred on their nonconformist chapels. Kidwelly had a tin-plating industry in the eighteenth century, with Llanelli following not long after, so that by the end of the nineteenth century, Llanelli was the world-centre of the industry. There is little trace of these industrial activities today. Llanelli and Burry Port served at one time for the export of coal, but trade declined, as it did from the ports of Kidwelly and Carmarthen as their estuaries silted up. Country towns in the more agricultural part of the county still hold regular markets where livestock is traded.

 

In the north of the county, in and around the Teifi Valley, there was a thriving woollen industry in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Here water-power provided the energy to drive the looms and other machinery at the mills. The village of Dre-fach Felindre at one time contained twenty-four mills and was known as the "Huddersfield of Wales". The demand for woollen cloth declined in the twentieth century and so did the industry.

 

In 2014, West Wales was identified as the worst-performing region in the United Kingdom along with the South Wales Valleys. The gross value added economic indicator showed a figure of £14,763 per head in these regions, as compared with a GVA of £22,986 for Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan. The Welsh Assembly Government is aware of this, and helped by government initiatives and local actions, opportunities for farmers to diversify have emerged. These include farm tourism, rural crafts, specialist food shops, farmers' markets and added-value food products.

 

Carmarthenshire County Council produced a fifteen-year plan that highlighted six projects which it hoped would create five thousand new jobs. The sectors involved would be in the "creative industries, tourism, agri-food, advanced manufacturing, energy and environment, and financial and professional services".

 

Carmarthenshire became an administrative county with a county council taking over functions from the Quarter Sessions under the Local Government Act 1888. Under the Local Government Act 1972, the administrative county of Carmarthenshire was abolished on 1 April 1974 and the area of Carmarthenshire became three districts within the new county of Dyfed : Carmarthen, Dinefwr and Llanelli. Under the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994, Dyfed was abolished on 1 April 1996 and Carmarthenshire was re-established as a county. The three districts united to form a unitary authority which had the same boundaries as the traditional county of Carmarthenshire. In 2003, the Clynderwen community council area was transferred to the administrative county of Pembrokeshire.

 

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, Carmarthen and Wrexham were the two most populous towns in Wales. In 1931, the county's population was 171,445 and in 1951, 164,800. At the census in 2011, Carmarthenshire had a population of 183,777. Population levels have thus dipped and then increased again over the course of eighty years. The population density in Carmarthenshire is 0.8 persons per hectare compared to 1.5 per hectare in Wales as a whole.

 

Carmarthenshire was the most populous of the five historic counties of Wales to remain majority Welsh-speaking throughout the 20th century. According to the 1911 Census, 84.9 per cent of the county's population were Welsh-speaking (compared with 43.5 per cent in all of Wales), with 20.5 per cent of Carmarthenshire's overall population being monolingual Welsh-speakers.

 

In 1931, 82.3 per cent could speak Welsh and in 1951, 75.2 per cent. By the 2001 census, 50.3 per cent of people living in Carmarthenshire could speak Welsh, with 39 per cent being able to read and write the language as well.

 

The 2011 census showed a further decline, with 43.9 per cent speaking Welsh, making it a minority language in the county for the first time. However, the 2011 census also showed that 3,000 more people could understand spoken Welsh than in 2001 and that 60% of 5-14-year-olds could speak Welsh (a 5% increase since 2001). A decade later, the 2021 census, showed further decrease, to 39.9% Welsh speakers -- the largest percentage drop in all of Wales.

 

With its strategic location and history, the county is rich in archaeological remains such as forts, earthworks and standing stones. Carn Goch is one of the most impressive Iron Age forts and stands on a hilltop near Llandeilo. The Bronze Age is represented by chambered cairns and standing stones on Mynydd Llangyndeyrn, near Llangyndeyrn. Castles that can be easily accessed include Carreg Cennen, Dinefwr, Kidwelly, Laugharne, Llansteffan and Newcastle Emlyn Castle. There are the ruinous remains of Talley Abbey, and the coastal village of Laugharne is for ever associated with Dylan Thomas. Stately homes in the county include Aberglasney House and Gardens, Golden Grove and Newton House.

 

There are plenty of opportunities in the county for hiking, observing wildlife and admiring the scenery. These include Brechfa Forest, the Pembrey Country Park, the Millennium Coastal Park at Llanelli, the WWT Llanelli Wetlands Centre and the Carmel National Nature Reserve. There are large stretches of golden sands and the Wales Coast Path now provides a continuous walking route around the whole of Wales.

 

The National Botanic Garden of Wales displays plants from Wales and from all around the world, and the Carmarthenshire County Museum, the National Wool Museum, the Parc Howard Museum, the Pendine Museum of Speed and the West Wales Museum of Childhood all provide opportunities to delve into the past. Dylan Thomas Boathouse where the author wrote many of his works can be visited, as can the Roman-worked Dolaucothi Gold Mines.

 

Activities available in the county include rambling, cycling, fishing, kayaking, canoeing, sailing, horse riding, caving, abseiling and coasteering.[7] Carmarthen Town A.F.C. plays in the Cymru Premier. They won the Welsh Football League Cup in the 1995–96 season, and since then have won the Welsh Cup once and the Welsh League Cup twice. Llanelli Town A.F.C. play in the Welsh Football League Division Two. The club won the Welsh premier league and Loosemores challenge cup in 2008 and won the Welsh Cup in 2011, but after experiencing financial difficulties, were wound up and reformed under the present title in 2013. Scarlets is the regional professional rugby union team that plays in the Pro14, they play their home matches at their ground, Parc y Scarlets. Honours include winning the 2003/04 and 2016/17 Pro12. Llanelli RFC is a semi-professional rugby union team that play in the Welsh Premier Division, also playing home matches at Parc y Scarlets. Among many honours, they have been WRU Challenge Cup winners on fourteen occasions and frequently taken part in the Heineken Cup. West Wales Raiders, based in Llanelli, represent the county in Rugby league.

 

Some sporting venues utilise disused industrial sites. Ffos Las racecourse was built on the site of an open cast coal mine after mining operations ceased. Opened in 2009, it was the first racecourse built in the United Kingdom for eighty years and has regular race-days. Machynys is a championship golf course opened in 2005 and built as part of the Llanelli Waterside regeneration plan. Pembrey Circuit is a motor racing circuit near Pembrey village, considered the home of Welsh motorsport, providing racing for cars, motorcycles, karts and trucks. It was opened in 1989 on a former airfield, is popular for testing and has hosted many events including the British Touring Car Championship twice. The 2018 Tour of Britain cycling race started at Pembrey on 2 September 2018.

 

Carmarthenshire is served by the main line railway service operated by Transport for Wales Rail which links London Paddington, Cardiff Central and Swansea to southwest Wales. The main hub is Carmarthen railway station where some services from the east terminate. The line continues westwards with several branches which serve Pembroke Dock, Milford Haven and Fishguard Harbour (for the ferry to Rosslare Europort and connecting trains to Dublin Connolly). The Heart of Wales Line takes a scenic route through mid-Wales and links Llanelli with Craven Arms, from where passengers can travel on the Welsh Marches Line to Shrewsbury.

 

Two heritage railways, the Gwili Railway and the Teifi Valley Railway, use the track of the Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway that at one time ran from Carmarthen to Newcastle Emlyn, but did not reach Cardigan.

 

The A40, A48, A484 and A485 converge on Carmarthen. The M4 route that links South Wales with London, terminates at junction 49, the Pont Abraham services, to continue northwest as the dual carriageway A48, and to finish with its junction with the A40 in Carmarthen.

 

Llanelli is linked to M4 junction 48 by the A4138. The A40 links Carmarthen to Llandeilo, Llandovery and Brecon to the east, and with St Clears, Whitland and Haverfordwest to the west. The A484 links Llanelli with Carmarthen by a coastal route and continues northwards to Cardigan, and via the A486 and A487 to Aberystwyth, and the A485 links Carmarthen to Lampeter.

 

Bus services run between the main towns within the county and are operated by First Cymru under their "Western Welsh" or "Cymru Clipper" livery. Bus services from Carmarthenshire are also run to Cardiff. A bus service known as "fflecsi Bwcabus" (formerly just "Bwcabus") operates in the north of the county, offering customised transport to rural dwellers.

 

Carmarthenshire has rich, fertile farmland and a productive coast with estuaries providing a range of foods that motivate many home cooks and chefs.

Sequoia National Park is an American national park in the southern Sierra Nevada east of Visalia, California. The park was established on September 25, 1890, to protect 404,064 acres (631 sq mi; 163,519 ha; 1,635 km2) of forested mountainous terrain. Encompassing a vertical relief of nearly 13,000 feet (4,000 m), the park contains the highest point in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 feet (4,421 m) above sea level. The park is south of, and contiguous with, Kings Canyon National Park; both parks are administered by the National Park Service together as the Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. UNESCO designated the areas as Sequoia-Kings Canyon Biosphere Reserve in 1976.

 

The park is notable for its giant sequoia trees, including the General Sherman tree, the largest tree on Earth by volume. The General Sherman tree grows in the Giant Forest, which contains five of the ten largest trees in the world. The Giant Forest is connected by the Generals Highway to Kings Canyon National Park's General Grant Grove, home of the General Grant tree among other giant sequoias. The park's giant sequoia forests are part of 202,430 acres (316 sq mi; 81,921 ha; 819 km2) of old-growth forests shared by Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. The parks preserve a landscape that was first cultivated by the Monachee tribe, the southern Sierra Nevada before Euro-American settlement.

 

The national park was partially closed in September 2020 due to the Sequoia Complex wildfire, and again from mid-September through mid-December 2021 due to the KNP Complex Fire.

 

Many park visitors enter Sequoia National Park through its southern entrance near the town of Three Rivers at Ash Mountain at 1,700 ft (520 m) elevation. The lower elevations around Ash Mountain contain the only National Park Service-protected California Foothills ecosystem, consisting of blue oak woodlands, foothills chaparral, grasslands, yucca plants, and steep, mild river valleys. Seasonal weather results in a changing landscape throughout the foothills with hot summer yielding an arid landscape while spring and winter rains result in blossoming wildflowers and lush greens. The region is also home to abundant wildlife: bobcats, foxes, ground squirrels, rattlesnakes, and mule deer are commonly seen in this area, and more rarely, reclusive mountain lions and the Pacific fisher are seen as well. The last California grizzly was killed in this park in 1922 (at Horse Corral Meadow). The California Black Oak is a key transition species between the chaparral and higher elevation conifer forest.

 

At higher elevations in the front country, between 5,500 and 9,000 feet (1,700 and 2,700 m) in elevation, the landscape becomes montane forest-dominated coniferous belt. Found here are Ponderosa, Jeffrey, sugar, and lodgepole pine trees, as well as abundant white and red fir. Found here too are the giant sequoia trees, the most massive living single-stem trees on earth. Between the trees, spring and summer snowmelts sometimes fan out to form lush, though delicate, meadows. In this region, visitors often see mule deer, Douglas squirrels, and American black bears, which sometimes break into unattended cars to eat food left by careless visitors. There are plans to reintroduce the bighorn sheep to this park.

 

The vast majority of the park is roadless wilderness; no road crosses the Sierra Nevada within the park's boundaries. 84 percent of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks is designated wilderness and is accessible only by foot or by horseback. The majority was designated Sequoia-Kings Canyon Wilderness in 1984 and the southwest portion was protected as John Krebs Wilderness in 2009.

 

Sequoia's backcountry offers a vast expanse of high-alpine wonders. Covering the highest-elevation region of the High Sierra, the backcountry includes Mount Whitney on the eastern border of the park, accessible from the Giant Forest via the High Sierra Trail. On a traveler's path along this 35-mile (56 km) backcountry trail, one passes through about 10 miles (16 km) of montane forest before reaching the backcountry resort of Bearpaw Meadow, just short of the Great Western Divide.

 

Continuing along the High Sierra Trail over the Great Western Divide via Kaweah Gap, one passes from the Kaweah River Drainage, with its characteristic V-shaped river valleys, and into the Kern River drainage, where an ancient fault line has aided glaciers in the last ice age to create a U-shaped canyon that is almost perfectly straight for nearly 20 miles (32 km). On the floor of this canyon, at least two days hike from the nearest road, is the Kern Canyon hot spring, a popular resting point for weary backpackers. From the floor of Kern Canyon, the trail ascends again over 8,000 ft (2,400 m) to the summit of Mount Whitney. At Mount Whitney, the High Sierra Trail meets with the John Muir Trail and the Pacific Crest Trail, which continue northward along the Sierra crest and into the backcountry of Kings Canyon National Park.

 

The area which now is Sequoia National Park shows evidence of Native American settlement as early as 1000 A.D.[ The area was first home to "Monachee" (Western Mono) Native Americans, who resided mainly in the Kaweah River drainage in the Foothills region of what is now the park, though evidence of seasonal habitation exists as high as the Giant Forest. Members of this tribe were permanent residents of the park, with a population estimate of around 2,000. In the summertime the Tubatulabal Native Americans used the eastern part of the area (the Kern River drainage) as their summer hunting grounds. During this time, the Western Mono tribe would travel over the high mountain passes to trade with tribes to the East. To this day, pictographs can be found at several sites within the park, notably at Hospital Rock and Potwisha, as well as bedrock mortars used to process acorns, a staple food for the Monachee people.

 

The first European settler to homestead in the area was Hale Tharp, who famously built a home out of a hollowed-out fallen giant sequoia log in the Giant Forest next to Log Meadow. Tharp arrived in 1858 to the region and encountered several groups of Native Americans, the largest being around 600 with several other smaller groups found at higher elevations. After becoming friendly with the Western Mono tribe, Tharp was shown the Giant Forest Sequoia Grove. After his settlement, more settlers came around 1860. Shortly thereafter - between 1860 and 1863, epidemics of smallpox, measles, and scarlet fever killed the majority of the Native Americans living in the area. After this, the rest of the Native Americans left with the largest campsite (Hospital Rock) abandoned by 1865. During their time in the area, the Monachee used periodic fire burning to aid in hunting and agriculture. This technique played an important role in the ecology of the region and allowed for a "natural" vegetation cover development. After they left, Tharp and other settlers allowed sheep and cattle to graze the meadow, while at the same time maintaining a respect for the grandeur of the forest and led early battles against logging in the area. From time to time, Tharp received visits from John Muir, who would stay at Tharp's log cabin. Tharp's Log can still be visited today in its original location in the Giant Forest.

 

However, Tharp's attempts to conserve the giant sequoias were at first met with only limited success. In the 1880s, white settlers seeking to create a utopian society founded the Kaweah Colony, which sought economic success in trading Sequoia timber. However, Giant Sequoia trees, unlike their coast redwood relatives, were later discovered to splinter easily and therefore were ill-suited to timber harvesting, though thousands of trees were felled before logging operations finally ceased. The National Park Service incorporated the Giant Forest into Sequoia National Park in 1890, the year of its founding, promptly ceasing all logging operations in the Giant Forest.

 

Another consequence of the Giant Forest becoming Sequoia National Park was the shift in park employment. Prior to the incorporation by the National Park Service, the park was managed by US army troops of the 24th Regiment of Infantry and the 9th Regiment of Cavalry, better known as the Buffalo Soldiers. These segregated troops, founded in 1866, were African-American men from the South, an invaluable demographic to the military with the lowest rates of desertion. The Buffalo Soldiers completed park infrastructure projects as well as park management duties, helping to shape the role of the modern-day park ranger. The Buffalo Soldiers rose to this position due to a lack of funding for the park which led to an inability to hire civilians. The third African American West Point graduate, Captain Charles Young led the cavalries of Buffalo Soldiers in the Sequoia and General Grant Parks. Young landed this post as a result of the segregation rampant throughout the Army: as a black man, he was not permitted to head any combat units. He did, however, demonstrate his leadership capability through his initiatives in the National Park delegating park infrastructure projects, hosting tourists and politicians, and setting a standard of a strong work ethic into his men. Young was also a prominent figure regarding the early conservation of Sequoia National Park. He greenlighted the dedication of trees in honor of prominent figures as a means of promoting their preservation. One such example is the Redwood dedicated to the escaped slave and activist, Booker T Washington. Young also argued to the Secretary of the Interior that the lack of enforcement of forest protection laws allowed the detrimental practices of logging and the popular tourist hobby of carving names into the redwoods to continue. To combat this, Young increased patrolling of troops around heavily trafficked areas and initiated a proposal to buy out private landowners surrounding Sequoia to further buffer the protected area.

 

The land buyouts Young initiated were just the beginning of increasing the area of Sequoia National Park. The park has expanded several times over the decades to its present size; one of the most significant expansions took place in 1926 and was advocated for by Susan Thew Parks. One of the most recent expansions occurred in 1978, when grassroots efforts, spearheaded by the Sierra Club, fought off attempts by the Walt Disney Corporation to purchase a high-alpine former mining site south of the park for use as a ski resort. This site known as Mineral King was annexed to the park. Its name dates back to early 1873 when the miners in the area formed the Mineral King Mining District. Mineral King is the highest-elevation developed site within the park and a popular destination for backpackers.

 

Sequoia National Park contains a significant portion of the Sierra Nevada. The park's mountainous landscape includes the tallest mountain in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney, which rises to 14,505 feet (4,421 m) above sea level. The Great Western Divide parallels the Sierran crest and is visible at various places in the park, for example, Mineral King, Moro Rock, and the Giant Forest. Peaks in the Great Western Divide rise to more than 12,000 feet (3,700 m). Deep canyons lie between the mountains, including Tokopah Valley above Lodgepole, Deep Canyon on the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, and Kern Canyon in the park's backcountry, which is more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) deep for 30 miles (48 km).

 

Most of the mountains and canyons in the Sierra Nevada are composed of granitic rocks. These rocks, such as granite, diorite and monzonite, formed when molten rock cooled far beneath the surface of the earth. The molten rock was the result of a geologic process known as subduction. Powerful forces in the earth forced the landmass under the waters of the Pacific Ocean beneath and below an advancing North American Continent. Super-hot water driven from the subducting ocean floor migrated upward and melted rock as it proceeded. This process took place during the Cretaceous Period, 100 million years ago. Granitic rocks have a speckled salt-and-pepper appearance because they contain various minerals including quartz, feldspars and micas. Valhalla, or the Angel Wings, are prominent granitic cliffs that rise above the headwaters of the Middle Fork of the Kaweah River.

 

The Sierra Nevada is a young mountain range, probably not more than 10 million years old. Forces in the earth, probably associated with the development of the Great Basin, forced the mountains to rise. During the last 10 million years, at least four ice ages have coated the mountains in a thick mantle of ice. Glaciers form and develop during long periods of cool and wet weather. Glaciers move very slowly through the mountains, carving deep valleys and craggy peaks. The extensive history of glaciation within the range and the erosion resistant nature of the granitic rocks that make up most of the Sierra Nevada have together created a landscape of hanging valleys, waterfalls, craggy peaks, alpine lakes (such as Tulainyo Lake) and glacial canyons.

 

Park caves, like most caves in the Sierra Nevada of California, are mostly solutional caves dissolved from marble. Marble rock is essentially limestone that was metamorphosed by the heat and pressure of the formation and uplift of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. The batholith's rapid uplift over the past 10 million years led to a rapid erosion of the metamorphic rocks in the higher elevations, exposing the granite beneath; therefore, most Sierra Nevada caves are found in the middle and lower elevations (below 7,000 ft or 2,100 m), though some caves are found in the park at elevations as high as 10,000 ft (3,000 m) such as the White Chief cave and Cirque Cave in Mineral King. These caves are carved out of the rock by the abundant seasonal streams in the park. Most of the larger park caves have, or have had, sinking streams running through them.

 

The park contains more than 270 known caves, including Lilburn Cave which is California's longest cave with nearly 17 miles (27 km) of surveyed passages. The only commercial cave open to park visitors is Crystal Cave, the park's second-longest cave at over 3.4 miles (5.5 km). Crystal Cave was discovered on April 28, 1918, by Alex Medley and Cassius Webster. The cave is a constant 48 °F (9 °C), and is only accessible by guided tour.

 

Caves are discovered every year in the park with the most recently discovered major cave being Ursa Minor in August 2006.

 

According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Sequoia National Park encompasses five classifications listed here from highest to lowest elevation; Alpine tundra & barren vegetation type with an Alpine tundra vegetation form...Pinus contorta/ Subalpine zone vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest vegetation form...Abies magnifica vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest vegetation form...Mixed conifer vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest vegetation form...and Chaparral vegetation type with a California chaparral and woodlands vegetation form.

 

Animals that inhabit this park are coyote, badger, black bear, bighorn sheep, deer, fox, cougar, eleven species of woodpecker, various species of turtle, three species of owl, opossum, various species of snake, wolverine, beaver, various species of frog, and muskrat.

 

California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2 million residents across a total area of approximately 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the most populated subnational entity in North America and the 34th most populous in the world. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second and fifth most populous urban regions respectively, with the former having more than 18.7 million residents and the latter having over 9.6 million. Sacramento is the state's capital, while Los Angeles is the most populous city in the state and the second most populous city in the country. San Francisco is the second most densely populated major city in the country. Los Angeles County is the country's most populous, while San Bernardino County is the largest county by area in the country. California borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, the Mexican state of Baja California to the south; and has a coastline along the Pacific Ocean to the west.

 

The economy of the state of California is the largest in the United States, with a $3.4 trillion gross state product (GSP) as of 2022. It is the largest sub-national economy in the world. If California were a sovereign nation, it would rank as the world's fifth-largest economy as of 2022, behind Germany and ahead of India, as well as the 37th most populous. The Greater Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation's second- and third-largest urban economies ($1.0 trillion and $0.5 trillion respectively as of 2020). The San Francisco Bay Area Combined Statistical Area had the nation's highest gross domestic product per capita ($106,757) among large primary statistical areas in 2018, and is home to five of the world's ten largest companies by market capitalization and four of the world's ten richest people.

 

Prior to European colonization, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America and contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now Mexico. European exploration in the 16th and 17th centuries led to the colonization of California by the Spanish Empire. In 1804, it was included in Alta California province within the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its successful war for independence, but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican–American War. The California Gold Rush started in 1848 and led to dramatic social and demographic changes, including large-scale immigration into California, a worldwide economic boom, and the California genocide of indigenous people. The western portion of Alta California was then organized and admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850, following the Compromise of 1850.

 

Notable contributions to popular culture, for example in entertainment and sports, have their origins in California. The state also has made noteworthy contributions in the fields of communication, information, innovation, environmentalism, economics, and politics. It is the home of Hollywood, the oldest and one of the largest film industries in the world, which has had a profound influence upon global entertainment. It is considered the origin of the hippie counterculture, beach and car culture, and the personal computer, among other innovations. The San Francisco Bay Area and the Greater Los Angeles Area are widely seen as the centers of the global technology and film industries, respectively. California's economy is very diverse: 58% of it is based on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific, and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5% of the state's economy, California's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state. California's ports and harbors handle about a third of all U.S. imports, most originating in Pacific Rim international trade.

 

The state's extremely diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast and metropolitan areas in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, and from the redwood and Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast. The Central Valley, a major agricultural area, dominates the state's center. California is well known for its warm Mediterranean climate and monsoon seasonal weather. The large size of the state results in climates that vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north to arid desert in the interior, as well as snowy alpine in the mountains.

 

Settled by successive waves of arrivals during at least the last 13,000 years, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America. Various estimates of the native population have ranged from 100,000 to 300,000. The indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct ethnic groups, inhabiting environments from mountains and deserts to islands and redwood forests. These groups were also diverse in their political organization, with bands, tribes, villages, and on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered social and economic relationships between many groups.

 

The first Europeans to explore the coast of California were the members of a Spanish maritime expedition led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542. Cabrillo was commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza, the Viceroy of New Spain, to lead an expedition up the Pacific coast in search of trade opportunities; they entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542, and reached at least as far north as San Miguel Island. Privateer and explorer Francis Drake explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579, landing north of the future city of San Francisco. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain, putting ashore in Monterey. Despite the on-the-ground explorations of California in the 16th century, Rodríguez's idea of California as an island persisted. Such depictions appeared on many European maps well into the 18th century.

 

The Portolá expedition of 1769-70 was a pivotal event in the Spanish colonization of California, resulting in the establishment of numerous missions, presidios, and pueblos. The military and civil contingent of the expedition was led by Gaspar de Portolá, who traveled over land from Sonora into California, while the religious component was headed by Junípero Serra, who came by sea from Baja California. In 1769, Portolá and Serra established Mission San Diego de Alcalá and the Presidio of San Diego, the first religious and military settlements founded by the Spanish in California. By the end of the expedition in 1770, they would establish the Presidio of Monterey and Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo on Monterey Bay.

 

After the Portolà expedition, Spanish missionaries led by Father-President Serra set out to establish 21 Spanish missions of California along El Camino Real ("The Royal Road") and along the Californian coast, 16 sites of which having been chosen during the Portolá expedition. Numerous major cities in California grew out of missions, including San Francisco (Mission San Francisco de Asís), San Diego (Mission San Diego de Alcalá), Ventura (Mission San Buenaventura), or Santa Barbara (Mission Santa Barbara), among others.

 

Juan Bautista de Anza led a similarly important expedition throughout California in 1775–76, which would extend deeper into the interior and north of California. The Anza expedition selected numerous sites for missions, presidios, and pueblos, which subsequently would be established by settlers. Gabriel Moraga, a member of the expedition, would also christen many of California's prominent rivers with their names in 1775–1776, such as the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River. After the expedition, Gabriel's son, José Joaquín Moraga, would found the pueblo of San Jose in 1777, making it the first civilian-established city in California.

  

The Spanish founded Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1776, the third to be established of the Californian missions.

During this same period, sailors from the Russian Empire explored along the northern coast of California. In 1812, the Russian-American Company established a trading post and small fortification at Fort Ross on the North Coast. Fort Ross was primarily used to supply Russia's Alaskan colonies with food supplies. The settlement did not meet much success, failing to attract settlers or establish long term trade viability, and was abandoned by 1841.

 

During the War of Mexican Independence, Alta California was largely unaffected and uninvolved in the revolution, though many Californios supported independence from Spain, which many believed had neglected California and limited its development. Spain's trade monopoly on California had limited the trade prospects of Californians. Following Mexican independence, Californian ports were freely able to trade with foreign merchants. Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá presided over the transition from Spanish colonial rule to independent.

 

In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave the Mexican Empire (which included California) independence from Spain. For the next 25 years, Alta California remained a remote, sparsely populated, northwestern administrative district of the newly independent country of Mexico, which shortly after independence became a republic. The missions, which controlled most of the best land in the state, were secularized by 1834 and became the property of the Mexican government. The governor granted many square leagues of land to others with political influence. These huge ranchos or cattle ranches emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Hispanics native of California) who traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beef did not become a commodity until the 1849 California Gold Rush.

 

From the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Oregon Trail and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts in and surrounding California. The early government of the newly independent Mexico was highly unstable, and in a reflection of this, from 1831 onwards, California also experienced a series of armed disputes, both internal and with the central Mexican government. During this tumultuous political period Juan Bautista Alvarado was able to secure the governorship during 1836–1842. The military action which first brought Alvarado to power had momentarily declared California to be an independent state, and had been aided by Anglo-American residents of California, including Isaac Graham. In 1840, one hundred of those residents who did not have passports were arrested, leading to the Graham Affair, which was resolved in part with the intercession of Royal Navy officials.

 

One of the largest ranchers in California was John Marsh. After failing to obtain justice against squatters on his land from the Mexican courts, he determined that California should become part of the United States. Marsh conducted a letter-writing campaign espousing the California climate, the soil, and other reasons to settle there, as well as the best route to follow, which became known as "Marsh's route". His letters were read, reread, passed around, and printed in newspapers throughout the country, and started the first wagon trains rolling to California. He invited immigrants to stay on his ranch until they could get settled, and assisted in their obtaining passports.

 

After ushering in the period of organized emigration to California, Marsh became involved in a military battle between the much-hated Mexican general, Manuel Micheltorena and the California governor he had replaced, Juan Bautista Alvarado. The armies of each met at the Battle of Providencia near Los Angeles. Marsh had been forced against his will to join Micheltorena's army. Ignoring his superiors, during the battle, he signaled the other side for a parley. There were many settlers from the United States fighting on both sides. He convinced these men that they had no reason to be fighting each other. As a result of Marsh's actions, they abandoned the fight, Micheltorena was defeated, and California-born Pio Pico was returned to the governorship. This paved the way to California's ultimate acquisition by the United States.

 

In 1846, a group of American settlers in and around Sonoma rebelled against Mexican rule during the Bear Flag Revolt. Afterward, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma. The Republic's only president was William B. Ide,[65] who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. This revolt by American settlers served as a prelude to the later American military invasion of California and was closely coordinated with nearby American military commanders.

 

The California Republic was short-lived; the same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican–American War (1846–48).

 

Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay in 1846 and began the U.S. military invasion of California, with Northern California capitulating in less than a month to the United States forces. In Southern California, Californios continued to resist American forces. Notable military engagements of the conquest include the Battle of San Pasqual and the Battle of Dominguez Rancho in Southern California, as well as the Battle of Olómpali and the Battle of Santa Clara in Northern California. After a series of defensive battles in the south, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing a censure and establishing de facto American control in California.

 

Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848) that ended the war, the westernmost portion of the annexed Mexican territory of Alta California soon became the American state of California, and the remainder of the old territory was then subdivided into the new American Territories of Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah. The even more lightly populated and arid lower region of old Baja California remained as a part of Mexico. In 1846, the total settler population of the western part of the old Alta California had been estimated to be no more than 8,000, plus about 100,000 Native Americans, down from about 300,000 before Hispanic settlement in 1769.

 

In 1848, only one week before the official American annexation of the area, gold was discovered in California, this being an event which was to forever alter both the state's demographics and its finances. Soon afterward, a massive influx of immigration into the area resulted, as prospectors and miners arrived by the thousands. The population burgeoned with United States citizens, Europeans, Chinese and other immigrants during the great California Gold Rush. By the time of California's application for statehood in 1850, the settler population of California had multiplied to 100,000. By 1854, more than 300,000 settlers had come. Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000.

 

The seat of government for California under Spanish and later Mexican rule had been located in Monterey from 1777 until 1845. Pio Pico, the last Mexican governor of Alta California, had briefly moved the capital to Los Angeles in 1845. The United States consulate had also been located in Monterey, under consul Thomas O. Larkin.

 

In 1849, a state Constitutional Convention was first held in Monterey. Among the first tasks of the convention was a decision on a location for the new state capital. The first full legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850–1851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852–1853), and nearby Benicia (1853–1854); these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854 with only a short break in 1862 when legislative sessions were held in San Francisco due to flooding in Sacramento. Once the state's Constitutional Convention had finalized its state constitution, it applied to the U.S. Congress for admission to statehood. On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, California became a free state and September 9 a state holiday.

 

During the American Civil War (1861–1865), California sent gold shipments eastward to Washington in support of the Union. However, due to the existence of a large contingent of pro-South sympathizers within the state, the state was not able to muster any full military regiments to send eastwards to officially serve in the Union war effort. Still, several smaller military units within the Union army were unofficially associated with the state of California, such as the "California 100 Company", due to a majority of their members being from California.

 

At the time of California's admission into the Union, travel between California and the rest of the continental United States had been a time-consuming and dangerous feat. Nineteen years later, and seven years after it was greenlighted by President Lincoln, the First transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869. California was then reachable from the eastern States in a week's time.

 

Much of the state was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat, other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere.

 

In the nineteenth century, a large number of migrants from China traveled to the state as part of the Gold Rush or to seek work. Even though the Chinese proved indispensable in building the transcontinental railroad from California to Utah, perceived job competition with the Chinese led to anti-Chinese riots in the state, and eventually the US ended migration from China partially as a response to pressure from California with the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.

 

Under earlier Spanish and Mexican rule, California's original native population had precipitously declined, above all, from Eurasian diseases to which the indigenous people of California had not yet developed a natural immunity. Under its new American administration, California's harsh governmental policies towards its own indigenous people did not improve. As in other American states, many of the native inhabitants were soon forcibly removed from their lands by incoming American settlers such as miners, ranchers, and farmers. Although California had entered the American union as a free state, the "loitering or orphaned Indians" were de facto enslaved by their new Anglo-American masters under the 1853 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians. There were also massacres in which hundreds of indigenous people were killed.

 

Between 1850 and 1860, the California state government paid around 1.5 million dollars (some 250,000 of which was reimbursed by the federal government) to hire militias whose purpose was to protect settlers from the indigenous populations. In later decades, the native population was placed in reservations and rancherias, which were often small and isolated and without enough natural resources or funding from the government to sustain the populations living on them. As a result, the rise of California was a calamity for the native inhabitants. Several scholars and Native American activists, including Benjamin Madley and Ed Castillo, have described the actions of the California government as a genocide.

 

In the twentieth century, thousands of Japanese people migrated to the US and California specifically to attempt to purchase and own land in the state. However, the state in 1913 passed the Alien Land Act, excluding Asian immigrants from owning land. During World War II, Japanese Americans in California were interned in concentration camps such as at Tule Lake and Manzanar. In 2020, California officially apologized for this internment.

 

Migration to California accelerated during the early 20th century with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to the greatest in the Union. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported California's population as 6.0% Hispanic, 2.4% Asian, and 89.5% non-Hispanic white.

 

To meet the population's needs, major engineering feats like the California and Los Angeles Aqueducts; the Oroville and Shasta Dams; and the Bay and Golden Gate Bridges were built across the state. The state government also adopted the California Master Plan for Higher Education in 1960 to develop a highly efficient system of public education.

 

Meanwhile, attracted to the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and the state's wide variety of geography, filmmakers established the studio system in Hollywood in the 1920s. California manufactured 8.7 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking third (behind New York and Michigan) among the 48 states. California however easily ranked first in production of military ships during the war (transport, cargo, [merchant ships] such as Liberty ships, Victory ships, and warships) at drydock facilities in San Diego, Los Angeles, and the San Francisco Bay Area. After World War II, California's economy greatly expanded due to strong aerospace and defense industries, whose size decreased following the end of the Cold War. Stanford University and its Dean of Engineering Frederick Terman began encouraging faculty and graduates to stay in California instead of leaving the state, and develop a high-tech region in the area now known as Silicon Valley. As a result of these efforts, California is regarded as a world center of the entertainment and music industries, of technology, engineering, and the aerospace industry, and as the United States center of agricultural production. Just before the Dot Com Bust, California had the fifth-largest economy in the world among nations.

 

In the mid and late twentieth century, a number of race-related incidents occurred in the state. Tensions between police and African Americans, combined with unemployment and poverty in inner cities, led to violent riots, such as the 1965 Watts riots and 1992 Rodney King riots. California was also the hub of the Black Panther Party, a group known for arming African Americans to defend against racial injustice and for organizing free breakfast programs for schoolchildren. Additionally, Mexican, Filipino, and other migrant farm workers rallied in the state around Cesar Chavez for better pay in the 1960s and 1970s.

 

During the 20th century, two great disasters happened in California. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and 1928 St. Francis Dam flood remain the deadliest in U.S. history.

 

Although air pollution problems have been reduced, health problems associated with pollution have continued. The brown haze known as "smog" has been substantially abated after the passage of federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.

 

An energy crisis in 2001 led to rolling blackouts, soaring power rates, and the importation of electricity from neighboring states. Southern California Edison and Pacific Gas and Electric Company came under heavy criticism.

 

Housing prices in urban areas continued to increase; a modest home which in the 1960s cost $25,000 would cost half a million dollars or more in urban areas by 2005. More people commuted longer hours to afford a home in more rural areas while earning larger salaries in the urban areas. Speculators bought houses they never intended to live in, expecting to make a huge profit in a matter of months, then rolling it over by buying more properties. Mortgage companies were compliant, as everyone assumed the prices would keep rising. The bubble burst in 2007–8 as housing prices began to crash and the boom years ended. Hundreds of billions in property values vanished and foreclosures soared as many financial institutions and investors were badly hurt.

 

In the twenty-first century, droughts and frequent wildfires attributed to climate change have occurred in the state. From 2011 to 2017, a persistent drought was the worst in its recorded history. The 2018 wildfire season was the state's deadliest and most destructive, most notably Camp Fire.

 

Although air pollution problems have been reduced, health problems associated with pollution have continued. The brown haze that is known as "smog" has been substantially abated thanks to federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.

FDC are incredibly excited to announce the completion of the University of Sydney’s Chau Chak Wing Museum.

 

The Chau Chak Wing Museum is a six-storey development created to consolidate the University’s Macleay, Nicholson and University Art Gallery collections and make possible the showcasing of some of Australia’s most significant artistic, scientific and archaeological artefacts.

 

The six-storey, 7,700sqm museum boasts eight separate galleries, interactive learning spaces, a café, a gift shop and a secure basement storage facility. A key feature is the striking concrete box structure which cantilevers 14m to the south, overlooking the city skyline.

 

An incredibly complex project, the structural engineering of the concrete box was an unequivocal mastery of the art. Below the box, additional concrete precast elements were re-engineered to suit the preferred build methodology, and the majority of in-ceiling services were cast-in to the Level 4 concrete slab, meaning all the plasterboard could be deleted; a major achievement.

 

The unique project also aimed to achieve a 100-year design life of the structure, longevity FDC enacted by galvanising 25% of the reinforcement. These efforts in structural engineering ensure the museum will be of long-term cultural and heritage significance to both the University and the wider community.

 

The Chau Chak Wing Museum was delivered alongside Johnson Pilton Walker, Northrop, IGS, NDY and Coffey.

 

The museum was completed to the Gold Level Standard of the University’s Sustainability Framework model, equivalent to the GBCA’s Greenstar rating.

 

Source:FDC website

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The moon suspended between the Petronas towers, the worlds highest twin towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

 

These towers, which were designed by Cesar Pelli, an Argentine-American architect, and became the tallest buildings in the world on the date of completion in 1998 to 2004. Tower 1 was built by the Hazama Corporation of Japan and Tower 2 was built by the South Korean multinational Samsung Engineering & Construction. Underneath the two towers is a large shopping mall, Suria KLCC, constructed by Bill Harbert International from Alabama, US.

 

Petronas is Malaysia's national oil company,

  

Snape Castle is a semi-fortified manor house in the village of Snape, North Yorkshire, England. The castle is 3 miles (5 km) south of Bedale and 19 miles (31 km) north of Ripon. At the time of Henry VIII, John Leland described it as "...a goodly castel in a valley [be]longing to the Lorde Latimer.." The castle is now a private residence, and is a grade I listed building.

 

References throughout history have indicated that a manor house was built on the site by Ralph FitzRanulph of Middleham. His daughter, the Lady of Middleham married Robert Neville, Robert de Neville's son, and the building stayed in the Neville family until the 16th century. Snape Castle itself, which lies at the western edge of the village of Snape, was built sometime in the early 15th century, (between 1425 and 1430), when George Neville, inherited the land and buildings from his father, Ralph, the Earl of Westmorland. Although variously described as a manor house, or a hall, some thought was given over to defensive measures; the surrounding land, which was prone to flooding and so marshy, was kept in place. The original castle was planned around a courtyard measuring 140 feet (43 m) north to south, and 180 feet (55 m) west to east.

 

During the 15th century, both Cecily Neville and Queen Anne lived at the castle, providing a link to Richard III; Neville being his mother and Anne his wife.

 

In January 1537, a mob stormed the castle and took Katherine Parr and the two children hostage. The mob consisted of members of the Pilgrimage of Grace who were worried that John Neville (Third Baron Latimer, and Parr's then husband), would betray them to Henry VIII. Neville, who was trying to mediate between the King and the northern countrymen, hastened back to the castle where he was able to persuade the mob to leave and release his family. The cleric and antiquary, John Leland described the manor at Snape as "..'a goodly castel in a valley longing to the Lorde Latimer, and ii or iii parkes welle woddid abowt it."

 

In 1577, Sir Thomas Cecil inherited the Manor of Snape through his wife, Dorothy Neville, whom he had married in 1564. In 1577, Thomas set about rebuilding the castle, though he did not use it after 1578 when he inherited the Burghley estate near Stamford from his father. Cecil's renovation of the castle provided its towers, but these were for effect rather than defence, and has led to it being called a "sham castle". The west wall contains an Elizabethan chimney with the date of 1587, the assumed date of the completion of Cecil's efforts.

 

The estate was sold in 1798 to William Milbank of nearby Thorpe Perrow. Still partly inhabited, the castle retains its Perpendicular windows as built by Cecil. The building is now registered with Historic England as a Grade I listed structure.

Philadelphia | PA | US

 

What you didn't know about Philly:

 

Philadelphia, the largest city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, is home to 381 completed high-rises, 29 of which stand taller than 400 feet. The tallest building in the city is currently the 57-story Comcast Center, which rises 974 feet in Center City. Comcast Center is also the tallest building in Pennsylvania and the 14th-tallest building in the United States. The second-tallest building is One Liberty Place, which rises 61 floors and 945 feet. One Liberty Place stood as the tallest building in Pennsylvania for over 20 years until the completion of Comcast Center in 2008. Overall, six of the ten tallest buildings in Pennsylvania are in Philadelphia, with the remainder being in Pittsburgh. Philadelphia is one of only four American cities with two or more completed buildings over 900 feet tall.

 

- Wikipedia

Penygroes was situated on the Menai Bridge & Afon Wen line which opened in stages between 1852 and 1871. It was on the western edge of the village from which it took its name. The section of line through Penygroes was originally part of the Nantlle Railway, a horse-drawn tramway opened in 1827 linking slate quarries at Nantlle with Caernarfon & quayside. Passenger services were operated between 11 August 1856 and 12 June 1865, and one of the stations on the line was at Penygroes. Facilities - if there were any would have been basic. On 29 July 1862, the Carnarvonshire Railway (CR) was authorised to build a line between Caernarfon and Afon Wen. The CR took over the Nantlle Railway between Penygroes and Caernarfon, but not the section up to Nantlle which remained a horse-drawn tramway. In October 1866 the largely completed CR was inspected, but its opening was not approved until 2 September 1867 by which time all work was finished.

 

The station opened as Penygroes on the 2nd September 1867. the line was a single track but at Penygroes a passing loop was provided with two platforms. The main station building was a two-storey brick structure of some elegance and complexity. Located east of the line on what became the 'down' (Afon Wen direction) Platform. On the platform elevation, a two-storey gabled block at the southern end and a tall single-storey element with a hipped roof were either side of a ridged roof section with a smaller cross gable which was fronted by a slanted awning. At the northern end of the building was a further hipped roof section somewhat lower than its neighbour, extending northward with a recessed ridged roof element. Decorative touches included distillation under the eaves, recessed triangular features in the gables and created ridge tiles above the slated roofs. The chimney stacks were multi-faceted, each em-blemished with a protruding ledge and square chimney pots with spiked corners. On the frontage, the two-storey southern block repeated its platform face, but the northern hipped-roof single-storey section carried a large gable-end, with the recessed triangular decoration. The central section, which carried one cross-gable on the platform elevation, presented two gables to the frontage. Within the building were waiting rooms for both sexes, a booking hall, porters office, lamp room, a weigh office, toilets for both sexes and accommodation for the stationmaster. On the platform, a stone waiting shelter with a slate roof was provided. A bridge carried Clynnog Road over the line immediately north of the station building. Originally the platforms ended at the bridge but later they were extended under it northwards.

 

Penygroes had goods sidings west side of the line, south of the station. In 1867 there were also transhipment sidings east of the line, again south of the station; the Nantlle Railway terminated at the transhipment sidings.

At first passenger services ran between Caernarfon Pant and Afon Wen with some trains continuing beyond Afon Wen onto the Cambrian Railway which was not completed and did not open throughout until 10 October 1867. There were five up and five down trains on Monday to Saturday and one in each direction on Sundays. From January 1871, with the completion of the Carnarvon Town line, trains were able to run between Bangor and Afon Wen. From 4 July 1870, the CR had become part of the London & North Western Railway.

 

The quarry owners at Nantlle were frustrated with the situation that existed after the CR had taken over the Nantlle Railway. Previously their products had been worked over the Nantlle Railway direct to the quayside at Caernarfon, but as the CR line was built to standard gauge and the Nantlle was 3ft 6in this was not possible after 1867. Slate had to be transhipped at Penygroes and again at Caernarfon, which added to costs and resulted in more breakages of slates. To improve the situation in 1870 the LNWR took over the section of the Nantlle Railway, extending to just over a mile, from Penygroes to Nantlle. It was converted to a standard gauge and connected directly with the former CR line via a junction immediately south of Penygroes station. The converted line became the Nantlle branch and began operation for goods on 1 August 1872; a passenger service was introduced on 1 October 1872. As most of the Nantlle passenger services originated from and terminated at, Penygroes, a bay platform was created to the rear of the down platform at the southern end. An LNWR 33-lever signal box just beyond the end of the down platform controlled the junction, the passing loop and access to the goods yard. A footbridge south of the station building, linking the two platforms, had also been provided by this time.

By December 1895, Penygroes had six up and eleven down trains Monday to Friday as shown in the table below. There were also five services that terminated at Penygroes from Nantlle. Extra trains ran on Saturdays and there was a train in each direction on Sundays.

In 1904 the LNWR changed the spelling of Pen-y-Groes to Penygroes. Interestingly they did not alter the signal box name board. By July 1922 there were eight up trains and eighteen down trains, eleven of which were Nantlle shuttles, Monday to Friday as seen in the table below. There were twelve services from Nantlle all but the last of which terminated at Penygroes. There was an extra up train on Saturdays and no Sunday service.

On 1 January 1923 Penygroes became part of the London Midland & Scottish Railway (LMS). By 1928 they were running twelve up and nine down trains Monday to Friday with only a few services on the Nantlle branch. A few years later, in summer 1932 there were ten up and nine down mainline trains and twelve services each way on the Nantlle branch Monday to Friday. Passenger services to Nantlle ceased on 8 August 1932, but excursion trains continued until 1939.

 

With the outbreak of the Second World War, an emergency timetable was introduced on 11 September 1939, and Penygroes had only three trains in each direction on Monday-to-Saturday. The service was improved from 1 January 1940 when six trains ran in each direction on Monday to Saturday. On 1 January 1948 Penygroes became part of the British Railways London Midland Region. The summer 1948 timetable showed eight up and eight down services Monday to Friday with retimed trains and an extra up train on Saturdays.

In 1939 Billy Butlin built a holiday camp at Penychain on the former Cambrian line to the west of Afon Wen. Due to the war, it did not open for holidaymakers until the summer season of 1947 although it was used during the war by the Royal Navy. The opening of the holiday camp brought a lot of extra traffic in the form of holiday specials to the Menai Bridge – Afon Wen line during the summer months which were much longer than the routine service trains. At many of the stations, including Penygroes, platforms were lengthened. Even the scheduled services had improved by the mid-1950s. The summer timetable for the Summer of 1955 showed ten up and eleven down trains Monday to Friday as seen in the table below. On Saturdays, there were sixteen up and seventeen down services but no service on Sundays.

DMUs were introduced to many services in 1958. The line remained busy in the summer months into the 1960s but during the winter period, it was very quiet. Goods services on the Nantlle branch ceased on 2 December 1963. By the end, there was only a single train, and it ran only on alternate days. The Reshaping of British Railways Beeching report of 1963 recommended that the line between Caernarfon and Afon Wen be closed completely. This was despite the very heavy holiday traffic in the summer. Interestingly in 1964 steam-hauled trains were used on most services with DMUs being sent elsewhere. The line closed completely on 7 December 1964 with the last services running on Saturday 5 December.

 

In this rather grainy shot, looking north at Penygroes in the mid-1950s as a local train calls en route to Afon Wen. At the head of the train is locomotive No. 80089 carrying a single lamp on the top of the smokebox denoting a class B train. The loco is a BR standard class 4 passenger tank. Designed by R.A.Riddles and built at BR Brighton works, 80089 entered service on the 4th of August 1954 at 26D, Bury shed. It had a short service life of only 10 years, 10 months and 30 days when it was withdrawn from 75B, Redhill shed and broken up shortly after at Birds of Morriston. One of a class of 155, these Standard 4s shared much of the basic design of the LMS designs of Stanier and Fairburn, but with considerable improvements. They had smaller cylinders and higher boiler pressure; they were more economical and were very popular with crews for better riding and improved cab facilities.

   

Training Grounds

 

‘This house located at the inner city walls, once occupied by a hard working farmer, became available as the poor man came to die. The army took over the property but instead of demolishing the house they transformed it into a recreational area, a place for soldiers to relax and have a drink after training.

The surrounding area became the main training grounds for young soldiers, a place to discover their skill and choose their speciality in the army forces before going to specialized army training facilities.

A compact but well equipped military structure was constructed next to the old house. The barracks contains a stable aswell, where knights and archers can use the horses for training.’

 

I was actually about to dismantle the WIP but since it wasn’t far from completion, I decided to finish it anyway. It also exists in digital form so I might release instructions for this build within a few days.

A big part of the Black Rock Rejuvenation project is a new decked area with a 3 metre wide boardwalk, accessible to wheelchairs and pushchairs, and running from Dukes Mound into the Marina.

 

Although work on the boardwalks is nearing completion, work on the essential ramps from the road over the Volks railway line to the beach, had not started until the last week or so. As the railway is due to open again at Easter it was pleasing to see the boardwalk now constructed over one of the access routes. I'm sure the rest will quickly follow.

With the completion of its latest series of milestone tests, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has now survived all of the harsh conditions associated with a rocket launch to space.

 

Webb’s recent tests have validated that the fully assembled observatory will endure the deafening noise, and the jarring shakes, rattles and vibrations that the observatory will endure during liftoff. Known as “acoustic” and “sine-sibration” testing, NASA has worked carefully with its international partners to match Webb’s testing environment precisely to what Webb will experience both on launch day, and when operating in orbit.

 

Though each component of the telescope has been rigorously tested during development, demonstrating that the assembled flight hardware is able to safely pass through a simulated launch environment is a significant achievement for the mission. Completed in two separate facilities within Northrop Grumman’s Space Park in Redondo Beach, California, these tests represent Webb’s final two, in a long series of environmental tests before Webb is shipped to French Guiana for launch.

 

The next environment Webb will experience is space.

 

Read the full feature on this milestone: go.nasa.gov/3d5Kuhh

 

Now that environmental testing has been successfully concluded, Webb will move forward into the last full extension of its iconic primary mirror and sunshield, followed by a full systems evaluation before being encapsulated in a specialized shipping container for transport to South America.

 

Image credit: NASA/Chris Gunn

 

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VOS Passion

 

LENGTH 83.4m

BREADTH 18m

ORDER YEAR October 2013

COMPLETION August 2016

OWNER Vroon Offshore Services

BUILDER COSCO Guangdong Shipyard

DESIGNER Ulstein Group

DEADWEIGHT 3,650gwt

MAXIMUM SPEED 15kt

  

The ship is equipped with class-2 dynamic positioning system. Image courtesy of Vroon Offshore Services.VOS Passion platform supply vessel is one of six vessels based on PX121 design.

 

The naming ceremony for VOS Passion took place in July 2016. Image courtesy of Vroon Offshore Services.VOS Passion features X-BOW design concept that enables smoother navigation in harsh waters. Image courtesy of Vroon Offshore Services.

 

The ship is equipped with class-2 dynamic positioning system. Image courtesy of Vroon Offshore Services.VOS Passion platform supply vessel is one of six vessels based on PX121 design. Image courtesy of Vroon Offshore Services.

 

VOS Passion is a platform supply vessel operated by Vroon Offshore Services, an international shipping company. The vessel was built by COSCO Guangdong Shipyard in China and delivered to Vroon in August 2016.

 

The ship is the fourth of six vessels ordered by Vroon, of which VOS Pace (2015), VOS Paradise (2015) and VOS Partner (2016) have been delivered, while VOS Patience and VOS Patriot are under construction and scheduled for delivery in 2016.

 

Vroon’s PSV fleet is used for a range of operations, including cargo transportation, bulk transfers, fire-fighting, oil-spill recovery and safety standby. The vessels’ unique design enables them to support longer and deeper offshore drilling activities.

 

VOS Passion design

VOS Passion has an overall length of 83.4m, a moulded breadth of 18m and a clear deck area spanning 850m². The vessel’s maximum draft is 6.7m, maximum deadweight capacity is 4,200t and gross tonnage is 3,650gwt.

 

The ship design is based on the PX121 design developed by Norway-based Ulstein Group. All of the remaining five vessels ordered by Vroon are also based on the same design.

 

The PX121 design features Ulstein’s patented X-BOW concept, which enables smoother vessel navigation in harsh conditions.

 

Vessels with conventional bow designs rise on waves and drop violently onto the water, making navigation in adverse environments difficult. The X-BOW design, on the other hand, enables smoother navigation by minimising wave slamming and bow impact.

 

The X-BOW concept features a slender hull and a tapered fore, which provides more displacement volume. The vessel pierces smaller waves, and is therefore less affected by the vertical motions of the water.

 

It also uses less fuel to navigate through the waves, saving energy. In addition, the design reduces noise and vibration, improving crew comfort and safety levels.

 

Navigation and communication of the platform supply vessel

The ship’s navigation equipment includes an X-band radar, an S-band radar, two McMurdo S4 radio transponder units, a JRC eco sounder, a Navi-Sailor multi-function display, and a Yokogawa gyro compass.

 

The vessel is fitted with communication applications, including a JRC medium / high-frequency radio, a JRC portable VHF radio, McMurdo E5 Satellite EPIRB, two Inmarsat-C systems and two McMurdo S4 SART systems.

 

Deck machinery and fire-fighting equipment

Deck machinery aboard the VOS Passion includes two 10t tuggers, two 10t capstans and one 3t crane with a safe working load of 18m.

 

The ship is equipped with ABS FiFi class-I fire-fighting systems with a monitor capacity of 1,200m³/h and a throw of more than 120m.

 

VOS Passion propulsion system

The ship is fitted with four diesel generator engines, including two 1,639kW engines and two 990kW engines, as well as a 130ekW emergency generator.

 

The vessel is propelled by two diesel-electric Azimuth thrusters with a capacity of 3,800kW. It also features two 1,600kW Schottel stern thrusters and two bow thrusters.

 

"Deck machinery aboard the VOS Passion includes two 10t tuggers, two 10t capstans and one 3t crane with a safe working load of 18m."

The maximum speed of the vessel is 15kt.

 

Tank capacities and cargo handling systems

The ship is capable of storing 1,035m³ of fresh water, 1,674m³ of drill water, 1,464m³ of fuel, 1,293m³ of liquid mud, 150m³ of methanol, 260m³ of dry bulk and 127m³ of base oil. The ship is also fitted with heeling tanks with a capacity of 391.4m³.

 

Accommodation and life-saving facilities onboard VOS Passion

VOS Passion can accommodate 26 crew members in 14 single and six double cabins featuring hotel-type comfort beds. It is fitted with two anti-rolling tanks to increase crew comfort.

 

The ship is equipped with two 20-man life rafts and one six-man raft on each side. A man overboard boat (MOB) capable of accommodating six persons is also available.

 

Contractors

Ulstein was contracted by COSCO Guangdong Shipyard to supply power and control systems and to provide on-site services for the Vroon vessels.

Amalfi Campania Italia©2014 All rights reserved

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Duomo

 

Il più celebre monumento di Amalfi è certamente il Duomo in stile arabo-siciliano ed attualmente dedicato a Sant'Andrea, patrono della città. Infatti più che di Duomo si dovrebbe parlare di complesso Cattedrale, poiché l'attuale edificio risulta da sovrapposizioni ed affiancamenti di varie chiese di varie epoche. Il primo edificio dedicato al culto cristiano, fu una chiesa paleocristiana risalente al VI secolo d.C., che, come in molti casi analoghi in tutta Italia, probabilmente sostituiva un tempio dedicato a divinità romane. Tra il VI ed il IX secolo d.C., la prima Cattedrale eretta sulla precedente paleocristiana, fu dedicata alla Santissima Maria Assunta, prima protettrice di Amalfi. La Chiesa attuale dedicata a Sant'Andrea risale al IX secolo d.C., fu costruita a fianco della precedente e comunicante con la stessa, su commissione del duca Mansone I; ad essa furono fatte aggiunte successive in epoca medievale e barocca (come il Campanile; l'altare di Sant'Andrea, con due statue del Bernini; il Chiostro del Paradiso, eretto dal vescovo Filippo Augustariccio. (from wikipedia)

 

La Cripta

 

La cripta fu costruita nel XIII sec. per volere dell’arcivescovo Matteo di Capua, per custodire le spoglie di Sant’Andrea, provenienti da Costantinopoli. Ricavata dal cortile dell’ex palazzo ducale si presenta divisa in due navate da sei colonne con volte a crociera e soffitto affrescato nel secolo successivo, con un luminoso cielo stellato. Altri affreschi di scuola giottiana Madonna in primo piano stremata dal dolore e confortata dalle pie donne e Cristo fra i ladroni mostrano un’atmosfera culturale amalfitana molto vivida nel medioevo. Durante l’epoca vicereale spagnola, la cripta fu abbellita con un ciclo di affreschi, tra cui uno ad opera dell’artista Aniello Falcone che richiamava l’arrivo nel 1208 della salma del santo patrono, diventando documento storico. L’altare di Domenico Fontana sotto il quale vi è la teca funeraria, ospita la statua bronzea del santo di Michelangelo Naccherino (allievo del Buonarroti), nonché le statue marmoree di S. Stefano e S. Lorenzo, opere di Pietro Bernini. Marmi policromi fiorentini, sui pilastri e pareti contribuiscono ad impreziosire ulteriormente la cripta.

 

Cathedral

 

At the top of a staircase, Saint Andrew's Cathedral (Duomo) overlooks the Piazza Duomo, the heart of Amalfi. The cathedral dates back to the 11th century; its interior is adorned in the late Baroque style with a nave and two aisles divided by 20 columns. The façade of the cathedral is Byzantine in style and is adorned with various paintings of saints, including a large fresco of Saint Andrew. The gold caisson ceiling has four large paintings by Andrea dell'Asta. They depict the flagellation of Saint Andrew, the miracle of Manna, the crucifixion of Saint Andrew and the Saint on the cross. From the left hand nave there is a flight of stairs which leads to the crypt. These stairs were built in 1203 for Cardinal Pietro Capuano, who, on 18 May 1208, brought Saint Andrew's remains to the cathedral from Constantinople. The bronze statue of Saint Andrew in the cathedral was sculpted by Michelangelo Naccherino, a pupil of Michelangelo; also present are Pietro Bernini marble sculptures of St. Stephen and St. Lawrence. In 1206, Saint Andrew's relics were brought to Amalfi from Constantinople by the Pietro Capuano following the Sack of Constantinople (an event of the 4th Crusade) after the completion of the town's cathedral. The cathedral contains a tomb in its crypt that it maintains still holds a portion of the relics of the apostle. A golden reliquary which originally housed his skull and another one used for processions through Amalfi on holy days can also be seen. (from wikipedia)

 

The Crypt

 

The crypt was built in the 13th century. at the behest of Archbishop Matteo di Capua, to house the remains of St. Andrew from Constantinople. Derived from the courtyard of the former Ducal Palace is divided into two aisles by six columns with vaulted ceilings and frescoed ceiling in the next century, with a bright sky. Other frescoes by giottiana Madonna school featured exhausted by pain and comforted by the pious women and Christ among the robbers show cultural atmosphere very vivid Amalfi in the middle ages. During the Viceregal period in Spain, the crypt was decorated with a cycle of frescoes, including one by the artist Aniello Falcone that recalled the arrival in 1208 of the body of the Patron Saint, becoming historical document. The altar of Domenico Fontana under which there is the burial shrine, home to the bronze statue of the Saint by Michelangelo Naccherino (a pupil of Michelangelo) as well as the marble statues of St. Stephen and St. Lorenzo, works by Pietro Bernini. Polychrome marbles fiorentini, pillars and walls contribute to further enhance the crypt.

Caernarfon Castle is a medieval fortress in Caernarfon, Gwynedd, north-west Wales cared for by Cadw, the Welsh Government's historic environment service. It was a motte-and-bailey castle from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began to replace it with the current stone structure. The Edwardian town and castle acted as the administrative centre of north Wales, and as a result the defences were built on a grand scale. There was a deliberate link with Caernarfon's Roman past, and the Roman fort of Segontium is nearby.

 

While the castle was under construction, town walls were built around Caernarfon. The work cost between £20,000 and £25,000 from the start until the work ended in 1330. Although the castle appears mostly complete from the outside, the interior buildings no longer survive and many of the building plans were never finished. The town and castle were sacked in 1294 when Madog ap Llywelyn led a rebellion against the English. Caernarfon was recaptured the following year. During the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400–1415, the castle was besieged. When the Tudor dynasty ascended to the English throne in 1485, tensions between the Welsh and English began to diminish and castles were considered less important. As a result, Caernarfon Castle was allowed to fall into a state of disrepair. Despite its dilapidated condition, during the English Civil War Caernarfon Castle was held by Royalists, and was besieged three times by Parliamentarian forces. This was the last time the castle was used in war. The castle was neglected until the 19th century when the state funded repairs. The castle was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1911 and again in 1969. It is part of the World Heritage Site "Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd".

 

The first fortifications at Caernarfon were built by the Romans. Their fort, which they named Segontium, is on the outskirts of the modern town. The fort sat near the bank of the River Seiont; the fort was probably built here due to the sheltered position and because it could be resupplied via the river Seiont. Caernarfon derives its name from the Roman fortifications. In Welsh, the place was called y gaer (lenition of caer) yn Arfon, meaning "the stronghold in the land over against Môn"; Môn is the Welsh name for Anglesey. Little is known about the fate of Segontium and its associated civilian settlement after the Romans departed from Britain in the early 5th century.

 

Following the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror turned his attention to Wales. According to the Domesday Survey of 1086, the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan was nominally in command of the whole of northern Wales. He was killed by the Welsh in 1088. His cousin Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester, reasserted Norman control of north Wales by building three castles: one at an unknown location somewhere in Meirionnydd, one at Aberlleiniog on Anglesey, and another at Caernarfon. This early castle was built on a peninsula, bounded by the River Seiont and the Menai Strait; it would have been a motte and bailey, defended by a timber palisade and earthworks. The motte, or mound, was integrated into the later Edwardian castle, but the location of the original bailey is uncertain, although it may have been to the north-east of the motte. Excavations on top of the motte in 1969 revealed no traces of medieval occupation, suggesting any evidence had been removed. It is likely that the motte was surmounted by a wooden tower known as a keep. The Welsh recaptured Gwynedd in 1115, and Caernarfon Castle came into the possession of the Welsh princes. From contemporary documents written at the castle, it is known that Llywelyn the Great and later Llywelyn ap Gruffudd occasionally stayed at Caernarfon.

 

War broke out again between England and Wales on 22 March 1282. The Welsh leader, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, died later that year on 11 December. His brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd continued to fight against the English, but in 1283 Edward I was victorious. Edward marched through northern Wales, capturing castles such as that at Dolwyddelan, and establishing his own at Conwy. War finally drew to a close in May 1283 when Dolbadarn Castle, Dafydd ap Gruffudd's last castle, was captured. Shortly afterwards, Edward began building castles at Harlech and Caernarfon. The castles of Caernarfon, Conwy and Harlech were the most impressive of their time in Wales, and their construction—along with other Edwardian castles in the country—helped establish English rule. The master mason responsible for the design and construction of the castle was probably James of Saint George, an experienced architect and military engineer who played an important role in building the Edwardian castles in Wales. According to the Flores Historiarum, during the construction of the castle and planned town, the body of the Roman emperor Magnus Maximus was discovered, and Edward I ordered its reburial in a local church.

 

The construction of the new stone castle was part of a programme of building which transformed Caernarfon; town walls were added, connected to the castle, and a new quay was built. The earliest reference to building at Caernarfon dates from 24 June 1283, when a ditch had been dug separating the site of the castle from the town to the north. A bretagium, a type of stockade, was created around the site to protect it while the permanent defences were under construction. Timber was shipped from as far away as Liverpool. Stone was quarried from nearby places, such as from Anglesey and around the town. A force of hundreds worked on the excavation of the moat and digging the foundations for the castle. As the site expanded, it began to encroach on the town; houses were cleared to allow the construction. Residents were not paid compensation until three years later. While the foundations for the stone walls were being created, timber-framed apartments were built for Edward I and Eleanor of Castile, his queen. They arrived at Caernarfon on either 11 or 12 July 1283 and stayed for over a month.

 

Construction at Caernarfon Castle continued over the winter of 1283–84. The extent of completion is uncertain, although architectural historian Arnold Taylor speculated that when Edward and Eleanor visited again in Easter 1284 the Eagle Tower may have been complete. The Statute of Rhuddlan, enacted on 3 March 1284, made Caernarfon a borough and the administrative centre of the county of Gwynedd.[Gwynedd was not a county.] According to tradition, Edward II was born at Caernarfon on 25 April 1284. Edward was created Prince of Wales in 1301, with control over Wales and its incomes. Since then the title has traditionally been held by the eldest son of the monarch. According to a famous legend, the king had promised the Welsh that he would name "a prince born in Wales, who did not speak a word of English" and then produced his infant son to their surprise; but the story may well be apocryphal, as it can only be traced to the 16th century. In 1284, Caernarfon was defended by a garrison of forty men, more than the thirty-strong garrisons at Conwy and Harlech. Even in peace time, when most castles would have a guard of only a few men, Caernarfon was defended by between twenty and forty people due to its importance.

 

By 1285, Caernarfon's town walls were mostly complete. At the same time work continued on the castle. Spending on construction was negligible from 1289 and accounts end in 1292. Edward I's campaign of castle-building in Wales cost £80,000 between 1277 and 1304, and £95,000 between 1277 and 1329; by 1292 £12,000 had been spent on the construction of Caernarfon's castle—of which the southern façade was furthest along—and town walls. As the southern wall and town walls completed a defensive circuit around Caernarfon, the plan was to build the castle's northern façade last.

 

In 1294, Wales broke out in rebellion led by Madog ap Llywelyn, Prince of Wales. As Caernarfon was the centre of administration in Gwynedd and a symbol of English power, it was targeted by the Welsh. Madog's forces captured the town in September, and in the process heavily damaged the town walls. The castle was defended by just a ditch and a temporary barricade. It was quickly taken and anything flammable was set alight. Fire raged across Caernarfon, leaving destruction in its wake. In the summer of 1295, the English moved to retake Caernarfon. By November the same year, the English began refortifying the town. Rebuilding the town walls was a high priority, and £1,195 (nearly half the sum initially spent on the walls) was spent on completing the job two months ahead of schedule. Attention then shifted to the castle and on finishing the work that had halted in 1292. Once the rebellion was put down, Edward began building Beaumaris Castle on the Isle of Anglesey. The work was overseen by James of Saint George; as a result, Walter of Hereford took over as master mason for the new phase of construction. By the end of 1301, a further £4,500 had been spent on the work; the focus of the work was on the northern wall and towers. The accounts between November 1301 and September 1304 are missing, possibly because there was a hiatus in work while labour moved north to help out with England's war against Scotland. Records show that Walter of Hereford had left Caernarfon and was in Carlisle in October 1300; he remained occupied with the Scottish wars until the autumn of 1304 when building at Caernarfon resumed. Walter died in 1309 and his immediate subordinate, Henry of Ellerton, took over the position of master mason. Construction continued at a steady rate until 1330.

 

From 1284 to 1330, when accounts end, between £20,000 and £25,000 was spent on Caernarfon's castle and town walls. Such a sum was enormous and dwarfed the spending on castles such as Dover and Château Gaillard, which were amongst the most expensive and impressive fortifications of the later 12th and early 13th centuries. Subsequent additions to Caernarfon were not major, and what remains of the castle is substantially from the Edwardian period. Despite the expense, much of what was planned for the castle was never carried out. The rears of the King's Gate (the entrance from the town) and the Queen's Gate (the entrance from the south-east) were left unfinished, and foundations in the castle's interior mark where buildings would have stood had work continued.

 

For around two centuries after the conquest of Wales, the arrangements established by Edward I for the governance of the country remained in place. During this time the castle was constantly garrisoned, and Caernarfon was effectively the capital of north Wales.[30] There was a degree of discrimination, with the most important administrative jobs in Wales usually closed to Welsh people. Tension between the Welsh and their English conquerors spilled over at the start of the 15th century with the outbreak of the Glyndŵr Rising (1400–1415). During the revolt, Caernarfon was one of the targets of Owain Glyndŵr's army. The town and castle were besieged in 1401, and in November that year the Battle of Tuthill was fought nearby between Caernarfon's defenders and the besieging force. In 1403 and 1404, Caernarfon was besieged by Welsh troops with support from French forces;[30] the garrison at the time was around thirty. The accession of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne in 1485 heralded a change in the way Wales was administered. The Tudors were Welsh in origin, and their rule eased hostilities between the Welsh and English. As a result, castles such as Caernarfon, which provided secure centres from which the country could be administered, became less important. They were neglected, and in 1538 it was reported that many castles in Wales were "moche ruynous and ferre in decaye for lakke of tymely reparations".

 

In Caernarfon's case the walls of the town and castle remained in good condition, while features which required maintenance—such as roofs—were in a state of decay and much timber was rotten. Conditions were so poor that of the castle's seven towers and two gatehouses, only the Eagle Tower and the King's Gate had roofs by 1620. The domestic buildings inside the castle had been stripped of anything valuable, such as glass and iron. Despite the disrepair of the domestic buildings, the castle's defences were in a good enough state that during the English Civil War in the mid-17th century it was garrisoned by Royalists. Caernarfon Castle was besieged three times during the war. The constable was John Byron, 1st Baron Byron, who surrendered Caernarfon to Parliamentarian forces in 1646. It was the last time Caernarfon Castle saw fighting. Although it was ordered in 1660 that the castle and town walls should be dismantled, the work was aborted early on and may never have started.

 

Despite avoiding slighting, the castle was neglected until the late 19th century. From the 1870s onwards, the government funded repairs to Caernarfon Castle. The deputy-constable Llewellyn Turner oversaw the work, in many cases controversially restoring and rebuilding the castle, rather than simply conserving the existing stonework. Steps, battlements, and roofs were repaired, and the moat to the north of the castle was cleared of post-medieval buildings that were considered to spoil the view, despite the protest of locals. Under the auspices of the Office of Works and its successors since 1908, the castle was preserved due to its historic significance. In 1911, Caernarfon was used for the investiture of the Prince of Wales for the first time for Prince Edward (later Edward VIII), eldest son of the newly crowned King George V; the ceremony was held there at the insistence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, a Welshman raised in Caernarfonshire. In 1969, the precedent was repeated with the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales. Although Caernarfon Castle has been the property of the Crown since it was built, it is currently cared for by Cadw (English: to keep), the Welsh Government's historic environment division, responsible for the maintenance and care of Wales' historic buildings. In 1986, Caernarfon was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites as part of the "Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd" in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site. The castle houses the Royal Welch Fusiliers Museum. During 2015 a new "entrance pavilion" was built, designed by architects Donald Insall Associates.

 

Caernarfon Castle is now a major tourist attraction, with over 205,000 people visiting the attraction in 2018.

 

Caernarfon is a royal town, community and port in Gwynedd, Wales. It has a population of 9,852 (with Caeathro). It lies along the A487 road, on the eastern shore of the Menai Strait, opposite the island of Anglesey. The city of Bangor is 8.6 miles (13.8 km) to the north-east, while Snowdonia (Eryri) fringes Caernarfon to the east and south-east.

 

Abundant natural resources in and around the Menai Strait enabled human habitation in prehistoric Britain. The Ordovices, a Celtic tribe, lived in the region during the period known as Roman Britain. The Roman fort Segontium was established around AD 80 to subjugate the Ordovices during the Roman conquest of Britain. The Romans occupied the region until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 382, after which Caernarfon became part of the Kingdom of Gwynedd. In the late 11th century, William the Conqueror ordered the construction of a motte-and-bailey castle at Caernarfon as part of the Norman invasion of Wales. He was unsuccessful, and Wales remained independent until around 1283.

 

In the 13th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, ruler of Gwynedd, refused to pay homage to Edward I of England, prompting the English conquest of Gwynedd. This was followed by the construction of Caernarfon Castle, one of the largest and most imposing fortifications built by the English in Wales. In 1284, the English-style county of Caernarfonshire was established by the Statute of Rhuddlan; the same year, Caernarfon was made a borough, a county and market town, and the seat of English government in north Wales.

 

The ascent of the House of Tudor to the throne of England eased hostilities with the English and resulted in Caernarfon Castle falling into a state of disrepair. The town has flourished,[when?] leading to its status as a major tourist centre and seat of Gwynedd Council, with a thriving harbour and marina. Caernarfon has expanded beyond its medieval walls and experienced heavy suburbanisation. The community of Caernarfon's population includes the highest percentage of Welsh-speaking citizens anywhere in Wales. The status of Royal Borough was granted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1963 and amended to Royal Town in 1974. The castle and town walls are part of a World Heritage Site described as the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd.

 

The town's name consists of three elements: caer , yn, and arfon. "Caer' means 'fortress", in this case either the Roman fort of Segontium, which lies on the outskirts of the modern town, or the Norman castle erected near the mouth of the Afon Seiont. "Arfon" means "opposite Môn (Anglesey)", and the full name therefore means "the fortress in the land opposite Anglesey".

 

The earlier British and Romano-British settlement at Segontium was named Cair Segeint ("Fort Seiont") after the river. It was also known as Cair Custoient ("Fortress of Constantine"), after a belief that it was the capital of Gwynedd under Constantine, a supposed son of Saint Elen and the Emperor Magnus Maximus. Both names appear in the Historia Brittonum traditionally ascribed to Nennius. A medieval romance about Maximus and Elen, Macsen's Dream, calls her home Caer Aber Sein ("Fort Seiontmouth" or "the fortress at the mouth of the Seiont") and other pre-conquest poets such as Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd used the name Caer Gystennin. A 1221 charter by Llywelyn the Great to the canons of Penmon priory on Anglesey mentions Kaerinarfon, and the Welsh chronicle Brut y Tywysogion mentions both Kaerenarvon and Caerenarvon.

 

The town and the county named after it were officially spelled "Carnarvon" until 1926. At a meeting on 10 November 1925 the borough council resolved to ask the county council to change the spelling to "Caernarvon". The county council gave permission for the change of spelling for the name of the borough with effect from 14 January 1926, and at the same time decided to ask the government to also change the spelling of the county's name to Caernarvon. The government confirmed the change in the spelling of the county's name with effect from 1 July 1926.

 

The municipal borough was designated a royal borough in 1963. When the borough was abolished in 1974 the status of "royal town" was granted to the new community which succeeded it. The spelling of both borough and county remained "Caernarvon" until they were abolished in 1974. The spelling of the community's name was changed from "Caernarvon" to "Caernarfon" with effect from 2 June 1975 by order of Arfon Borough Council.

 

Caernarfon contains a Roman fort, Segontium, and a Norman motte-and-bailey castle was built at the mouth of the River Seiont.

 

In 1283, King Edward I completed his conquest of Wales which he secured by a chain of castles and walled towns. The construction of a new stone Caernarfon Castle seems to have started as soon as the campaign had finished. Edward's architect, James of St. George, may well have modelled the castle on the walls of Constantinople, possibly being aware of the town's legendary associations. Edward's fourth son, Edward of Caernarfon, later Edward II of England, was born at the castle in April 1284 and made Prince of Wales in 1301. A story recorded in the 16th century suggests that the new prince was offered to the native Welsh on the premise "that [he] was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", however, there is no contemporary evidence to support this.

 

Caernarfon was constituted a borough in 1284 by a charter of Edward I. The charter, which was confirmed on a number of occasions, appointed the mayor of the borough Constable of the Castle ex officio.

 

On 2 November 1401, 'Y Ddraig Aur' (The golden dragon) of Owain Glyndŵr was attested to have been flown during the Battle of Tuthill at Caernarfon, it is also likely that it was also flown throughout the Welsh independence campaign.

In 1911, David Lloyd George, then Member of Parliament (MP) for Caernarfon boroughs, which included various towns from Llŷn to Conwy, agreed to the British Royal Family's idea of holding the investiture of the Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle. The ceremony took place on 13 July, with the royal family visiting Wales, and the future Edward VIII was duly invested.

 

In 1955, Caernarfon was in the running for the title of Capital of Wales on historical grounds but the town's campaign was heavily defeated in a ballot of Welsh local authorities, with 11 votes compared to Cardiff's 136. Cardiff therefore became the Welsh capital.

 

On 1 July 1969, the investiture ceremony for Charles, Prince of Wales was again held at Caernarfon Castle. The ceremony went ahead without incident despite terrorist threats and protests, which culminated in the death of two members of Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru (Welsh Defence Movement), Alwyn Jones and George Taylor, who were killed when their bomb – intended for the railway line at Abergele in order to stop the British Royal Train – exploded prematurely. The bombing campaign (one in Abergele, two in Caernarfon and finally one on Llandudno Pier) was organised by the movement's leader, John Jenkins. He was later arrested after a tip-off and was sentenced to ten years imprisonment.

 

In July 2019, Caernarfon hosted a rally for Welsh independence. The event, organised by AUOB (All Under One Banner) Cymru, included a march through the town centre. Organisers estimated that roughly 8,000 people joined the march on the town square; local authorities confirmed at least 5,000 attendees. The event featured a number of speakers including Hardeep Singh Kohli, Evra Rose, Dafydd Iwan, Lleuwen Steffan, Siôn Jobbins, Beth Angell, Gwion Hallam, Meleri Davies and Elfed Wyn Jones. Talks covered criticism of Brexit and Westminster with advocating Welsh Independence.

 

The history of Caernarfon, as an example where the rise and fall of different civilizations can be seen from one hilltop, is discussed in John Michael Greer's book The Long Descent. He writes of Caernarfon:

Spread out below us in an unexpected glory of sunlight was the whole recorded history of that little corner of the world. The ground beneath us still rippled with earthworks from the Celtic hill fort that guarded the Menai Strait more than two and a half millennia ago. The Roman fort that replaced it was now the dim brown mark of an old archaeological site on low hills off to the left. Edward I’s great grey castle rose up in the middle foreground, and the high contrails of RAF jets on a training exercise out over the Irish Sea showed that the town’s current overlords still maintained the old watch. Houses and shops from more than half a dozen centuries spread eastward as they rose through the waters of time, from the cramped medieval buildings of the old castle town straight ahead to the gaudy sign and sprawling parking lot of the supermarket back behind us.

 

Caernarfon is situated on the southern bank of the Menai Strait facing the Isle of Anglesey. It is situated 8.6 miles (13.8 km) south-west of Bangor, 19.4 miles (31.2 km) north of Porthmadog and approximately 8.0 miles (12.9 km) west of Llanberis and Snowdonia National Park. The mouth of the River Seiont is in the town, creating a natural harbour where it flows into the Menai Strait. Caernarfon Castle stands at the mouth of the river. The A487 passes directly through Caernarfon, with Bangor to the north and Porthmadog to the south.

 

As the crow flies, the summit of Snowdon lies a little over 9.6 miles (15.4 km) to the southeast of the town centre.

 

Caernarfon's historical prominence and landmarks have made it a major tourist centre. As a result, many of the local businesses cater for the tourist trade. Caernarfon has numerous guest houses, inns and pubs, hotels, restaurants and shops. The majority of shops in the town are located either in the centre of town around Pool Street and Castle Square (Y Maes), on Doc Fictoria (Victoria Dock) or in Cei Llechi (Slate Quay). A number of shops are also located within the Town Walls.

 

The majority of the retail and residential section of Doc Fictoria was opened in 2008. The retail and residential section of Doc Fictoria is built directly beside a Blue Flag beach marina. It contains numerous homes, bars and bistros, cafés and restaurants, an award-winning arts centre, a maritime museum and a range of shops and stores.

 

Pool Street and Castle Square contain a number of large, national retail shops and smaller independent stores. Pool Street is pedestrianised and serves as the town's main shopping street. Castle Square, commonly referred to as the 'Maes' by both Welsh and English speakers, is the market square of the town. A market is held every Saturday throughout the year and also on Mondays in the summer. The square was revamped at a cost of £2.4 million in 2009. However, since its revamp the square has caused controversy due to traffic and parking difficulties. During the revamp, it was decided to remove barriers between traffic and pedestrians creating a 'shared space', to force drivers to be more considerate of pedestrians and other vehicles. This is the first use of this kind of arrangement in Wales, but it has been described by councillor Bob Anderson as being 'too ambiguous' for road users. Another controversy caused by the revamp of the Maes was that a historic old oak tree was taken down from outside the HSBC bank. When the Maes was re-opened in July 2009 by the local politician and Heritage Minister of Wales, Alun Ffred Jones AM, he said, "the use of beautiful local slate is very prominent in the new Maes."

 

There are many old public houses serving the town, including The Four Alls, The Anglesey Arms Hotel, The Castle Hotel, The Crown, Morgan Lloyd, Pen Deitch and The Twthill Vaults. The oldest public house in Caernarfon is the Black Boy Inn, which remained in the same family for over 40 years until sold in 2003 to a local independent family business. The pub has stood inside Caernarfon's Town Walls since the 16th century, and many people claim to have seen ghosts within the building.

 

In and around the Town Walls are numerous restaurants, public houses and inns, and guest houses and hostels.

 

Gwynedd Council's head offices are situated in the town. The Caernarfon parliamentary constituency was a former electoral area centred on Caernarfon. Caernarfon is now part of the Arfon constituency for both the UK Parliament and the Senedd. The town is twinned with Landerneau in Brittany. Caernarfon was the county town of the historic county of Caernarfonshire.

 

At the local level, Caernarfon Royal Town Council consists of 17 town councillors, elected from the wards of Cadnant (3), Canol Tref Caernarfon (3), Hendre (3), Menai (4) and Peblig (4). The current Mayor is Councillor Maria Veronica Sarnacki.

 

The population in 1841 was 8,001.

 

The population of Caernarfon Community Parish in 2001 was 9,611. Caernarfon residents are known colloquially as "Cofis". The word "Cofi" /ˈkɒvi/ is also used locally in Caernarfon to describe the local Welsh dialect, notable for a number of words, not in use elsewhere.

 

Within Wales, Gwynedd has the highest proportion of speakers of the Welsh language. The greatest concentration of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd is found in and around Caernarfon.

 

According to the 2011 census, 85.8% of residents were born in Wales, one of the highest proportions in Gwynedd, and 77.0% reported a 'Welsh only' national identity.

 

The present castle building was constructed between 1283 and 1330 by the order of King Edward I. The banded stonework and polygonal towers are thought to have been in imitation of the Walls of Constantinople. The impressive curtain wall with nine towers and two gatehouses survive largely intact. Caernarfon Castle is now under the care of Cadw and is open to the public. The castle includes the regimental museum of the Royal Welch Fusiliers.

 

The medieval town walls, including eight towers and two twin-towered gateways, form a complete circuit of 800 yards (730 m) around the old town and were built between 1283 and 1285. The walls are in the care of Cadw but only a small section is accessible to the public. The town walls and castle at Caernarfon were declared part of a World Heritage Site in 1986. According to UNESCO, the castle and walls together with other royal castles in Gwynedd "are the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe".

 

Dedicated to Saint Peblig, the son of Saint Elen and Macsen Wledig (Magnus Maximus), the church is built on an important early Christian site, itself built on a Roman Mithraeum or temple of Mithras, close to the Segontium Roman Fort (200m away, in the care of Cadw). A Roman altar was found in one of the walls during 19th-century restoration work. The present church dates mainly from the 14th century and is a Grade I listed building.

 

The statue in Castle Square was sculpted by W. Goscombe John and was erected in 1921 when Lloyd George was Prime Minister. David Lloyd George was the Member of Parliament for the area from 1890 to 1945.

 

The Old Market Hall in Hole-in-the-Wall Street and Crown Street was built in 1832, but the interior and roof were rebuilt later in that century. It is a Grade II listed building. It now acts as a pub and music venue.

 

A small Victorian urban park, Morfa was laid out in 1888. It stands to the south of the town, bordered by the 'Ysbyty Eryri' hospital [see below] at its southern edge. It is listed at Grade II on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales.

 

The old County Hall, which went on to become a courthouse, is situated inside the castle walls, next door to the Anglesey Arms Hotel. The old courthouse was built in the Neo-classical style. The courthouse was replaced by the new Caernarfon Criminal Justice Centre on the former Segontium School site in Llanberis Road in 2009. The old courthouse adjoins what used to be Caernarfon Gaol, which has been closed since the early 20th century and was subsequently converted into council offices.

 

There is a small hospital in the town, 'Ysbyty Eryri' (i.e. "Snowdonia Hospital"). The nearest large regional hospital is Ysbyty Gwynedd, in Bangor.

 

Caernarfon Barracks was commissioned by John Lloyd, County Surveyor of Caernarfonshire, as a military headquarters and completed in 1855.

 

Caernarfon was at one time an important port, exporting slate from the Dyffryn Nantlle quarries. This traffic was facilitated from 1828 by the Nantlle Railway which predated far more widely known ventures such as the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Ffestiniog Railway.

 

Five passenger stations have served the town. Caernarvon railway station opened in 1852 as the western terminus of the Bangor and Carnarvon Railway. This connected the town with the North Wales coast and the expanding national network. Carnarvon Castle railway station opened in 1856 as the northern passenger terminus of the 3ft 6in narrow gauge Nantlle Railway. This service ended in 1865 when the line being built from the south by the standard gauge Carnarvonshire Railway took over most of its trackbed. The Carnarvonshire Railway's temporary northern terminus was at Pant to the south of the town. Pant station opened in 1867. At the same time, the Carnarvon and Llanberis Railway built its line from Llanberis to Caernarfon. Its temporary western terminus was called Carnarvon (Morfa). It opened in 1869 near the modern road bridges over the Afon Seiont. For a short period, therefore, Caernarfon had three terminating stations on its edges. Records are contradictory, but this ended in either 1870 or 1871 when they were connected by a line through the town using the tunnel which survives, having been converted in 1995 for road traffic. When the through route was opened Pant and Morfa stations closed and the original station became the town's only station. The London and North Western Railway also took over all the lines mentioned leaving one station and one service provider by 1871.

 

The services to Llanberis and south to Afon Wen closed progressively from the 1930s, with tracks being lifted in the mid-1960s, but Caernarvon station survived until 1970, with Bangor to Caernarvon one of the last passenger services to be closed under the Beeching Axe; it is now the site of a Morrisons supermarket. In November 2020 the Welsh Government stated 'further consideration' should be given to reopening the line. The fifth station was opened in 1997 on the old trackbed in St. Helen's Road. It is the northern terminus of the 2ft narrow gauge Rheilffordd Eryri / Welsh Highland Railway. Work began on a permanent station for the town in February 2017. The new station opened to passengers in the Spring of 2019. Heritage steam services provide links to Porthmadog, where passengers can change for services on the Ffestiniog Railway to Blaenau Ffestiniog.

 

Bus services in the town are provided by Arriva Buses Wales, and a number of smaller, local operators. Longer distance, cross-country services are operated by Lloyds Coaches, and connect the town with Bangor to the north, and Aberystwyth via Porthmadog, Dolgellau and Machynlleth to the south. These services are part of the Welsh Government funded TrawsCymru network.

 

The A487 trunk road bisects the town, providing access to major urban areas along the North Wales coast and the Port of Holyhead, via the A55 expressway. Llanberis at the foot of Snowdon can be reached via the A4086, which heads east out of the town towards Capel Curig.

 

Heading north out of the town is the Lôn Las Menai cycle path to nearby Y Felinheli. Heading south out of the town is the Lôn Eifion cycle path, which leads to Bryncir, near Criccieth. The route provides views into the Snowdonia mountains, down along the Llŷn Peninsula and across to the Isle of Anglesey.

 

Caernarfon Airport is 4.5 miles (7.2 km) to the southwest, and offers pleasure flights and an aviation museum.

 

The Aber Swing Bridge is a pedestrian swing bridge that crosses over the Afon Seiont to connect pedestrians from the foreshore to the Watergate entrance in the centre of Caernarfon by the Caernarfon Castle.

 

There are four primary schools in Caernarfon, Ysgol yr Hendre being the largest. The others are Ysgol y Gelli, Ysgol Santes Helen and Ysgol Maesincla. Ysgol Syr Hugh Owen is the single secondary school serving Caernarfon and the surrounding areas and currently has between 900 and 1000 pupils from ages 11 to 18. Ysgol Pendalar is a school for children with special needs. Coleg Menai is a further education college for adult learners.

 

Notable people

Lewis Jones, 1898

Saint Elen, late 4th-century founder of churches in Wales.

Edward II of England (1284–1327), King of England from 1307 to 1327.

Morris Williams (1809–1874), clergyman and writer, known by his bardic name Nicander

William Henry Preece (1834–1913), an electrical engineer and inventor.

Lewis Jones (1837-1904), one of the founders of the Welsh settlement in Patagonia.

David Lloyd George (1863–1945), Prime Minister of the UK from 1916 to 1922.

Gwilym Edwards (1881–1963), Presbyterian minister, writer and academic

Lionel Rees (1884–1955), aviator, flying ace and recipient of the Victoria Cross

Maureen Peters (1935–2008), an historical novelist

Dafydd Wigley (born 1943), politician, MP for Caernarfon from 1974 until 2001

Sian Eleri, BBC Radio 1 presenter

Sport

Bryan Orritt (1937–2014), a professional footballer with over 370 club caps

Barry Hughes (1937–2019), a professional footballer and manager, active primarily in the Netherlands

Wyn Davies (born 1942), a footballer with 611 club caps and 34 for Wales

Tom Walley (born 1945) footballer with over 410 club caps

Catrin Thomas (born 1964), ski mountaineer and mountain climber.

Waynne Phillips (born 1970), a professional footballer with over 470 club caps

Nathan Craig (born 1991), a professional footballer.

Osian Dwyfor Jones Wales Commonwealth Hammer Thrower

 

Caernarfon Town F.C. (Welsh: Clwb Pêl Droed Tref Caernarfon) is a Welsh football club based in the town, which currently plays in the Cymru Premier, the top level for football in Wales. The club is nicknamed "the Canaries" because of its yellow and green strip. Caernarfon Town plays at The Oval which has a capacity of 3000 people and 250 seated people.

 

Caernarfon hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1862, 1894, 1906, 1921, 1935, 1959 and 1979. Unofficial National Eisteddfod events were also held there in 1877 and 1880. Caernarfon also hosted the 30th annual Celtic Media Festival in March 2009. Cultural destinations include Galeri and Oriel Pendeitsh. Galeri is a creative enterprise centre that houses a gallery, a concert hall, a cinema, a number of companies, and a range of other creative and cultural spaces. Oriel Pendeitsh is a ground-floor exhibition space adjoining the Tourist Information Centre opposite Caernarfon Castle. The gallery has a varied and changing programme of exhibitions throughout the year.

 

The Caernarfon Food Festival takes place in the town's streets including The Slate Quay (Cei Llechi) and Castle Square (the Maes), which is pedestrianised for the event. Stalls are also located along the promenade next to the Menai Strait towards the marina and Doc Fictoria.

 

The festival was formed in 2015 as a result of public consultation within the town. The first festival was held in 2016. It is organised by the Caernarfon Food Festival Group which is made up of local volunteers who hold regular meetings to plan each festival. The festival has a number of support groups, including a content group, sponsorship group, technical group, communication group and volunteer group. These groups feed into the main group's monthly meetings. The festival logo was inspired by contributions from pupils at Ysgol Syr Hugh Owen and designed by Iestyn Lloyd of Cwmni Da. The festival has been supported by Welsh Government through the Food Festival Grant Scheme and was highly commended by Food Awards Wales in 2019, Car parking is provided at the Slate Quay (Cei Llechi) and at other car parks around the town while the Welsh Highland Railway provides transport from Porthmadog. Cycle access is by the cycle tracks along the disused railway lines which include Lôn Las Eifion, which runs from Porthmadog, by-passing Penygroes and on to Caernarfon, Lôn Las Menai from Y Felinheli to Caernarfon and Lôn Las Peris from Llanberis to Caernarfon.

 

Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.

 

Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.

 

The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).

 

The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.

 

In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.

 

Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.

 

The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.

 

The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.

 

The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.

 

A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.

 

The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.

 

There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.

 

The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.

 

Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.

 

The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.

 

Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.

 

The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.

 

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.

Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.

 

It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.

 

The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.

 

The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.

 

Notable people

Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth

Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon

Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle

Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University

Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.

Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog

Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia

T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog

David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy

Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas

Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion

Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.

Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI

Lloyds Coaches TrawsCymru T2 branded Optare Metrocity YJ67FZP is seen at Machynlleth Railway Station following the completion of its days duties on the Cambrian Coastliner X28

After its completion in the early 16th century, Seville Cathedral supplanted Hagia Sophia as the largest cathedral in the world, a title the Byzantine church had held for nearly a thousand years. It is the third-largest church in the world as well as the largest Gothic church. Since the world's two largest churches, the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida and St. Peter's Basilica, are not the seats of bishops Seville Cathedral is still the largest cathedral in the world.

 

Seville Cathedral was the site of the baptism of Infante Juan of Aragon in 1478, only son of the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. Its royal chapel holds the remains of the city's conqueror Ferdinand III of Castile, his son and heir Alfonso the Wise and their descendant king Pedro el Cruel. The funerary monuments for cardinals Juan de Cervantes and Pedro González de Mendoza Quiñones are located among its chapels. Christopher Columbus and his son Diego are also buried in the cathedral.

 

The Cathedral of Saint Mary of the See was registered in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, along with the adjoining Alcázar palace complex and the General Archive of the Indies. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seville_Cathedral

Crews are testing, polishing, and putting final touches on the passenger building one week before its opening.

With the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 it became possible to go from the US east cost to the west coast in a matter of days on a train instead of months (by land) or weeks (by ship).

 

These steam engine locomotives worked by boiling water and compressing the steam. The highly pressurized steam was released into a chamber holding a piston. As the steam expanded, it pushed and pulled the piston which acted on the drive gear, pushing the locomotive and train cars. It took two crewmen to work the engine. The driver was responsible for starting and stopping the train and for controlling its speed. The fireman is responsible to fuel the fire and to monitor the steam pressure and water levels.

 

Imagine getting on a train in New York in 1880. Over a period of a couple of days you would pass over the Allegheny Mountains, watching Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana through the window. Next came Chicago and then after Chicago, a run through the great plains and the true old west - Iowa, Nebraska, the Colorado Territory and Rocky Mountains, and the Utah Territory before reaching California and your end point, San Francisco. There were stops along the way but not many. With no delays you would be at your destination in San Francisco 90 hours after your train left New York.

 

This is a steam engine locomotive in the collection of the Virginia Museum of Transportation in Roanoke, Virginia.

 

Please view in the light box or large on black

22/06/2017 Home gym.

About 90% done, just need to do running gear and electronics next and get the missing drivers I need.

Bixby Creek Bridge, also known as Bixby Bridge, on the Big Sur coast of California, is one of the most photographed bridges in California due to its aesthetic design, "graceful architecture and magnificent setting." It is a reinforced concrete open-spandrel arch bridge. The bridge is 120 miles (190 km) south of San Francisco and 13 miles (21 km) south of Carmel in Monterey County along State Route 1.

 

Prior to the opening of the bridge in 1932, residents of the Big Sur area were virtually cut off during winter due to the often impassable Old Coast Road that led 11 miles (18 km) inland. At its completion, the bridge was built under budget for $199,861 (equivalent to $3.5 million in 2016) and was the longest concrete arch span at 360 feet (110 m) on the California State Highway System. It is one of the tallest single-span concrete bridges in the world.

 

After the native Esselen people who resided in the area were virtually exterminated by the Spanish, the land from present day Carmel south to Palo Colorado Canyon, two miles north of Bixby Creek, was part of the Mexican land grant Rancho San Jose y Sur Chiquito given in 1839 by Governor Juan Alvarado to Marcelino Escobar. The land was later acquired by José Castro. He had a trail built from Monterey to Palo Colorado Canyon as early as 1853, when he filed a map of his purchase.

 

Bixby Creek is named after pioneering businessman Charles Henry Bixby. Originally from Livingston County, New York, he arrived in California in 1852 and remained for five years. He returned east before coming back to California. After some success raising cattle in Sonoma County, he obtained a patent on April 10, 1889 for 160 acres south of Bixby Creek, and later bought additional tracts of land on the north side of the creek, between it and Palo Colorado Canyon. He built a sawmill on the creek, which for many years was known as Mill Creek. He harvested timber and turned it into shakes, shingles, railroad ties, and trench posts. He also harvested the bark of the Tanbark Oak which was used for tanning cow hides. Bixby discovered lime deposits on Long Ridge above Mill Creek. He used mules to haul the lime to the coast on wooden sleds. He had kilns built and sold the fired lime as use in mortar and other building materials.

 

He tried to persuade the county to build a road to Bixby Creek, but they refused, replying that "no one would want to live there." It was impossible to build a wharf from the cliffs that dropped into the ocean, and he instead built a hoist that could be used to ferry goods to and from ships anchored slightly offshore. In 1870, Bixby and his father hired men to improve the track and constructed the first wagon road including 23 bridges from the Carmel Mission to Bixby Creek.

 

Sometime later Bixby partnered with William B. Post and extended the road south to his ranch. At Bixby Creek, the road was necessarily built 11 miles (18 km) inland to circumvent the deep canyon. It then led to the Post Ranch on the Rancho El Sur. The 30-mile (48 km) trip could take three days by wagon or stagecoach. The single-lane road was closed in winter when it became impassable. Coast residents would occasionally receive supplies via a hazardous landing by boat from Monterey or San Francisco.

 

Bixby Landing in 1911 was used to transport supplies and products to and from ships off shore.

 

In 1906, after he exhausted the supply of commercial timber, Bixby sold the land to the Monterey Lime Company. Lime was in great demand to help re-build San Francisco following the 1906 earthquake. That company built a 3 miles (4.8 km) aerial tram to haul limestone from Long Ridge to Bixby Landing. A small group of homes grew up around the original Bixby Homestead. The kilns operated for four years until high operating costs closed the kilns in 1910. The tram was used for a while longer to off and on-load supplies for the community from schooners.

 

The former Brazil Ranch is located on Serra Hill immediately south of Bixby Creek and the Bixby Creek Bridge, making it one of the most photographed spots on the Big Sur coast. Job Heath obtained a land patent on May 20, 1884 and he and his wife Serena Waters homesteaded the ranch. Antonio Brazil married Mary Pfeiffer and they bought Heath's property.

 

The Brazil family operated the 1,255 acres (508 ha) ranch for nearly a century. In 1977, Tony and Margaret Brazil sold the ranch to Allen Funt, creator of the television show Candid Camera. Funt raised quarter horses and cattle on it.

 

In 1986 the Humboldt County-based Philo Lumber Company owned the property formerly owned by Bixby. They obtained a state permit to log over a million board feet of redwood. The residents of Palo Colorado Canyon were intensely opposed to the plan, but it was only derailed by the savings and loan crisis. The property was seized by federal financial regulators and was later sold to the Big Sur Land Trust, which then sold it to the Monterey Peninsula Regional Park District in 1988. The district joined it with three adjacent properties to form the Mill Creek Redwood Preserve.

 

A 2.7 miles (4.3 km) trail has been built from Palo Colorado Road to an overlook. Access is limited to day use. The trail head is located 6 miles (9.7 km) up Palo Colorado Road from the coast. Visitors must obtain a permit from the district in advance to visit the preserve. To limit traffic on narrow Palo Colorado Road, only six permits per day are available.

 

After Funt died in 1999, the former Brazil Ranch land was purchased in 2000 by Woodside Partners, who planned to split it into nine parcels for development. Local community leaders and activists joined together to prevent subdivision and development of the land. In 2001, the Trust for Public Land bought the property. On September 24, 2002, they and the U.S. Forest Service announced that the land had been added to the Los Padres National Forest. The unmarked entrance is located 0.1 miles (0.16 km) south of the Bixby Creek Bridge.

 

The state first began building Route 56, or the Carmel–San Simeon Highway, in 1919. A number of bridges needed to be constructed, the largest among them across Bixby Creek.

 

State engineers considered two alternatives to crossing the creek, an inland route and a smaller bridge, or a coastal location and a larger bridge. The inland route necessitated an 890-foot (270 m) tunnel cutting though the Santa Lucia Mountains to a 250-foot (76 m) bridge upstream. The engineers selected the coast route, because it was safer, more scenic, and least affected the environment.

 

California state highway engineer C. H. Purcell and bridge engineer and designer F. W. Panhorst considered whether to build a steel or concrete span. A steel bridge would cost more to build and maintain, as the sea air would require expensive ongoing maintenance and painting. A steel bridge was also less in keeping with the natural environment. Using concrete reduced material costs and allowed more of the total cost to be paid to workers, which was a positive aspect of the design during the Depression. They chose concrete in part because it would not only reduce both construction and maintenance costs but would also echo the color and composition of the natural rock cliff formations in the area.

 

The state awarded a contract for $203,334 to the lower bidder, Ward Engineering Company of San Francisco, on August 13, 1931. Construction began on August 24, 1931.

 

Over 300,000 board feet (700 m3) of Douglas fir timber, used to build a 250-foot (76 m) high falsework to support the arch during construction, was transported from the railroad terminal in Monterey over the narrow, one-way road to the bridge site. The falsework, built by crews led by E. C. Panton, the general superintendent, and I. O. Jahlstrom, resident engineer of Ward Engineering Co., was difficult to raise, because it was constantly exposed to high winds. Some of the falsework timbers were 10 by 10 inches (250 mm × 250 mm). It took two months to construct the falsework alone. When high waves threatened the falsework foundation, construction was halted for a short time until winter storms abated.

 

The crews excavated 4,700 cubic yards (3,600 m3) of earth and rock.[21] Eight hundred twenty-five trucks brought in 600,000 pounds of reinforcing steel. Sand and gravel were supplied from a plant in Big Sur.

 

Construction required 45,000 sacks or 6,600 cubic yards (5,000 m3) of cement which was transported from Davenport, near Santa Cruz, and from San Andreas. Crews began placing concrete on November 27. The concrete was transported across the canyon on platforms using slings suspended from a cable 300 feet (91 m) above the creek.

 

The bridge was completed on October 15, 1932, although the highway was not finished for another five years. At its completion, the bridge cost $199,861 and, at 360 feet (110 m), was the longest concrete arch span on the California State Highway System. The bridge was necessary to complete the two-lane road which opened in 1937 after 18 years of construction.

 

After the bridge was completed, it was at times known as the Rainbow Bridge, due to the presence of the Rainbow Lodge resort on the creek upstream from the bridge. It was operated by former Army Captain Howard Sharpe and his wife, Frida. After timber harvesting was no longer profitable, Sharpe bought the Bixby Creek Canyon ranch in 1919. He built a dirt road from the lodge up the canyon to Bixby Landing and another road down to the beach at the mouth of Bixby Creek. He sold part of his land to the state as part of the bridge right-of-way in 1930.

 

The bridge was retrofitted beginning in 1996 with an analysis by bridge engineering company Buckland & Taylor as part of the Caltrans Phase II seismic retrofit program. In their detailed evaluation of the bridge's seismic vulnerabilities, they were challenged to find a solution that met several difficult issues, including severe load factors, extremely limited physical access, maintaining the appearance of the existing historical structure, and a requirement by the State of California that at least one lane of the bridge remain open at all times. The crux of the design was the longitudinal post-tensioning of the entire bridge deck from end to end.

 

The $20 million seismic retrofit began in May 1998. The cost of the retrofit was considerably increased by the requirement to preserve the historical look of the bridge. Prime contractor Vahani Construction of San Francisco was assisted by Faye Bernstein & Associates and Waldron Engineering. To reinforce the abutments supporting the bridge deck at either end, engineers put in place a floating slab, continuous with the deck, keyed into a massive pile cap with six 72-inch (1,800 mm) diameter cast-in-drilled-hole (CIDH) piles behind each abutment. To support the towers, engineers designed a full height structural wall that was integrated within each of the two existing towers. During the retrofit, they removed the top portion of the towers, including the roadway, and replaced them with a prestressed diaphragm that anchors the full height of the vertical tower. The diaphragm simultaneously distributes the vertical prestressing forces uniformly to the new concrete structural wall and the existing tower's concrete.

 

The deck, which curves from one end to the other, was reinforced by adding heavily confined edge beams encasing high strength steel along the inside face of the exterior longitudinal girders underneath. These rods extended from one end of the roadway to the other. The reinforced edge beams ensure continuity across the many expansion joints and help distribute the bending strains due to lateral flexure. In addition to the reinforced edge beam, four large prestressing tendons were installed the length of the bridge along the underside of the deck slab. These tendons are stressed to pre-compress the concrete deck to approximately 800 psi and also serve as flexural reinforcement along with the high strength rods. Finally, engineers found a way to reinforce the bent columns attached to the arch, which possess complex and varying geometric challenges. They encased the bent columns with thin, lightweight, composite carbon fiber jackets that provide the necessary degree of confinement to ensure ductile response and also mimic the original design.

 

In addition to the analyses performed by Buckland and Taylor, Caltrans commissioned Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to perform an independent study of the structure both with and without the proposed retrofit measures in place. The final report, which was published in June 1999, concludes that the retrofit appears to be appropriate even for earthquake ground motions including near-field displacement pulses, which were not considered in the original analyses.

 

As a result of the retrofit, the continuous, stiffened deck has four lateral reaction points: two new massive abutments anchored by large-diameter, cast-in-drilled-hole piles. The two towers are strengthened and anchored to rock with tie-down anchors within the towers. The arch ribs are laterally supported at their crowns by new shear keys that link them to the reinforced deck. The expensive retrofit, completed in November 2000, still left the bridge officially classified as "functionally obsolete" because at 24 feet (7.3 m) in width, the bridge is less than the 32 feet (9.8 m) standard requires of newly built bridges.

 

The bridge is 714 feet (218 m) in total length, 24 feet (7.3 m) wide, with 260 feet (79 m) of clearance below, and has a main span of 360 feet (110 m), which places 50% of the total roadbed above the arch. The arch ribs are five feet thick at the deck and nine feet thick at the springing line, where they join the towers at their base. The arches are four and one-half feet wide. The bridge was designed to support more than six times its intended load.

 

The two large, vertical buttresses or supporting pillars on either side of the arch, while aesthetically pleasing, are functionally unnecessary. Engineers of later arch bridges such as the Frederick W. Panhorst Bridge omitted them from the design. The Rocky Creek Bridge and the Malpaso Creek Bridge to the north are also open-spandrel arch bridges built of reinforced concrete.

 

The bridge is “one of the most photographed features on the West Coast”[32] due to its pleasing aesthetic design and because of its location along the scenic Central Coast of California. "It is arguably the most photographed stretch of the entire Big Sur Coast, on postcards, TV ads, everywhere," according to Debra Geiler, project manager for the Trust for Public Land. "It's the gateway to Big Sur and the interior has never been logged. The land is pristine." Zad Leavy, former executive director of the Big Sur Land Trust, described the land as "...the most spectacular meeting of ocean and land in the entire United States."

 

The bridge was commemorated in an Express mail stamp issued on February 3, 2010. The United States Postal Service introduced a $18.30 definitive stamp designed by Carl T. Herrman of North Las Vegas, Nevada. The stamp features a color digital illustration of Bixby Creek Bridge in California, by Dan Cosgrove of Clarendon Hills, Illinois.

 

On January 20, 2016, two base jumpers died when they landed near the surf and drowned. Officials only figured out the two were missing on January 23 after their rental car was found abandoned near the bridge. Video recovered from a helmet cam worn by one of the victims revealed how they died. Mary Catherine Connell landed safely on the small beach but was overwhelmed by waves. BASE jumping instructor Rami Kajala saw her overtaken by waves and unsuccessfully attempted to rescue her.[35] Kajala's body was found more than two weeks later.[36] Connell's body was never recovered.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bixby_Creek_Bridge

 

Photo of the Bixby Bridge captured alongside Highway 1, the Cabrillo Highway, via Minolta MD Zoom Rokkor-X 24-50mm F/4 lens and the bracketing method of photography. Santa Lucia Mountains. Coast Range. Central Coast. Big Sur Area. Monterey County, Central California. On the last day of July 2017.

 

Exposure Time: 1/250 sec. * ISO Speed: ISO-250 * Aperture: F/8 * Bracketing: +1 / -1 * Color Temperature: 6150 K

Bathroom reno from Sept. 14 (demolition day ) to Dec. 2 (substantial completion date).

 

ROXUL acoustic insulation was pushed tightly into the wall space separating this bathroom from the master bathroom on the other side. The red and white wires are for the heat mat which will be installed beneath the new tile floor.

 

The homeowner tested five different colours of paint on the walls before deciding to go with Aura "Storm" by Benjamin Moore, in a matte finish. One of the runners-up can be seen in this image.

 

To see the reno work in sequence, and 5 "before" pix, click on my "FOLLOW THE BATHROOM RENO" album.

ODC. Almost Done.

It became apparent that the site was well suited for another high-profile memorial since it sat directly south of the White House. By 1901 the Senate Park Commission, better known as the McMillan Commission, had proposed placing a pantheon-like structure on the site hosting "the statues of the illustrious men of the nation, or whether the memory of some individual shall be honored by a monument of the first rank may be left to the future"; no action was ever taken by Congress on this issue.[3]

 

The completion of the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge in 1908 helped to facilitate the recreational usage of East and West Potomac Parks. In 1918, large liquid-chlorine dispensers were installed under the bridge to treat the water and make the Tidal Basin (also known as Twining Lake) suitable for swimming. The Tidal Basin Beach, on the site of the future Memorial, opened in May 1918 and operated as a "Whites Only" facility through 1925, when it was permanently closed to avoid the question of racial integration.[5]

 

A design competition was held for a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt in 1925. The winning design was submitted by John Russell Pope and consisted of a half-circle memorial situated next to a circular basin. The plan was never funded by Congress and was not built.[3]

Jefferson Memorial Side View

 

The Memorial's chance came in 1934 when President Franklin Roosevelt, an admirer of Jefferson himself, inquired to the Commission of Fine Arts about the possibility of erecting a memorial to Jefferson, including it in the plans for the Federal Triangle project, which was under construction at the time. Later the same year, Congressman John J. Boylan jumped off FDR's starting point and urged Congress to create the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Commission. Boylan was appointed the Commission's first chairman and Congress eventually appropriated $3 million for a memorial to Jefferson.[3]

Jefferson warns that a nation cannot be "ignorant and free."

 

The Commission chose John Russell Pope as the architect in 1935. Pope was also the architect of the National Archives Building and original (west) building of the National Gallery of Art. He prepared four different plans for the project, each on a different site. One was on the Anacostia River at the end of East Capitol Street; one at Lincoln Park; one on the south side of the National Mall across from the National Archives; and one situated on the Tidal Basin, directly south of the White House. The Commission preferred the site on the Tidal Basin mainly because it was the most prominent site and because it completed the four-point plan called for by the McMillan Commission (Lincoln Memorial to the Capitol; White House to the Tidal Basin site). Pope designed a very large pantheon-like structure, to sit on a square platform, and to be flanked by two smaller, rectangular, colonnaded buildings.[3]

[edit] Construction

Under construction in 1941, as seen from across the Tidal Basin

 

Construction began on December 15, 1938 and the cornerstone was laid on November 15, 1939, by president Franklin Roosevelt. By this point Pope had died (1937) and his surviving partners, Daniel P. Higgins and Otto R. Eggers, took over construction of the memorial. The design was modified at the request of the Commission of Fine Arts to a more conservative design.

 

Construction commenced amid significant opposition. The Commission of Fine Arts never actually approved any design for the Memorial and even published a pamphlet in 1939 opposing both the design and site of the Memorial. In addition, many Washingtonians opposed the site because it was not aligned with L'Enfant's original plan. Finally, many well established elm and cherry trees had to be removed for construction. Construction continued amid the opposition.[3]

 

In 1939, the Memorial Commission hosted a competition to select a sculptor for the planned statue in the center of the Memorial. They received 101 entries and chose six finalists. Of the six, Rudulph Evans was chosen as the main sculptor and Adolph A. Weinman was chosen to sculpt the pediment relief situated above the entrance.[3]

 

The Jefferson Memorial was officially dedicated by President Roosevelt on April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birthday. At that time, Evans' statue had not yet been finished. Due to material shortages during World War II, the statue that was installed at the time was a plaster cast of Evans' work painted to look like bronze. The finished bronze statue was installed in 1947, having been cast by the Roman Bronze Company of New York.[3]

 

One of the last American public monuments in the Beaux-Arts tradition,[citation needed] the Memorial was severely criticized even as it was being built, by those who adhered to the modernist argument that dressing 20th century buildings like Greek and Roman ones constituted a "tired architectural lie."[citation needed] More than 60 years ago, Pope responded with silence to critics who dismissed him as part of an enervated architectural elite practicing "styles that are safely dead."[citation needed] As a National Memorial it was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.[1][6]

[edit] Description

The monument's marble steps, portico, and circular colonnade of Ionic order columns, and shallow dome.

 

Composed of circular marble steps, a portico, a circular colonnade of Ionic order columns, and a shallow dome, the building is open to the elements. Pope made references to the Roman Pantheon and Jefferson's own design for the Rotunda at the University of Virginia. It is situated in West Potomac Park, on the shore of the Tidal Basin of the Potomac River. The Jefferson Memorial, and the White House located directly north, form one of the main anchor points in the area of the National Mall in D.C. The Washington Monument, just east of the axis on the national Mall, was intended to be located at the intersection of the White House and the site for the Jefferson Memorial to the south, but soft swampy ground which defied 19th century engineering required it be sited to the east.[citation needed]

[edit] The interior

Rudulph Evans's statue of Thomas Jefferson with excerpts from the Declaration of Independence to the right

 

The interior of the memorial has a 19-foot (5.8 m) tall, 10,000 lb (4336 kg) bronze statue[7] of Jefferson by sculptor Rudulph Evans[7] showing Jefferson looking out toward the White House. This statue was added four years after the dedication. Most prominent are the words which are inscribed in a frieze below the dome: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man."[8] This sentence is taken from a September 23, 1800, letter by Jefferson to Dr. Benjamin Rush wherein he defends the constitutional refusal to recognize a state religion.

 

On the panel of the southwest interior wall are excerpts from the Declaration of Independence, written in 1776:[9]

 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men. We...solemnly publish and declare, that these colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states...And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine providence, we mutually pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honour.

 

Note that the inscription uses the word "inalienable", as in Jefferson's draft, rather than "unalienable", as in the published Declaration.[10]

 

On the panel of the northwest interior wall is an excerpt from "A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, 1777", except for the last sentence, which is taken from a letter of August 28, 1789, to James Madison:[9][11]

 

Almighty God hath created the mind free...All attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens...are a departure from the plan of the Holy Author of our religion...No man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship or ministry or shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief, but all men shall be free to profess and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion. I know but one code of morality for men whether acting singly or collectively.

 

Detail of the statue

 

The quotes from the panel of the northeast interior wall are from multiple sources. The first sentence, beginning "God who gave...", is from "A Summary View of the Rights of British America".[12] The second, third and fourth sentences are from Notes on the State of Virginia.[13] The fifth sentence, beginning "Nothing is more...", is from Jefferson's autobiography.[14] The sixth sentence, beginning "Establish the law...", is from an August 13, 1790, letter to George Wythe.[15] The final sentence is from a letter of January 4, 1786, to George Washington[16]:[9]

 

God who gave us life gave us liberty. Can the liberties of a nation be secure when we have removed a conviction that these liberties are the gift of God? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that his justice cannot sleep forever. Commerce between master and slave is despotism. Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than these people are to be free. Establish the law for educating the common people. This it is the business of the state to effect and on a general plan.

 

The inscription on the panel of the southeast interior wall is redacted and excerpted from a letter July 12, 1816, to Samuel Kercheval:[17][9]

 

I am not an advocate for frequent changes in laws and constitutions. But laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind. As that becomes more developed, more enlightened, as new discoveries are made, new truths discovered and manners and opinions change, with the change of circumstances, institutions must advance also to keep pace with the times. We might as well require a man to wear still the coat which fitted him when a boy as civilized society to remain ever under the regimen of their barbarous ancestors.

 

[edit] Criticism

 

Cato Institute Fellow and University of Alberta history professor emeritus Ronald Hamowy has called the inscriptions "[p]erhaps the most egregious examples of invoking Jefferson for purely transient political purposes." Hamowy argues that:

 

Planned and built during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the walls of the memorial are adorned with quotations from Jefferson’s writings, many of which suggest that Jefferson advocated positions consistent with the aims of the New Deal—with which he would, in fact, have had little sympathy. Thus, Jefferson’s admonition that an educated electorate was essential if liberty were to be preserved is transmuted into a call for universal public education. And his caution that man, as he advances in his understanding of the world, must accompany his greater enlightenment with changes in his social institutions becomes a justification for a new theory of government in keeping with the social-democratic principles that animated the New Deal.[18]

 

The excerpts chosen from the Declaration have been criticized because the first half alters Jefferson's prose (for the sake of saving space) and eliminates the right of revolution passage that Jefferson believed was the point of the Declaration, while much of the second half (from "solemnly publish" to "divine providence") was not written by Jefferson.[19]

 

The fifth sentence quoted on the northeast interior wall ("Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than these people are to be free.") has been called "misleadingly truncated" by historian Garry Wills, because Jefferson's sentence continued with: "Nor is it less certain that the two races, equally free, cannot live in the same government."[20]

[edit] Location

Jefferson Memorial, with Potomac River in the background. Photographed from the top of the Washington Monument, January 1967

 

The site of the monument is in Washington D.C. West Potomac Park, on the shore of the Potomac River Tidal Basin, is enhanced with the massed planting of Japanese cherry trees, a gift from the people of Japan in 1912.[21]

 

The monument is not as prominent in popular culture as other Washington, D.C. buildings and monuments, possibly due to its location well removed from the National Mall and the Washington Metro. The Jefferson Memorial hosts many events and ceremonies each year, including memorial exercises, the Easter Sunrise Service, and the annual National Cherry Blossom Festival.[21]

 

The monument is open 24 hours a day but park rangers are there only until 11:30 p.m.;however, the monument is only a few hundred yards from the National Park Police D.C. Headquarters in East Potomac Park. (0330 UTC)[22]

A touch of old hollywood meets modern chic. This home came with extra personality in each space. We had fun creating her vision and the results were nothing short of Glamorous!

We are making two different skin contact Pinot gris from 2015 fruit. This one is similar in style to the the wine that was selected by Portland Monthly as their "Taster's Pick" in the their "Top 25 under $25" article. Beautiful texture, acid and aromatics. It is a blend of a few barrels of direct-press, barrel-fermented 'white' gris along with one barrel that was fermented on its skin for 17 days. All of these barrels underwent native yeast fermentation and only a small amount of sulfur was added after the completion of ML (none before fermentation). There is a greater chance of things going sideways with this approach (high risk/high reward), but we feel it allows the wine to sing and be more interesting than your run-of-the-mill gris/grigio.

After its completion in the early 16th century, Seville Cathedral supplanted Hagia Sophia as the largest cathedral in the world, a title the Byzantine church had held for nearly a thousand years. It is the third-largest church in the world as well as the largest Gothic church. Since the world's two largest churches, the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida and St. Peter's Basilica, are not the seats of bishops Seville Cathedral is still the largest cathedral in the world.

 

Seville Cathedral was the site of the baptism of Infante Juan of Aragon in 1478, only son of the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. Its royal chapel holds the remains of the city's conqueror Ferdinand III of Castile, his son and heir Alfonso the Wise and their descendant king Pedro el Cruel. The funerary monuments for cardinals Juan de Cervantes and Pedro González de Mendoza Quiñones are located among its chapels. Christopher Columbus and his son Diego are also buried in the cathedral.

 

The Cathedral of Saint Mary of the See was registered in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, along with the adjoining Alcázar palace complex and the General Archive of the Indies. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seville_Cathedral

St Peters’ Cathedral.

When he arrived in Adelaide Augusta Short already had in mind the construction of a grand cathedral. He proceeded with Christ Church as his pro cathedral and dismissed the notion of making Trinity Church his pro cathedral. Soon after Short was appointed as Bishop he was told by the Colonial Office in London that a cathedral site had been planned for Victoria Square consisting of one acre. Governor Gawler had written a letter to the Colonial Office about this. After his arrival in Adelaide Bishop Short received a letter from Governor Grey in 1848 saying that one acre in Victoria Square had been set aside for the Cathedral Church. Nothing more happened on this issue until 1855 when Bishop Short began accumulating funds for his cathedral. But the grant of land had never been registered and new legislation covered the Corporation of Adelaide. So Bishop Short placed four large stones on the corner of his acre of Victoria Square. The Corporation of Adelaide took the matter to the Courts as the public were generally opposed to this idea. Short lost the case as Colonel William Light had never set aside any reserves for any purpose in Victoria Square! About this same time Bishop Short lost his diocese in Western Australia as the first Bishop of Perth was appointed from Canterbury. Short’s archdeacon the Rev Hale was appointed as the Bishop of Perth in 1857 requiring him to leave his beloved Aboriginal Mission church and school at Poonindie near Port Lincoln. Bishop Short then became a trustee of Poonindie Mission.

 

Whilst visiting England in 1854 Bishop Short s had drawings made for a grand cathedral church drawn up by the architect William Butterfield. It was twenty years later before Short asked for more detailed drawings but the plans using a variety of stones would have been too costly so Bishop Short asked Adelaide architect Edward Woods to design a cathedral. He came up with a plan using Glen Osmond bluestone and Tea Tree Gully sandstone for a very gothic edifice. Short had started gathering donations from England in 1854 and from local Adelaidians also from that time and had accumulated around £10,000 by the late 1860s. Over £1,000 was spent on buying the site in North Adelaide and Augustus Short laid the foundation stone of the cathedral on St Peters Day in June 1869. The Governor’s wife Lady Fergusson started the pipe organ fund which soon had almost £1,000 donated to it by 1871. It was dedicated in 1878. The first service in the unfinished cathedral was held in June 1876 and the consecration of the cathedral took place in January 1879. By this time £18,000 had been spent on the cathedral and a further £12,000 was required to complete the nave, steps and two towers. The completion of the Anglican Cathedral was just one of Augustus Short’s achievement during his term as Bishop of Adelaide. By this time Augustus Short was 76 years of age and nearing his retirement. There is a stone carving of Bishop Short with his mitre cap on the base of one of the archways on the northern side of the nave of St Peters Cathedral and a grand tripartite stained glassed window in the Lady Chapel which was installed in 1900 as a memorial of his first 25 years as the first Bishop of Adelaide. There is also a large inlaid bronze memorial to Bishop Augustus Short in the floor of the sanctuary.

  

These are some more shots of my Tour to Europe in Sept - Nov 2012. Basilica Sagrada Familia on my Cosmos tour, October 14, 2012.

 

The basilica Sagrada Familia is one of the most famous landmarks in Barcelona. Since 1882 it was built at the church in the district Eixample built. From 1883 the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí took over the leadership of the works until his death in 1926. The building is significantly influenced by him. The church is such a huge size, so they often referred it as "cathedral", but without having a bishop's seat. Pope Benedict XVI. inaugurates the Sagrada Familia on November 7, 2010. The church building is raised to a basilica.

 

Much time should allow for the visit of the details of the facades, where many embassies and biblical stories are hidden.

With the completion in 2026 expected, the construction is financed solely from donations and ticket money. Currently, 8 out of 12 about 100 meters tall bell towers are completed. The higher towers of the facade of the glory will be built and the central dome with a height of over 170 meters. Currently, part of the cloister is the building of the apse dome.

For More Info: barcelona.de/en/barcelona-sagrada-familia.html

winning.

The new coffee shop is nearing completion. It’s located on Roswell Road, Hwy. 120, just east of the 120 Loop and out in front of an ALDI Grocery store. The site is where a previous structure was demolished to make way for java fan’s holy grail.

 

Edited in Prisma app with Villa