Cattle (Bos taurus) are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are referred to as cows and mature male cattle are referred to as bulls. Colloquially, young female cattle (heifers), young male cattle (bullocks), and castrated male cattle (steers) are also referred to as "cows".

 

Cattle are commonly raised as livestock for meat (beef or veal, see beef cattle), for milk and dairy products (see dairy cattle), and for hides, which are used to make leather. They are used as riding animals and draft animals (oxen or bullocks, which pull carts, plows and other implements). Another product of cattle is their dung, which can be used to create manure or fuel. In some regions, such as parts of India, cattle is considered as a sacred animal. Cattle, mostly small breeds such as the Miniature Zebu, are also kept as pets.

 

Different types of cattle are common to different geographic areas. Taurine cattle are found primarily in Europe and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia. Zebus (also called indicine cattle) are found primarily in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia. Sanga cattle are found primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. These types (which are sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies) are further divided into over 1,000 recognized breeds.

 

Around 10,500 years ago, taurine cattle were domesticated from as few as 80 wild aurochs progenitors in central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran. A separate domestication event occurred in the Indian subcontinent, which gave rise to zebu. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), there are approximately 1.5 billion cattle in the world as of 2018. Cattle are the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from livestock, and are responsible for around 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome.

 

Taxonomy

See also: Bos and Bovinae

 

Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or "taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indicus, the Indicine or "zebu"; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle. They were later reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with the aurochs (B. t. primigenius), zebu (B. t. indicus), and taurine (B. t. taurus) cattle as subspecies. However, this taxonomy is contentious and some sources prefer the separate species classification, such as the American Society of Mammalogists' Mammal Diversity Database.

 

Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus x Bos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks (the dzo or yattle[10]), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as well. The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak. However, cattle cannot be successfully hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo.

 

The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Mazovia, Poland, in about 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed.

 

A group of taurine-type cattles exist in Africa. It is hotly debated whether they represent an independent domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but it's clear that they are genetically quite distinct; some authors choose to name them as a separate subspecies, Bos taurus africanus. The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are the N'Dama, Kuri and some varieties of the West African Shorthorn.

 

Etymology

Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latin caput 'head'. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the land). The word is a variant of chattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh 'cattle, property', which survives today as fee (cf. German: Vieh, Dutch: vee, Gothic: faihu).

 

The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū (plural cȳ), from Common Indo-European gʷōus (genitive gʷowés) 'a bovine animal', cf. Persian: gâv, Sanskrit: go-, Welsh: buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and an additional plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien, but also kies, kuin and others. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine. The Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye.

 

In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, cattle refers to livestock, as opposed to deer which refers to wildlife. Wild cattle may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated species of the genus Bos. Today, when used without any other qualifier, the modern meaning of cattle is usually restricted to domesticated bovines.

 

Terminology

 

In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world, but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British-influenced parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the United States.

 

An "intact" (i.e., not castrated) adult male is called a bull.

A father bull is called a sire with reference to his offspring.

An adult female that has had a calf (or two, depending on regional usage) is a cow. Steers and heifers are also colloquially referred to as cows.

A mother cow is called a dam with reference to her offspring. Often, mentions of dams imply cows kept in the herd for repeated breeding (as opposed to heifers or cows sold off sooner).

A young female before she has had a calf of her own and who is under three years of age is called a heifer. A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a first-calf heifer. Heiferettes are either first-calf heifers or a subset thereof without potential to become lineage dams, depending on whose definition is operative.

Young cattle (regardless of sex) are called calves until they are weaned, then weaners until they are a year old in some areas; in other areas, particularly with male beef cattle, they may be known as feeder calves or feeders. After that, they are referred to as yearlings or stirks if between one and two years of age.

Feeder cattle or store cattle are young cattle soon to be either backgrounded or sent to fattening, most especially those intended to be sold to someone else for finishing. In some regions, a distinction between stockers and feeders (by those names) is the distinction of backgrounding versus immediate sale to a finisher.

A castrated male is called a steer in the United States; older steers are often called bullocks in other parts of the world, but in North America this term refers to a young bull. Piker bullocks are micky bulls (uncastrated young male bulls) that were caught, castrated and then later lost. In Australia, the term Japanese ox is used for grain-fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade. In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called working steers. Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse steer known as a stag in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. In some countries, an incompletely castrated male is known also as a rig.

A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft or riding purposes is called an ox (plural oxen); ox may also be used to refer to some carcass products from any adult cattle, such as ox-hide, ox-blood, oxtail, or ox-liver.

A springer is a cow or heifer close to calving.

In all cattle species, a female twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex, and is called a freemartin.

A wild, young, unmarked bull is known as a micky in Australia.

An unbranded bovine of either sex is called a maverick in the US and Canada.

Neat (horned oxen, from which neatsfoot oil is derived), beef (young ox) and beefing (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms, although poll, pollard and polled cattle are still terms in use for naturally hornless animals, or in some areas also for those that have been disbudded or dehorned.

Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the American beef cattle industry, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still used to refer to an animal of either sex. Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British people use the term beast.

Cattle bred specifically for milk production are called milking or dairy cattle; a cow kept to provide milk for one family may be called a house cow or milker. A fresh cow is a dairy term for a cow or first-calf heifer who has recently given birth, or "freshened."

The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine. The terms bull, cow and calf are also used by extension to denote the sex or age of other large animals, including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk and elephants.

Various other terms for cattle or types thereof are historical; these include nowt, nolt, mart, and others.

Singular terminology issue

 

"Cattle" can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum. Thus one may refer to "three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". "One head of cattle" is a valid though periphrastic way to refer to one animal of indeterminate or unknown age and sex; otherwise no universally used single-word singular form of cattle exists in modern English, other than the sex- and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Historically, "ox" was not a sex-specific term for adult cattle, but generally this is now used only for working cattle, especially adult castrated males. The term is also incorporated into the names of other species, such as the musk ox and "grunting ox" (yak), and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as ox-hide and oxtail.

 

Cow is in general use as a singular for the collective cattle. The word cow is easy to use when a singular is needed and the sex is unknown or irrelevant—when "there is a cow in the road", for example. Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate even in the restrictive sense. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and are used as oxen or slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences. Merriam-Webster and Oxford Living Dictionaries recognize the sex-nonspecific use of cow as an alternate definition, whereas Collins and the OED do not.

 

Colloquially, more general nonspecific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Head of cattle is usually used only after a numeral. Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term beast or cattle beast. Bovine is also used in Britain. The term critter is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle. In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is becoming archaic.

 

Other terminology

Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term beef (plural beeves) is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either sex. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called dairy cows or milking cows (formerly milch cows). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold for veal, and may be referred to as veal calves.

 

The term dogies is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West, as in "Keep them dogies moving". In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow". Other obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "neatsfoot oil", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughter).

 

An onomatopoeic term for one of the most common sounds made by cattle is moo (also called lowing). There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves bawling, and bulls bellowing. Bawling is most common for cows after weaning of a calf. The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a bull's territorial call.

 

Characteristics

Anatomy

 

Cattle are large quadrupedal ungulate mammals with cloven hooves. Most breeds have horns, which can be as large as the Texas Longhorn or small like a scur. Careful genetic selection has allowed polled (hornless) cattle to become widespread.

 

Digestive system

Further information: Digestive system of ruminants

Cattle are ruminants, meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the consumption of difficult to digest plants as food. Cattle have one stomach with four compartments, the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "many plies". The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach".

 

Cattle are known for regurgitating and re-chewing their food, known as cud chewing, like most ruminants. While the animal is feeding, the food is swallowed without being chewed and goes into the rumen for storage until the animal can find a quiet place to continue the digestion process. The food is regurgitated, a mouthful at a time, back up to the mouth, where the food, now called the cud, is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines, allowing cattle to gain a high-quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other tough vegetation.

 

Reproduction

Further information: Bull § Reproductive anatomy

 

On farms it is very common to use artificial insemination (AI), a medically assisted reproduction technique consisting of the artificial deposition of semen in the female's genital tract. It is used in cases where the spermatozoa can not reach the fallopian tubes or by choice of the owner of the animal. It consists of transferring, to the uterine cavity, spermatozoa previously collected and processed, with the selection of morphologically more normal and mobile spermatozoa. Synchronization of cattle ovulation to benefit dairy farming may be accomplished via induced ovulation techniques.

 

Bulls become fertile at about seven months of age. Their fertility is closely related to the size of their testicles, and one simple test of fertility is to measure the circumference of the scrotum: a young bull is likely to be fertile once this reaches 28 centimetres (11 in); that of a fully adult bull may be over 40 centimetres (16 in).

 

A bull has a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.

 

The gestation period for a cow is about nine months long. The secondary sex ratio – the ratio of male to female offspring at birth – is approximately 52:48, although it may be influenced by environmental and other factors. A cow's udder contains two pairs of mammary glands, (commonly referred to as teats) creating four "quarters". The front ones are referred to as fore quarters and the rear ones rear quarters.

 

Weight and lifespan

 

The weight of adult cattle varies, depending on the breed. Smaller kinds, such as Dexter and Jersey adults, range between 300 and 500 kg (600 and 1,000 lb). Large Continental breeds, such as Charolais, Marchigiana, Belgian Blue and Chianina adults range from 640 to 1,100 kg (1,400 to 2,500 lb). British breeds, such as Hereford, Angus, and Shorthorn, mature at 500 to 900 kg (1,000 to 2,000 lb), occasionally higher, particularly with Angus and Hereford. Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows weigh 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb); the bulls weigh 1,000–1,200 kg (2,200–2,600 lb). Chianina bulls can weigh up to 1,500 kg (3,300 lb); British bulls, such as Angus and Hereford, can weigh as little as 900 kg (2,000 lb) and as much as 1,400 kg (3,000 lb).

 

The world record for the heaviest bull was 1,740 kg (3,840 lb), a Chianina named Donetto, when he was exhibited at the Arezzo show in 1955. The heaviest steer was eight-year-old 'Old Ben', a Shorthorn/​Hereford cross weighing in at 2,140 kg (4,720 lb) in 1910.

 

In the United States, the average weight of beef cattle has steadily increased, especially since the 1970s, requiring the building of new slaughterhouses able to handle larger carcasses. New packing plants in the 1980s stimulated a large increase in cattle weights. Before 1790 beef cattle averaged only 160 kg (350 lb) net; and thereafter weights climbed steadily.

 

A newborn calf's size can vary among breeds, but a typical calf weighs 25 to 45 kg (55 to 99 lb). Adult size and weight vary significantly among breeds and sex. Steers are generally slaughtered before reaching 750 kg (1,650 lb). Breeding stock may be allowed a longer lifespan, occasionally living as long as 25 years. The oldest recorded cow, Big Bertha, died at the age of 48 in 1993.

 

Cognition

In laboratory studies, young cattle are able to memorize the locations of several food sources and retain this memory for at least 8 hours, although this declined after 12 hours. Fifteen-month-old heifers learn more quickly than adult cows which have had either one or two calvings, but their longer-term memory is less stable. Mature cattle perform well in spatial learning tasks and have a good long-term memory in these tests. Cattle tested in a radial arm maze are able to remember the locations of high-quality food for at least 30 days. Although they initially learn to avoid low-quality food, this memory diminishes over the same duration. Under less artificial testing conditions, young cattle showed they were able to remember the location of feed for at least 48 days. Cattle can make an association between a visual stimulus and food within 1 day—memory of this association can be retained for 1 year, despite a slight decay.

 

Calves are capable of discrimination learning and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the closed-field test.

 

They are also able to discriminate between familiar individuals, and among humans. Cattle can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar animals of the same species (conspecifics). Studies show they behave less aggressively toward familiar individuals when they are forming a new group. Calves can also discriminate between humans based on previous experience, as shown by approaching those who handled them positively and avoiding those who handled them aversively. Although cattle can discriminate between humans by their faces alone, they also use other cues such as the color of clothes when these are available.

 

In audio play-back studies, calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations compared to the vocalizations of an unfamiliar mother.

 

In laboratory studies using images, cattle can discriminate between images of the heads of cattle and other animal species. They are also able to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. Furthermore, they are able to categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.

 

When mixed with other individuals, cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis of grouping behaviour. It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination.

 

Cattle can recognize familiar individuals. Visual individual recognition is a more complex mental process than visual discrimination. It requires the recollection of the learned idiosyncratic identity of an individual that has been previously encountered and the formation of a mental representation. By using two-dimensional images of the heads of one cow (face, profiles, 3⁄4 views), all the tested heifers showed individual recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals from their own breed. Furthermore, almost all the heifers recognized unknown individuals from different breeds, although this was achieved with greater difficulty. Individual recognition was most difficult when the visual features of the breed being tested were quite different from the breed in the image, for example, the breed being tested had no spots whereas the image was of a spotted breed.

 

Cattle use visual/brain lateralisation in their visual scanning of novel and familiar stimuli. Domestic cattle prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye, i.e. using the right brain hemisphere (similar to horses, Australian magpies, chicks, toads and fish) but use the right eye, i.e. using the left hemisphere, for viewing familiar stimuli.

 

Senses

Cattle use all of the five widely recognized sensory modalities. These can assist in some complex behavioural patterns, for example, in grazing behaviour. Cattle eat mixed diets, but when given the opportunity, show a partial preference of approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.

 

Vision

 

Vision is the dominant sense in cattle and they obtain almost 50% of their information visually.

 

Cattle are a prey animal and to assist predator detection, their eyes are located on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a wide field of view of 330° but limits binocular vision (and therefore stereopsis) to 30° to 50° compared to 140° in humans. This means they have a blind spot directly behind them. Cattle have good visual acuity, but compared to humans, their visual accommodation is poor.

 

Cattle have two kinds of color receptors in the cone cells of their retinas. This means that cattle are dichromatic, as are most other non-primate land mammals. There are two to three rods per cone in the fovea centralis but five to six near the optic papilla. Cattle can distinguish long wavelength colors (yellow, orange and red) much better than the shorter wavelengths (blue, grey and green). Calves are able to discriminate between long (red) and short (blue) or medium (green) wavelengths, but have limited ability to discriminate between the short and medium. They also approach handlers more quickly under red light. Whilst having good color sensitivity, it is not as good as humans or sheep.

 

A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something provocative is often said to be "like a red flag to a bull"). This is a myth. In bullfighting, it is the movement of the red flag or cape that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.

 

Taste

Cattle have a well-developed sense of taste and can distinguish the four primary tastes (sweet, salty, bitter and sour). They possess around 20,000 taste buds. The strength of taste perception depends on the individual's current food requirements. They avoid bitter-tasting foods (potentially toxic) and have a marked preference for sweet (high calorific value) and salty foods (electrolyte balance). Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH.

 

Plants have low levels of sodium and cattle have developed the capacity of seeking salt by taste and smell. If cattle become depleted of sodium salts, they show increased locomotion directed to searching for these. To assist in their search, the olfactory and gustatory receptors able to detect minute amounts of sodium salts increase their sensitivity as biochemical disruption develops with sodium salt depletion.

 

Hearing

Cattle hearing ranges from 23 Hz to 35 kHz. Their frequency of best sensitivity is 8 kHz and they have a lowest threshold of −21 db (re 20 μN/m−2), which means their hearing is more acute than horses (lowest threshold of 7 db). Sound localization acuity thresholds are an average of 30°. This means that cattle are less able to localise sounds compared to goats (18°), dogs (8°) and humans (0.8°). Because cattle have a broad foveal fields of view covering almost the entire horizon, they may not need very accurate locus information from their auditory systems to direct their gaze to a sound source.

 

Vocalizations are an important mode of communication amongst cattle and can provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller. Calves can recognize their mothers using vocalizations; vocal behaviour may play a role by indicating estrus and competitive display by bulls.

 

Olfaction and gustation

 

Cattle have a range of odoriferous glands over their body including interdigital, infraorbital, inguinal and sebaceous glands, indicating that olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life. Both the primary olfactory system using the olfactory bulbs, and the secondary olfactory system using the vomeronasal organ are used. This latter olfactory system is used in the flehmen response. There is evidence that when cattle are stressed, this can be recognised by other cattle and this is communicated by alarm substances in the urine. The odour of dog faeces induces behavioural changes prior to cattle feeding, whereas the odours of urine from either stressed or non-stressed conspecifics and blood have no effect.

 

In the laboratory, cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.

 

In general, cattle use their sense of smell to "expand" on information detected by other sensory modalities. However, in the case of social and reproductive behaviours, olfaction is a key source of information.

 

Touch

Cattle have tactile sensations detected mainly by mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and nociceptors in the skin and muscles. These are used most frequently when cattle explore their environment.

 

Magnetoreception

There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic north–south direction. In a follow-up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment. However, in 2011, a group of Czech researchers reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using Google Earth images.

 

Behavior

Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life. Cattle are considered to be "hider" type animals, utilizing secluded areas more in the hours before calving and continued to use it more for the hour after calving. Cows that gave birth for the first time show a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behavior.

 

In one study, beef-calves reared on the range were observed to suckle an average of 5.0 times every 24 hours with an average total time of 46 min spent suckling. There was a diurnal rhythm in suckling activity with peaks between 05:00–07:00, 10:00–13:00 and 17:00–21:00.

 

Reproductive behavior

Semi-wild Highland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%.

 

Dominance and leadership

One study showed that over a 4-year period, dominance relationships within a herd of semi-wild highland cattle were very firm. There were few overt aggressive conflicts and the majority of disputes were settled by agonistic (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors that involved no physical contact between opponents (e.g. threatening and spontaneous withdrawing). Such agonistic behavior reduces the risk of injury. Dominance status depended on age and sex, with older animals generally being dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gained superior dominance status over adult cows when they reached about 2 years of age.

 

As with many animal dominance hierarchies, dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.

 

Dominance is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way. Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus, however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.

 

The horns of cattle are "honest signals" used in mate selection. Furthermore, horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle. This leads to more stable social relationships.

 

In calves, the frequency of agonistic behavior decreases as space allowance increases, but this does not occur for changes in group size. However, in adult cattle, the number of agonistic encounters increases as the group size increases.

 

Grazing behavior

When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing 750-kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2 (30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area. Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.

 

Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep, but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbit faeces.

 

Temperament and emotions

 

In cattle, temperament can affect production traits such as carcass and meat quality or milk yield as well as affecting the animal's overall health and reproduction. Cattle temperament is defined as "the consistent behavioral and physiological difference observed between individuals in response to a stressor or environmental challenge and is used to describe the relatively stable difference in the behavioral predisposition of an animal, which can be related to psychobiological mechanisms". Generally, cattle temperament is assumed to be multidimensional. Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed:

 

shyness–boldness

exploration–avoidance

activity

aggressiveness

sociability

In a study on Holstein–Friesian heifers learning to press a panel to open a gate for access to a food reward, the researchers also recorded the heart rate and behavior of the heifers when moving along the race towards the food. When the heifers made clear improvements in learning, they had higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race. The researchers concluded this was an indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement.

 

Negative emotional states are associated with a bias toward negative responses towards ambiguous cues in judgement tasks. After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves showed such a cognitive bias indicative of low mood. A similar study showed that after hot-iron disbudding (dehorning), calves had a similar negative bias indicating that post-operative pain following this routine procedure results in a negative change in emotional state.

 

In studies of visual discrimination, the position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state. When cattle are stressed other cattle can tell by the chemicals released in their urine.

 

Cattle are very gregarious and even short-term isolation is considered to cause severe psychological stress. When Aubrac and Friesian heifers are isolated, they increase their vocalizations and experience increased heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations. These physiological changes are greater in Aubracs. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline, regardless of the familiarity of the returning cattle, however, heart rate decreases are greater if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual. Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.

 

Sleep

Further information: Sleep in non-human animals and Cow tipping

The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day. Cattle do have a stay apparatus, but do not sleep standing up; they lie down to sleep deeply. In spite of the urban legend, cows cannot be tipped over by people pushing on them.

 

Genetics

Further information: Bovine genome

On 24 April 2009, edition of the journal Science, a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture reported having mapped the bovine genome. The scientists found cattle have about 22,000 genes, and 80% of their genes are shared with humans, and they share about 1000 genes with dogs and rodents, but are not found in humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields.

 

Behavioral traits of cattle can be as heritable as some production traits, and often, the two can be related. The heritability of fear varies markedly in cattle from low (0.1) to high (0.53); such high variation is also found in pigs and sheep, probably due to differences in the methods used. The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 for habituation to handling. Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.

 

Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle.

 

Domestication and husbandry

 

Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, having been domesticated since at least the early neolithic age.

 

Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one in the Near East (specifically central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran), giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line. Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of Çayönü Tepesi in what is now southeastern Turkey and Dja'de el-Mughara in what is now northern Syria.

 

Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants. A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe. Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from North African aurochsen.

 

Usage as money

As early as 9000 BC both grain and cattle were used as money or as barter (the first grain remains found, considered to be evidence of pre-agricultural practice date to 17,000 BC). Some evidence also exists to suggest that other animals, such as camels and goats, may have been used as currency in some parts of the world. One of the advantages of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price. It even created the standard pricing. For example, two chickens were traded for one cow as cows were deemed to be more valuable than chickens.

 

Modern husbandry

Further information: Animal husbandry

 

Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging, dehorning, loading, medical operations, artificial insemination, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. Also, some cultural differences occur in working with cattle; the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by physical means, such as fences. Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce M. bovis infection susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.

 

Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, and leather. They are less commonly used for conservation grazing, or to maintain grassland for wildlife, such as in Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semidesert. Modern cattle are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less versatile. For this reason, many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, such as the Jersey dairy breed. In Portugal, Spain, southern France and some Latin American countries, bulls are used in the activity of bullfighting; In many other countries bullfighting is illegal. Other activities such as bull riding are seen as part of a rodeo, especially in North America. Bull-leaping, a central ritual in Bronze Age Minoan culture, still exists in southwestern France. In modern times, cattle are also entered into agricultural competitions. These competitions can involve live cattle or cattle carcases in hoof and hook events.

 

In terms of food intake by humans, consumption of cattle is less efficient than of grain or vegetables with regard to land use, and hence cattle grazing consumes more area than such other agricultural production when raised on grains. Nonetheless, cattle and other forms of domesticated animals can sometimes help to use plant resources in areas not easily amenable to other forms of agriculture.

 

Feral cattle

Feral cattle are defined as being 'cattle that are not domesticated or cultivated'. Populations of feral cattle are known to come from and exist in: Australia, United States of America, Colombia, Argentina, Spain, France and many islands, including New Guinea, Hawaii (see Hawaiian wild cattle), Galapagos, Juan Fernández Islands, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), Tristan da Cunha and Île Amsterdam (see Amsterdam Island cattle), two islands of Kuchinoshima and Kazura Island next to Naru Island in Japan. Chillingham cattle is sometimes regarded as a feral breed. Aleutian wild cattles can be found on the Aleutian Islands. The "Kinmen cattle" which are predominantly found on Kinmen Island, Taiwan is mostly domesticated while smaller portion of the population is believed to live in the wild due to accidental releases.

 

Other notable examples include cattle in the vicinity of Hong Kong (in the Shing Mun Country Park, among Sai Kung District and Lantau Island and on Grass Island), and semi-feral animals in Yangmingshan, Taiwan.

 

Economy

 

The meat of adult cattle is known as beef, and that of calves is veal. Other animal parts are also used as food products, including blood, liver, kidney, heart and oxtail. Cattle also produce milk, and dairy cattle are specifically bred to produce the large quantities of milk processed and sold for human consumption. Cattle today are the basis of a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23% of world beef production. Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy cattle, are slaughtered each year for food. The production of milk, which is also made into cheese, butter, yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in economic size to beef production, and provides an important part of the food supply for many of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for leather to make shoes, couches and clothing, are another widespread product. Cattle remain broadly used as draft animals in many developing countries, such as India. Cattle are also used in some sporting games, including rodeo and bullfighting.

 

Meat production

Cattle meat production (kt)

Country2008200920102011

Argentina3132337826302497

Australia2132212426302420

Brazil9024939591159030

China5841606062446182

Germany1199119012051170

Japan520517515500

US12163118911204611988

Source: Helgi Library, World Bank, FAOSTAT

 

About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle.

 

Dairy

Main articles: Dairy cattle, Dairy farming, and Dairy

 

Certain breeds of cattle, such as the Holstein-Friesian, are used to produce milk, which can be processed into dairy products such as milk, cheese or yogurt. Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product. Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those methods. For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it generally is slaughtered at a young age to produce veal. They will continue to produce milk until three weeks before birth. Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. The Holstein-Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. Around 22 litres per day is average in the UK.

 

Hides

Most cattle are not kept solely for hides, which are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are most commonly used for leather, which can be made into a variety of products, including shoes. In 2012 India was the world's largest producer of cattle hides.

 

Oxen

Main article: Ox

 

Oxen (singular ox) are cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, castrated males of larger breeds, although females and bulls are also used in some areas. Usually, an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for plowing, transport, hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, irrigation by powering pumps, and wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact, select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as carting, with additional pairs added when more power is required, sometimes up to a total of 20 or more. Oxen can be trained to respond to a teamster's signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks). Verbal commands vary according to dialect and local tradition. Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed.

 

Many oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. About 11.3 million draft oxen are used in sub-Saharan Africa. In India, the number of draft cattle in 1998 was estimated at 65.7 million head. About half the world's crop production is thought to depend on land preparation (such as plowing) made possible by animal traction.

 

Climate change and economics of cattle rearing

See also: Economic impacts of climate change

Climate change increases heat stress, and even mild heat stress can reduce the yield of cow milk. Some researchers suggest that the already recorded stagnation of dairy production in both China and West Africa can attributed to persistent increases in heat stress.: 747  In China, daily milk production per cow is already lower than the average by between 0.7 and 4 kg in July (the hottest month of the year), and by 2070, it may decline by up to 50% (or 7.2 kg) due to climate change. In male cattle, severe heat can affect both spermatogenesis and the stored spermatozoa, and it may take up to eight weeks for sperm to become viable again. In females, heat stress negatively affects conception rates as it impairs corpus luteum and thus ovarian function and oocyte quality. Even after conception, a pregnancy is less likely to be carried to term due to reduced endometrial function and uterine blood flow, leading to increased embryonic mortality and early fetal loss. Calves born to heat-stressed cows typically have a below-average weight, and their weight and height remains below average even by the time they reach their first year, due to permanent changes in their metabolism. Heat stress can also be outright lethal, which is already seen during some heatwaves: in July 1995, over 4000 cattle perished in the mid-central United States heatwave, and in 1999, over 5000 cattle died during a heatwave in northeastern Nebraska.

 

By 2017, it was already reported that farmers in Nepal kept fewer cattle due to the losses imposed by a longer hot season.: 747  As of 2022, it has been suggested that every additional millimeter of annual precipitation increases beef production by 2.1% in the tropical countries and reduces it by 1.9% in temperate ones, yet the effects of warming are much larger. Under SSP3-7.0, a scenario of significant warming and very low adaptation, every additional 1 °C (1.8 °F) would decrease global beef production by 9.7%, mainly because of its impact on tropical and poor countries. In the countries which can afford adaptation measures, production would fall by around 4%, but by 27% in those which can't. Only a few exceptions have been identified to date: for instance, east and south of Argentina may become more suitable to cattle ranching due to climate-driven shifts in rainfall, but a shift to Zebu breeds would likely be needed to minimize the impact of warming. Other studies suggest that Brahman cattle and its cross-breeds are more resistant to heat stress than the regular bos taurus breeds, but on a global scale, it is considered unlikely that even more heat-resistant cattle can be bred at a sufficient rate to keep up with the expected warming.

 

Population

The cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s.

 

For 2013, the FAO estimated global cattle numbers at 1.47 billion. Regionally, the FAO estimate for 2013 includes: Asia 497 million; South America 350 million; Africa 307 million; Europe 122 million; North America 102 million; Central America 47 million; Oceania 40 million; and Caribbean 9 million.

 

As per FAS/USDA 2021 data, India had the largest cattle population in the world in 2021 followed by Brazil and China

 

India's cattle's population was reported at 305.5 million head in 2021, accounting for roughly 30% of the world's population. India, Brazil and China accounted for roughly 65% of the world's cattle population in 2021.

 

It has been estimated that out of all animal species on Earth, Bos taurus has the largest biomass at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely by Euphausia superba (Antarctic krill) at 379 million tonnes, and Homo sapiens (humans) at 373 million tonnes.

 

Cattle population

Environmental impact

See also: Environmental effects of meat production, Milk § Environmental impact, Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest, Beef § Environmental impact, and Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture § Livestock

 

Meat from cattle has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.

Gut flora in cattle include methanogens that produce methane as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, which cattle belch out. The same volume of atmospheric methane has a 72x higher (over 20 years) global warming potential than atmospheric carbon dioxide. Methane belching from cattle can be reduced with genetic selection, immunization against the many methanogens, rumen defaunation (killing the bacteria-killing protozoa), diet modification (e.g. seaweed fortification), decreased antibiotic use, and grazing management, among others.

 

A 2013 report from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) based on 2005 data states that the livestock sector is responsible for 14.5% of greenhouse gas emissions, 65% of which is due to cattle. The IPCC estimates that cattle and other livestock emit about 80 to 93 Megatonnes of methane per year, accounting for an estimated 37% of anthropogenic methane emissions, and additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of manure in manure lagoons and other manure storage structures. Another estimate is 12% of global GHG. While cattle fed forage actually produce more methane than grain-fed cattle, the increase may be offset by the increased carbon recapture of pastures, which recapture three times the CO2 of cropland used for grain.

 

Mean greenhouse gas emissions for different food types.

Food TypesGreenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per gram protein)

Ruminant Meat

62

Recirculating Aquaculture

30

Trawling Fishery

26

Non-recirculating Aquaculture

12

Pork

10

Poultry

10

Dairy

9.1

Non-trawling Fishery

8.6

Eggs

6.8

Starchy Roots

1.7

Wheat

1.2

Maize

1.2

Legumes

0.25

Mean land use of different foods

Food TypesLand Use (m2·year per 100 g protein)

Lamb and Mutton

185

Beef

164

Cheese

41

Pork

11

Poultry

7.1

Eggs

5.7

Farmed Fish

3.7

Peanuts

3.5

Peas

3.4

Tofu

2.2

 

One of the cited changes suggested to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is intensification of the livestock industry, since intensification leads to less land for a given level of production. This assertion is supported by studies of the US beef production system, suggesting practices prevailing in 2007 involved 8.6% less fossil fuel use, 16.3% less greenhouse gas emissions, 12.1% less water use, and 33.0% less land use, per unit mass of beef produced, than those used in 1977. The analysis took into account not only practices in feedlots, but also feed production (with less feed needed in more intensive production systems), forage-based cow-calf operations and back-grounding before cattle enter a feedlot (with more beef produced per head of cattle from those sources, in more intensive systems), and beef from animals derived from the dairy industry. A more controversial suggestion, advocated by George Monbiot in the documentary "Apocalypse Cow", is to stop farming cattle completely, however farmers often have political power so might be able to resist such a big change.

 

Estimated virtual water requirements for various foods (m³ water/ton

Hoekstra & Hung

(2003)

 

Chapagain & Hoekstra (2003)Zimmer & Renault

(2003)

 

Oki et al. (2003)Average

Beef15,97713,50020,70016,730

Pork5,9064,6005,9005,470

Cheese5,2885,290

Poultry2,8284,1004,5003,810

Eggs4,6572,7003,2003,520

Rice2,6561,4003,6002,550

Soybeans2,3002,7502,5002,520

Wheat1,1501,1602,0001,440

Maize4507101,9001,020

Milk865790560740

Potatoes160105130

 

Significant numbers of dairy, as well as beef cattle, are confined in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), defined as "new and existing operations which stable or confine and feed or maintain for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period more than the number of animals specified" where "[c]rops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season over any portion of the lot or facility." They may be designated as small, medium and large. Such designation of cattle CAFOs is according to cattle type (mature dairy cows, veal calves or other) and cattle numbers, but medium CAFOs are so designated only if they meet certain discharge criteria, and small CAFOs are designated only on a case-by-case basis.

 

Mean eutrophying emissions (water pollution) of different foods per 100 g of protein

Food TypesEutrophying Emissions (g PO43-eq per 100 g protein)

Beef

365.3

Farmed Fish

235.1

Farmed Crustaceans

227.2

Cheese

98.4

Lamb and Mutton

97.1

Pork

76.4

Poultry

48.7

Eggs

21.8

Peanuts

14.1

Peas

7.5

Tofu

6.2

Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100 g of protein

Food TypesAcidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100 g protein)

Beef

343.6

Cheese

165.5

Pork

142.7

Lamb and Mutton

139.0

Farmed Crustaceans

133.1

Poultry

102.4

Farmed Fish

65.9

Eggs

53.7

Peanuts

22.6

Peas

8.5

Tofu

6.7

A CAFO that discharges pollutants is required to obtain a permit, which requires a plan to manage nutrient runoff, manure, chemicals, contaminants, and other wastewater pursuant to the US Clean Water Act. The regulations involving CAFO permitting have been extensively litigated.

 

Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions . Concerns raised by opponents of CAFOs have included risks of contaminated water due to feedlot runoff, soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. coli contamination. While research suggests some of these impacts can be mitigated by developing wastewater treatment systems and planting cover crops in larger setback zones, the Union of Concerned Scientists released a report in 2008 concluding that CAFOs are generally unsustainable and externalize costs.

 

Another concern is manure, which if not well-managed, can lead to adverse environmental consequences. However, manure also is a valuable source of nutrients and organic matter when used as a fertilizer. Manure was used as a fertilizer on about 6,400,000 hectares (15.8 million acres) of US cropland in 2006, with manure from cattle accounting for nearly 70% of manure applications to soybeans and about 80% or more of manure applications to corn, wheat, barley, oats and sorghum. Substitution of manure for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 megajoules of fossil fuel energy would be used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.

 

Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment for native herbs and forbs by mimicking the native grazers who they displaced; in many world regions, though, cattle are reducing biodiversity due to overgrazing. A survey of refuge managers on 123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by refuge cattle grazing or haying. Proper management of pastures, notably managed intensive rotational grazing and grazing at low intensities can lead to less use of fossil fuel energy, increased recapture of carbon dioxide, fewer ammonia emissions into the atmosphere, reduced soil erosion, better air quality, and less water pollution.

 

Health

The veterinary discipline dealing with cattle and cattle diseases (bovine veterinary) is called buiatrics. Veterinarians and professionals working on cattle health issues are pooled in the World Association for Buiatrics, founded in 1960. National associations and affiliates also exist.

 

Digital dermatitis is caused by the bacteria from the genus Treponema. It differs from foot rot and can appear under unsanitary conditions such as poor hygiene or inadequate hoof trimming, among other causes. It primarily affects dairy cattle and has been known to lower the quantity of milk produced, however the milk quality remains unaffected. Cattle are also susceptible to ringworm caused by the fungus, Trichophyton verrucosum, a contagious skin disease which may be transferred to humans exposed to infected cows.

 

Public health

Cattle diseases were in the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, was of concern. Cattle might catch and develop various other diseases, like blackleg, bluetongue, foot rot too.

 

In most states, as cattle health is not only a veterinarian issue, but also a public health issue, public health and food safety standards and farming regulations directly affect the daily work of farmers who keep cattle. However, said rules change frequently and are often debated. For instance, in the UK, it was proposed in 2011 that milk from tuberculosis-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain. Internal food safety regulations might affect a country's trade policy as well. For example, the United States has just reviewed its beef import rules according to the "mad cow standards"; while Mexico forbids the entry of cattle who are older than 30 months.

 

Medicinal uses

Cow urine is commonly used in India for internal medical purposes. It is distilled and then consumed by patients seeking treatment for a wide variety of illnesses. At present, no conclusive medical evidence shows this has any effect. However, an Indian medicine containing cow urine has already obtained U.S. patents.

 

Effect of high stocking density

Stocking density refers to the number of animals within a specified area. When stocking density reaches high levels, the behavioural needs of the animals may not be met. This can negatively influence health, welfare and production performance.

 

The effect of overstocking in cows can have a negative effect on milk production and reproduction rates which are two very important traits for dairy farmers. Overcrowding of cows in barns has been found to reduced feeding, resting and rumination. Although they consume the same amount of dry matter within the span of a day, they consume the food at a much more rapid rate, and this behaviour in cows can lead to further complications. The feeding behaviour of cows during their post-milking period is very important as it has been proven that the longer animals can eat after milking, the longer they will be standing up and therefore causing less contamination to the teat ends. This is necessary to reduce the risk of mastitis as infection has been shown to increase the chances of embryonic loss. Sufficient rest is important for dairy cows because it is during this period that their resting blood flow increases up to 50%, this is directly proportionate to milk production. Each additional hour of rest can be seen to translate to 2 to 3.5 more pounds of milk per cow daily. Stocking densities of anything over 120% have been shown to decrease the amount of time cows spend lying down.

 

Cortisol is an important stress hormone; its plasma concentrations increase greatly when subjected to high levels of stress. Increased concentration levels of cortisol have been associated with significant increases in gonadotrophin levels and lowered progestin levels. Reduction of stress is important in the reproductive state of cows as an increase in gonadotrophin and lowered progesterone levels may impinge on the ovulatory and lutenization process and to reduce the chances of successful implantation. A high cortisol level will also stimulate the degradation of fats and proteins which may make it difficult for the animal to sustain

Wearing the right clothes is empowering and also significantly influences people’s perception of you as an individual. Scientifically referred to as “enclothed cognition”, the phenomenon implies that if you have a strong cultural association to a piece of clothing, wearing it can affect your cognitive process significantly. Find best jeans for women according your fit and look your best. After all, you are what you dress.

Boot cut jeans have a wider flare and will help the legs look more proportionate to the hips with the additional fabric near the calves. For a woman with curves, stretch denim can be your best friend. The fabric will hug your body to create a more elegant figure and is not as limiting as regular denim and is very comfortable. Add bigger pockets to enhance the curves of your behind and make it look smaller. If you wish to don a pair of skinnies, tuck them in boots to create further poise. Treat your curves with all the love to make them stand out. If you’ve got it, flaunt it.

 

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Scholars’ Studio is a fun, informal event that features 10 rapid-fire ignite-style presentations (5 minutes each) given by graduate students and postdocs doing research on topics related to an interdisciplinary theme. Hosted by the UW Libraries Research Commons and The Graduate School, Scholars' Studio gives students the opportunity to share their research across disciplines, make connections and build presentation skills.

 

Presenters:

Opening Presentation. Jenny Muilenburg, Data Curriculum and Communications Librarian

Should We Bother? Prioritizing New Cancer Technologies. Jeanette Birnbaum, Health Services.

Tsunami Prediction using Adjoint Methods. Brisa Davis, Applied Mathematics.

Looking Beyond Grades: Predicting Academic Success with Student Personality Traits. Chaya Jones, Evans School of Public Affairs.

Predicting Gender in Social Media. Gayathri Vasudevan, Institute of Technology.

Attempting to Know What We Don't Know: Combating Wage Theft in Washington State. Isaac Sederbaum, Evans School of Public Affairs.

The Rhetoric of Digital Futures. Ian Porter, Communication.

Augmenting Social and Spatial Cognition: Integrative Analysis Processes for San Francisco’s Bayview District. Rafa Murillo, Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture, College of Built Environments.

Predicting Costs of Medical Episodes using Analytics. Si-Chi Chin, Institute of Technology.

Computational Design of Protein-Based Nanomaterials. Jacob Bale, Biochemistry.

Forecasting the Future of Library Leadership. Sofia Leung, Information School and Evans School of Public Affairs.

 

Scholars’ Studio is a fun, informal event that features 10 rapid-fire ignite-style presentations (5 minutes each) given by graduate students and postdocs doing research on topics related to an interdisciplinary theme. Hosted by the UW Libraries Research Commons and The Graduate School, Scholars' Studio gives students the opportunity to share their research across disciplines, make connections and build presentation skills.

 

Presenters:

Opening Presentation. Jenny Muilenburg, Data Curriculum and Communications Librarian

Should We Bother? Prioritizing New Cancer Technologies. Jeanette Birnbaum, Health Services.

Tsunami Prediction using Adjoint Methods. Brisa Davis, Applied Mathematics.

Looking Beyond Grades: Predicting Academic Success with Student Personality Traits. Chaya Jones, Evans School of Public Affairs.

Predicting Gender in Social Media. Gayathri Vasudevan, Institute of Technology.

Attempting to Know What We Don't Know: Combating Wage Theft in Washington State. Isaac Sederbaum, Evans School of Public Affairs.

The Rhetoric of Digital Futures. Ian Porter, Communication.

Augmenting Social and Spatial Cognition: Integrative Analysis Processes for San Francisco’s Bayview District. Rafa Murillo, Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture, College of Built Environments.

Predicting Costs of Medical Episodes using Analytics. Si-Chi Chin, Institute of Technology.

Computational Design of Protein-Based Nanomaterials. Jacob Bale, Biochemistry.

Forecasting the Future of Library Leadership. Sofia Leung, Information School and Evans School of Public Affairs.

 

Times Square,

New York, New York, USA

Dr. Richard A. McKinley, Ph.D., is the leader of the Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) Team in the Cognitive Performance Optimization Section, Applied Neuroscience Branch, Warfighter Interface Division, Human Effectiveness Directorate of the 711th Human Performance Wing at the Air Force Research Laboratory at Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Jul 19, 2016. Researchers working in the NIBS lab are exploring how directed electrical stimulation to the human brain affects cognition, fatigue, mood and other areas with the end goal of improving warfighter awareness, memory and focus. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)

Fangruida -- Modern Science and Technology Engineering and Comprehensive High-end Technology R&D, Design and Manufacturing (Introduction to Modern Science and Engineering Technology Research)

2013v2.3 2021v.2.5 Online global version, mobile version (Bick compiled in November 2021. Colombia)

♣♣♣♣Moon Comprehensive Deep Development♥♥♣Ocean City, Marine Architecture, ♣♣Desert City, ♥♥♥ Mountain City, ♦♦♦Life Genetic Engineering, ♦♦♦♦Green Plant Nutrition Engineering●●●●●●● Smart Engineering; ♦♦♦♦♦♦ Nuclear Engineering - Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy

●●●●●●Advanced Manufacturing●●●●●●●

--New World Intelligence Revolution, New Industrial Revolution, New Planetary Revolution, New Moon Revolution, New Cosmic Revolution

 

**************************************************** ****************************************

Architecture Bridge design, large-scale circuit design (chip development, etc.), mechanical and electrical product design and manufacturing, pharmaceutical product development and design, genetic engineering, aerospace technology design and manufacturing, atomic energy development and utilization, agricultural engineering, computer-aided design and manufacturing,

New material research and development design, military

Engineering design and manufacturing, industrial robots, aircraft and ships, missiles, spacecraft, spaceships, rockets, submarines, super-speed missiles, etc. are very important, and the foresight is highly integrated. the key. These science and technology are the powerful driving force of historical development, and also the key to whether each country can reach the peak of the world.

The rapid development of modern science, all kinds of soft design emerge in an endless stream. Mathematical software, civil software, mechanical software, electrical and electronic software, chemical software, aircraft software, ship software, missile software, spacecraft software, rocket software, material software, bionic simulation software, medical software, chemical software, etc. Their appearance and wide application are of great significance to industrial modernization and intelligence, which greatly improves artificial intelligence and greatly promotes the rapid development of human society. Marine engineering, overall lunar development engineering, intelligent highly integrated engineering, high-speed heavy-duty fire

Arrow transportation engineering, submarine tunnel engineering, reservoir dam engineering, agricultural engineering, biomedical engineering and so on. Lunar overall engineering development planning, Mars engineering development and design, desert engineering (desert city), alpine city, marine engineering (ocean city) life genetic engineering, green plant nutrition engineering, VLSI design and manufacturing, Daxing civil engineering hydraulic engineering, road and bridge , tunnels, super tall buildings, all of them.

The modern scientific revolution is guided by the revolution in physics, with the emergence of modern cosmology, molecular biology, systems science, and soft science as its important content, and is characterized by the interpenetration of natural science, social science and thinking science to form interdisciplinary subjects. scientific revolution.

In the past 30 years, emerging technologies such as computers, energy, new materials, space, and biology have emerged successively, causing the third scientific and technological revolution. The third technological revolution far exceeds the previous two in terms of scale, depth and impact.

Basic Features:

1. Greatly promoted the development of social productive forces—changes in the means to improve labor productivity;

2. Promoting changes in the social and economic structure and social life structure - the proportion of the tertiary industry has increased. Changes in people's daily life such as food, clothing, housing and transportation;

3. It has promoted the adjustment of the international economic structure - localities are more closely connected.

4. Planetary revolution, lunar revolution. Lunar engineering Lunar industrial intelligent city Lunar-Earth round-trip communication system

We should develop the moon fast, it's a real cornering overtake. The physical presence of the moon will be of great strategic importance for thousands of years to come. There are many resources on a first-come, first-served basis, orbits, best lunar locations, electromagnetic wave bands, etc.

Make full use of the local resources and environment of the moon to quickly build a city. Minimize the amount of supplies and equipment that needs to be launched to the Moon.

5. Ocean City, Ocean Building, ♣♣ Desert City, ♥♥♥ Mountain City

6. Life genetic engineering, drug research and development

7 Green Plant Nutrition Engineering

8 Smart Engineering

9 Nuclear Engineering

10 Advanced Manufacturing Engineering

The rapid development of modern science and technology, with each passing day, all kinds of inventions and creations, all kinds of technological innovations are numerous. However, the most important and most relevant technical fields mainly include lunar engineering, lunar industrial intelligent city, lunar-earth round-trip communication system,

Radius: 1737 km; Ocean City, Ocean Building, ♣♣ Desert City, ♥♥♥ Mountain City

6. Life genetic engineering, drug research and development

7 Green Plant Nutrition Engineering

8 Smart Engineering

9 Nuclear Engineering

10 Advanced Manufacturing Engineering and others. It is in these fields and categories that the development competition among countries is nothing more than. Of course, military, aerospace, etc. are also among them.

Scientific discoveries can last for thousands of years, and technological inventions can be kept fresh for only a few decades, and they will be obsolete in a few hundred years. Such as electronic product updates, quite quickly. Life cycles are short, as are smart cars, smartphones, etc. Of course, the technological limit may also reach hundreds of years. Even scientific discoveries are not permanent. Tens of thousands of years later, people will have a new leap in understanding the universe and natural laws of natural phenomena. For example, people are on the moon and on Mars, and the human wisdom finds that the invention of wisdom is unbelievable. For us people on earth, we have become uncivilized ancient human beings. The intelligence quotient of lunar humans is dozens and hundreds of times that of our current Earth humans. The scientific discovery of that time was unimaginable. Mathematical, physical and chemical, natural, agricultural, medical, industrial, legal and commercial, literature, history, philosophy, classics, education, etc., everything will be renovated and mutated.

math

The science of studying quantitative relationships and spatial forms in the real world. It is produced and developed in the long-term practical activities of human beings. Originated from counting and measurement, with the development of productive forces, more and more quantitative research on natural phenomena is required; at the same time, due to the development of mathematics itself, it has a high degree of abstraction, rigorous logic and wide applicability. It is roughly divided into two categories: basic mathematics (also known as pure mathematics) and applied mathematics. The former includes branches such as mathematical logic, number theory, algebra, geometry, topology, function theory, functional analysis and differential equations; the latter includes branches such as probability theory, mathematical statistics, computational mathematics, operations research and combinatorial mathematics

■■■Basic technical sciences, mainly including civil engineering, electromechanical engineering, chemical engineering, information engineering, aerospace engineering, ocean engineering, mining engineering, medical engineering, materials engineering, computational engineering, agricultural engineering, energy engineering, lunar engineering, Mars engineering , life engineering and so on.

. Computational mathematics and its application software This major trains students to master the basic theories, basic knowledge and basic methods of mathematical science, to have the ability to apply mathematical knowledge and use computers to solve practical problems, and to be able to engage in research, teaching or production in the departments of science and technology, education and economics Senior talents engaged in practical application and management in operation and management departments. This major in computer software is to cultivate all-round development of morality, intelligence, physique, beauty, labor, etc., master certain professional theoretical knowledge, basic knowledge and basic skills of computer programming and application, and be proficient in using the latest international popular software development environment and tools. , Familiar with international software development norms, have strong software development practice ability and good software engineering literacy.

Modern mathematics is a edifice built from a series of abstract structures. It is based on the innate belief of human beings in the inevitability and accuracy of mathematical reasoning, and it is the concentrated expression of confidence in the capacity, origin and power of human reason. Deductive reasoning based on self-evident axioms is absolutely reliable, that is, if an axiom is true, then the conclusions deduced from it must also be true. By applying these seemingly clear, correct, and perfect logics, mathematicians The conclusions reached are clearly unquestionable and irrefutable. Naturally, mathematics is constantly developing and alienating, and eternal mathematics is also unrealistic, mainly due to the changes in the logical thinking structure of the human brain, and mathematics will continue to mutate or alienate. Mathematical logic, natural logic, image logic, hybrid compound logic.

 

In fact, the above-mentioned understanding of the essential characteristics of mathematics is carried out from the aspects of the source, the way of existence, and the level of abstraction of mathematics, and the essential characteristics of mathematics are mainly seen from the results of mathematical research. Common general-purpose mathematical software packages include: Matlab, Mathematica and Maple, where Matlab is good at numerical calculation, while Mathematica and Maple are good at symbolic operation and formula derivation

(2) Dedicated math packages include:

Drawing software: MathCAD, Tecplot, IDL, Surfer, Origin, SmartDraw, DSP2000

Numerical computing class: Matcom, DataFit, S-Spline, Lindo, Lingo, O-Matrix, Scilab, Octave

Numerical calculation library: linpack/lapack/BLAS/GERMS/IMSL/CXML

Finite element calculation classes: ANSYS, MARC, PARSTRAN, FLUENT, FEMLAB, FlexPDE, Algor, COSMOS, ABAQUS, ADINA

Mathematical statistics: GAUSS, SPSS, SAS, Splus

Obviously, the result (as a deductive system of the theory) does not reflect the whole picture of mathematics, another very important aspect that constitutes the whole of mathematics is the process of mathematical research, and in general, mathematics is a dynamic process, a " The experimental process of thinking" is the abstract generalization process of mathematical truth. The logical deductive system is a natural result of this process. In the process of mathematical research, the richness of mathematical objects, the invention of mathematics by human beings, "Mathematics is a language", mathematical activities are social, it is in the historical process of the development of human civilization, human beings understand nature, adapt to It is the crystallization of a high degree of wisdom that transforms nature and improves self and society. Mathematics has a key influence on the way of thinking of human beings. It is of great significance. Mathematics, physics and chemistry, mathematics is the first priority, and it is not an exaggeration.

Based on the above understanding of the essential characteristics of mathematics, people also discussed the specific characteristics of mathematics from different aspects. The more general view is that mathematics has the characteristics of abstraction, precision and extensive application, among which the most essential characteristic is abstraction. In addition, from the perspective of the process of mathematical research and the relationship between mathematics and other disciplines, mathematics also has imagery, plausibility, and quasi-experience. The "falsifiability" feature of Matlab is suitable for the engineering world, especially toolboxes, fast code, and many integrations with third-party software, such as optimization toolboxes

The most obvious third party is comsol

Mathematica syntax is excellent, so good that it comes with almost all programming paradigms

. The understanding of the characteristics of mathematics is also characteristic of the times. For example, regarding the rigor of mathematics, there are different standards in each period of mathematics historical development, from Euclidean geometry to Lobachevsky geometry to the Hilbert axiom system. , the evaluation criteria for rigor vary widely, especially when Gödel proposed and proved the "incompleteness theorem... Later, it was found that even axiomatic, a rigorous scientific method that was once highly regarded, was flawed. Therefore, the rigor of mathematics is shown in the history of mathematics development and has a relativity. Regarding the plausibility of mathematics,

◆◆◆ Mathematics is the tool and means of physical research. Some research methods of physics have strong mathematical ideas, so the process of learning physics can also improve mathematical cognition. Mathematical logic is the study of symbolic and mathematical logic in formal logic.

The Psychology department held their Spring Psychology Poster Session in the Old Main lobby on May 1, 2017. This year’s show included a variety of posters from PSYC270 Gender and PSY480 Science Fiction in Psychology courses, along with artistic impressions from the PSYC325 Learning and Cognition course.

Scholars’ Studio is a fun, informal event that features 10 rapid-fire ignite-style presentations (5 minutes each) given by graduate students and postdocs doing research on topics related to an interdisciplinary theme. Hosted by the UW Libraries Research Commons and The Graduate School, Scholars' Studio gives students the opportunity to share their research across disciplines, make connections and build presentation skills.

 

Presenters:

Opening Presentation. Jenny Muilenburg, Data Curriculum and Communications Librarian

Should We Bother? Prioritizing New Cancer Technologies. Jeanette Birnbaum, Health Services.

Tsunami Prediction using Adjoint Methods. Brisa Davis, Applied Mathematics.

Looking Beyond Grades: Predicting Academic Success with Student Personality Traits. Chaya Jones, Evans School of Public Affairs.

Predicting Gender in Social Media. Gayathri Vasudevan, Institute of Technology.

Attempting to Know What We Don't Know: Combating Wage Theft in Washington State. Isaac Sederbaum, Evans School of Public Affairs.

The Rhetoric of Digital Futures. Ian Porter, Communication.

Augmenting Social and Spatial Cognition: Integrative Analysis Processes for San Francisco’s Bayview District. Rafa Murillo, Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture, College of Built Environments.

Predicting Costs of Medical Episodes using Analytics. Si-Chi Chin, Institute of Technology.

Computational Design of Protein-Based Nanomaterials. Jacob Bale, Biochemistry.

Forecasting the Future of Library Leadership. Sofia Leung, Information School and Evans School of Public Affairs.

 

Café Scientifique held in Monroe's American Bar, St Mary's Butts, Reading on 8th September 2014. The speaker was Dr Tim Salomons from the Pain Emotion & Cognition Laboratory, University of Reading talking about "Training the brain to beat the pain"

Scanner (aka Robin Rimbaud) and Stephen Vitiello’s residency investigates the spatial dimensions of sonic environments as a common territory in visual research, music and cognition. The artists traverse the experimental terrain between sound, space, image and form, creating genre-crossing sound pieces that use technology in unconventional ways and disrupt perceptions of the surrounding space. Through this residency, the ongoing investigations of space advanced by the MIT Program in Art Culture and Technology are combined with cutting-edge aural research.

 

Scanner (Robin Rimbaud) and Stephen Vitiello’s residency is presented by the MIT Center for Art, Science and Technology, Professor Gediminas Urbonas and the MIT Program in Art, Culture and Technology.

 

Photo ©Elisa Young

 

Learn more at

artsm.it/1gS4gtz

Writing a book here: open.spotify.com/show/3mMrq70ofFvPputOjQIiGU?si=kwclM6f8Q...

 

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With data visualization, a logical follow-on of Big Data, a vast amount of information beyond the scope of human perception is clearly and effectively communicated through visual representation. Everything is compared now — things become transparent, even predictable. Within this mapping culture, questions of politics arise: Who is represented and how? Who is omitted? Which perspective is used? Mediocre appears to be a work of visualization. However, it aims in the opposite direction. The obstruction of Cognition is revealed by the work, which embodies the subjective perception of ambiguity and otherness experienced in this flooded data society.

 

A work by Liliana Farber, Hamidrasha Art School at Beit Berl College.

 

Credit: Florian Voggeneder

iCub è un robot androide costruito dall'Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) di Genova. Alto 104 cm e pesante 22 kg, la sua estetica e funzionalità ricordano quelle di un bambino di circa tre anni.

-----------------------

iCub is a 1 metre high humanoid robot testbed for research into human cognition and artificial intelligence.

It was designed by the RobotCub Consortium of several European universities and built by Italian Institute of Technology, and is now supported by other projects such as ITALK.[1] The robot is open-source, with the hardware design, software and documentation all released under the GPL license. The name is a partial acronym, cub standing for Cognitive Universal Body. Initial funding for the project was €8.5 million from Unit E5 – Cognitive Systems and Robotics – of the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme, and this ran for sixtyfive months from 1 September 2004 until 31 January 2010.

----------------------------------------

Sito ufficiale IIT:

www.iit.it/en/research/departments/icub-facility.html

Official website IIT:

www.iit.it/en/research/departments/icub-facility.html

Wikipedia italiano:

it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICub

Wikipedia english:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICub

-------------------------------

 

Picture taken during the Festival of communication in Camogli September 14, 2014

 

------------------------------

Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved

 

You can see my most interesting photo's on flickr: -------> FLICKR click here

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3d people - man, person and backboard with words "learn, study, practice, work". Teacher.

Richard Sandler

Executive Vice President, Milken Family Foundation; Partner, Maron & Sandler; Author, "Witness to a Prosecution: The Myth of Michael Milken"

 

Lisa Dyson

CEO, Air Protein

 

David Ferrucci

Founder and CEO, Elemental Cognition

 

Keith Gottesdiener

President and CEO, Prime Medicine

 

Michael Mager

Co-Founder and CEO, Precision Neuroscience

Free Preview Lecture

"Diabetes Tale and Pharmacology via Social Cognitive Theory" Online Course on Udemy.

 

Discount Coupon: www.udemy.com/diabetes-tale-and-pharmacology-via-social-c...

 

What you'll learn:

Social Cognitive Theory, Type 1 Diabetes Story and Treatment, Type 2 Diabetes Story and Treatment, Diagnostic Examinations for Diabetes, Impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), Insulin Usage, Oral Antihyperglycemic Agents, Pharmacodynamic and Chemical Merits.

 

Who this course is for:

People from whole of the world, who have an interest in the following approaches: 1) Clinical Pharmacology, 2) Diabetes Care, 3) Principles of Organization Behavior, 4) Health Education & Behavior, 5) Health Promotion, 6) Nutrition, 7) Human Learning, 8) Endocrinology and Metabolism, 9) Medical Sciences, 10) Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 11) Autoimmunity, 12) Clinical Chemistry, 13) Social learning and Cognition, 14) Clinical Therapy, 15) Biochemistry, 16) Pathology, 17) Laboratory Sciences, 18) Epidemiology and 19) Etiology. And this course contains sixty-seven resource.

 

By Maram Abdel Nasser Taha Shtaya - Pharmacist and American Studies Instructor who is teaching on Udemy.

Scanner (aka Robin Rimbaud) and Stephen Vitiello’s residency investigates the spatial dimensions of sonic environments as a common territory in visual research, music and cognition. The artists traverse the experimental terrain between sound, space, image and form, creating genre-crossing sound pieces that use technology in unconventional ways and disrupt perceptions of the surrounding space. Through this residency, the ongoing investigations of space advanced by the MIT Program in Art Culture and Technology are combined with cutting-edge aural research.

 

Scanner (Robin Rimbaud) and Stephen Vitiello’s residency is presented by the MIT Center for Art, Science and Technology, Professor Gediminas Urbonas and the MIT Program in Art, Culture and Technology.

 

Photo ©Elisa Young

 

Learn more at

artsm.it/1gS4gtz

§ Confronting the main entrance of the western mahagopura after proceeding the naga bridge, our accrued cognition becomes cognisant to the language of architecture • The sudden, trepid feeling to the darkness of the foyer, in contradiction with the foreseen, vivid feeling to the illuminance which appears far along the axis at the opposite entrance, reflects the profusion of the architect's intuition in conveying the demarcation of the celestial abode of God from the terrestrial world of man •

 

§ For pilgrims, the threshold intensified their realisation since the content for their admiration is associated essentially to the delight of architecture; and it can be expected to increase upwardly when the content is formulated by observation and speculation • It is a cumulative effect of unconscious response that the temple registered itself as a sacred place with unparalleled identity into their perceptions—not a mere striking, unidentifiable, visual object • They gestated it as a mediator (kartrtvam) that alluded their spirits to fete the mighty God which clues about the lofty ambition of their religious society since the ancient time •

Rastafarians refer to themselves as "I and I" (Simpson, 1985). Lovlie (1982) argues that the self can only be apprehended dialectically as relationship between an inner and outer part of the self.

 

But this self-relationship does not necessarily imply objectification.

 

Infants from about 3 months and onwards spend a lot of time relating to themselves. They spend 20% of their time awake touching their mouths and face (Korner and Kraemer, see Rochat, 1998). By a very early age they differentiate between a "single touch" of self on object and a "double touch" of self on self (Rochat, & Hespos, 1997, see Rochat, 1998). Infants love kicking mobiles, and other things above their crib, enjoying their own ability to effect changes on the world. They watch themselves wave their arms and legs. By this means Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) argue, infants gain their earliest sense of visio-proprioceptive self.

 

Rochat (1998) further argues that this earliest sense of self is, contra children's interest in mirror reflections from the age of of about 2, non objectified. The infants, like mini Rastapharians, "I see I move," not "I see me/myself move." Rochat argues that this first "ecological self" is non objectified from consideration of the results of the following experiment for example.

 

Infants of 3 to 5 months are shown closed circuit videos of their own legs wearing cute stripy socks, on a bed which makes noises (to encourage movement), on two television screens in front of them. On the right hand screen (in red) they are shown the ego-centric view that they are used to, and could see if they were to look down. On the left hand screen (in blue) they are shown closed circuit video images of their legs manipulated in various ways, as follows.

 

A: Their own legs from the point of view of an observer.

B: Their own legs from their own point of view but left right reversed.

C: Their legs from the point of view of an observer, left-right reversed.

 

Rochat examined the extent to which the infants enjoyed watching their own legs move in each of the two screens using another camera recording the direction of their gaze. The results (as represented schematically, non-quantitatively in the graph) show that the infants preferred the observers view in A. This might suggest that they are objectify themselves and enjoying seeing themselves from the point of view of an observer. However, the same preference for the non-ego view is demonstrated in B, where the infants are shown a view from their own view point left-right reversed. But on the contrary, the infants preference for the observer's view point disappears when that is left-right reversed, bring it back into line with the ego centric, first person view. Rochat argues that it is the novel reversal of visio-proprioception in A and B -- their leg movements are backwards vis a vis their will --- and not objectification that arouses infant interest, since objectified feet are not especially interesting if they move in the usual way. Rochat writes,

 

"What characterizes infants' self-exploration when, for example, they watch themselves kicking in front of a TV, is the direct experience of visual-proprioceptive correspondences, not the reflection that it might be themselves live on the screen. If they prefer to look at a spatially incongruent view of their legs, it is because is violates the familiar visual-proprioceptive calibration of the body. For infants to recognize that it is their own legs they look at would take an additional reflective step, a step towards an objectification of the self. " (Rochat, 1998, p.108)

 

Thusly infants develop what Philippe Rochat calls an "ecological self," or an "I-self," which has a visual aspect as a self-person body view, but is not objectified in that it is not seen as an other, and neither requires, nor suggest the internalisation of another's point of view. Prior to the economic self of Smith and Mead, the I-self is a purer enjoyment of embodiment. Then later, it is infants who have already developed an I-Self that then come to enjoy, and eventually identify with the self as me. The dialectic evolves and differentiates in at two stages. There may be subsequent stages (Lacan, 2002) as adults move between objectification in images and words.

 

My conclusion, however, is that, even after our enjoyment of and identification with objectified self representations, I believe (from consideration of mythology and David Bowie, and personal experience) the "ecological" (Rochat, 1998) "I see I self" remains. It is this ecological first person persona that motivates and allows us to think that we are the little people, "Ants", that we see in mirrors, and whisper to ourselves.

 

Image adapted from figures 1 and 2 in Rochat, 1998, p.102

 

Notes

I realise that I have Rochat's book "Others in Mind." Wow.

 

Bibliography

Lacan, J. (2002). The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience. In B. Fink (Trans.), Ecrits (pp. 75–81). WW Norton & Company. (Original work published 1949)

Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social Cognition and the Acquisition of Self. Boston, MA: Springer US. Retrieved from link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-3566-5

Løvlie, A.-L. (1982). The self, yours, mine, or ours?: a dialectic view. A Scandinavian University Press Publication.

Mead, G. H. (1967). Mind, self, and society: From the standpoint of a social behaviorist (Vol. 1). The University of Chicago Press.

Rochat, P. (1998). Self-perception and action in infancy. Experimental Brain Research, 123(1–2), 102–109. doi.org/10.1007/s002210050550

Simpson, G. E. (1985). Religion and justice: some reflections on the Rastafari movement. Phylon (1960-), 46(4), 286–291. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/274868

Smith, A. (2002). Adam Smith: The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from www.ibiblio.org/ml/libri/s/SmithA_MoralSentiments_p.pdf# (Original work published 1770)

There is no madness more delirious than dreaming...

~J. Allan Hobson, Professor of Psychiatry, Emeritus, Harvard Medical School.

 

Dreaming is madness of the mind. The mind, which behaves cohesively during our wakeful hours, throws caution to the wind when asleep and dreams. While dreaming, areas of the brain related to wakeful cognition and consciousness, like the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (decision making), the sensorimotor cortex (conceptualization), and the primary visual cortex (visual cue processing), are completely shut off. Instead, Parieto-Occipito-Temporal junction of the brain, an area that converts perceptions into abstract thoughts, mental imagery and memories, is turned on. Cut-off from primary sensory inputs during sleep, reality in the brain is re-painted during a dream; this time by an artist who is eccentric and psychotic. Think about any of your dreams and you will know what I am talking about.

 

Yet, this is only the beginning of ‘complications’. The subjective experience during the process of dreaming is as real as our wakeful reality. While dreaming, no one remembers they are not awake and the experience is responded to as if it is all ‘real’. Our dreams, despite being bizarre, make us smile, sweat, cry, hurt, panic, and get angry or aroused in a normal way. Thus, one could say that dreams are a complete state of consciousness in their own right.

 

Wait a minute! This moment I am absolutely conscious that I'm chasing a beautiful mermaid (who looks just about like you) on a purple beach of free flowing strawberry jelly where cheese sea-lions are singing ‘good morning beautiful, how was your night’ in a chorus; and the next moment, I am conscious that it is 6 AM, time to get up and make some strawberry jelly sandwiches for breakfast and get on with the day. How are these two states of consciousness valid in each other’s context? Although I felt similarly engaged with both, are they really the same ‘consciousness’? Perhaps not.

 

If not, my dear, how do I know, what I am subjectively experiencing right now in the dimple of your beautiful smile and the twinkle of those deep playful gorgeous eyes, is not just another dream?

  

A hypnopompic state (or hypnopomp) is the state of consciousness leading out of sleep, a term coined by the psychical researcher Frederic Myers. Its twin is the hypnagogic state at sleep onset; though often conflated, the two states are not identical. The hypnagogic state is rational waking cognition trying to make sense of non-linear images and associations; the hypnopompic state is emotional and credulous dreaming cognition trying to make sense of real world stolidity. They have a different phenomenological character. Depressed frontal lobe function in the first few minutes after waking – known as "sleep inertia" – causes slowed reaction time and impaired short-term memory. Sleepers often wake confused, or speak without making sense, a phenomenon the psychologist Peter McKeller calls "hypnopompic speech". When the awakening occurs out of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, in which most dreams occur, the hypnopompic state is sometimes accompanied by lingering vivid imagery. Some of the creative insights attributed to dreams actually happen in this moment of awakening from REM.

filmmaking

External screen on Brisbane Girls Grammar School. This has two layers of vertical slats angled slightly differently in the vertical plane. It screens the external corridors between the classrooms.

 

I have been looking at it for ages from the various roadways and the way the slats work is that this shimmering effect changes like oil on water in the sun as you move.

I have found the designer of the 'moire screen' M3 who is discussed here:

eprints.qut.edu.au/20659/

Brisbin, Christopher A. (2009) optical_affects: fenestrations and optical fascinations in the re-embodied architecture of South-East Queensland. In: McNamara, Andrew E. (Ed) Sweat : Sub-Tropicality in Art, Design and Architecture. Institute of Modern Art. (In Press)

 

Abstract

 

Fuelled by the emergence of new computer-mediated design and fabrication technologies, the means of conceiving and constructing architectural form has never before been so open to radical figurative and procedural transformation. It appeared that almost anything was possible at the turn of the new millennium. However, this emerging techno-determinist approach to architectural design generally denied the synaesthetic human body as an agent in design conception, effectively perpetuating the prevailing traditions of Western occularcentricism. The formal and spatial character of architecture that resulted in the 1990s was effectively reduced to questions of surface and flatness. However, a series of Australian contemporary architectural projects by architects Elenberg Fraser in Melbourne, and by M3 Architects in Brisbane, began to question this monocular tradition, choosing instead to mine the field of Art in search of optical effects that engaged directly with the observer on an embodied sensorial level of cognition. This chapter will demonstrate that such new conceptions of surface affect provides an alternative functional and conceptual method through which to transcend the dictatorial constraints presented by vernacular traditions; such as those effecting climatic screening and compositional fenestration in the architecture of South-East Queensland. This chapter will demonstrate how Elenberg Fraser’s Dazzle Shed and M3’s moiré screen used in the Brisbane Girls Grammar School are exemplars of projects that seek ‘cognitive surface disturbance’ in order to sensorialy embody the beholder. These projects directly draw upon concepts of pictorial composition and optics borrowed from the de Stijl art project of the 1920-30s, and upon the Op-art experiments of the 1960-70s. This chapter, therefore speculates that such projects proffer a dramatically different conception of surface and spectatorial engagement than that which is purported by the prevailing ‘sup-trop-arcadian’ and ‘timber & tin’ traditions of South-East Queensland architecture.

 

Professor of Psychology Julio Ramirez speaks with Tyler McFayden '14 about her study "Insights into the Effects of Language Use on Cognition" that she conducted with Professor of Psychology Kristi Multhaup.

Writing a book here: open.spotify.com/show/3mMrq70ofFvPputOjQIiGU?si=kwclM6f8Q...

 

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Personality disorders are included as mental disorders on Axis II of the diagnostic manual of the American Psychiatric Association and in the mental and behavioral disorders section of the ICD manual of the World Health Organization. Personality, defined psychologically, is the set of enduring behavioral and mental traits that distinguish human beings. Hence, personality disorders are defined by experiences and behaviors that differ from societal norms and expectations. Those diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotiveness, interpersonal functioning or control of impulses. In general, personality disorders are diagnosed in 40–60 percent of psychiatric patients, making them the most frequent of all psychiatric diagnoses.

These behavioral patterns in personality disorders are typically associated with substantial disturbances in some behavioral tendencies of an individual, usually involving several areas of the personality, and are nearly always associated with considerable personal and social disruption. A person is classified as having a personality disorder if their abnormalities of behavior impair their social or occupational functioning. Additionally, personality disorders are inflexible and pervasive across many situations, due in large part to the fact that such behavior may be ego-syntonic (i.e. the patterns are consistent with the ego integrity of the individual) and are, therefore, perceived to be appropriate by that individual. This behavior can result in maladaptive coping skills, which may lead to personal problems that induce extreme anxiety, distress or depression. The onset of these patterns of behavior can typically be traced back to early adolescence and the beginning of adulthood and, in some instances, childhood.

There are many issues with classifying a personality disorder, is it really a disorder; or just hard to get along with. There are many categories of definition, some mild and some extreme. Because the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders stem from prevailing cultural expectations, their validity is contested by some experts on the basis of invariable subjectivity. They argue that the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders are based strictly on social, or even sociopolitical and economic considerations. Cluster A (odd or eccentric disorders)

Not to be confused with Type A personality.

Paranoid personality disorder: characterized by irrational suspicions and mistrust of others.

Schizoid personality disorder: lack of interest in social relationships, seeing no point in sharing time with others, anhedonia, introspection.

Schizotypal personality disorder: characterized by odd behavior or thinking.

Cluster B (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders)

Not to be confused with Type B personality.

Antisocial personality disorder: a pervasive disregard for the rights of others, lack of empathy, and (generally) a pattern of regular criminal activity.

Borderline personality disorder: extreme "black and white" thinking, instability in relationships, self-image, identity and behavior often leading to self-harm and impulsivity.

Histrionic personality disorder: pervasive attention-seeking behavior including inappropriately seductive behavior and shallow or exaggerated emotions.

Narcissistic personality disorder: a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. Characterized by self-importance, preoccupations with fantasies, belief that they are special, including a sense of entitlement and a need for excessive admiration, and extreme levels of jealousy and arrogance.

Cluster C (anxious or fearful disorders)

Avoidant personality disorder: pervasive feelings of social inhibition and social inadequacy, extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation and avoidance of social interaction.

Dependent personality disorder: pervasive psychological dependence on other people.

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not the same as obsessive-compulsive disorder): characterized by rigid conformity to rules, moral codes and excessive orderliness.

The Eurasian magpie or common magpie (Pica pica) is a resident breeding bird throughout Europe, much of Asia and the Maghreb. Magpies were originally simply known as "pies", This comes from a proto-Indoeuropean root meaning "pointed", in reference to either the beak or the tail. The prefix "mag" dates from the 16th century, and comes from the short form of the given name Margaret, which was once used to mean women in general (as Joe or Jack is used for men today); the pie's call was considered to sound like the idle chattering of a woman, and so it came to be called the "Mag pie". "Pie" as a term for the bird dates to the 13th century, and the word "pied", first recorded in 1552, became applied to other birds that resembled the magpie in having black and white plumage.

 

INTELLIGENCE

The Eurasian magpie is believed not only to be among the smartest of birds, but among the most intelligent of all (non-human) animals. Along with the jackdaw, the Eurasian magpie's expansion of its nidopallium is approximately the same in relative size as those in chimpanzees, orangutans and humans, significantly larger than the gibbon's. Like other corvids, such as ravens and crows, their total brain-to-body mass ratio is equal to most great apes' and cetaceans'. A 2004 review suggests that the intelligence of the corvid family to which the Eurasian magpie belongs is equivalent to that of great apes (chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas) in terms of social cognition, causal reasoning, flexibility, imagination, and prospection.

 

Marc Bekoff, at the University of Colorado, argues that Eurasian magpies are capable of feeling complex emotions. Magpies have been observed engaging in elaborate social rituals, possibly including the expression of grief. Mirror self-recognition has been demonstrated in European magpies, making them one of but a few species and the only non-mammal known to possess this capability. The cognitive abilities of the Eurasian magpie are regarded as evidence that intelligence evolved independently in both corvids and primates. This is indicated by tool use, an ability to hide and store food across seasons, episodic memory, using their own experience to predict the behavior of conspecifics. Another behavior exhibiting intelligence is cutting their food in correctly sized proportions for the size of their young. In captivity, magpies have been observed counting up to get food, imitating human voices, and regularly using tools to clean their own cages.[citation needed] In the wild, they organise themselves into gangs and use complex strategies hunting other birds and when confronted by predators.

 

TRADITIONS AND SYMBOLISM IN ASIA

In Europe, magpies have been historically demonized by humans, mainly as a result of superstition and myth. This attitude is starkly contrasted with Korea's, where the magpie is celebrated as "a bird of great good fortune, of sturdy spirit and a provider of prosperity and development". Similarly, in China, magpies are seen as an omen of good fortune. This is even reflected in the Chinese word for magpie, simplified Chinese: 喜鹊; traditional Chinese: 喜鵲; pinyin: xǐquè, in which the first character means "happiness".

Source: Wikipedia

 

Scriptures of the elders meet with the world of modern science while synthesising with imperial heritage from France to England and the rest of Western Europe...

 

"Bonnes manières et politesse, auriez-vous le prix d'excellence?"

Dietmar Offenhuber is a media artist with a background in architecture and a focus on spatial concepts of cognition, representation and behavior. He is a founding member of the Ars Electronica Futurelab and currently a reasearcher at MIT SENSEable City Lab.

 

conference.cognitivecities.com/

Professor Linda Smith, Chancellor's Professor; Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Cognitive Science,Indiana University presented an extended talk entitled Words, actions, objects, and abstractions: Overlapping loops of cause and consequence in developmental process put on by the the The Cognition and Communication Research Centre at Northumbria University Cocolab.org

Selected works from the 2021 Vermont Scholastic Art & Writing Awards, on view at the Brattleboro Museum & Art Center 2/19/21 - 3/6/21. www.brattleboromuseum.org

Researchers across UT Austin are unlocking the secrets of the brain — from addiction research to the exploration of brain function and Alzheimer's research.

 

The university's Institute for Neuroscience is home to more than 70 neuroscience-related faculty members who represent all major disciplines and techniques in neuroscience including molecular, physiology, cellular and systems research, cognition, behavior, and the neurobiology of disease. The institute already offers an M.D./Ph.D. program through the UT Medical Branch.

 

classy.

 

so i'm not 100% sure how this tagging thing works, but I think it has occurred....10 random things? i can handle that...

 

1) i drove the 3.5 hours back to school today and listened to *Nsync and Backstreet Boys the whole way....blast from the paasst

2) My major is premed psychology, i want to go to med school to become a neuropsychiatrist

3) dear boys, I'm sorry girls are so hard to understand. doesn't give you a license to treat them all the same way.

4) I really want to be good at something...I'm hoping with practice it can be photography :)

5) I will be involved in a Music Cognition research study before this year is over. it's gonna rock.

6) I want to go to Ireland so bad I can taste it....

7) I'm not sure where my roommate is right now.......*calls 911*

8) I can't imagine how awesome it would be to be utterly in love with someone and have them return it in full. But i certainly want to find out.

9) i DETEST chemistry. and world civilizations. with a fiery, burning passion.

10) I love huskies ^_^

 

so yeah! my first tag...I'm trying to make some friends on here...I'm a reasonably friendly person, hit me up ;) haha ((....whatever that means...))

(Staff Photos by Rob Mattson/Amherst College, Office of Public Affairs) Howard Gardner, an Amherst College Trustee and John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, gives the keynote address "Educating in the Liberal Arts and Sciences: Glancing Backward, Imagining Forward," at Amherst College's Buckley Recital Hall, in Amherst, Mass., Friday afternoon, September 20, 2013. Gardner's keynote address is part of the series of events to celebrate the completion and success of Amherst College's "Lives of Consequence" fundraising campaign. To read more about the campaign and weekend of events, visit www.amherst.edu/campaign.

Writing a book here: open.spotify.com/show/3mMrq70ofFvPputOjQIiGU?si=kwclM6f8Q...

 

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The word "Darshan" means "to have a glimpse of". Having Darshan of an Avatar can cleanse the karmas of lifetimes, and create a deep and lasting transformation in the receiver. Darshan is something far beyond mere physical "seeing". Darshan is the powerful superconscious vibration that is present around an Avatar at all times. It is a word that cannot be translated; it has to be experienced.

 

During Darshan, His Divine Holiness Paramahamsa Nithyananda creates Mandalas with His hands. Mandalas are secret decoded Agamic energy circuits that harness the multi-dimensional energy of the universe. The energy He creates falls on you and settles in your system.

 

Even if the Mandala enters into your system three times, you will manifest powers and powerful cognitions. Nothing more is required other than a ferocious intention to manifest them.

 

Paramahamsa Nithyananda has breathed power into these videos. Even if you were not physically present during Darshan, just by watching this video you will experience Kundalini Awakening, manifestation of powers and the ultimate space of Oneness - Advaita.

 

During these sessions, Paramashiva manifests Himself through Swamiji intensely. Look carefully through your Third Eye, as you watch this Oneness Capsule, you will powerfully experience the energy. Look through the third Eye, lightly but intensely, like how you would look at a rose.

 

These Darshans do not have a past, present or future. They are just happenings. There is no "was" or "will" for these happenings. Just by watching, you can get the same experience as watching it live, in-person.

 

To get a live experience of this Darshan, come and experience PARAMASHIVOHAM.

 

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Geologic Cognition Society

January 29 - March 25, 2016

Opening reception: Friday, January 29, 6pm - 9pm

On view at SPACES: January 29, 2016 - March 25, 2016

photo by: Jerry Mann

La Figilia Che Piange (The Weeping Girl)

by T. S. Eliot

 

STAND on the highest pavement of the stair–

Lean on a garden urn –

Weave, weave the sunlight in your hair –

Clasp your flowers to you with a pained surprise –

Fling them to the ground and turn

With a fugitive resentment in your eyes:

But weave, weave the sunlight in your hair.

 

So I would have had him leave,

So I would have had her stand and grieve,

So he would have left

As the soul leaves the body torn and bruised,

As the mind deserts the body it has used.

I should find

Some way incomparably light and deft,

Some way we both should understand,

Simple and faithless as a smile and a shake of the hand.

 

She turned away, but with the autumn weather

Compelled my imagination many days,

Many days and many hours:

Her hair over her arms and her arms full of flowers

And I wonder how they should have been together!

I should have lost a gesture and a pose.

Sometimes these cognitions still amaze.

The troubled midnight, and the moon’s repose.

 

This one is another Chicago street find. I like the way the plastic

looks in the photograph - so billowy. Do you think the photo-taker

owned the store? Did the owner leave the plastic wrap on the dress in

the window so that it was easier to sell later?

 

Completely Unrelated:

 

There's a monthly email from the people who do the Ignobel Prizes for

wacky research, and they usually have a limerick contest. Here are

some nice ones from a while ago.

 

The judges in the first and last annual Feigned Depressed, Sleepy

Voice Limerick Contest have chosen the winners, who in some sense

explored the research report:

 

"Feigned Depression and Feigned Sleepiness:

A Voice Acoustical Analysis," Nicole Reilly,

Michael S. Cannizzaro, Brian T. Harel and Peter J.

Snyder, Brain and Cognition, vol. 55, 2004, pp. 383-6.

 

The winners will each receive a free, sonorous issue of the Annals

of Improbable Research. Here are the triumphant poets and their

limericks:

 

INVESTIGATOR RICHARD GRANGER:

Her children's yawned lack of ambition

Aroused Nicole Reilly's suspicion.

By studying faking

She got those kids waking

and published in Brain and Cognition.

 

INVESTIGATOR MIRIAM BLOOM:

If depression's a thing you would feign,

'Tis writ it will all be in vain.

Your claim is refutable,

Your voice is quite scrutable--

Or so Reilly et al. ascertain.

 

INVESTIGATOR ANGELA MARTIN:

If you're faking that you are depressed

Or in desperate need of some rest,

Your voice may be slow

But Reilly will know

That you're really just feigning, at best.

 

And here is the view expressed by this year's

IMPROBABLE LIMERICK LAUREATE, MARTIN I. EIGER:

 

When people pretend they're depressed,

Or when they pretend they need rest,

Their speech rates will change,

But never the range

Of pitches they use. Who'd've guessed?

 

Mini-AIR is a (free!) tiny monthly *supplement* to the bi-monthly

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The body of your message should contain ONLY the words

SUBSCRIBE MINI-AIR MARIE CURIE

(You may substitute your own name for that of Madame Curie.)

چرا جمهوری اسلامی ایران با مردم سالاری در تضاد هست

جمهوری اسلامی ایران متکی بر باور تعبدآمیز به یک سیستم ربانی و دگماتیزم مذهبی است که در آن قدرت لایزال الله حاکم است و هیج کسی حق ندارد استبداد مطلق ربانی را به زیر علامت سئوال ببرد.

بنابراین عدم تقسیم قوا و مشارکت جناحهای مختلف سیاسی در تعیینات جامعه، عدم تحمل نگرشهای انتقادی، تک بعدی بودن جهان بینی اسلامی، زن ستیزی و عدم قبول زن به منزله یک موجود متساوی الحق، اعمال شکنجه و اعدام در قبال رقبای سیاسی، وضع بربریت قضائی مثل سنگسار و شلاقزنی، بحران آفرینی و صدور انقلاب اسلامی به سایر کشورها و عدم رعایت موازین بین المللی نشانه هائی از نابخردگرائی در ساختار جمهوری اسلامی ایران هستند.

گذاراز استبداد دینی به مردم سالاری در ایران نیاز به یک پروسه طولانی دارد که هنوز ابتدائی ترین پیش شرایط آن در ارتباط با کلیت جامعه کشورمان به مرحله اجرا درنیامده اند

فکر نمیکنید قانون اساسی متکی به همه نیروهای جامعه و اراده ملت هست

 

• تقسیم قوای سه گانه

• دادگستری مستقل از احزاب سیاسی

• عدم تغییر پرچم ایران به وسیله یک حزب سیاسی در مصدر قدرت

• تضمین همه آزادیهای فردی و اجتماعی جهت حفظ حثیت انسان

• برابری کامل زن و مرد در تمام ابعاد اجتماعی

• رعایت قوانین ملی و فراملی

• آموزش و پژوهش آزاد

• آموزش نگرش انتقادی جهت خودسازی و تنظیم شناختهای علمی

• همزیستی مسالمت آمیز همه نگرشهای سیاسی

• آزادی مذاهب به منزله یک هویت شخصی افراد

• فسخ دین یا مذهب ملی

• جدائی کامل دین و سیاست از همدیگر

• فسخ دین یا مذهب ملی

• رعایت اصولی مثل مدارا و مداوا

• تاریخ نگاری آزاد و انتقادی

• تقویم نگاری با اتکاء به تاریخ و تمدن ایران

• تضمین قانونی همه نهادهای مردمی

• عدم تفویض و تبعیض تمایلات جنسی

• وضع قراردادهای اجتماعی جهت تضمین نیازهای مادی و معنوی همه افراد جامعه

• و غیره

رعایت همه این خواسته های فوق هنوز به این معنی نیستند که ما قادر هستیم در ایران یک جامعه دموکراتیک واقعی ایجاد بکنیم. شعار دموکراسی نباید ما را دچار یک نزدیک بینی تاریخی بکند تا اینکه ما با این واژه کلیدی سیاسی بطور جزم گرایانه برخورد داشته باشیم.

انقلاب فرانسه این را به ما آموخت که نخستین موانع رسیدن به آزادی، برابری و برادری این است که ما اول خدا را و بعد از آن شاه را بکشیم که هردو دستان پرتوان استبداد، دیکتاتوری و عدم تساوی هستند.

تا زمانی که این کار انجام نگیرد ما در اسارت زنجیرهای آگاهی خودمان خواهیم پوسید و حتی قادر به ایجاد یک جامعه مردم سالاری تعریف شده کاذب در سطوح کشورهای غرب به مفهوم کثرت گرائی سیاسی و پارلمانتاریزم هم نخواهیم بود.

انقلاب فرانسه توانست فقط موانع را بشناسد ولی بورژوازی جای هر دو را گرفت و با شعارهای دروغین آزادی، برابری و برادری گیوتین را کشف کرد و سر انقلابیونی مثل روبسپیر را از تنش جدا کرد. امروز در غرب، همه مکاتب اقتصادی، جامعه شناسی، فلسفی و روان شناسی بورژوازی، نقش اقتصاد را در ایجاد تضادهای طبقاتی در آگاهی اروپائیها نفی کرده اند. در غرب تحت مردم سالاری فقط حاکمیت سرمایه داران فهمیده میشود که در آن افراد تحت سلطه به نمایندگان سلطه گران رای میدهند تا به مجلس بورژوازی راه پیدا بکنند.

اگرما بخواهیم راه غرب را در پیش بگیریم، فاصله ما هنوز با پارلمانتاریزم بورژوازی رایج در اروپا بسیار دور و دراز است.

جهت رفع ابهامات باید به این نکته اشاره بشود که ما فقط یک دموکراسی صحیح داریم و آن هم در جامعه کمونیستی امکان پذیر خواهد بود که در آن دولت از بین میرود، طبقات موجود نیستند، فرق بین کار یدی و فکری نیست، آگاهی علمی در انسانها هست، شکوفائی یکی و همه لازم و ملزوم همدیگرند و عدالت در آن بر اساس هرکس به اندازه توانش و به هر کس به اندازه نیازش میباشد باید اینجا اقرار کنیم ما نیز یک رنسانس به ملت ایران بدهکاریم.وقتی اقشار متفاوت نیروهای سیاسی نتوانند از اندیشه باز خود از تریبون و رسانه دولتی صحبت کنند. چطور باید برای ارتقاع و بالا بردن سطح اگاهی مردم مثمر اثر باشد .دولتی که صرفا به نمایندگی ملتی تعیین میگردد و اعتبار ملتش را سو استفاده میکند . دخالت مذهب در امور کشوری نه تنها کل نظام را زیر سئوال میبرد. بلکه روند اجتماعی را به بربریت . فحشا . فساد واعتیاد ادمکشی جنگ و بی هرمتی به شخصیت زنان و کودکان در جامعه می پردازد. مردم سالاری شرط اول ان دیالوگ کردن . دیالکتیک داشتن . ازادی بیان و عقیده. تریبونهای متفاوت از اندیشه های متفاوت را رایج کردن پایه های دموکراسی را کوبدن است

Ahmad Hesam

Why Iran is at odds with democracy.

 

Thus the lack of division of powers and the various political factions involved in determining a society intolerant of critical views, one-dimensional world of Islamic misogyny and intolerance woman as an equal-Haq, torture, and execution against political rivals, the barbarism Ghàzaei just like stoned Shlaqzny, creating crisis and the issue of Islamic Revolution to other countries and non-compliance with international standards Nabkhrdgrayy signs of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

 

Do not you think the nation's constitution depended on the will of all the

 

• divided into three branches

• an independent judiciary, political parties

• Does not change the flags of the political party in power

• Ensure all personal and social freedoms to protect human Hsyt

• full equality of women and men in all spheres of social

• National and international laws

• Free Education and Research

• Training for self-critical attitude and a set of scientific cognitions

• peaceful coexistence of all political attitudes

• Religious Freedom as an individuals identity.

• Termination of a national religion

• Complete separation of religion and politics meet

• Termination of a national religion

• principles such as tolerance and treatment

• open and critical historiography

• Calendar heavily relying on Iranian history and civilization

• Ensure all statutory public bodies

• Failure to delegate and sexual discrimination

• Social contracts to guarantee the physical and spiritual needs of all people

• etc.

Meet all the above requirements are not yet mean that we are able to do in a real democratic society. We do not have a historical myopia slogan of democracy until we have dealt with this keyword dogmatic politics manner.

  

The bourgeois revolution in France, but instead could only identify both the barriers and the false slogans of liberty, equality and fraternity, the revolutionaries like Robespierre's guillotine discovered and removed from the stress. Today in the West, all schools of economics, sociology, philosophy and psychology, the bourgeoisie, the class contradictions in the knowledge economy in denying the Europeans have.

If we in the West want to take, the distance we still common in Europe Parlmantaryzm bourgeoisie is too long.

public and media from the podium to speak.Religious interference in state affairs has not only questioned the entire system. The social process of barbarism. Prostitution. Vatyad corruption and the murder of women and children in the community pays Hrmty character. The first precondition to democratic dialogue. A dialectic. Freedom of opinion and expression. Different platforms from different viewpoints into a common base Kvbdn democracy

Ahmad Hesam

One of the most well known nootropics, noopept was developed in Russia, and is a prescription medicine there. Unlike many single-session experiments with this class, it did produce an effect in terms of clarity and possibly functionality, albeit subtle in nature.

 

Ref: www.DrugUsersBible.com

Concept by Silvia Helena Cardoso, Ph.D.

Center for Biomedical Information, University of Campinas, Brazil

Cognition Schöffer is an abstract interactive mobil sculpture, dedicated to the pioneer of cybernetic art, Nicholas Schöffer.

 

credit: Florian Voggeneder