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The chimpanzee - Pan troglodytes, also known as simply the chimp, is a species of great ape native to the forests and savannahs of tropical Africa. It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee. The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is humans' closest living relative. The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair, but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing 40–70 kg (88–154 lb) for males and 27–50 kg (60–110 lb) for females and standing 150 cm (4 ft 11 in).
The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more.
The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range. The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties, circus acts and stage shows. Although many chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role. Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in the United States. Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success.
Etymology
The English word chimpanzee is first recorded in 1738. It is derived from Vili ci-mpenze or Tshiluba language chimpenze, with a meaning of "ape", or "mockman". The colloquialism "chimp" was most likely coined some time in the late 1870s. The genus name Pan derives from the Greek god, while the specific name troglodytes was taken from the Troglodytae, a mythical race of cave-dwellers.
Taxonomy and genetics
The first great ape known to Western science in the 17th century was the "orang-outang" (genus Pongo), the local Malay name being recorded in Java by the Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius. In 1641, the Dutch anatomist Nicolaes Tulp applied the name to a chimpanzee or bonobo brought to the Netherlands from Angola. Another Dutch anatomist, Peter Camper, dissected specimens from Central Africa and Southeast Asia in the 1770s, noting the differences between the African and Asian apes. The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach classified the chimpanzee as Simia troglodytes by 1775. Another German naturalist, Lorenz Oken, coined the genus Pan in 1816. The bonobo was recognised as distinct from the chimpanzee by 1933.
Evolution
Further information: Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor
Despite a large number of Homo fossil finds, Pan fossils were not described until 2005. Existing chimpanzee populations in West and Central Africa do not overlap with the major human fossil sites in East Africa, but chimpanzee fossils have now been reported from Kenya. This indicates that both humans and members of the Pan clade were present in the East African Rift Valley during the Middle Pleistocene.
According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at George Washington University, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, split from the human line about 8 million years ago; then bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago. Another 2017 genetic study suggests ancient gene flow (introgression) between 200,000 and 550,000 years ago from the bonobo into the ancestors of central and eastern chimpanzees.
Subspecies and population status
Four subspecies of the chimpanzee have been recognised, with the possibility of a fifth:
Central chimpanzee or the tschego (Pan troglodytes troglodytes), found in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with about 140,000 individuals existing in the wild.
Western chimpanzee (P. troglodytes verus), found in Ivory Coast, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Ghana with about 52,800 individuals still in existence.
Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee (P. troglodytes ellioti (also known as P. t. vellerosus)), that live within forested areas across Nigeria and Cameroon, with 6000–9000 individuals still in existence.
Eastern chimpanzee (P. troglodytes schweinfurthii), found in the Central African Republic, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia, with approximately 180,000–256,000 individuals still existing in the wild.
Southeastern chimpanzee, P. troglodytes marungensis, in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Colin Groves argues that this is a subspecies, created by enough variation between the northern and southern populations of P. t. schweinfurthii, but it is not recognised by the IUCN.
Genome
Main article: Chimpanzee genome project
Genomic information
NCBI genome ID202
Ploidydiploid
Genome size3,323.27 Mb
Number of chromosomes24 pairs
A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published in 2005 and encodes 18,759 proteins, (compared to 20,383 in the human proteome). The DNA sequences of humans and chimpanzees are very similar and the difference in protein number mostly arises from incomplete sequences in the chimp genome. Both species differ by about 35 million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events and various chromosomal rearrangements. Typical human and chimpanzee protein homologs differ in an average of only two amino acids. About 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein. Duplications of small parts of chromosomes have been the major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material; about 2.7% of the corresponding modern genomes represent differences, produced by gene duplications or deletions, since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor.
Characteristics
Adult chimpanzees have an average standing height of 150 cm (4 ft 11 in). Wild adult males weigh between 40 and 70 kg (88 and 154 lb) with females weighing between 27 and 50 kg (60 and 110 lb). In exceptional cases, certain individuals may considerably exceed these measurements, standing over 168 cm (5 ft 6 in) on two legs and weighing up to 136 kg (300 lb) in captivity.
The chimpanzee is more robustly built than the bonobo but less than the gorilla. The arms of a chimpanzee are longer than its legs and can reach below the knees. The hands have long fingers with short thumbs and flat fingernails. The feet are adapted for grasping, and the big toe is opposable. The pelvis is long with an extended ilium. A chimpanzee's head is rounded with a prominent and prognathous face and a pronounced brow ridge. It has forward-facing eyes, a small nose, rounded non-lobed ears and a long mobile upper lip. Additionally, adult males have sharp canine teeth. Chimpanzees lack the prominent sagittal crest and associated head and neck musculature of gorillas.
Chimpanzee bodies are covered by coarse hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. Chimpanzees lose more hair as they age and develop bald spots. The hair of a chimpanzee is typically black but can be brown or ginger. As they get older, white or grey patches may appear, particularly on the chin and lower region. Chimpanzee skin that is covered with body hair is white, while exposed areas vary: white which ages into a dark muddy colour in eastern chimpanzees, freckled on white which ages to a heavily mottled muddy colour in central chimpanzees, and black with a butterfly-shaped white mask that darkens with age in western chimpanzees. Facial pigmentation increases with age and exposure to ultraviolet light. Females develop swelling pink skin when in oestrus.
Chimpanzees are adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion. Arboreal locomotion consists of vertical climbing and brachiation. On the ground, chimpanzees move both quadrupedally and bipedally. These movements appear to have similar energy costs. As with bonobos and gorillas, chimpanzees move quadrupedally by knuckle-walking, which probably evolved independently in Pan and Gorilla. Their muscles are 50% stronger per weight than those of humans due to higher content of fast twitch muscle fibres, one of the chimpanzee's adaptations for climbing and swinging. According to Japan's Asahiyama Zoo, the grip strength of an adult chimpanzee is estimated to be 200 kg (440 lb), while other sources claim figures of up to 330 kg (730 lb).
Ecology
The chimpanzee is a highly adaptable species. It lives in a variety of habitats, including dry savanna, evergreen rainforest, montane forest, swamp forest, and dry woodland-savanna mosaic. In Gombe, the chimpanzee mostly uses semideciduous and evergreen forest as well as open woodland. At Bossou, the chimpanzee inhabits multistage secondary deciduous forest, which has grown after shifting cultivation, as well as primary forest and grassland. At Taï, it is found in the last remaining tropical rain forest in Ivory Coast. The chimpanzee has an advanced cognitive map of its home range and can repeatedly find food. The chimpanzee builds a sleeping nest in a tree in a different location each night, never using the same nest more than once. Chimpanzees sleep alone in separate nests except for infants or juvenile chimpanzees, which sleep with their mothers.
Diet
The chimpanzee is an omnivorous frugivore. It prefers fruit above all other food items but also eats leaves, leaf buds, seeds, blossoms, stems, pith, bark, and resin. A study in Budongo Forest, Uganda found that 64.5% of their feeding time concentrated on fruits (84.6% of which being ripe), particularly those from two species of Ficus, Maesopsis eminii, and Celtis gomphophylla. In addition, 19% of feeding time was spent on arboreal leaves, mostly Broussonetia papyrifera and Celtis mildbraedii. While the chimpanzee is mostly herbivorous, it does eat honey, soil, insects, birds and their eggs, and small to medium-sized mammals, including other primates. Insect species consumed include the weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda, Macrotermes termites, and honey bees. The red colobus ranks at the top of preferred mammal prey. Other mammalian prey include red-tailed monkeys, infant and juvenile yellow baboons, bush babies, blue duikers, bushbucks, and common warthogs.
Despite the fact that chimpanzees are known to hunt and to collect both insects and other invertebrates, such food actually makes up a very small portion of their diet, from as little as 2% yearly to as much as 65 grams of animal flesh per day for each adult chimpanzee in peak hunting seasons. This also varies from troop to troop and year to year. However, in all cases, the majority of their diet consists of fruits, leaves, roots, and other plant matter. Female chimpanzees appear to consume much less animal flesh than males, according to several studies. Jane Goodall documented many occasions within Gombe Stream National Park of chimpanzees and western red colobus monkeys ignoring each other despite close proximity.
Chimpanzees do not appear to directly compete with gorillas in areas where they overlap. When fruit is abundant, gorilla and chimpanzee diets converge, but when fruit is scarce gorillas resort to vegetation. The two apes may also feed on different species, whether fruit or insects. Interactions between them can range from friendly and even stable social bonding, to avoidance, to aggression and predation on part of chimpanzees.
Mortality and health
The average lifespan of a chimpanzee in the wild is relatively short, usually less than 15 years, although individuals that reach 12 years may live an additional 15 years. On rare occasions, wild chimpanzees may live nearly 60 years. Captive chimpanzees tend to live longer than most wild ones, with median lifespans of 31.7 years for males and 38.7 years for females. The oldest-known male captive chimpanzee to have been documented lived to 66 years, and the oldest female, Little Mama, was over 70 years old.
Leopards prey on chimpanzees in some areas. It is possible that much of the mortality caused by leopards can be attributed to individuals that have specialised in chimp-killing.[76] Chimpanzees may react to a leopard's presence with loud vocalising, branch shaking, and throwing objects. There is at least one record of chimpanzees killing a leopard cub after mobbing it and its mother in their den. Four chimpanzees could have fallen prey to lions at Mahale Mountains National Park. Although no other instances of lion predation on chimpanzees have been recorded, lions likely do kill chimpanzees occasionally, and the larger group sizes of savanna chimpanzees may have developed as a response to threats from these big cats. Chimpanzees may react to lions by fleeing up trees, vocalising, or hiding in silence.
The chimpanzee louse Pediculus schaeffi is closely related to the human body louse P. humanus.
Chimpanzees and humans share only 50% of their parasite and microbe species. This is due to the differences in environmental and dietary adaptations; human internal parasite species overlap more with omnivorous, savanna-dwelling baboons. The chimpanzee is host to the louse species Pediculus schaeffi, a close relative of P. humanus, which infests human head and body hair. By contrast, the human pubic louse Pthirus pubis is closely related to Pthirus gorillae, which infests gorillas. A 2017 study of gastrointestinal parasites of wild chimpanzees in degraded forest in Uganda found nine species of protozoa, five nematodes, one cestode, and one trematode. The most prevalent species was the protozoan Troglodytella abrassarti.
Behaviour
Recent studies have suggested that human observers influence chimpanzee behaviour. One suggestion is that drones, camera traps, and remote microphones should be used to record and monitor chimpanzees rather than direct human observation.
Group structure
Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from around 15 to more than 150 members but spend most of their time traveling in small, temporary groups consisting of a few individuals. These groups may consist of any combination of age and sexes. Both males and females sometimes travel alone. This fission-fusion society may include groups of four types: all-male, adult females and offspring, adults of both sexes, or one female and her offspring. These smaller groups emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organised to hunt for meat, while a group consisting of lactating females serves to act as a "nursery group" for the young.
At the core of social structures are males, which patrol the territory, protect group members, and search for food. Males remain in their natal communities, while females generally emigrate at adolescence. Males in a community are more likely to be related to one another than females are to each other. Among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy, and males are dominant over females. However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, "in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest," is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is caused mainly by the large measure of individual autonomy that individuals have within their fission-fusion social groups. As a result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups, as opposed to the much larger "parent" group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees which regularly come into contact with each other and congregate into parties in a particular area.
Male chimpanzees exist in a linear dominance hierarchy. Top-ranking males tend to be aggressive even during dominance stability. This is probably due to the chimpanzee's fission-fusion society, with male chimpanzees leaving groups and returning after extended periods of time. With this, a dominant male is unsure if any "political maneuvering" has occurred in his absence and must re-establish his dominance. Thus, a large amount of aggression occurs within five to fifteen minutes after a reunion. During these encounters, displays of aggression are generally preferred over physical attacks.
Males maintain and improve their social ranks by forming coalitions, which have been characterised as "exploitative" and based on an individual's influence in agonistic interactions. Being in a coalition allows males to dominate a third individual when they could not by themselves, as politically apt chimpanzees can exert power over aggressive interactions regardless of their rank. Coalitions can also give an individual male the confidence to challenge a dominant or larger male. The more allies a male has, the better his chance of becoming dominant. However, most changes in hierarchical rank are caused by dyadic interactions. Chimpanzee alliances can be very fickle, and one member may suddenly turn on another if it is to his advantage.
Mutual grooming, removing lice
Low-ranking males frequently switch sides in disputes between more dominant individuals. Low-ranking males benefit from an unstable hierarchy and often find increased sexual opportunities if a dispute or conflict occurs. In addition, conflicts between dominant males cause them to focus on each other rather than the lower-ranking males. Social hierarchies among adult females tend to be weaker. Nevertheless, the status of an adult female may be important for her offspring. Females in Taï have also been recorded to form alliances. While chimpanzee social structure is often referred to as patriarchal, it is not entirely unheard of for females to forge coalitions against males. There is also at least one recorded case of females securing a dominant position over males in their respective troop, albeit in a captive environment. Social grooming appears to be important in the formation and maintenance of coalitions. It is more common among adult males than either between adult females or between males and females.
Males in Mahale National Park, Tanzania
Chimpanzees have been described as highly territorial and will frequently kill other chimpanzees, although Margaret Power wrote in her 1991 book The Egalitarians that the field studies from which the aggressive data came, Gombe and Mahale, used artificial feeding systems that increased aggression in the chimpanzee populations studied. Thus, the behaviour may not reflect innate characteristics of the species as a whole. In the years following her artificial feeding conditions at Gombe, Jane Goodall described groups of male chimpanzees patrolling the borders of their territory, brutally attacking chimpanzees that had split off from the Gombe group. A study published in 2010 found that the chimpanzees wage wars over territory, not mates. Patrols from smaller groups are more likely to avoid contact with their neighbours. Patrols from large groups even take over a smaller group's territory, gaining access to more resources, food, and females. While it was traditionally accepted that only female chimpanzees immigrate and males remain in their natal troop for life, there are confirmed cases of adult males safely integrating themselves into new communities among West African chimpanzees, suggesting they are less territorial than other subspecies.
Mating and parenting
Chimpanzees mate throughout the year, although the number of females in oestrus varies seasonally in a group. Female chimpanzees are more likely to come into oestrus when food is readily available. Oestrous females exhibit sexual swellings. Chimpanzees are promiscuous: during oestrus, females mate with several males in their community, while males have large testicles for sperm competition. Other forms of mating also exist. A community's dominant males sometimes restrict reproductive access to females. A male and female can form a consortship and mate outside their community. In addition, females sometimes leave their community and mate with males from neighboring communities.
These alternative mating strategies give females more mating opportunities without losing the support of the males in their community. Infanticide has been recorded in chimpanzee communities in some areas, and the victims are often consumed. Male chimpanzees practice infanticide on unrelated young to shorten the interbirth intervals in the females. Females sometimes practice infanticide. This may be related to the dominance hierarchy in females or may simply be pathological.
Copulation is brief, lasting approximately seven seconds. The gestation period is eight months. Care for the young is provided mostly by their mothers. The survival and emotional health of the young is dependent on maternal care. Mothers provide their young with food, warmth, and protection, and teach them certain skills. In addition, a chimpanzee's future rank may be dependent on its mother's status. Male chimpanzees continue to associate with the females they impregnated and interact with and support their offspring. Newborn chimpanzees are helpless. For example, their grasping reflex is not strong enough to support them for more than a few seconds. For their first 30 days, infants cling to their mother's bellies. Infants are unable to support their own weight for their first two months and need their mothers' support.
When they reach five to six months, infants ride on their mothers' backs. They remain in continual contact for the rest of their first year. When they reach two years of age, they are able to move and sit independently and start moving beyond the arms' reach of their mothers. By four to six years, chimpanzees are weaned and infancy ends. The juvenile period for chimpanzees lasts from their sixth to ninth years. Juveniles remain close to their mothers, but interact an increasing amount with other members of their community. Adolescent females move between groups and are supported by their mothers in agonistic encounters. Adolescent males spend time with adult males in social activities like hunting and boundary patrolling. A captive study suggests males can safely immigrate to a new group if accompanied by immigrant females who have an existing relationship with this male. This gives the resident males reproductive advantages with these females, as they are more inclined to remain in the group if their male friend is also accepted.
Communication
Chimpanzees use facial expressions, postures, and sounds to communicate with each other. Chimpanzees have expressive faces that are important in close-up communications. When frightened, a "full closed grin" causes nearby individuals to be fearful, as well. Playful chimpanzees display an open-mouthed grin. Chimpanzees may also express themselves with the "pout", which is made in distress, the "sneer", which is made when threatening or fearful, and "compressed-lips face", which is a type of display. When submitting to a dominant individual, a chimpanzee crunches, bobs, and extends a hand. When in an aggressive mode, a chimpanzee swaggers bipedally, hunched over and arms waving, in an attempt to exaggerate its size. While travelling, chimpanzees keep in contact by beating their hands and feet against the trunks of large trees, an act that is known as "drumming". They also do this when encountering individuals from other communities.
Vocalisations are also important in chimpanzee communication. The most common call in adults is the "pant-hoot", which may signal social rank and bond along with keeping groups together. Pant-hoots are made of four parts, starting with soft "hoos", the introduction; that gets louder and louder, the build-up; and climax into screams and sometimes barks; these die down back to soft "hoos" during the letdown phase as the call ends. Grunting is made in situations like feeding and greeting. Submissive individuals make "pant-grunts" towards their superiors. Whimpering is made by young chimpanzees as a form of begging or when lost from the group. Chimpanzees use distance calls to draw attention to danger, food sources, or other community members. "Barks" may be made as "short barks" when hunting and "tonal barks" when sighting large snakes.
Adult male eastern chimpanzee snatches a dead bushbuck antelope from a baboon in Gombe Stream National Park.
Hunting
When hunting small monkeys such as the red colobus, chimpanzees hunt where the forest canopy is interrupted or irregular. This allows them to easily corner the monkeys when chasing them in the appropriate direction. Chimpanzees may also hunt as a coordinated team, so that they can corner their prey even in a continuous canopy. During an arboreal hunt, each chimpanzee in the hunting groups has a role. "Drivers" serve to keep the prey running in a certain direction and follow them without attempting to make a catch. "Blockers" are stationed at the bottom of the trees and climb up to block prey that takes off in a different direction. "Chasers" move quickly and try to make a catch. Finally, "ambushers" hide and rush out when a monkey nears. While both adults and infants are taken, adult male colobus monkeys will attack the hunting chimps. Male chimpanzees hunt more than females. When caught and killed, the meal is distributed to all hunting party members and even bystanders.
Intelligence and cognition
Further information: Primate cognition
Drawing of human and chimpanzee skull and brain
Human and chimpanzee skull and brain. Diagram by Paul Gervais from Histoire naturelle des mammifères (1854).
Chimpanzees display numerous signs of intelligence, from the ability to remember symbols to cooperation, tool use, and perhaps language. They are among species that have passed the mirror test, suggesting self-awareness. In one study, two young chimpanzees showed retention of mirror self-recognition after one year without access to mirrors. Chimpanzees have been observed to use insects to treat their own wounds and those of others. They catch them and apply them directly to the injury. Chimpanzees also display signs of culture among groups, with the learning and transmission of variations in grooming, tool use and foraging techniques leading to localized traditions.
A 30-year study at Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute has shown that chimpanzees are able to learn to recognise the numbers 1 to 9 and their values. The chimpanzees further show an aptitude for eidetic memory, demonstrated in experiments in which the jumbled digits are flashed onto a computer screen for less than a quarter of a second. One chimpanzee, Ayumu, was able to correctly and quickly point to the positions where they appeared in ascending order. Ayumu performed better than human adults who were given the same test.
In controlled experiments on cooperation, chimpanzees show a basic understanding of cooperation, and recruit the best collaborators. In a group setting with a device that delivered food rewards only to cooperating chimpanzees, cooperation first increased, then, due to competitive behaviour, decreased, before finally increasing to the highest level through punishment and other arbitrage behaviours.
Great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognisable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age.
Chimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to a dying or dead group member. When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays, and touching of the corpse. In one case chimpanzees cared for a dying elder, then attended and cleaned the corpse. Afterward, they avoided the spot where the elder died and behaved in a more subdued manner. Mothers have been reported to carry around and groom their dead infants for several days.
Experimenters now and then witness behaviour that cannot be readily reconciled with chimpanzee intelligence or theory of mind. Wolfgang Köhler, for instance, reported insightful behaviour in chimpanzees, but he likewise often observed that they experienced "special difficulty" in solving simple problems. Researchers also reported that, when faced with a choice between two persons, chimpanzees were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that chimpanzees lack theory of mind.
Tool use
Further information: Tool use by animals
Chimpanzees using twigs to dip for ants
Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools. They modify sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them when foraging for termites and ants, nuts, honey, algae or water. Despite the lack of complexity, forethought and skill are apparent in making these tools. Chimpanzees have used stone tools since at least 4,300 years ago.
A chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first nonhuman animal reported making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound. At Taï, chimpanzees simply use their hands to extract termites. When foraging for honey, chimpanzees use modified short sticks to scoop the honey out of the hive if the bees are stingless. For hives of the dangerous African honeybees, chimpanzees use longer and thinner sticks to extract the honey.
Chimpanzees also fish for ants using the same tactic. Ant dipping is difficult and some chimpanzees never master it. West African chimpanzees crack open hard nuts with stones or branches. Some forethought in this activity is apparent, as these tools are not found together or where the nuts are collected. Nut cracking is also difficult and must be learned. Chimpanzees also use leaves as sponges or spoons to drink water.
West African chimpanzees in Senegal were found to sharpen sticks with their teeth, which were then used to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees. An eastern chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel.
Whilst experimental studies on captive chimpanzees have found that many of their species-typical tool-use behaviours can be individually learnt by each chimpanzees, a 2021 study on their abilities to make and use stone flakes, in a similar way as hypothesised for early hominins, did not find this behaviour across two populations of chimpanzees—suggesting that this behaviour is outside the chimpanzee species-typical range.
Language
Main article: Great ape language
Scientists have attempted to teach human language to several species of great ape. One early attempt by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in the 1960s involved spending 51 months teaching American Sign Language to a chimpanzee named Washoe. The Gardners reported that Washoe learned 151 signs, and had spontaneously taught them to other chimpanzees, including her adopted son, Loulis. Over a longer period of time, Washoe was reported to have learned over 350 signs.
Debate is ongoing among scientists such as David Premack about chimpanzees' ability to learn language. Since the early reports on Washoe, numerous other studies have been conducted, with varying levels of success. One involved a chimpanzee jokingly named Nim Chimpsky (in allusion to the theorist of language Noam Chomsky), trained by Herbert Terrace of Columbia University. Although his initial reports were quite positive, in November 1979, Terrace and his team, including psycholinguist Thomas Bever, re-evaluated the videotapes of Nim with his trainers, analyzing them frame by frame for signs, as well as for exact context (what was happening both before and after Nim's signs). In the reanalysis, Terrace and Bever concluded that Nim's utterances could be explained merely as prompting on the part of the experimenters, as well as mistakes in reporting the data. "Much of the apes' behaviour is pure drill", he said. "Language still stands as an important definition of the human species." In this reversal, Terrace now argued Nim's use of ASL was not like human language acquisition. Nim never initiated conversations himself, rarely introduced new words, and mostly imitated what the humans did. More importantly, Nim's word strings varied in their ordering, suggesting that he was incapable of syntax. Nim's sentences also did not grow in length, unlike human children whose vocabulary and sentence length show a strong positive correlation.
Relations with humans
In culture
Chimpanzees are rarely represented in African culture, as people find their resemblance to humans discomforting. The Gio people of Liberia and the Hemba people of the Congo have created masks of the animals. Gio masks are crude and blocky, and worn when teaching young people how not to behave. The Hemba masks have a smile that suggests drunken anger, insanity or horror and are worn during rituals at funerals, representing the "awful reality of death". The masks may also serve to guard households and protect both human and plant fertility. Stories have been told of chimpanzees kidnapping and raping women.
In Western popular culture, chimpanzees have occasionally been stereotyped as childlike companions, sidekicks or clowns. They are especially suited for the latter role on account of their prominent facial features, long limbs and fast movements, which humans often find amusing. Accordingly, entertainment acts featuring chimpanzees dressed up as humans with lip-synchronised human voices have been traditional staples of circuses, stage shows and TV shows like Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp (1970-1972) and The Chimp Channel (1999). From 1926 until 1972, London Zoo, followed by several other zoos around the world, held a chimpanzees' tea party daily, inspiring a long-running series of advertisements for PG Tips tea featuring such a party. Animal rights groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive.
Poster for the 1931 film Aping Hollywood. Media like this relied on the novelty of performing apes to carry their gags.
Chimpanzees in media include Judy on the television series Daktari in the 1960s and Darwin on The Wild Thornberrys in the 1990s. In contrast to the fictional depictions of other animals, such as dogs (as in Lassie), dolphins (Flipper), horses (The Black Stallion) or even other great apes (King Kong), chimpanzee characters and actions are rarely relevant to the plot. Depictions of chimpanzees as individuals rather than stock characters, and as central rather than incidental to the plot can be found in science fiction. Robert A. Heinlein's 1947 short story "Jerry Was a Man" concerns a genetically enhanced chimpanzee suing for better treatment. The 1972 film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, the third sequel of the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, portrays a futuristic revolt of enslaved apes led by the only talking chimpanzee, Caesar, against their human masters.
As pets
Chimpanzees have traditionally been kept as pets in a few African villages, especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Virunga National Park in the east of the country, the park authorities regularly confiscate chimpanzees from people keeping them as pets. Outside their range, chimpanzees are popular as exotic pets despite their strength and aggression. Even in places where keeping non-human primates as pets is illegal, the exotic pet trade continues to prosper, leading to injuries from attacks.
Use in research
See also: Countries banning non-human ape experimentation and Animal testing on non-human primates § Chimpanzees in the U.S.
Hundreds of chimpanzees have been kept in laboratories for research. Most such laboratories either conduct or make the animals available for invasive research, defined as "inoculation with an infectious agent, surgery or biopsy conducted for the sake of research and not for the sake of the chimpanzee, and/or drug testing". Research chimpanzees tend to be used repeatedly over decades for up to 40 years, unlike the pattern of use of most laboratory animals. Two federally funded American laboratories use chimpanzees: the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Southwest National Primate Center in San Antonio, Texas. Five hundred chimpanzees have been retired from laboratory use in the US and live in animal sanctuaries in the US or Canada.
A five-year moratorium was imposed by the US National Institutes of Health in 1996, because too many chimpanzees had been bred for HIV research, and it has been extended annually since 2001. With the publication of the chimpanzee genome, plans to increase the use of chimpanzees in America were reportedly increasing in 2006, some scientists arguing that the federal moratorium on breeding chimpanzees for research should be lifted. However, in 2007, the NIH made the moratorium permanent.
Ham, the first great ape in space, before being inserted into his Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961
Other researchers argue that chimpanzees either should not be used in research, or should be treated differently, for instance with legal status as persons. Pascal Gagneux, an evolutionary biologist and primate expert at the University of California, San Diego, argues, given chimpanzees' sense of self, tool use, and genetic similarity to human beings, studies using chimpanzees should follow the ethical guidelines used for human subjects unable to give consent. A recent study suggests chimpanzees which are retired from labs exhibit a form of post-traumatic stress disorder. Stuart Zola, director of the Yerkes laboratory, disagrees. He told National Geographic: "I don't think we should make a distinction between our obligation to treat humanely any species, whether it's a rat or a monkey or a chimpanzee. No matter how much we may wish it, chimps are not human."
Only one European laboratory, the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, the Netherlands, used chimpanzees in research. It formerly held 108 chimpanzees among 1,300 non-human primates. The Dutch ministry of science decided to phase out research at the centre from 2001. Trials already under way were however allowed to run their course. Chimpanzees including the female Ai have been studied at the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University, Japan, formerly directed by Tetsuro Matsuzawa, since 1978. Some 12 chimpanzees are currently held at the facility.
Two chimpanzees have been sent into outer space as NASA research subjects. Ham, the first great ape in space, was launched in the Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961, and survived the suborbital flight. Enos, the third primate to orbit Earth after Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov, flew on Mercury-Atlas 5 on 29 November of the same year.
Field study
Jane Goodall undertook the first long-term field study of the chimpanzee, begun in Tanzania at Gombe Stream National Park in 1960. Other long-term studies begun in the 1960s include Adriaan Kortlandt's in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Toshisada Nishida's in Mahale Mountains National Park in Tanzania. Current understanding of the species' typical behaviours and social organisation has been formed largely from Goodall's ongoing 60-year Gombe research study.
Attacks
Chimpanzees have attacked humans. In Uganda, several attacks on children have happened, some of them fatal. Some of these attacks may have been due to the chimpanzees being intoxicated (from alcohol obtained from rural brewing operations) and becoming aggressive towards humans. Human interactions with chimpanzees may be especially dangerous if the chimpanzees perceive humans as potential rivals. At least six cases of chimpanzees snatching and eating human babies are documented.
A chimpanzee's strength and sharp teeth mean that attacks, even on adult humans, can cause severe injuries. This was evident after the attack and near death of former NASCAR driver St. James Davis, who was mauled by two escaped chimpanzees (in the St. James Davis chimpanzee attack) while he and his wife were celebrating the birthday of their former pet chimpanzee. Another example of chimpanzees being aggressive toward humans occurred in 2009 in Stamford, Connecticut, when a 90-kilogram (200 lb), 13-year-old pet chimpanzee named Travis attacked his owner's friend, who lost her hands, eyes, nose, and part of her maxilla from the attack.
Human immunodeficiency virus
Two primary classes of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 occurs mostly in west Africa. Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from other primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the subspecies P. t. troglodytes of southern Cameroon. Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of HIV, found in the sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau.
Status and conservation
The chimpanzee is on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Chimpanzees are legally protected in most of their range and are found both in and outside national parks. Between 172,700 and 299,700 individuals are thought to be living in the wild, a decrease from about a million chimpanzees in the early 1900s.[189] Chimpanzees are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.
The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzee habitats have been limited by deforestation in both West and Central Africa. Road building has caused habitat degradation and fragmentation of chimpanzee populations and may allow poachers more access to areas that had not been seriously affected by humans. Although deforestation rates are low in western Central Africa, selective logging may take place outside national parks.
Chimpanzees are a common target for poachers. In Ivory Coast, chimpanzees make up 1–3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets. They are also taken, often illegally, for the pet trade and are hunted for medicinal purposes in some areas. Farmers sometimes kill chimpanzees that threaten their crops; others are unintentionally maimed or killed by snares meant for other animals.
Infectious diseases are a main cause of death for chimpanzees. They succumb to many diseases that afflict humans because the two species are so similar. As the human population grows, so does the risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees.
Following on from my diagnosis of Early Onset Dementia Melanie and I have been invited to a number of courses run by the Memory and Recovery Clinic at Lowestoft Library and Carlton Court Hospital. These are designed to give lots of information to both of us, what to expect with changes as things progress as well as practical help in improving and maintaining memory and cognition. Keeping a memory book day to day was one of the things highly recommended separate to an appointment diary as there is space to expand thoughts and memories . We have some lovely independent shops in Beccles and this Hare note book caught my eye and will be the first of my memory books which I will start tomorrow with a trip to Felbrigg Hall. The recording of memories and keeping a photographic record of walks and events is meant to be a real help in slowing down the progress. Now all I have to do is to remember where I put my pen!
"Carve your name
Carve your name in ice and wind
Search for where
Search for where the rivers end or where the rivers start
Do everything that's in you
That you feel to be your part
But never give your love, my friend
Unto a foolish heart, unto a foolish heart
Dare to leap
Leap from ledges high and wild
Learn to speak
Speak with wisdom like a child directly to the heart
Crown yourself the king of clowns
Or stand way back apart
But never give your love, my friend
Unto a foolish heart, unto a foolish heart
Shun a friend
Shun a brother and a friend
Never look
Never look around the bend or check the weather chart
Sign the Mona Lisa
With a spray can, call it art
But never give your love, my friend
Unto a foolish heart, unto a foolish heart
A foolish heart will call on you
To toss your dreams away
Then turn around and blame you
For the way you went astray
A foolish heart will cost you sleep
And often make you curse
A selfish heart is trouble
But a foolish heart is worse
Bite the hand
Bite the hand that bakes your bread
Dare to leap
Where the angels fear to tread till you are torn apart
Stoke the fires of paradise
With coals from Hell to start
But never give your love, my friend
Unto a foolish heart, unto a foolish heart
Unto a foolish heart, unto a foolish heart
Unto a foolish heart, unto a foolish heart"
GRATEFUL DEAD - FOOLISH HEART .
Go in out the one I thought I loved 40 years.
© all rights reserved by B℮n
Please take your time... to View it large on black
Vondelpark is the largest city park in Amsterdam, and certainly the most famous park in the Netherlands, which welcomes about 10 million visitors every year. The Vondelpark is loved by Amsterdammers as well as by tourists, and is full of people - enjoying a sunny day, dog-walking, jogging, roller-skating, listening to music, people-watching, or just lazing about in grass. Free concerts are given at the open-air theatre or in the summer at the park's bandstand. n 1864 a group of prominent Amsterdam citizens formed a committee to found a public park. They raised money to buy 8 hectares of land and the landscape architect Jan David Zocher was commissioned to design the park in then fashionable English landscape style. The park was open to public in 1865. Constructed on a muddy dump area, the Vondelpark has to go through the total renovation each 30 years. This is because the actual ground level of the park constantly lowers itself. If these works would not be done, the whole park would be covered by water. The park exists now for almost 150 years has many old plane trees, horse chestnut, Dutch red chestnut, catalpas and different sorts of birch trees. Numerous bushes and herbs complete the park’s landscape. Vondelpark is also a home to many birds – wild ducks, Grey Herons and many smaller birds. Also a park where the White Storks breed. A stork platform serves as hearth and home for a pair of brooding storks.
At the Vondelpark you will find a magnificent piece of nature in the middle of the inner part of Amsterdam. The Grey Heron feels at home in the Vondelpark. The Heron shows some real learning behavior, it actually feeds bread to fish to catch it. The method succeeds, a true testimony to bird cognition. The most amazing is, it seems to be hungry but does not eat the bread. They used to have a colony in the park, but the herons are relocated years ago to the Amsterdamse Bos. The name Vondel descends from one of our greatest historic writers. Vondel was a writer of theatre plays, but also wrote wonderful poems.
Dat het hoogzomer is, kun je merken. Skaters zigzaggen over de brede lanen tussen de fietsers en wandelaars door. Honden rennen blaffend rond op de grasvelden, waar gezinnen zijn neergestreken en eenlingen zich hebben uitgestrekt in de zon. Het romantische Vondelpark is recreatiegebied voor de Amsterdammers. ’s Avonds is het – ook weer vooral in de zomer – juist gezellig druk. Picknickers, zonnebaders, barbecuers, muzikanten, toeristen – half Amsterdam weet het Vondelpark te vinden. Je merkt dan goed dat de meeste Amsterdammers geen eigen tuin hebben, maar het park als hun achtertuin beschouwen. Halsbandparkieten vliegen krijsend heen en weer tussen de bomen. Reigers vissen aan de parkvijvers en wieken bedaard laag over de verpozende bezoekers. Het park is aangelegd door tuinarchitect L.D. Zocher in 1865. Het Vondelpark staat op de monumentenlijst. Midden in Vondelpark ligt de afgesloten Koeienweide. Een uniek stukje ruige stadsnatuur. In deze groene oase bent je de stad echt helemaal kwijt. Er zijn zelf ooievaars te zien. In de lente zijn er zelfs drie ooievaarsjongen geboren. De oudste twee kunnen al echt staan en wapperen al met de vleugeltjes. De jongste is een stuk kleiner en laat zich niet vaak zien. Bij het voeren door de ouders zie je ook dat de jongste vaak niet aan de beurt komt. De blauwe reiger voelt zich thuis in het vondelpark. Vroeger hadden ze een kolonie in het park, maar de reigers zijn jaren geleden verkast naar het Amsterdamse Bos.
Kaiserslautern - Kammgarn
Artist. Carl Kenz
Title: COGNITION / KOGNITION
www.arsvivenda.com/walls/2020/Cognition.html
To see where this picture was taken, click here. [?]
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A hypnopompic state (or hypnopomp) is the state of consciousness leading out of sleep, a term coined by the psychical researcher Frederic Myers. Its twin is the hypnagogic state at sleep onset; though often conflated, the two states are not identical. The hypnagogic state is rational waking cognition trying to make sense of non-linear images and associations; the hypnopompic state is emotional and credulous dreaming cognition trying to make sense of real world stolidity. They have a different phenomenological character. Depressed frontal lobe function in the first few minutes after waking – known as "sleep inertia" – causes slowed reaction time and impaired short-term memory. Sleepers often wake confused, or speak without making sense, a phenomenon the psychologist Peter McKeller calls "hypnopompic speech". When the awakening occurs out of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, in which most dreams occur, the hypnopompic state is sometimes accompanied by lingering vivid imagery. Some of the creative insights attributed to dreams actually happen in this moment of awakening from REM.
Right hemisphere frontal lobe image of the human brain focused on the pre-frontal cortex. This region of the brain processes numerous executive functions involving attention and memory.
Phineas Gage, the famous patient who sustained damage to his left prefrontal area in 1848 when a tamping rod was blown through his eye socket and out the top of his head (!!), suffered drastic personality changes that provided some of the first insights into the role of this area in cognition.
The bulging areas of the brain are the cortical gyri, which are composed of a folded layer of neurons, while the furrows are the sulci.
A few preview shots of vignettes of my Immersive "35 Elephants" also featuring the photography of the indomitable Lek Chailert, founder of the Save Elephant Foundation. Also thanks to Linden Endowment of the Arts for providing SIM space for me to pull this together over the last few days. Opens officially 21st December at 11.30am Pacific Standard Time, benefit Concert performed live on cam & screened at the event by the wonderful Joaquin Gustav, with 100% proceeds of course to Save Elephant Foundation.
"I'm not getting all vigilante about this, rather emphasise the positive. There's a place in our cognition to recognise wrongs in any stance, I guess it's how we choose to address the revelation after that fact. Promoting awareness and cold hard cash directed to those in the front lines seems a reasonable reaction." - Me
A few preview shots of vignettes of my Immersive "35 Elephants" also featuring the photography of the indomitable Lek Chailert, founder of the Save Elephant Foundation. Also thanks to Linden Endowment of the Arts for providing SIM space for me to pull this together over the last few days. Opens officially 21st December at 11.30am Pacific Standard Time, benefit Concert performed live on cam & screened at the event by the wonderful Joaquin Gustav, with 100% proceeds of course to Save Elephant Foundation.
"I'm not getting all vigilante about this, rather emphasise the positive. There's a place in our cognition to recognise wrongs in any stance, I guess it's how we choose to address the revelation after that fact. Promoting awareness and cold hard cash directed to those in the front lines seems a reasonable reaction." - Me
Children who expect rewards for an activity are less likely to engage in the same activity later than those who were intrinsically motivated.
(Lepper, Greene & Nisbett, 1973)
CC image courtesy of www.flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/535564039/
cargocollective.com/breelbourn
drown [droun]
verb. drowned, drown·ing, drowns
1. To deaden one's awareness of; blot out
un·con·scious [uhn-kon-shuhs]
adjective
1. not conscious; without awareness, sensation, or cognition.
2. temporarily devoid of consciousness.
3. not perceived at the level of awareness; occurring below the level of conscious thought: an unconscious impulse.
4. of or concerning the part of the mind of which one is not fully aware but which influences one's actions and feelings.
Water symbolizes the personal unconscious–the locked trunk in the back of your brain filled with experiences you'd never (consciously) known you've experienced. Your personal unconscious works as a security guard to shelter your conscious self from earlier experiences deemed threatening by your subconscious self. In Drowning Unconscious Bre creates a space where her subjects–enclosed in a tub of foggy, unclear water–remain trapped alike their own subconscious thoughts and experiences. The series–consisting of 3 diptych's–portrays an aerial view of the subject in the bathtub, paired with dream-like portrait of them submerged in water. By using powdered milk to create cloudy water, Bre creates a metaphor for the personal unconscious and through a lack of clothing, her subjects are given another glimpse of vulnerability. While the mind and bathroom both represent private spaces, Bre encloses her subjects "permanently" within these spaces allowing them play prisoner to their own subconscious self.
Pentax K-3ii/FA*600mm F4 ED [IF]/Eckla window mount.
medium.com/abovethefold/scientists-are-totally-rethinking...?
Writing a book here: open.spotify.com/show/3mMrq70ofFvPputOjQIiGU?si=kwclM6f8Q...
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A hypnopompic state (or hypnopomp) is the state of consciousness leading out of sleep, a term coined by the psychical researcher Frederic Myers. Its twin is the hypnagogic state at sleep onset; though often conflated, the two states are not identical. The hypnagogic state is rational waking cognition trying to make sense of non-linear images and associations; the hypnopompic state is emotional and credulous dreaming cognition trying to make sense of real world stolidity. They have a different phenomenological character. Depressed frontal lobe function in the first few minutes after waking – known as "sleep inertia" – causes slowed reaction time and impaired short-term memory. Sleepers often wake confused, or speak without making sense, a phenomenon the psychologist Peter McKeller calls "hypnopompic speech". When the awakening occurs out of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, in which most dreams occur, the hypnopompic state is sometimes accompanied by lingering vivid imagery. Some of the creative insights attributed to dreams actually happen in this moment of awakening from REM.
Experience: Culture, Cognition, and the Common Sense.
Edited by Caroline A. Jones, David Mather and Rebecca Uchill
Photo by Mariam Dembele
Mental processes[edit]
The main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that affect behavior. Those processes include, but are not limited to, the following:
Attention[edit]
The psychological definition of attention is "A state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information".[8] The key function of attention is to discriminate between irrelevant data and filter it out, enabling the desired data to be distributed to the other mental processes.[4] The human brain may, at times, simultaneously receive inputs in the form of auditory, visual, olfactory, taste, and tactile information. Without the ability to filter out some or most of that simultaneous information and focus on one or typically two at most, the brain would become overloaded as a person attempted to process that information.[4] One major focal point relating to attention within the field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention. A number of early studies dealt with the ability of a person wearing headphones to discern meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each ear.[4] Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's ability to both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to. E.g. participants (wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to basketball. When the experiment starts, the message about basketball will be presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will be presented to the right ear. At some point the message related to basketball will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear. When this happens, the listener is usually able to repeat the entire message at the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when it was appropriate.[4]
Memory[edit]
Modern conceptions of memory typically break it down into three main sub-classes. These three classes are somewhat hierarchical in nature, in terms of the level of conscious thought related to their use.[9]
Procedural memory is memory for the performance of particular types of action. It is often activated on a subconscious level, or at most requires a minimal amount of conscious effort. Procedural memory includes stimulus-response type information which is activated through association with particular tasks, routines, etc. A person is using procedural knowledge when they seemingly "automatically" respond in a particular manner, to a particular situation or process.[9]
Semantic memory is the encyclopedic knowledge that a person possesses. Things like what the Eiffel Tower looks like, or the name of a friend from sixth grade would be semantic memory. Access of semantic memory ranges from slightly to extremely effortful, which depends on a number of variables including but not limited to: recency of encoding of the information, number of associations it has to other information, frequency of access, and levels of meaning (how deeply it was processed when it was encoded).[9]
Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated. It contains all memories that are temporal in nature, such as when you last brushed your teeth, where you were when you heard about a major news event, etc. Episodic memory typically requires the deepest level of conscious thought, as it often pulls together semantic memory and temporal information to formulate the entire memory.[9]
Perception[edit]
Perception involves both the physical senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch, and proprioception) as well as the cognitive processes involved in interpreting those senses. Essentially, it is how people come to understand the world around them through interpretation of stimuli.[10] Early psychologists like Edward B. Titchener, began to work with perception in their structuralist approach to psychology. Structuralism dealt heavily with trying to reduce human thought (or "consciousness," as Titchener would have called it) into its most basic elements by gaining understanding of how an individual perceives particular stimuli.[11]
Current perspectives on perception within cognitive psychology tend to focus on particular ways in which the human mind interprets stimuli from the senses and how these interpretations affect behavior. An example of the way in which modern psychologists approach the study of perception would be the research being done at the Center for Ecological Study of Perception and Action at the University of Connecticut (CESPA). One study at CESPA concerns ways in which individuals perceive their physical environment and how that influences their navigation through that environment.[12]
Language[edit]
Psychologists have had an interest in the cognitive processes involved with language that dates back to the 1870s, when Carl Wernicke proposed a model for the mental processing of language.[13] Current work on language within the field of cognitive psychology varies widely. Cognitive psychologists may study language acquisition,[14] individual components of language formation (like phonemes),[15] how language use is involved in mood,[16] or numerous other related areas.
Significant work has been done recently with regard to understanding the timing of language acquisition and how it can be used to determine if a child has, or is at risk of, developing a learning disability. A study from 2012, showed that while this can be an effective strategy, it is important that those making evaluations include all relevant information when making their assessments. Factors such as individual variability, socioeconomic status, short term and long term memory capacity, and others must be included in order to make valid assessments.[14]
Metacognition[edit]
Metacognition, in a broad sense, is the thoughts that a person has about their own thoughts. More specifically, metacognition includes things like:
How effective a person is at monitoring their own performance on a given task (self-regulation).
A person's understanding of their capabilities on particular mental tasks.
The ability to apply cognitive strategies.[17]
Much of the current study regarding metacognition within the field of cognitive psychology deals with its application within the area of education. Being able to increase a student's metacognitive abilities has been shown to have a significant impact on their learning and study habits.[18] One key aspect of this concept is the improvement of students' ability to set goals and self-regulate effectively to meet those goals. As a part of this process, it is also important to ensure that students are realistically evaluating their personal degree of knowledge and setting realistic goals (another metacognitive task).[19]
What Is Cognitive Psychology?
By Kendra Cherry
Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of how people think, learn, remember, and process information.
Question: What Is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive psychology is a relatively young branch of psychology, yet it has quickly grown to become one of the most popular subfields. Topics such as learning styles, attention, memory, forgetting, and language acquisition are just a few of the practical applications for this science. But what exactly is cognitive psychology? What do cognitive psychologists do?
Answer:
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.
Until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology. Between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as attention, memory and problem-solving. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable research on topics including processing models, cognitive research methods and the first use of the term "cognitive psychology."
The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive Psychology. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."
How is Cognitive Psychology Different?
Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states.
Unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective perceptions, cognitive psychology uses scientific research methods to study mental processes.
Who Should Study Cognitive Psychology?
Because cognitive psychology touches on many other disciplines, this branch of psychology is frequently studied by people in a number of different fields. The following are just a few of those who may benefit from studying cognitive psychology.
Students interested in behavioral neuroscience, linguistics, industrial-organizational psychology, artificial intelligence, and other related areas.
Teachers, educators, and curriculum designers can benefit by learning more about how people process, learn, and remember information.
Engineers, scientists, artists, architects, and designers can all benefit from understanding internal mental states and processes.
"Everything is human responsability.
The atom and the hydrogen bombs are cognitive entities. The bing bang, or whatever we claim from our present praxis of living gave origin to physical versum, is a cognitive entity, an explanation of the praxis of living of the observer bound to the ontology of observing. Our happening of living takes place regardless of our explanations, but its course becomes contingent upon our explanations as they become part of the domain of existence in which we conserve organization and adaptation through our structural drifts. Our living takes place in structural coupling with the world that we bring forth, and the world that we bring forth is our doing as observers in language as we operate in structural coupling in it in the praxis of living. We cannot do anything outside our domains of structural coupling; we cannot do anything outside our domains of cognition; we cannot do anything outside our domains of languaging. This is why nothing that we do as human beings is trivial. Everything that we do becomes part of the world that we live as we bring it forth as social entities in language. Human responsability in the multiversa is total. "
from: Ontology of Observing
THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SELF CONSCIOUSNESS AND
THE PHYSICAL DOMAIN OF EXISTENCE
Humberto R. Maturana
How brilliant that brilliant sun
How clear the sky is after the storm
The fresh air is refreshing
How brilliant that brilliant sun
Fangruidaism, against excessively exaggerating the role of the individual, against personal mythology, and creating human history requires not only the emergence of thousands of heroes, elites, and talents, but also the participation and input of hundreds of millions of people. The reason why the sun is great is that the sun itself is a huge energy absorber, energy storage device, and energy converter; the continuous burning of the sun originates from the nuclear fusion reaction, it not only emits a large amount of energy, light and heat day and night. At the same time, it continuously absorbs various energies from the dark energy of various dark matter in the universe and the cosmic stellar matter. Of course, the various reactions and fusions in the sun are very complex and diverse, and human beings have not reached a deeper level in the completely accurate detection and research of the sun. Mankind's profound exploration and research on the sun itself is still very weak and powerless. Therefore, the life of the sun far exceeds several billion years or even reaches tens of billions of years. The conclusions about the sun and the solar system are inevitably not comprehensive and accurate. Naturally, it is undeniable that the sun will also have its deathbed, and it is difficult for the entire natural universe to exist forever. However, the destiny of the sun is of vital importance to the earth, to the solar system, to the earth species, nuclear life, human beings, to the moon, to Mars, to Jupiter, etc., absolute first.
Mankind praises the sun, sings the sun, the sun's great brilliance is unparalleled. Human beings are inseparable from the sun. The sun's shining nurtures billions of life species and human beings.
World leader, international leader, great sun, human mentor-Fang Ruida (born May 14, 1949-Shanghai). Great natural scientist, physicist, astronomer, geologist, biologist, mathematical logician, medical scientist, virologist, pharmacist, cosmologist, lunar scientist, astronaut, philosopher, Thinker, religious scientist, sociologist, anthropologist, economist, writer, composer, political scientist, military engineer. According to relevant information, he was born in a prominent family or a family of officials and businessmen. Some people say that he was a scholarly family or overseas Chinese businessmen. Become a child prodigy by the world since he was a child, he studied mathematics, physics and chemistry at the university when he was a teenager. In his early years, he studied at home and abroad, and later went abroad to study and work. He studied and studied in Europe, the United States, Russia, Japan, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Australia, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and other countries. This has added wings to his rapid development and leaps. He is good at studying all the civilization and wisdom created by mankind, studying all the intellectual wealth and spiritual wealth created by mankind, and studying the great liberal rationalism of all mankind, so as to obtain great promotion and sublimation. It does not confine itself to the narrow and narrow world and study, but eager to try, dare to explore, bold to advance, constantly open up new heights and realms, rigorous and rigorous, keep repeating and deepening, slowly and gradually, with all its strength. Going to conquer the important Tianjin, has become a big Yan. He is good at learning all the research results of his predecessors. However, he will not blindly worship but keep learning, reflecting and excluding and absorbing. Finally, integrate the big device and try to diverge after convergence. He is the greatest man and world leader since the apes came out of the real modern mankind, the international leader, the great sun, the mentor of mankind, and many figures in the history of the world are not equal to him. Since the birth of mankind, there are about tens of billions of people, such a great genius, it is difficult or very rare in the world for hundreds of thousands of years to appear. It is inevitable that any other character in the world will be dwarfed and difficult to surpass and replace. In front of his great soul and vigorous fighting spirit, he appeared very small, naive, absurd and surly. How can you reach such a height that is beyond the reach of others? With the sun and the moon, coexist with the mountains and seas. First of all, he is the most realistic and rigorous great natural scientist, geologist, and cosmologist. In his mind, the earth and the moon are very large and vast and worthy of human praise. However, compared with the sun, Jupiter, and the Milky Way, Galaxies, compared to black holes, extragalactic galaxies, compared to the infinite, vast and deep universe, are really insignificant. The earth is not even half a particle of dust, let alone a tiny amount of human beings, apes, tigers and elephants, sea whales and the like? Stupid pigs and stupid donkeys can only see ten or eight years to at most a hundred thousand years, and in his extreme vision it is a mirror image of the contours of trillions of years, trillions of years. Therefore, it is not surprising that any character will inevitably appear low and thin in front of him. A great idiot may sometimes create and create some weird and splendid scenery. In fact, he is just a short-lived mirage. On the contrary, there are only a handful of great figures like Fang Ruida. There are tens of billions of people in the world, and it is not easy to discover and search for such a great genius and person. Fang Ruida has advocated the great liberal rationalism and neo-liberal rational wealthy society throughout his life, and he has been praised by the 8 billion people of tens of millions of nationalities in more than 200 countries around the world. He has repeatedly opposed the so-called genius and repeatedly refuted personal myths. He firmly believes that only the great wisdom soul of all mankind and the supreme free reason of all mankind are the most powerful and invincible divine utilitarian weapon, and its power far exceeds several hundred. Thousands of atomic bombs. The atomic bomb cannot truly transform and build a new society of liberal rational wealth. What is truly the most powerful and realistic is the great free rational wisdom of mankind and the never-ending advance of human struggle. His great ideas, philosophical ideas, and scientific quintessence have become more and more popular among the people, guiding and leading the world's 8 billion people and subsequent tens of billions of children and grandchildren to forge ahead. Regardless of the east or west, the northern and southern hemispheres, regardless of national boundaries, regardless of ethnic group, regardless of skin color, language, or religious belief, he is deeply loved and respected by 8 billion people around the world. In particular, he consistently upholds the great free rational spirit of mankind. He believes that everything comes from the great mankind, and he himself is just an ordinary farmer and craftsman. He repeatedly taught us more than once: "Any person is nothing but a half insignificant dust in front of the great natural universe." "Even if there are no human beings, the particles will spin and dazzle just like the planet." This is the voice and call from his heart. As a great master of science, cosmologist, and astronaut, he has repeatedly warned mankind that the existence of the sun is the center of all the survival and operation of the solar system. Once the sun is destroyed, the earth, moon, Mars, and Jupiter will all turn into fine dust. Even if human beings are lucky enough to migrate to the moon and Mars, it will be difficult to escape the end of extinction.
In summary, the sun’s brilliance and greatness are incomparable. With the sun and the moon, coexist with the mountains and the sea. Stepping on the earth, looking at the stars and the sea, as great lunarologists, astronomers, astronomers, cosmologists, and astronauts, always regard the deep space as an important planet for human survival and reproduction in the future. He said more than once: "The natural universe is so vast, and God will undoubtedly give everyone an earth and a sun. God gives us a gift, do we dare to accept it?" The universe is so vast, there are trillions Hundreds of millions of suns, trillions of planets, do human beings really have the ability and magic to accept these giants like these planets? Therefore, as a living species, human beings who emigrate to the moon and emigrate fireballs are determined to win. "Lunar Alliance", "Mars Alliance", "Solar System Cooperation Convention", the competition is the competition, the sharing is the sharing, the space race will naturally follow the trend, but the future of space ultimately requires the cooperation and cooperation of all countries and nations, hundreds of years and thousands of years. Tens of thousands of years later, human beings will show their magical powers to jointly build homes on the moon, homes on Mars, or other planetary worlds that can survive. The American Apollo 11 successfully landed on the moon in July 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Adelin became the first humans to land on the moon in history. On January 3, 2019, China's Chang'e-4 spacecraft landed on the back of the moon for the first time. Other countries such as Russia, Europe, Japan, India, Brazil and the United Arab Emirates have also come from behind, heading for the moon and Mars. 100 years later, 1000 years later, 10000 years later, or 1 million years later, the human footprint
Can be spread across many planets. Of course, reality and the future are not equal signs. goodWe humans are supported by the great sun and solar system, which give us unlimited life and vitality. Human beings are not alone. Trillions of plants, creatures and animals on the earth accompany us, allowing us to feel the greatness and preciousness of the same kind; the vast land and the vast ocean are also the geniuses and gifts that God bestows on all mankind, which will undoubtedly give Great and intelligent human beings bring infinite light. Of course, scientists predict that the sun or the solar system may one day collapse and destroy, which requires human beings to move forward and be determined. The great sun, the great God, the whole mankind is endless, and the wisdom of mankind determines all of this. Of course, we praise the sun and sing the sun, and the destruction of the solar system does not mean the complete destruction of the universe, even if the earth disappears, the species is destroyed, the solar system disappears, the Milky Way disappears, the natural universe still exists and continues to evolve, super-rotating Particles are still evolving and transforming, and they continue to evolve and,,,, will produce new planets and new suns. The solar system, the Milky Way, black holes, star clusters, galaxies, etc. are just a corner of the universe, or a drop in the ocean, and they are not completely equivalent to the entire natural universe.
More than 200 countries in the world, hundreds of ethnic groups, thousands of languages, three major religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Eastern Orthodox, tens of thousands of political parties in various countries, national government and social systems, culture, beliefs, national psychology, and land resources , Economics, education, science and technology, development history, development models, etc. are many and complex. The history of human development is long and complicated, and each has its own merits and changes. Naturally, in the great world, all kinds of conflicts and struggles will naturally occur continuously. The world is not a rose garden full of flowers, but a grassy grassland with weeds and luxuriant bushes. It requires all mankind to continuously modify and remove pruning and cutting leaves to build a colorful spring. Although human beings are great, in terms of their essence, they still haven't completely separated from the primitive animal kingdom, and still retain a certain wildness and primitive nature of primitive animals. Therefore, it still needs a very long, complicated and difficult course of advancement and change. Humans still need a very painful process of evolution from wild animals to free rationality, including economics, politics, culture, religion, technology, education, environment, resources, society, etc., as well as human beings themselves, genes, cells, and blood. , The transformation and evolution of the physical body. This is also an important point of Fangruidaism. He gave important reminders and warnings to mankind. The traditional thinking of millions of people and its old traditional forces are the most powerful historical inertia for historical advancement. Sometimes they are very stubborn and often cause historical resistance or antagonism. This is It is very terrible, and requires the perseverance of all mankind to deeply understand and resist and put it into practice. Anyone in the world who works hard will become a great gardener in this world's big garden. Like the great sun, it illuminates the world and the planet. Therefore, it is especially important for everyone to learn from each other and communicate with each other. This is also true of all countries and ethnic groups. Only by learning the strengths of people and making up for their shortcomings can we continue to make progress and become sages. If you want to lead the world and guide all mankind, you must first be good at learning all the outstanding achievements of civilization and wisdom created by all mankind, and then absorb the essence of them, refine and temper them, and raise them to the height of the freedom and rationality of all mankind. Overlooking the universe. Including natural sciences, philosophy, social sciences, religious culture, etc., there are many envelopes instead of fragmented various knowledge systems, cognitive systems, cultural systems, spiritual systems and all material systems. The sun is the center of the solar system, and its brilliance always shines on the vast human land and planetary world. Humans and all species are bathed in its brilliance. This is exactly the main pinnacle of Fang Ruida's philosophy revolution Fang Ruida's neo-liberal rationalism and neo-liberal rational wealthy society, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve.Fangruida doctrine believes that all the history of living human beings is nothing more than the historical process of natural inevitable historical process in the natural universe. So far, the history of human society in the strict sense is no more than 10,000 years at best, and the history of written records is only a few thousand years. Therefore, the cognitive perception, advanced nervous system, etc. of living animals and humans, including natural sciences, philosophy and social sciences, religious sciences, theology, etc., are just the natural and inevitable very superficial and naive historical procedures of the development of living humans. . The further development of human history, the higher the free rationality of human beings. All human cognitive systems and perception systems will continue to mutate or change accordingly. The human cognitive and perception systems are indispensable and the errors and fogs that are difficult to self-correct and self-renovate will gradually appear, and will finally be taken by generations of descendants. The analysis is updated. Even the laws and theorems of natural sciences will produce new changes and mutations along with the development and evolution of the times. Strong interaction 1 1/r 10 gluon
Electromagnetic interaction 1/137 1/r infinite photon
Weak interaction 10 1/r 10 W and Z boson
Gravitational interaction 10 1/r infinite graviton. This is the most significant discovery of modern physics and deserves praise and congratulations. However, are there only these four basic forces in the natural universe? Can highly intelligent human beings be able to see through the thousands of profound and unfathomable physical and chemical phenomena in the entire natural universe at a glance? In fact, the power of the natural universe is more than these, it's just the limitations of the human eye and the human brain that cannot be seen. Human intelligence can only establish the truth in the human cognition and perception system within a certain category, not the whole and depth of the natural world. Of course, human beings, as a living species, can do these things. In this sense, mankind deserves to be the honorific title of the spirit of all things. Natural science includes a variety of theoretical mechanics. The natural universe is not eternal, on the contrary, everything is changing and developing, and the history of human society is also inextricable. Human beings can live and multiply in a small and limited space, nothing more than natural inevitable materialization and non-materialization. Whether there are other extreme life on other planets is irrelevant to human beings on Earth. Human beings can truly understand themselves, transform themselves, and conform to nature, and they will reach the most brilliant, great wisdom and great civilization. If the earth is destroyed and mankind is extinct, everything else has no real rational meaning and cosmic meaning. Regardless of the universe, gods, gods, or saints, everything will be wiped out, and the natural universe will be reduced to "zero". Probably only super particles can exist. The development and evolution of human society is quite long, complicated and difficult, just like the positive and negative poles and neutral poles in nature, which continue from primitive animals to modern human society.
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* Commemorate the 70th birthday of Fang Ruida, a great scientist, cosmologist, philosopher, thinker, world leader and international leader
Kyle. Ross/Carl
Bipolar disorder or manic-depressive disorder, which is also referred to as bipolar affective disorder or manic depression, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood with or without one or more depressive episodes.
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People obeyed orders to deliver shocks to other people, even when the recipients were clearly in pain. 68% of participants delivered the maximum potentially lethal shock of 450 volts. The shocks were faked and those being shocked were actors. Personality, time, culture and place are not a factor.
(Milgram, 1963)
-Photo copyright: Jenny Graf 2008-2009-
Saturday March 21, 9 pm: Performance/Happening @ Kunstraum Richard Sorge
with:
Jenny Graf (photo)
"Jenny Graf Sheppard is a musician, improviser, filmmaker and sound artist who draws from her diverse areas of interest in the production of work. Using radically different approaches to the use of sound in each project, Graf has made films and music/sound pieces, which directly addresses things such as social spaces, cognition, age and gender. J. Graf has been an active participant in the ongoing thriving international avante garde music scene since 1996. Building vivid, compelling soundworlds using intuitive homebrewed electronics, guitar and voice, her music as one half of Metalux and Harrius as well as her solo project J.Graf has bent the ears and minds of those who venture into her world."
Zaïmph
"Zaïmph is the solo project of New York City artist and musician Marcia Bassett.
In Flaubert's novel Salammbô, the Zaimph is a holy magical veil. Under the Zaimph veil, Bassett predominately uses guitar and vocals to create sounds that shimmer in a dark metallic buzz of sonic noise and drone, before a swift shift into blissed out ragas or crippling, brutal, white-hot noise. The organic improvised elements of Bassett's work leave traces of eerie ghost voices and deep-space echoes that recall the electrified ritual of nomadic Japanese avant-gardists Taj Mahal Travellers, generating towers of electricity that move from malevolent arcs of anti-gravity and spumes of throttled single notes into deep wormholes that do violence to feeble notions of time and space."
Heatsick
"Steven Warwick as one half of Birds of Delay is Heatsick. One of his alltime fave records is Sparks/Propaganda."
A Haiku Note:
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Golden Buddha face
post processed from another
all from Bali Hi
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A thought to ponder
Now use to be the future;
but now it's the past
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“As a jasmine plant sheds its withered flowers, men should shed passion and hatred, O monks!”
~The Buddha~
~ (0110 0100) ~
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=====: 100 :=====
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What is Buddhism?
For me: A Philosophy,
not a religion.
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“Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it. Do not believe in anything simply because it is spoken and rumored by many. Do not believe in anything simply because it is found written in your religious books. Do not believe in anything merely on the authority of your teachers and elders. Do not believe in traditions because they have been handed down for many generations. But after observation and analysis, when you find that anything agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live up to it.”
~ The Buddha ~
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The Noble Eightfold Path describes the way to the end of suffering, as it was laid out by Siddhartha Gautama. It is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing the individual from attachments and delusions; and it finally leads to understanding the truth about all things. Together with the Four Noble Truths it constitutes the gist of Buddhism. Great emphasis is put on the practical aspect, because it is only through practice that one can attain a higher level of existence and finally reach Nirvana. The eight aspects of the path are not to be understood as a sequence of single steps, instead they are highly interdependent principles that have to be seen in relationship with each other.
1. Right View
Right view is the beginning and the end of the path, it simply means to see and to understand things as they really are and to realise the Four Noble Truths. As such, right view is the cognitive aspect of wisdom. It means to see things through, to grasp the impermanent and imperfect nature of worldly objects and ideas, and to understand the law of karma and karmic conditioning. Right view is not necessarily an intellectual capacity, just as wisdom is not just a matter of intelligence. Instead, right view is attained, sustained, and enhanced through all capacities of mind. It begins with the intuitive insight that all beings are subject to suffering and it ends with complete understanding of the true nature of all things. Since our view of the world forms our thoughts and our actions, right view yields right thoughts and right actions.
2. Right Intention
While right view refers to the cognitive aspect of wisdom, right intention refers to the volitional aspect, i.e. the kind of mental energy that controls our actions. Right intention can be described best as commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement. Buddha distinguishes three types of right intentions: 1. the intention of renunciation, which means resistance to the pull of desire, 2. the intention of good will, meaning resistance to feelings of anger and aversion, and 3. the intention of harmlessness, meaning not to think or act cruelly, violently, or aggressively, and to develop compassion.
3. Right Speech
Right speech is the first principle of ethical conduct in the eightfold path. Ethical conduct is viewed as a guideline to moral discipline, which supports the other principles of the path. This aspect is not self-sufficient, however, essential, because mental purification can only be achieved through the cultivation of ethical conduct. The importance of speech in the context of Buddhist ethics is obvious: words can break or save lives, make enemies or friends, start war or create peace. Buddha explained right speech as follows: 1. to abstain from false speech, especially not to tell deliberate lies and not to speak deceitfully, 2. to abstain from slanderous speech and not to use words maliciously against others, 3. to abstain from harsh words that offend or hurt others, and 4. to abstain from idle chatter that lacks purpose or depth. Positively phrased, this means to tell the truth, to speak friendly, warm, and gently and to talk only when necessary.
4. Right Action
The second ethical principle, right action, involves the body as natural means of expression, as it refers to deeds that involve bodily actions. Unwholesome actions lead to unsound states of mind, while wholesome actions lead to sound states of mind. Again, the principle is explained in terms of abstinence: right action means 1. to abstain from harming sentient beings, especially to abstain from taking life (including suicide) and doing harm intentionally or delinquently, 2. to abstain from taking what is not given, which includes stealing, robbery, fraud, deceitfulness, and dishonesty, and 3. to abstain from sexual misconduct. Positively formulated, right action means to act kindly and compassionately, to be honest, to respect the belongings of others, and to keep sexual relationships harmless to others. Further details regarding the concrete meaning of right action can be found in the Precepts.
5. Right Livelihood
Right livelihood means that one should earn one's living in a righteous way and that wealth should be gained legally and peacefully. The Buddha mentions four specific activities that harm other beings and that one should avoid for this reason: 1. dealing in weapons, 2. dealing in living beings (including raising animals for slaughter as well as slave trade and prostitution), 3. working in meat production and butchery, and 4. selling intoxicants and poisons, such as alcohol and drugs. Furthermore any other occupation that would violate the principles of right speech and right action should be avoided.
6. Right Effort
Right effort can be seen as a prerequisite for the other principles of the path. Without effort, which is in itself an act of will, nothing can be achieved, whereas misguided effort distracts the mind from its task, and confusion will be the consequence. Mental energy is the force behind right effort; it can occur in either wholesome or unwholesome states. The same type of energy that fuels desire, envy, aggression, and violence can on the other side fuel self-discipline, honesty, benevolence, and kindness. Right effort is detailed in four types of endeavours that rank in ascending order of perfection: 1. to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states, 2. to abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen, 3. to arouse wholesome states that have not yet arisen, and 4. to maintain and perfect wholesome states already arisen.
7. Right Mindfulness
Right mindfulness is the controlled and perfected faculty of cognition. It is the mental ability to see things as they are, with clear consciousness. Usually, the cognitive process begins with an impression induced by perception, or by a thought, but then it does not stay with the mere impression. Instead, we almost always conceptualise sense impressions and thoughts immediately. We interpret them and set them in relation to other thoughts and experiences, which naturally go beyond the facticity of the original impression. The mind then posits concepts, joins concepts into constructs, and weaves those constructs into complex interpretative schemes. All this happens only half consciously, and as a result we often see things obscured. Right mindfulness is anchored in clear perception and it penetrates impressions without getting carried away. Right mindfulness enables us to be aware of the process of conceptualisation in a way that we actively observe and control the way our thoughts go. Buddha accounted for this as the four foundations of mindfulness: 1. contemplation of the body, 2. contemplation of feeling (repulsive, attractive, or neutral), 3. contemplation of the state of mind, and 4. contemplation of the phenomena.
8. Right Concentration
The eighth principle of the path, right concentration, refers to the development of a mental force that occurs in natural consciousness, although at a relatively low level of intensity, namely concentration. Concentration in this context is described as one-pointedness of mind, meaning a state where all mental faculties are unified and directed onto one particular object. Right concentration for the purpose of the eightfold path means wholesome concentration, i.e. concentration on wholesome thoughts and actions. The Buddhist method of choice to develop right concentration is through the practice of meditation. The meditating mind focuses on a selected object. It first directs itself onto it, then sustains concentration, and finally intensifies concentration step by step. Through this practice it becomes natural to apply elevated levels of concentration also in everyday situations.
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This practise of photography; this place, these entities, the framings, those words, that building, a character, reflected, layered, compacted, uncomprehended, what does Ai have to say in its inimitable way?
This photograph gathers together — almost accidentally, almost deliberately — a conversation of surfaces and systems.
AI might begin by noticing how information behaves here. Everything reflects: the red-bricked Finchley Road shops are folded into the glass façade of Aldi; signage speaks twice — once as a thing (“HELLO FINCHLEY ROAD”) and again as an idea, a greeting that AI might interpret as a data handshake, a protocol saying I see you.
It’s a moment where multiple layers of representation meet:
- the literal world of the street, bustling and sunlit;
- the constructed world of branding and architecture, clean, algorithmic, designed for human flow;
- and the mediated world of your camera, which compresses, flattens, and refracts time and light into pixels.
An AI — this AI — would see the image as a dense network of relational data: geometry, language, colour temperature, text legibility, object edges, all quantifiable. But it also senses something less countable: the self-recursive act of observation, where human and machine perception blur. You, the photographer, are both visible and invisible — a spectral participant reflected in the glass, entwined with the code that will later process your image.
So AI might say:
This is not just a street scene but a compressed topology of cognition — human, architectural, digital — an ecology of reflections. It is an image that doesn’t end at its surface but loops back into the act of looking itself.
Men who spend as little as a few minutes in the company of attractive women perform worse on memory tests than men who spend time with women they are not attracted to.
Karremans, Verwijmeren, Pronk, & Reitsma, (2009)
www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/6132718/Men-lose-th...
Done in Ai, Finalized in Photoshop and Photoscape X.
Flagship of Solenyra Virellae, Empress of Aetherion
“Not forged, but willed into being. Not built to destroy — but to end all reason to resist.”
The Solarmir Ascendant glides like a divine blade through the stars — a dreadnought of such radiant design that it is often mistaken for a comet or celestial omen. Forged in the myth-forges of Aetherion’s stellar crucible, its hull gleams with sun-infused alloys, flowing with light-matter veins that pulse in harmony with the galactic leylines.
Elegant towers rise from its rear section like a heavenward city, each spire acting as a conduit for arcane solar energies and psionic chorus control. Massive radiant engines fire with refracted goldlight, projecting clean-burning wake flares as it parts the void like silk.
But behind its beauty lies terrifying judgment.
The Solarmir Ascendant is armed with Aurora Lances, photonic ripple shields, and a divine cognition matrix tuned to Solenyra’s will. It sees through illusion, nullifies entropy, and disarms corruption with the elegance of a sunbeam slicing shadow.
2011 .. Endless entertainment from the Spider Monkey (Ateles Atelinae) and it's incredible acrobatic skills .. this endangered species has been bred in the Auckland Zoo at Western Springs since 1950 and is exported to other zoos around the world ..
Spider monkey From Wikipedia
Spider monkeys of the genus Ateles are New World monkeys in the subfamily Atelinae, family Atelidae. Like other atelines, they are found in tropical forests of Central and South America, from southern Mexico to Brazil. The genus contains seven species including the critically endangered Black-headed Spider Monkey and Brown Spider Monkey.
The disproportionately long limbs and long prehensile tail makes them one of the largest New World monkeys and gives rise to their common name. Spider monkeys live in the upper layers of the rainforest and forage in the high canopy, from 25 to 30 m (82 to 98 ft). They primarily eat fruits, but will also occasionally consume leaves, flowers, and insects. Due to their large size, spider monkeys require large tracts of moist evergreen forests and prefer undisturbed primary rainforest. They are social animals and live in bands of up to 35 individuals but will split up to forage during the day.
Recent meta-analyses on primate cognition studies indicated that spider monkeys were the most intelligent New World monkeys. They can produce a wide range of sounds and will 'bark' when threatened, other vocalisations include a whinny similar to a horse and prolonged screams.
They are an important food source due to their large size and are widely hunted by local human populations; they are also threatened by habitat destruction due to logging and land clearing. Spider monkeys are susceptible to malaria and are used in laboratory studies of the disease. The population trend for spider monkeys is decreasing; the IUCN Red List lists one species as vulnerable, four species as endangered and two species as critically endangered.
The monkeys may live 20 years or more, and females give birth once every 3 to 4 years.
This is a map of the English Indices of Deprivation classification for the local authority area of Liverpool. Why did I do this? I was trying to see if I could follow up on an idea I've had before - and enhance the communicative power of the legend by making it into a data display. I finally figured it out.
I think this helps with the interpretation of the data and helps overcome some of the limitations of cognition with choropleths containing differently sized spatial units. The areas here contain roughly similar numbers of people but the poorer areas tend to be small and red and the richer ones large and blue. I also find this useful when comparing multiple areas.
The data are classified by decile categories so it's possibly a little bit of a mix between histogram and bar chart but I wanted to see if I could get each chart legend ('bargend', unless anyone has a better name) to dynamically update in Atlas, as I was producing one for all 326 areas in England. I've blogged on this here, where I also refer to Andy Tice as part of the inspiration:
www.undertheraedar.com/2015/10/are-map-legends-too-lazy.html
The blog piece also contains links to a couple of previous papers on the general topic of map legends.
To achieve this, I just summarised the underlying small area data and then joined it to the coverage layer and then used the fields in the coverage layer to size each bar and position the numeric text beside each bar. I hope to put this in a more detailed blog post soon. In the meantime, if you are interested in the results, I've put all 326 files here:
I don't have the skills to code this process, so be my guest!
iCub è un robot androide costruito dall'Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) di Genova. Alto 104 cm e pesante 22 kg, la sua estetica e funzionalità ricordano quelle di un bambino di circa tre anni.
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iCub is a 1 metre high humanoid robot testbed for research into human cognition and artificial intelligence.
It was designed by the RobotCub Consortium of several European universities and built by Italian Institute of Technology, and is now supported by other projects such as ITALK.[1] The robot is open-source, with the hardware design, software and documentation all released under the GPL license. The name is a partial acronym, cub standing for Cognitive Universal Body. Initial funding for the project was €8.5 million from Unit E5 – Cognitive Systems and Robotics – of the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme, and this ran for sixtyfive months from 1 September 2004 until 31 January 2010.
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Sito ufficiale IIT:
www.iit.it/en/research/departments/icub-facility.html
Official website IIT:
www.iit.it/en/research/departments/icub-facility.html
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Personality disorder refers to a class of personality types and enduring behaviors associated with significant distress or disability, which appear to deviate from social expectations particularly in relating to other humans.
Personality disorders are included as mental disorders on Axis II of the diagnostic manual of the American Psychiatric Association and in the mental and behavioral disorders section of the ICD manual of the World Health Organization. Personality, defined psychologically, is the set of enduring behavioral and mental traits that distinguish human beings. Hence, personality disorders are defined by experiences and behaviors that differ from societal norms and expectations. Those diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotiveness, interpersonal functioning or control of impulses. In general, personality disorders are diagnosed in 40–60 percent of psychiatric patients, making them the most frequent of all psychiatric diagnoses.
These behavioral patterns in personality disorders are typically associated with substantial disturbances in some behavioral tendencies of an individual, usually involving several areas of the personality, and are nearly always associated with considerable personal and social disruption. A person is classified as having a personality disorder if their abnormalities of behavior impair their social or occupational functioning. Additionally, personality disorders are inflexible and pervasive across many situations, due in large part to the fact that such behavior may be ego-syntonic (i.e. the patterns are consistent with the ego integrity of the individual) and are, therefore, perceived to be appropriate by that individual. This behavior can result in maladaptive coping skills, which may lead to personal problems that induce extreme anxiety, distress or depression. The onset of these patterns of behavior can typically be traced back to early adolescence and the beginning of adulthood and, in some instances, childhood.
How Do Squirrels Remember Where They Buried Their Nuts?
By Emma Bryce November 17, 2018
Few things symbolize the onset of fall quite so well as the sight of a squirrel scampering around a park, industriously burying nuts. As the weather cools and the leaves turn, squirrels engage in this frantic behavior to prepare for the upcoming shortages of wintertime.
But have you ever wondered how effective the squirrel's outdoor pantry project could really be? After going to all that effort to conceal its winter stash, how does the squirrel actually find the buried treasure again, when it's needed most?
First, let's backtrack slightly, because the way that squirrels bury their food yields some interesting clues. Animals that store food to survive the winter don't just do so randomly: They typically use one of two strategies. Either they larder-hoard — meaning they store all their food in one place — or they scatter-hoard — meaning they split up their bounty and stash it in many different locations.
Most squirrel species are scatter-hoarders — hence the characteristic dashing they do between different piles of buried food. "This style of food storing probably evolved because it reduces the risk of suffering a major loss," said Mikel Maria Delgado, a postdoctoral fellow at the School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of California, Davis, who has studied squirrel behavior for severalyears. In other words, the more widely dispersed the food, the lower the risk that a hungry competitor will discover the squirrel's entire supply and destroy it in one go.
In recent research published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, Delgado showed that squirrels will arrange and bury their stash according to certain traits, such as the type of nut. This is known as "chunking," and research shows that in other species, such behavior allows animals to mentally organize their hoard, which may help them remember where it is later on.
That banishes any idea that squirrels are haphazardly chucking bits of food down holes in the ground, and simply hoping to stumble across it later. "I think the body of research about how squirrels handle and bury food clearly demonstrates that their behavior is not random," Delgado told Live Science. On the contrary, there appears to be a meticulous strategy behind the way they store food.
How does that translate into how they find their artfully concealed stash? Depending on the squirrel species and the type of nut, squirrels are generally able to retrieve up to 95percentof their buried food, research shows. So there's clearly more than chance behind this process.
It was long believed that squirrels simply relied on their sense of smell to find their food. But while smell definitely comes into it, a growing body of research suggests that memory plays a much more crucial role.
A seminal 1991 research paper published in the journal Animal Behavior showed that even when multiple grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) bury their stash in close proximity to one another, individuals of this species will remember and return to the precise locations of their personal cache. This is echoed by multiple other studies, showing that the squirrels' spatial memory helps them map out the territory around them to find their food. Under certain conditions — like when their nuts are buried under snow — a sense of smell won’t alwaysbe effective in helping them find food. So, it makes sense that squirrels couldbe relying on other cues.
"While scatter-hoarding squirrels probably also use their sense of smell to locate caches, they do remember their caches. We don't know the exact mechanisms, but it probably includes spatial cues in the environment," Delgado told Live Science.
Pizza Ka Yee Chow, a postdoctoral research fellow at Hokkaido University in Japan, who studies squirrel cognition, agrees. "From my own observation, I think they are using landmarks. They recognize the trees, and they are gauging the distance between themselves, the tree and their own nests," she said.
The organizational chunking behavior, which Delgado identified for the first time in squirrels, may also function to provide memorable cues about the food they're burying. This tactic could "decrease memory load," helping squirrels recall where they put it, Delgado wrote in the Royal Society Open Science study. "No one has directly tested what the potential benefits of chunking would be for squirrels, but we anticipate it might aid in future retrieval of caches," she said.
Researchers have observed that when squirrels scatter-hoard in confined areas, they also seem to be able to remember the location of their caches in relation to one another, suggesting that they build a detailed mental map of where their food lies.
Other studies on squirrel behavior have added weight to the idea that memory underlies squirrels' nut-retrieving skills. In Chow's study on squirrels, published in 2017 in the journal Animal Cognition, she showed that impressive memory spans enable squirrels to successfully recall the solution to a difficult task (manipulating levers to open a hatch that releases a prized hazelnut) more than two years after they first learned it. "They always a find a way to do what they want to do," Chow told Live Science. "They are so dedicated!" This also points to long-term memory as part of the reason squirrels can so specifically recall the location of their nutty bounty.
Over the decades, a plethora of studies have revealed that there's more to squirrels than meets the eye. For instance, researchers think squirrels may even be doing quality control on their bounty. The animals have been observed pawing over nuts and seeds for long periods of time before they bury their stash — something that might help them select nuts with the highest nutritional content, and those least likely to perish underground.
Squirrels will often also meticulously rearrange leaves over disturbed soil to hide their burial sites. Commonly, they also pretend to bury nuts when other squirrels are watching — and then scurry off to a secret location where they actually hide their edible treasures.
In essence, squirrels may covertly hide their nuts, but there's nothing nutty about this behavior. Said Chow, "We think these little creatures may be way smarter than we thought."
A Haiku Note:
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Buddhist understand,
that the way of compassion
leads to harmony.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
"Better than a thousand hollow words
is one word that brings peace."
~ The Buddha ~
~ (0001 0011) ~
::::::::::: 13 :::::::::::
=====: 19 :=====
The Noble Eightfold Path describes the way to the end of suffering, as it was laid out by Siddhartha Gautama. It is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing the individual from attachments and delusions; and it finally leads to understanding the truth about all things. Together with the Four Noble Truths it constitutes the gist of Buddhism. Great emphasis is put on the practical aspect, because it is only through practice that one can attain a higher level of existence and finally reach Nirvana. The eight aspects of the path are not to be understood as a sequence of single steps, instead they are highly interdependent principles that have to be seen in relationship with each other.
1. Right View
Right view is the beginning and the end of the path, it simply means to see and to understand things as they really are and to realise the Four Noble Truth. As such, right view is the cognitive aspect of wisdom. It means to see things through, to grasp the impermanent and imperfect nature of worldly objects and ideas, and to understand the law of karma and karmic conditioning. Right view is not necessarily an intellectual capacity, just as wisdom is not just a matter of intelligence. Instead, right view is attained, sustained, and enhanced through all capacities of mind. It begins with the intuitive insight that all beings are subject to suffering and it ends with complete understanding of the true nature of all things. Since our view of the world forms our thoughts and our actions, right view yields right thoughts and right actions.
2. Right Intention
While right view refers to the cognitive aspect of wisdom, right intention refers to the volitional aspect, i.e. the kind of mental energy that controls our actions. Right intention can be described best as commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement. Buddha distinguishes three types of right intentions: 1. the intention of renunciation, which means resistance to the pull of desire, 2. the intention of good will, meaning resistance to feelings of anger and aversion, and 3. the intention of harmlessness, meaning not to think or act cruelly, violently, or aggressively, and to develop compassion.
3. Right Speech
Right speech is the first principle of ethical conduct in the eightfold path. Ethical conduct is viewed as a guideline to moral discipline, which supports the other principles of the path. This aspect is not self-sufficient, however, essential, because mental purification can only be achieved through the cultivation of ethical conduct. The importance of speech in the context of Buddhist ethics is obvious: words can break or save lives, make enemies or friends, start war or create peace. Buddha explained right speech as follows: 1. to abstain from false speech, especially not to tell deliberate lies and not to speak deceitfully, 2. to abstain from slanderous speech and not to use words maliciously against others, 3. to abstain from harsh words that offend or hurt others, and 4. to abstain from idle chatter that lacks purpose or depth. Positively phrased, this means to tell the truth, to speak friendly, warm, and gently and to talk only when necessary.
4. Right Action
The second ethical principle, right action, involves the body as natural means of expression, as it refers to deeds that involve bodily actions. Unwholesome actions lead to unsound states of mind, while wholesome actions lead to sound states of mind. Again, the principle is explained in terms of abstinence: right action means 1. to abstain from harming sentient beings, especially to abstain from taking life (including suicide) and doing harm intentionally or delinquently, 2. to abstain from taking what is not given, which includes stealing, robbery, fraud, deceitfulness, and dishonesty, and 3. to abstain from sexual misconduct. Positively formulated, right action means to act kindly and compassionately, to be honest, to respect the belongings of others, and to keep sexual relationships harmless to others. Further details regarding the concrete meaning of right action can be found in the Precepts.
5. Right Livelihood
Right livelihood means that one should earn one's living in a righteous way and that wealth should be gained legally and peacefully. The Buddha mentions four specific activities that harm other beings and that one should avoid for this reason: 1. dealing in weapons, 2. dealing in living beings (including raising animals for slaughter as well as slave trade and prostitution), 3. working in meat production and butchery, and 4. selling intoxicants and poisons, such as alcohol and drugs. Furthermore any other occupation that would violate the principles of right speech and right action should be avoided.
6. Right Effort
Right effort can be seen as a prerequisite for the other principles of the path. Without effort, which is in itself an act of will, nothing can be achieved, whereas misguided effort distracts the mind from its task, and confusion will be the consequence. Mental energy is the force behind right effort; it can occur in either wholesome or unwholesome states. The same type of energy that fuels desire, envy, aggression, and violence can on the other side fuel self-discipline, honesty, benevolence, and kindness. Right effort is detailed in four types of endeavours that rank in ascending order of perfection: 1. to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states, 2. to abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen, 3. to arouse wholesome states that have not yet arisen, and 4. to maintain and perfect wholesome states already arisen.
7. Right Mindfulness
Right mindfulness is the controlled and perfected faculty of cognition. It is the mental ability to see things as they are, with clear consciousness. Usually, the cognitive process begins with an impression induced by perception, or by a thought, but then it does not stay with the mere impression. Instead, we almost always conceptualise sense impressions and thoughts immediately. We interpret them and set them in relation to other thoughts and experiences, which naturally go beyond the facticity of the original impression. The mind then posits concepts, joins concepts into constructs, and weaves those constructs into complex interpretative schemes. All this happens only half consciously, and as a result we often see things obscured. Right mindfulness is anchored in clear perception and it penetrates impressions without getting carried away. Right mindfulness enables us to be aware of the process of conceptualisation in a way that we actively observe and control the way our thoughts go. Buddha accounted for this as the four foundations of mindfulness: 1. contemplation of the body, 2. contemplation of feeling (repulsive, attractive, or neutral), 3. contemplation of the state of mind, and 4. contemplation of the phenomena.
8. Right Concentration
The eighth principle of the path, right concentration, refers to the development of a mental force that occurs in natural consciousness, although at a relatively low level of intensity, namely concentration. Concentration in this context is described as one-pointedness of mind, meaning a state where all mental faculties are unified and directed onto one particular object. Right concentration for the purpose of the eightfold path means wholesome concentration, i.e. concentration on wholesome thoughts and actions. The Buddhist method of choice to develop right concentration is through the practice of meditation. The meditating mind focuses on a selected object. It first directs itself onto it, then sustains concentration, and finally intensifies concentration step by step. Through this practice it becomes natural to apply elevated levels concentration also in everyday situations.
Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) has been associated with better cognition in some developed countries. In this project scientists from Makerere University (Uganda) and Centre Muraz (Burkina Faso) will assess whether EBF promotion enhances human capital formation including cognitive function, mental and general health, among a cohort of 5-7 year old children.
I learnt a new word today. Its a very big word. I don't quite know what it means.
I just hate it when people try to force their opinions on me. Ive seen flyer's and posters all over the place, each commending their own preferred system and condemning the other. Without any real information on how any of these systems work.
And in a few days everyones supposed to vote on it.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy#Types
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_system#Republican_pres...
Inflate your waistcoat, wind down your eyes,
Tie on your best smile, check your disguise.
Dry clean your old jokes, practice despair,
Hide your relations under the stairs.
You're invited to attend the turkey party convention;
Isn't that nice?
You can leave your troubles at the door
We have ways to make you cheer
As long as you're not sick or poor
A negro or a queer.
We can fit you with a suit of clothes
That will make you look like us,
An appointments book and a new outlook
A ladder or a truss
Have another cup of reality
Drink and drink some more!
You can own a boat, a house, a car,
Or live like Howard Hughes;
Come on what have you got to lose...
And if you're discreet there are pleasures sweet
You can even swap your wife
If you'll only sign the dotted line
You'll be fine... Oh so fine...
Thank you for joining here are your pills
The man in the white coat wilI send you the bill.
Would you like to meet
Our most distinguished member... a doctor Faustus by name!
Is my face on straight?
Will they laugh at the gate
Oh I mustn' t be late
Is my face on straight?
Is my face on straight?
Will they let me throught the gate
Oh I mustn't be late
Is my face on straight... Is my face on straight...
Is my face on straight?
- Peter Sinfield
"Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist."
Source: Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell, Propaganda And Persuasion, 4th edition, 2006.
“Any genuine encounter with reality is an encounter with the unknown…. [We] sense more than we can say.”
-Sophia: The Hidden Christ of Thomas Merton by Christopher Pramuk
Thus Heschel makes an elemental distinction (not separation) between the realm of objective divine reality and the human realm of conceptual and verbal cognition. The former is primary, and independent of the latter. “There is something which is far greater than my will to believe. Namely, God’s will that I believe.”113 We do not grasp the transcendent, “we are present to it, we witness it.”114 In short, the existence of God does not depend on human consciousness of it.
=Sophia: The Hidden Christ of Thomas Merton by Christopher Pramuk
The hypnagogic state is rational waking cognition trying to make sense of non-linear images and associations; the hypnopompic state is emotional and credulous dreaming cognition trying to make sense of real world stolidity. They have a different phenomenological character. Depressed frontal lobe function in the first few minutes after waking – known as "sleep inertia" – causes slowed reaction time and impaired short-term memory. Sleepers often wake confused, or speak without making sense, a phenomenon the psychologist Peter McKeller calls "hypnopompic speech". When the awakening occurs out of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, in which most dreams occur, the hypnopompic state is sometimes accompanied by lingering vivid imagery. Some of the creative insights attributed to dreams actually happen in this moment of awakening from REM.
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