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Inside the sometimes controversial Pumping Station "T" bottlecap containing heavy duty filtering systems, venting, and lots of big shiny lights.
1309 25th Street
Sacramento, California
This commercial addition in front of a Dutch colonial house appears to be office space nowadays. If it's not currently occupied, it surely looks turnkey ready.
Latest addition to the collection. A camera manufactured by Heinrich Ernemann. This camera was probably manufactured in 1920 and meant for the tropics. I'm not sure what kind of wood the camera is built, probably teak. I still have to clean the camera a little and to CLA the shutter; it runs but not as smooth as it should run.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
In September 1939, the US Army was ill-prepared as far as armored vehicles, training and tactics went. Soon, it became clear that a new model, which could be favorably compared to the European models, had to be studied for mass production. The very early M1 Combat Car was nothing more than a very small tank with two machine guns. Its main purpose was scouting and as such ordered for “cavalry” units. This was in 1937, and became the forerunner of all light tanks to come.
In 1935, a new model, the M2 Light Tank, was designed. At first, it was an immediate upgrade of the M1, but with the heavier .50 (12.7 mm) caliber machine gun, immediately followed by the M2A2 with twin turrets equipped with .30 (7.62 mm) caliber M1919 machine guns. The “Mae West” gave way in 1938 to a small series of M2A3 37 mm (1.45 in) single turret tanks, and then to the final M2A4 in 1940, with improved armor, motorization and equipment. These fought at Guadalcanal with the US Marine Corps, and with the British Army through Lend-Lease, performing well in Burma and India against the Japanese, despite being obsolete.
The following M3 was built under the light of recent events in France. The quick fall of France, due to inadequate tactics, quickly led the US Army Corps to think about a new doctrine, which led to an independent US armored force. From the material point of view, the latest M2A4 and the M3 were both designed to be more effective than only infantry support units, their main duty was scouting and screening.
The M3 was, at first, a simple upgrade of the last M2, with a more powerful Continental petrol engine, a new vertical volute spring suspension system and up to four machine guns in addition to a main, quick-firing M5 (and later M6) 37 mm (1.45 in) anti-tank gun, with a new gun recoil system.
Most of the initial M3 tanks were provided to the British and Commonwealth forces through Lend-Lease. Some were immediately thrown into action in Northern Africa, where they immediately became popular for their speed, sturdiness and reliability. Although the official British designation was “Stuart”, paying homage to Civil War Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart, they found themselves affectuously dubbed “Honey”, because of their smooth ride.
Beyond British and Commonwealth forces, the US Forces used many M3s in their first major operation in the west, the North African invasion in November 1942 (Operation Torch). They had some success against Italian tanks, but were butchered by German 88 mm (3.46 in) artillery and the up-gunned Panzer IIIs and IVs. It was clear that their high profile and the flat squared hull was too vulnerable. However, the M3 was popular, reliable and mobile, and the introduction of a diesel engine in the M3A1 made the small tank even more suitable for reconnaissance missions, so that the British Army asked by late 1941 for a dedicated scout variant that would trade-in the weak cannon armament (and the fourth crewman associated with it) for more mobility and range. This led to the M3A2, better known under the British name “Parsival”, because it was never adopted and operated by the U.S. Army.
The Parsival Mk. I used the standard M3 hull, but the lateral sponsons that formerly housed fixed machine guns were outright deleted in order to save weight and to reduce manufacturing effort as well as frontal area. Another major modification concerned the running gear: in order to improve speed and handling at higher speed, the M3’s vertical springs were replaced by a modified Christie running gear, which consisted of the standard drive wheel at the front, four large road wheels and three return rollers per side. The last pair of road wheels was mounted on trailing swing arms for increased ground contact and also acted as idler wheels. The M3A1’s optional 9-cylinder Guiberson T-1020 diesel became the Parsival’s standard engine, and, beyond the internal tanks, two additional external fuel drums could be mounted to the rear hull, extending range from 100 to 150 miles.
A new cast turret, similar in shape to the airborne M22 Locust tank, was mounted, which had a much lower profile and offered better ballistic protection than the M3’s original turret with vertical side walls. The reduced height was a trade-off for firepower, though: the turret did not carry a full-fledged cannon anymore, only a medium 0.5” (12.7 mm) machine gun as well as a light, coaxial 0.303” (7.62 mm) machine gun, all operated by the commander. The machine gun in the front bow, handled by the radio operator, was retained, and another light machine gun could optionally be mounted on top of the turret against aircraft. The turret was furthermore equipped with a set of two smoke grenade launchers.
Through the different weight saving measures, the Parsival’s weight could be reduced from 12.7 to 10.8 tons, resulting in a slight improvement in overall performance but with a much better handling, esp. when moving off-road.
In the summer of 1942, the first Parsival Mk. Is arrived in the North African theatre of operations where they excelled in their dedicated reconnaissance role. Concerning the standard M3, the British usually kept the Stuarts out of direct tank-to-tank combat, using them primarily for reconnaissance, too. In consequence, the turret was removed from some British M3 examples to save weight and improve speed and range, but these were inferior to the Parsival and became known as "Stuart Recce". Some others were converted to armored personnel carriers known as the "Stuart Kangaroo", and some were converted into command vehicles and known as "Stuart Command".
After the Africa campaign, British Stuarts and Parsival took successfully part in the liberation of Italy. About 500 were produced, 160 of them were delivered to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease, the rest was exclusively operated by the British Army in Europe. Parsivals, M3s, M3A3s, and M5s continued in British service until the end of the war.
Specifications:
Crew: Three (commander, driver, radio operator)
Weight: 10.8 tons
Length: 14ft 2in (4.33 m)
Width: 7ft 4in (2.33 m)
Height: 2.49 metres (8 ft 1 1/2 in)
Suspension: Christie system
Ground clearance: 16.5" (419 mm)
Fuel capacity: 54 US gal (200 l)
Armor:
0.52 - 2 in (13 - 51 mm)
Performance:
Speed:
- Maximum, road: 40 mph (65 km/h)
- Cross country: 22 mph (36 km/h)
Climbing capability:
- 40% side slope and 60% max grade
- Vertical obstacle of 24 inches (61 cm)
- 72 inches (1,8 m) trench crossing
Fording depth: 36 inches (91 cm)
Operational range: 100 ml (160 km) on road with internal fuel
Power/weight: 23.1 hp/t
Engine:
1× Guiberson T-1020 9-cylinder radial diesel engine with a 1,021 cu in (16.73 l) displacement,
delivering 250 hp (190 kW)
Transmission:
Hydramatic, 4 speeds forward, 1 reverse
Armament:
1× 0.5” (12.7) mm M2 machine gun with 900 rounds
3× 0.303” (7,62 mm) M1919A4 machine guns
(co-axial in the turret, in the front bow and as an AA weapon on top of the turret)
with a total of 6,750 rounds
2× smoke dischargers on the turret’s right side
The kit and its assembly:
This M3 conversion was spawned by the idea of a dedicated recce variant of the popular Stuart tank. Originally, I just planned to use the chassis from a Hasegawa 1:72 kit and replace the turret with a smaller option (including lighter armament), I already had organized a resin turret for/from an American T17 “Staghound” WWII recce car. But, as always, you can drive a simple idea easily further, so that I also thought about a different suspension and other modifications that would improve the tank’s agility. This led to a Christie-style running gear and the deletion of the M3’s machine gun sponsons, which were in practice used as storage space after the machine guns had been deleted.
The Staghound turret came from a ModelTrans/Silesian Models conversion set, which also includes a nice commander figure as well as two fuel drums. The sponsons were simply cut away and the gaps filled with 0.5 mm styrene sheet – a small modification, and thanks to the M3’s boxy hull design a simple affair. Only some small PSR on the side wall implants as well as on the mudguards (which are segmented) was necessary, and this modification changes the M3’s look considerably!
The running gear was scratched and more complicated, in particular because assembly and painting had to go hand in hand. The eight road wheels actually come from a 1:72 T-72 tank from ModelCollect, their width perfectly matched the track’s and they had the same size as the M3’s large idler wheel at the rear. The road wheels’ depth just looks a little disturbing, but not implausible. The trailing idler wheel (using the original suspension arm) defined the stance and the other wheels were mounted on plastic rods to the hull, with simulated suspensions arms (styrene profile) behind them. Since the drive and idler wheels’ position effectively remained unchanged, I was able to use the OOB vinyl tracks, which are really smooth and easy to handle. However, this move necessitated to retain the return wheels – I wanted to omit them, for an even more Christie-esque look, but without them the track would have been too long and slacked through, with a lot of space between the tracks and the mudguards. Nevertheless, the return wheels’ position was slightly changed, in order to reflect the modified road wheels’ position. And the whole affair simply looks different from the original, so I am fine with it.
In order to liven the small tank up, I added the fuel drums from the Staghound set to the rear fenders and added some more boxes and folded tarpaulins (made from paper tissue drenched in thinned white glue) on the mudguards, somewhat masking the new side walls from sight. I also mounted the M3’s OOB AA machine gun to the turret.
Painting and markings:
I wanted a Northern Africa paint scheme and at first considered the iconic Caunter scheme, but then I thought that, since this livery was also used on the real British Stuarts, I rather wanted something different.
I eventually settled for a simple two-tone scheme, used on British cruiser tanks like the Crusader as well as on M3 Lee medium tanks of American origin. The basic colors I used are Humbrol 168 (Hemp) for the Light Stone tone, and Humbrol 98 (Chocolate) for the dull, dark brown.
As common practice, the basic colors were separated with thin, white lines in order to emphasize the contrast between them. Sometimes in practice, an additional black line was added, too, but due to the model’s small size I just painted a white line.
Another common practice of the British army, esp. on cruiser tanks with large wheels, was to paint the front and rear road wheels in a uniform, light color, while the wheels between them became dark – an attempt to mimic a lorry, esp. when a light “Sunshield” canopy was mounted over the hull that resembled a truck’s outline.
The model received a light wash with a mix of black, grey and brown, the decals (taken from the OOB sheet) were applied next. Over this came some dry-brushing with light grey and ochre and the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish (from the rattle can). Once the tracks were mounted, the lower areas of the tank were finally dusted with a mix of sand and light grey pigments.
Even though the Hasegawa M3 was a simple basis to start with, the conversions, esp. the running gear, were quite challenging. But I like the result a lot: the Parsival looks like a slimmed-down race variant of the M3, just what I wanted to achieve, and the British camouflage suits the small tank well, too – the white contrast line adds an exotic touch.
They finished the job on Friday and I installed canvas curtains on the east and west sides. The sun on the west side can be just too much if there's no breeze. Still have to install a cable and rings for the bottom of the curtain on the west side - to prevent the curtain blowing and knocking things over.
Newton Woods is classified by MSU as a "virtually undisturbed, mature oak-hickory forest."
In addition, the larger Fred Russ Forest and Park are noted for their black walnuts and tulip trees. One of the tulip trees has been identified as the largest tree of this type in Michigan,and is claimed to be 180 feet tall.
Adjacent to the Fred Russ Forest and Park on the east is the site of the now-vanished hamlet of Volinia or Volina, which existed from 1834 until 1902. The hamlet was located where the Marcellus Highway crosses Gards Prairie Road.
The Newton Woods are named after George Newton, who represented Volinia and neighboring communities in the Michigan General Assembly. Newton's Victorian mansion (George Newton House) survives on the Marcellus Highway near the woods, and was named as a registered Michigan historic site in 1974 as Registered Site LO367. A historic marker was erected.
The addition the historic Amos Building takes place during heavy lake effec snow in downtown Syracuse. Wooden trusses arrive and await installation. www.dailydieseldose.com for more!
The latest addition to Froehlich Tours growing Universe Express Fleet. The former KIA 928 which was prepared for Celyrosa Express, now in Froehlich Tours livery and completely re-conditioned. The unit is equipped with a Hyunday D6AC engine, 5 gear transmission, centralised aircondition, 49 reclining sleeper seats, flatscreen tv, dvd entertainment system, Magic Sing KTV and WIFI on board. With a total height of 3.70 meters the unit is considered as High Decker with spacious luggage compartments for longhaul travel. Our latest unit has been assigned to our Senior Tourist Bus captain Rolando Albia, also called "Frolly".
It was a species wonderland at the lake today. Several non-resident types showed up. This photo is of, I believe two female Ring-Necked Ducks. I only saw two...and couldn't spot any of the more elaborately marked males. I'm sure they were around...but not in the exact area where these females were swimming.
In addition, I photographed two pairs of Common Mergansers flying...but didn't see any swimming. Also found one mated pair of Hooded Mergansers...first viewing of those for me as well. And the population of Goldeneyes has exploded. There were at least a dozen pairs swimming today...but as the ice melts off of the lake, these little ducks move farther and farther out from shore.
Chosen as one of the most beautiful train tours in the world, the trail of the "serra verde" descends the Marumbi mountain, connecting the city of Curitiba to the coast. In addition, the construction of the rails keeps a rich and fascinating history.
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) appeared as a piano infant prodigy already with 10 years in public, gave his first concert in 1847 and started early to compose.
In 1853 Brahms sought Robert and Clara Schumann in Dusseldorf in order to obtain from them an assessment of his abilities as a composer.
This results in a lifelong deep friendship and Robert Schumann contributed greatly to his artistic development.
When Robert Schumann became gravely ill, Brahms moved to Clara Schumann to Dusseldorf, to support her and her seven children.
After Schumann's death in 1856, Brahms remained loyal caring contact with Clara Schumann, who had moved to Baden-Baden in 1862.
1865 also Brahms hired an apartment in Baden-Baden.
During his time in Baden-Baden, in addition to composing and long walks, Brahms also had several concert performances in Baden-Baden and Karlsruhe.
He used existing friendships and made new acquaintances with poets, painters and musicians.
In this way, Johannes Brahms - as well as Clara Schumann and Pauline Viardot - contributed to the fact that the health resort of Baden-Baden became a well-known cultural center.
Despite the regular stays in Baden-Baden, Vienna was his second home, where he works until his death in 1897. His legacy consists in an abundance masterly compositions.
The Johannes Brahms Monument is located at the eastern end of the Dahlia Garden in the Lichtentaler Allee in Baden-Baden - near to the Clara Schumann Monument.
Abstract from :
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hong kong)
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.
Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]
Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.
Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]
Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Imperial China
2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45
2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status
3 Governance
3.1 Structure of government
3.2 Electoral and political reforms
3.3 Legal system and judiciary
3.4 Foreign relations
3.5 Human rights
3.6 Regions and districts
3.7 Military
4 Geography and climate
5 Economy
5.1 Financial centre
5.2 International trading
5.3 Tourism and expatriation
5.4 Policy
5.5 Infrastructure
6 Demographics
6.1 Languages
6.2 Religion
6.3 Personal income
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Sports
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Cityscape
7.4 Symbols
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]
The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]
Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]
Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]
Imperial China
Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]
After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]
From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.
From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.
European discovery
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.
Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]
British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London
Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)
In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.
File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media
Hong Kong filmed in 1937
In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]
In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.
Japanese occupation: 1941–45
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]
Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.
Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.
Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.
A sky view of Hong Kong Island
An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]
In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]
The Hong Kong question
In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.
The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.
It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.
Handover and Special Administrative Region status
Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong
Transfer of sovereignty
Golden Bauhinia Square
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.
Structure of government
Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]
Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.
Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]
The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]
In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.
Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]
New addition to the Cardinia Cultural Centre, Lakeside, Pakenham - north frontage (exterior completion as at October 14th 2019).
BOX DATE: 1971
MANUFACTURER: Mattel
MISSING ITEMS: Brush, comb, mirror, 3 curlers
PERSONAL FUN FACT written by my sister: On New Year's Day 2012, we went with Dad to an indoor flea market. We found a lot of seventies Barbies which was the closest thing to a "vintage lot" we'd been lucky enough to get. Strangely, a large portion of the fashion packs we found in the bin were Skipper! At the time, I had several sixties Skippers that had nothing to wear so they wore clothes mostly from that lot. A lot of my dolls have worn this since 2012. I was especially enthralled to have this because I had so few Skipper pajamas at the time and, as I've always loved doll pajamas, it was really exciting. The print is incredibly charming. I really like the weird looking slippers it comes with. I feel incredibly lucky to have them. I have gotten so much use out of this over the years! It came in handy whenever I've played with or set up early Skippers in pajama scenes. I also used it, as I said, first to clothe my vintage Skippers from the early 60s, then to clothe my Living Skipper. It is a really fun, really cute set with an awesome print. This is such an early addition to my adult doll collection that it feels as much "mine" as some of my childhood outfits! The slippers, which feel sort of like felt (they probably are, they are just OLD), are super cute and very special to me. I've always felt so lucky to have them in my collection.
This angle shows some of the changes to the Hope Remains house over the years.The addition on the left contains the decaying kitchen and a modern(?) bathroom.The wrap-around porch obviously came later,with the decision to put a metal roof on it.The original structure(shown better in the other view of the house pic)has a green shingle roof,and seems to be the the most structurally sound(though I didn't go upstairs)part of the house.
. . . for 145 more fotos go to my set: India - Delhi - Red Fort - 2014
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The Red Fort was the residence of the Mughal emperor of India for nearly 200 years, until 1857. It is located in the centre of Delhi and houses a number of museums. In addition to accommodating the emperors and their households, it was the ceremonial and political centre of Mughal government and the setting for events critically impacting the region.
The Red Fort was built as the fortified palace of Shahjahanabad, capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, in 1648. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to the older Salimgarh Fort, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546. The imperial apartments consist of a row of pavilions, connected by a water channel known as the Stream of Paradise (Nahr-i-Behisht). The Red Fort is considered to represent the zenith of Mughal creativity under Shah Jahan. Although the palace was planned according to Islamic prototypes, each pavilion contains architectural elements typical of Mughal buildings, reflecting a fusion of Timurid, Persian and Hindu traditions. The Red Fort’s innovative architectural style, including its garden design, influenced later buildings and gardens in Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab, Kashmir, Braj, Rohilkhand and elsewhere. With the Salimgarh Fort, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007 as part of the Red Fort Complex.
The Red Fort is an iconic symbol of India. On Independence Day, the prime minister hoists the national flag at the main gate of the fort and delivers a nationally-broadcast speech from its ramparts.
NAME
Its English name, "Red Fort", is a translation of the Hindustani Lal Quila (لال قلعہ, लाल क़िला) deriving from its red-sandstone walls. As the residence of the imperial family, the fort was originally known as the "Blessed Fort" (Quila-i-Mubarak). Agra Fort is also called Lal Quila.
HISTORY
Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort in 1638, when he decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. Its design is credited to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The fort lies along the Yamuna River, which fed the moats surrounding most of the walls. Construction began in the sacred month of Muharram, on 13 May 1638. Supervised by Shah Jahan, it was completed in 1648. Unlike other Mughal forts, the Red Fort's boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain the older Salimgarh Fort. The fortress-palace was a focal point of the medieval city of Shahjahanabad, which is present-day Old Delhi. Its planning and aesthetics represent the zenith of Mughal creativity prevailing during Shah Jahan's reign. His successor Aurangzeb added the Pearl Mosque to the emperor's private quarters, constructing barbicans in front of the two main gates to make the entrance to the palace more circuitous.
The administrative and fiscal structure of the Mughals declined after Aurangzeb, and the 18th century saw a degeneration of the palace. When Jahandar Shah took over the Red Fort in 1712, it had been without an emperor for 30 years. Within a year of beginning his rule, Shah was murdered and replaced by Farukhsiyar. To raise money, the silver ceiling of the Rang Mahal was replaced by copper during this period. Muhammad Shah, known as 'Rangila' (the Colourful) for his interest in art, took over the Red Fort in 1719. In 1739, Persian emperor Nadir Shah easily defeated the Mughal army, plundering the Red Fort including the Peacock Throne. Nadir Shah returned to Persia after three months, leaving a destroyed city and a weakened Mughal empire to Muhammad Shah. The internal weakness of the Mughal empire made the Mughals titular heads of Delhi, and a 1752 treaty made the Marathas protectors of the throne at Delhi. The 1758 Maratha conquest of Lahore and Peshawar placed them in conflict with Ahmad Shah Durrani. In 1760, the Marathas removed and melted the silver ceiling of the Diwan-i-Khas to raise funds for the defence of Delhi from the armies of Ahmed Shah Durrani. In 1761, after the Marathas lost the third battle of Panipat, Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Durrani. Ten years later, Shah Alam ascended the throne in Delhi with Maratha support. In 1783 the Sikh Misl Karorisinghia, led by Baghel Singh Dhaliwal, conquered Delhi and the Red Fort. The Sikhs agreed to restore Shah Alam as emperor and retreat from the fort if the Mughals would build and protect seven Gurudwaras in Delhi for the Sikh gurus.
During the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803, forces of British East India Company defeated Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi; this ended Maratha rule of the city and their control of the Red Fort. After the battle, the British took over the administration of Mughal territories and installed a Resident at the Red Fort. The last Mughal emperor to occupy the fort, Bahadur Shah II, became a symbol of the 1857 rebellion against the British in which the residents of Shahjahanbad participated.
Despite its position as the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities, the Red Fort was not defended during the 1857 uprising against the British. After the rebellion failed, Bahadur Shah II left the fort on 17 September and was apprehended by British forces. He returned to Red Fort as a prisoner of the British, was tried in 1858 and exiled to Rangoon on 7 October of that year. With the end of Mughal reign, the British sanctioned the systematic plunder of valuables from the fort's palaces. All furniture was removed or destroyed; the harem apartments, servants' quarters and gardens were destroyed, and a line of stone barracks built. Only the marble buildings on the east side at the imperial enclosure escaped complete destruction, but were looted and damaged. While the defensive walls and towers were relatively unharmed, more than two-thirds of the inner structures were destroyed by the British; steps were later taken by Lord Curzon to repair some damage.
1911 saw the visit of the British king and queen for the Delhi Durbar. In preparation of the visit, some buildings were restored. The Red Fort Archaeological Museum was also moved from the drum house to the Mumtaz Mahal.
The INA trials, also known as the Red Fort Trials, refer to the courts-martial of a number of officers of the Indian National Army. The first was held between November and December 1945 at the Red Fort.
On 15 August 1947, the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru raised the Indian national flag above the Lahore Gate. On each subsequent Independence Day, the prime minister has raised the flag and given a speech that is broadcast nationally.
After Indian Independence the site experienced few changes, and the Red Fort continued to be used as a military cantonment. A significant part of the fort remained under Indian Army control until 22 December 2003, when it was given to the Archaeological Survey of India for restoration. In 2009 the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP), prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India under Supreme Court directions to revitalise the fort, was announced.
As the largest monument in Delhi, is one of its most popular tourist destinations and attracts thousands of visitors every year.
THE FORT TODAY
Every year on 15 August (the day India achieved independence from the British), the Prime Minister hoists the national flag at the Red Fort and delivers a nationally-broadcast speech from its ramparts. The Red Fort, the largest monument in Delhi, is one of its most popular tourist destinations and attracts thousands of visitors every year.
A sound and light show describing Mughal history is a tourist attraction in the evenings. The major architectural features are in mixed condition; the extensive water features are dry. Some buildings are in fairly-good condition, with their decorative elements undisturbed; in others, the marble inlaid flowers have been removed by looters. The tea house, although not in its historical state, is a working restaurant. The mosque and hamam are closed to the public, although visitors can peer through their glass windows or marble latticework. Walkways are crumbling, and public toilets are available at the entrance and inside the park.
The Lahore Gate entrance leads to a mall with jewellery and craft stores. There are a museum of "blood paintings", depicting young 20th-century Indian martyrs and their stories, an archaeological museum and an Indian war-memorial museum. Although, Red Fort is still one of the most beautiful and well designed forts in the world.
ARCHITECTURE
The Red Fort has an area of 103.06 ha enclosed by 2.41 kilometres of defensive walls, punctuated by turrets and bastions and varying in height from 18 metres on the river side to 33 metres on the city side. The fort is octagonal, with the north-south axis longer than the east-west axis. The marble, floral decorations and double domes in the fort's buildings exemplify later Mughal architecture.
It showcases a high level of ornamentation, and the Kohinoor diamond was reportedly part of the furnishings. The fort's artwork synthesises Persian, European and Indian art, resulting in a unique Shahjahani style rich in form, expression and colour. Red Fort is one of the building complexes of India encapsulating a long period of history and its arts. Even before its 1913 commemoration as a monument of national importance, efforts were made to preserve it for posterity.
The Lahori and Delhi Gates were used by the public, and the Khizrabad Gate was for the emperor. The Lahore Gate is the main entrance, leading to a domed shopping area known as the Chatta Chowk (covered bazaar).
MAJOR STRUCTURES
The most-important surviving structures are the walls and ramparts, the main gates, the audience halls and the imperial apartments on the eastern riverbank.
LAHORI GATE
The Lahori Gate is the main gate to the Red Fort, named for its orientation towards the city of Lahore. During Aurangzeb's reign, the beauty of the gate was spoiled by the addition of bastions (Like a veil drawn across the face of a beautiful woman). Every Indian Independence Day since 1947, the national flag has flown and the Prime Minister has made a speech from its ramparts.
DELHI GATE
The Delhi Gate is the southern public gate, in layout and appearance similar to the Lahori Gate. Two life-size stone elephants, on either side of the gate, face each other.
WATER GATE
A minor gate, the Water Gate is at the southeastern end of the walls. It was formerly on the riverbank; although the river has changed course since the fort's construction, the name has remained.
CHHATTA CHOWK
Adjacent to the Lahori Gate is the Chhatta Chowk, where silk, jewellery and other items for the imperial household were sold during the Mughal period. The bazaar leads to an open outer court, where it crosses the large north-south street which originally divided the fort's military functions (to the west) from the palaces (to the east). The southern end of the street is the Delhi Gate.
NAUBAT KHANA
The vaulted arcade of the Chhatta Chowk ends in the centre of the outer court, which measured 160 m × 110 m. The side arcades and central tank were destroyed after the 1857 rebellion.
In the east wall of the court stands the now-isolated Naubat Khana (also known as Nakkar Khana), the drum house. Music was played at scheduled times daily next to a large gate, where everyone except royalty was required to dismount.
DIWAN-I-AAM
The inner main court to which the Nakkar Khana led was 160 m wide and 130 m deep, surrounded by guarded galleries. On the far side is the Diwan-i-Aam, the Public Audience Hall.
The hall's columns and engrailed arches exhibit fine craftsmanship, and the hall was originally decorated with white chunam stucco. In the back in the raised recess the emperor gave his audience in the marble balcony (jharokha).
The Diwan-i-Aam was also used for state functions. The courtyard (mardana) behind it leads to the imperial apartments.
NAHR-I-BEHISHT
The imperial apartments consist of a row of pavilions on a raised platform along the eastern edge of the fort, overlooking the Yamuna. The pavilions are connected by a canal, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht ("Stream of Paradise"), running through the centre of each pavilion. Water is drawn from the Yamuna via a tower, the Shahi Burj, at the northeast corner of the fort. The palace is designed to emulate paradise as described in the Quran. In the riverbed below the imperial apartments and connected buildings was a space known as zer-jharokha ("beneath the latticework").
MUMTAZ MAHAL
The two southernmost pavilions of the palace are zenanas (women's quarters), consisting of the Mumtaz Mahal and the larger Rang Mahal. The Mumtaz Mahal houses the Red Fort Archaeological Museum.
RANG MAHAL
The Rang Mahal housed the emperor's wives and mistresses. Its name means "Palace of Colours", since it was brightly painted and decorated with a mosaic of mirrors. The central marble pool is fed by the Nahr-i-Behisht.
KHAS MAHAL
The Khas Mahal was the emperor's apartment. Connected to it is the Muthamman Burj, an octagonal tower where he appeared before the people waiting on the riverbank.
DIWAN-I-KHAS
A gate on the north side of the Diwan-i-Aam leads to the innermost court of the palace (Jalau Khana) and the Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience). It is constructed of white marble, inlaid with precious stones. The once-silver ceiling has been restored in wood. François Bernier described seeing the jewelled Peacock Throne here during the 17th century. At either end of the hall, over the two outer arches, is an inscription by Persian poet Amir Khusrow:
If heaven can be on the face of the earth,
It is this, it is this, it is this.
HAMMAM
The hammam were the imperial baths, consisting of three domed rooms floored with white marble.
MOTI MASJID
West of the hammam is the Moti Masjid, the Pearl Mosque. A later addition, it was built in 1659 as a private mosque for Aurangzeb. It is a small, three-domed mosque carved in white marble, with a three-arched screen leading down to the courtyard.
HIRA MAHAL
The Hira Mahal is a pavilion on the southern edge of the fort, built under Bahadur Shah II and at the end of the Hayat Baksh garden. The Moti Mahal on the northern edge, a twin building, was destroyed during (or after) the 1857 rebellion.
SHAHI BURJ
The Shahi Burj was the emperor's main study of the; its name means "Emperor's Tower", and it originally had a chhatri on top. Heavily damaged, the tower is undergoing reconstruction. In front of it is a marble pavilion added by Aurangzeb.
HAYAT BAKHSH BAGH
The Hayat Bakhsh Bagh is the "Life-Bestowing Garden" in the northeast part of the complex. It features a reservoir (now dry) and channels, and at each end is a white marble pavilion (Savon and Bhadon). In the centre of the reservoir is the red-sandstone Zafar Mahal, added about 1842 under Bahadur Shah II.
Smaller gardens (such as the Mehtab Bagh or Moonlight Garden) existed west of it, but were destroyed when the British barracks were built. There are plans to restore the gardens. Beyond these, the road to the north leads to an arched bridge and the Salimgarh Fort.
PRINCES´ QUARTER
North of the Hayat Bakhsh Bagh and the Shahi Burj is the quarter of the imperial princes. This was used by member of the Mughal royal family and was largely destroyed by the British forces after the rebellion. One of the palaces was converted into a tea house for the soldiers.
WIKIPEDIA
Home addition with patio walkway, columns, and lighting built in the North Potomac area of Rockville, Maryland. Complete with Tesla charging station.
Fuente del Monte Parnasso (Parnassus Fountain)
The gardens of the Royal Palace, the Alcázar of Sevilla (or Reales Alcázares de Sevilla) form a multi-layered intricate network of both spaces and epochs developed over 1100 years, starting from early Arabic places and gardens, over what is perhaps the largest late-medieval garden in Europe (paradoxically designed as a continuation of the Moorish architecture and gardens, after the Christian reconquest of Sevilla in 1248), notable late renaissance/mannerist additions from the mid-16th century, up to modern 20th century reinterpretations of the original Moorish influences.
The continued moorish style, known as Mudejar (i.e. 'allowed to remain') is most clearly expressed in the still existing countless small and large courtyard gardens, fountains and rills of the 14th century water gardens. In 1543, Italian designer Vermondo Resta expanded and redesigned parts of the grounds in the Italian Mannerist style, most notably turning an old Muslim wall into a viewing loggia known as the Galeria de Grutesco (Grotto Gallery), as well as adding a large labyrinth and pavilions as well as more spectacular water features such as the still functional hydraulic water organ, reminiscent of Villa d’Este and other Italian renaissance gardens.
Further beyond, both English, romantic landscape garden influences and more formal reinterpretations of the original water courtyards have been added, with the early 20th century layouts Jardin Inglés, Jardín del Retiro del Marqués and the Garden of the Poets, which continue the elaborate network of rills, cascades and fountains which make the water an ever-present feature of these remarkable gardens.
The newest addition to the Devil's Tail Press is a circa 1960 Hohner-IV A5 press made in West Germany by Otto Hohner Maschinenfabrik. This particular model has all the bells and whistles that were provided with this line of machines, the other models I through III had some, but not all of the features of this press. The most unique feature is an ejection feature that knocks the printed item (card stock) into a tray on the side of the press. It will take a bit of refurbishing, but the equipment dealer from whom I purchased it kept the important parts greased and oiled as protection from the salt air of the Pacific Ocean, which was only a few blocks from their shop.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The Yakovlev Yak-38 (Russian: Яковлева Як-38; NATO reporting name: "Forger") was Soviet Naval Aviation's first and only operational VTOL strike fighter aircraft, in addition to being its first operational carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft. It was developed specifically for and served almost exclusively on the Kiev-class aircraft carriers.
OKB Yakovlev had been constantly improving the Yak-38 design, seeking to push the aircraft's design limits. One initial step was the Yak-38M, which was tested in 1982 and subsequently introduced into service. Outwardly it differed little from the 1st generation Yak-38, bigger air recirculation dams were the most significant changes. But the air intakes were optimized and more powerful engines almost doubled the external ordnance load. Furthermore, wet pylons were introduced that would allow to carry drop tanks, extending the type's limited range considerably. The Yak-38M was delivered in the mid-80ies to the Soviet Navy, where it replaced the original Yak-38.
With the ongoing tests and the development of fourth generation fighter like the MiG-29 or the Su-27 in parallel (from both of which OKB Yakovlev had been excluded, failing to gain any development contract), OKB Yakovlev sought to improve the Yak-38 further and maybe attract foreign customers.
One direction, which was also aimed at the Soviet Navy, was to outfit the Yak-38 with a radar, so that the type could be more than a light attack aircraft or visual range fighter with R-60 AAMs. Studies were made to integrate the Fazotron N019 'Rubin' fire control radar, which had been developed for the MiG-29 tactical fighter.
It turned out to be feasible to install the equipment in the Yak-38, even though the nose had to be modified in order to carry the radar's antenna. But with this modern radar the Yak-38 became not only able to make interceptions beyond visual range against aircraft carrier attackers with more powerful, long range AAMs (like the R-77/RVV-AE missile), it could also be used in any weather condition.
This project was called Yak-38 MP ('modernizeerovannyy perekhvaht-chik' = modernized version, interceptor variant), and it not only carried the N019 but also advanced navigation and attack systems which enabled the aircraft to carry out night and all-weather attacks. Outwardly the Yak-38 MP could easily be recognized by its shorter, fatter nose with a pointed radome and the offset pitot sensor in front of the cockpit. This variant received the NATO code "Forger C".
The resulting aircraft held much potential, and for the export market a modified version, the Yak-38 MPK ('kommehrcheskiy' = commercial) variant was offered from 1987 on. It did not feature state-of-the-art avionics, but basically kept the new variant's air-to-air and all-weather capabilities.
In 1988 India showed interest in the Yak-38 MPK for its aircraft carrier INS Vikrant, and an agreement was settled to buy a total of seventeen aircraft - fourteen singe-seaters and three standard Yak-38U trainers.
The Indian Yak-38 MPKs were futher modified, featuring new, extended wing tips with integral pods for a Gerdeniya-1FU (L-203B) jammer and an SPO-15LM Beryoza radar homing and warning (RAWS) system and an OEPS-29 IRST sensor (the same which is also used in the MiG-29, flown by the Indian AIr Force) in front of the cockpit. The type still lacked an integral gun, though - tests of Yakovlev had been made but the problems of engine surging with a test-mounted GSh-23 could not be cured, so the Yak-38MPK had to rely on external pods, much like its predecessors. It is also uncertian whether the Indian Yak-38 MPK is able to carry tactical nuclear stores - like its Soviet/Russian ancestors.
India remained the only export customer for the Yak-38, even though China showed some interest, and these export Yak-38 shoudl be the last chapter of this S/VTOL aircraft. OKB Yakovlev had already been working on the supersonic Yak-41/141 STOL multi-role fighter for the domestic market, but the demise of the Soviet Union halted any further developments - and the Yak-38's design potential had been exhausted with the MP/MPK versions.
The small group of Indian Forgers soldiered on until 2003 (three were lost in accidents, one of them a trainer), when they were replaced by MiG-29K shipboard fighters. Rumor had it that China had shown interest in the remaining Yak-38 MPK fleet for its own carrier.
General characteristics:
Crew: One
Length (fuselage only): 15.44 m (50 ft 7 in)
Length (overall): 16.05 m (52 ft 7 in)
Wingspan: 7.78 m (25 ft 5 1/2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (14 ft 5 in)
Wing area: 19.5 m² (210 ft²)
Empty weight: 7,385 kg (16,281 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 11,300 kg (28,700 lb)
Powerplant:
1x Tumansky R-28 V-300 turbojet, 66.7 kN (15,000 lbf)
2× Rybinsk RD-38 turbojets, 31.9 kN (7,870 lbf) each
Performance:
Maximum speed: 1.280 km/h (795 mph)
Range: 1,300 km (807 miles)
Service ceiling: 11,000 m (36,089 ft)
Rate of climb: 4,500 m/min (14,760 ft/min)
Thrust/weight: 1+
Armament:
No internal gun, but optional one or two UPK-23-250 pods fixed under the external pylons of wings.
4 hardpoints with a total capacity of 4,400 lb (2.000 kg) and provisions to carry combinations of various types of rockets (up to 240 mm), 2 anti-ship or air-to-surface Kh-23 (AS-7 Kerry) missiles, R-60, R-60M (AA-8 Aphid), R-73 (AA-11 Archer) or R-77 (AA-12 Adder) air-to-air missiles; two FAB-500 or four FAB-250 general purpose bombs under pylons, two incendiary ZB-500 napalm tanks, or external drop tanks on the inner apir of pylons.
The kit and its assembly
This model was inspired by a whif profile posted on whatifmodelers.com (not certain about the artist, though) some time ago: a Yak-38M in Indian Navy colors. I liked the idea of a foreign user, and India with its own carrier made a perfect candidate.
This project had been lingering for some time, until I came across a Yak-38M Tsukuda Hobby kit (Revell of USA re-boxing in a fantasy livery) and learned that OKB Yakovlev actually had many plans which would improve the type's potential - the "MP" variant had actually been on the drawing board, but never made it to the hardware stage. Unfortunately I was not able to find a sketch of the actual nose design for this project, I suppose that the real radome would have been bigger/fatter than my scratch conversion.
Anyway, from that base this whif kit was built. The Tsukuda Hobby kit is... wrong. In many ways, and fit is also rather poor. As an apology fot the designers, the kit has its origin in an era when the Yak-38 was only known from blurry pictures. Don't expect a "correct" model - 'clumsy' would be a good description. But the general appearance is O.K., and for a conversion the kit is just good enough. Anyway, if you want a good Yak-38, go for the Amodel kit!
There are many pitfalls to avoid on the Tsukuda kit. The cockpit is non-existent, the fin does not fit onto the fuselage shape, the front wheel is a joke, everything is rather solid and toy-like. I tried to remedy some of the se flaws with a new seat, a dashboard and a pilot figure, a completely new front wheel (from a MiG-21), and other minor conversions like lowered flaps, forward-canted lift engines, opened auxiliary blow-in-doors on the air intakes and new/finer antennae.
Another obvious major modification is the nose with its radome, donated from a Hasegawa F-4E. The resulting nose-up attitude and the overall shorter, less pointed profile changes the look of the Yak-38 completely. It reminds now much of a FRS.1 Sea Harrier, there's even some Buccaneer style to see? That new arrangement necessitated a new location for pitot and antennae, which were partly scratched.
In order to demonstrate the type's air-to-air capability I added a missile ordnance: a pair of R 77 "Adder" AAMs with their respective launch rails under the outer pylons. These come from an ICM aftermarket weapon set.
Painting and markings:
I used the aforementioned inspiring profile as benchmark. It shows an all-grey Yak-38M with some white areas like the flaps, rudders and the horizontal stabilizers. Unlike the late, grey Soviet/Russian Yak-38s the profile showed no darker lower tone on the undersides, but I nevertheless adopted that paint scheme, just with a lighter tone on the lower fuselage and under the wings, since I found the uniform grey to be too uninteresting.
I settled for Humbrol 165, Medium Sea Grey, as basic color for the upper surfaces. This appears as a good compromise between the profile and the real world's IN Sea Harriers, some of which actually carried this lighter tone for some time with a light grey underside (instead of the standard, RN-style [Extra] Dark Sea Grey and White). For the lower, lighter grey areas I used FS 36375, Ghost Grey (Humbrol 127).
These basic tones, esp. the upper surfaces, were later, after a black ink wash, considerably lightened through dry-brushing, in order to emphasize the panel lines and give the machine a worn and sun-bleached look.
The rudders were initially painted in a very light grey (Humbrol 196), leaving "room" for lighter shading with the dry-brushing technique in pure white. The radome was painted in Revell 47, a neutral grey, so that the radar nose cone became more obvious. This actually changed the whole look of the aircraft!
The cockpit was painted in Russian Cockpit Green, the landing gear and their respective wells in a mix of Aluminum and Khaki Drab (Humbrol 56 & 26, inspired by some IAF MiG-21bis' landing gears) - that's certainly not 'realistic', but I wanted to avoid ever more grey tones on the kit, and that brownish tone just fits well into the overall look)
National markings, codes and emblems come from a Model Alliance decal sheet for BAE Sea Harriers in RN and IN service. Some stencils were taken from the vast Yak-38M decal sheet from Begemot which I had in store for a different project - but it came in handy here, as the original Tsukuda Hobby/Revell sheet is ridiculous, only the white di-electric panels on the fin could be used.
All in all, I am amazed how much different the Indian markings make the Yak-38 look? Much like the profile that inspired this whif model, it seems like a natural livery for the type.
A bank of small lockers was custom color matched to the Viking range and wall mounted for storage of dishes, glasses and serving pieces.
The latest addition to the First Potteries fleet is Volvo B7TL/Alexander ALX 400 W217XBD (32057) which came from Leicester earlier this week to join recent arrivals and sister vehicles 32053-6 at Newcastle-under-Lyme depot. However as the four previous arrivals seem to have pushed four Olympians, including one of the famous 'G' reg Leyland examples out of service it sadly wouldn't be unreasonable to expect that the arrival of this one will displace the last Leyland - it was still parked with the 'in-service' buses today though. 32057 is seen leaving Newcastle-under-Lyme bus station bound for Hanley on a 25, 11/04/2014.
The most recent addition to the fleet at Nechells Power Station, well-known for its quartet of 18in cylinder Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns six-coupled tank locomotives that worked there until 1971, was this powerful 365hp Baguley-Drewry 0-6-0 diesel-hydraulic 'NE No.1' (W/No.3681 of 1972), seen there on 5th November 1976. It had replaced a four-coupled Andrew Barclay diesel-hydraulic on temporary loan from High Marnham Power Station. Despite its then recent build, it was scrapped on site in July 1984, rail traffic having ceased at the power station during 1982.
© Gordon Edgar - photographer Roy Burt - All rights reserved. Please do not use my images without my explicit permission
This pretty female House Sparrow seemed to be enjoying the latest addition to my garden today. As you will see below it's a small birdbath which I purchased recently and I'm using to soak mealworms in for the birds. I did this last year and it was a big success, especially with the young Blackbirds when they arrived : )
Project Name: Red Box
Project Type: 2 story addition to one story home
Location: Los Angeles, CA
Designer: Jeremy Levine Design
Coronation Maleficent has been freed from the spacer, but there are still some cleanup to do. I In addition to some remnants of the T-tabs to remove, there is also restraints in her hair. There is a rubber band around her hair behind her back, and her strand of hair in the front is sewn to her dress.
Maleficent has been removed from the backing, but is still attached a plastic spacer. There is also a plastic spacer that is loose between her back and her wings. Her head is tacked to the plastic spacer by T-tabs that I couldn't reach without removing the spacer from the backing. All the other packaging fasteners were cut loose. After I removed her from the backing, I laid her down next to it to continue the deboxing.
Deboxing the Royal Coronation Maleficent Doll by Tollytots/Jakks Pacific. Photographed in daylight, with additional flash lighting in some of the photos. It was easy to remove the clear plastic cover from the box, by cutting the tape around the edges, and lifting the tabs free from the cardboard. Behind Maleficent is a printed background from the movie, which is common to all the dolls in this series.
I just received the four available Jakks Pacific dolls from the Maleficent movie in single doll packages. I ordered them from Toys R Us on Friday night and got them Tuesday, with free shipping. I appreciated the quick shipping, compared to the Disney Store. The dolls are the following, with links to the TRU site. All the dolls are 12'' H. The Coronation dolls are $39.95 each, the other two are $19.95.
My hubby bought my this orchid to go with my first one he got me for Valantines Day. I've been trying to get a decent photo of it for a few weeks now, and havent had any luck. I realized yellow is a tough color to photograph against my pale walls, so i think this looks better:)
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
Airbus Helicopters Tiger, formerly known as the Eurocopter Tiger, is a four-bladed, twin-engined attack helicopter which first entered service in 2003. It is manufactured by Eurocopter (now Airbus Helicopters), the successor company to Aérospatiale's and DASA's respective helicopter divisions, which designate it as the EC665. In Germany and Australia it is known as the 'Tiger'; in France and Spain it is called the 'Tigre'. Finland, the youngest export customer, calls the EC665 'Tiikeri'.
Development of the Tiger started during the Cold War and it was initially intended as an anti-tank helicopter platform to be used against a Soviet ground invasion of Western Europe. During its prolonged development period the Soviet Union collapsed, but France and Germany chose to proceed with the Tiger, developing it instead as a multirole attack helicopter.
It achieved operational readiness in 2008 and since the type's introduction to service, Tigers have been used in combat in Afghanistan, Libya, and Mali.
The Tiger has the distinction of being the first all-composite helicopter developed in Europe. Even the earliest models also incorporate other advanced features such as a glass cockpit, stealth technology and high agility to increase its survivability. The Tiger has a tandem-seat cockpit and is operated by a two-man crew; the pilot is placed in the forward position, with the gunner seated behind.
Either of the crew members can manage the weapon systems or the primary flight controls, switching roles if necessitated.
In addition to flying the aircraft, the Tiger's pilot would typically be in control of the self-defense systems and communications, as well as some secondary weapon functions.
Amongst the Tiger's notable qualities, it possesses very high levels of agility, much of which is attributed to the design of its 13-meter four-bladed hinge-less main rotor; the Tiger can perform full loops and negative g manoeuvres. Power is provided by a pair of FADEC-controlled MTU Turbomeca Rolls-Royce MTR390 turboshaft engines.
Finland is only a small operator of the helicopter. The type’s procurement for the country’s army came as a surprise, even though it is part of the thorough modernization program of the Finnish Army and its equipment.
This modernization program started in October 2001 when Finland signed a contract for 20 NH90 TTHs for the Finnish Army to replace their ageing fleet of Mil Mi-8 helicopters from 2004 onwards.
NH 90 deliveries became delayed, though, and in the meantime the tactical potential of an additional, dedicated combat helicopter was assessed and positively evaluated. One of the major factors that led to the Tiger’s purchase was the fact that Finland participated in nearly all sub-areas of NATO’s Partnership for Peace program and had for example provided peacekeeping forces to both the Afghanistan and Kosovo missions. The possibility of Finland's membership in NATO was one of the most important political issues and continues to be a prominent issue in Finnish politics.
Within the Finnish Army the EC665 is regarded as an armed complement to the new NH90 transport helicopters. An initial order for eight EC-665s was placed in 2004, including an option for eight more, at estimated costs of €27m/unit.
The Finnish variant was optimized for the anti-tank and fire support role, but also capable of armed reconnaissance and artillery spotting. Its avionics and sensor suite was not as sophisticated as other nations’ variants, but still built around existing state-of-the-art equipment and tailored to the Finnish needs.
Amongst the key avionics features of the helicopter are the EUROGRID battlefield management and map display systems, integrated communications (HF/VHM/FM radio and satellite) and data transfer links, a high-authority digital automatic flight control system, and redundant MIL 1553 data buses. Two redundant mission computers control the weapons, sensors, and targeting functions. The Tiger's navigational suite includes GPS, dual-redundant inertial referencing, Doppler radar, separated air data units, radio altimeter and distributed air speed sensors.
The most significant single avionics system fitted upon the Finnish Tiger is the mast-mounted OSIRIS sight/sensor. This incorporates optical TV and thermal cameras, a laser range finder/tracker/designator, and multiple gyroscopes for stabilization. OSIRIS performs as the main sensor for target observation and acquisition, providing firing and targeting data via the weapons computer. Furthermore, OSIRIS also enables entirely passive target acquisition to be undertaken, greatly reducing the risk of enemy detection.
Each crew member has a pair of multifunction liquid-crystal data displays at their control station, typically used to display internal systems information and sensory data, and to interact with the aircraft's higher systems. An additional display system is available to both crew in the form of the helmet-mounted display (HMD). The HMD is used by the flying pilot to display basic flight data with digitally enhanced optics, such as night vision or infrared imagery from the sensors, superimposed against; the gunner can use the HMD to interact with and control on-board weapon systems and view targeting data.
The 'Tiikeri' can operate during day or night in all-weather conditions, and has been designed to include operations in the aftermath of nuclear, biological, or chemical warfare. It can even be used in the maritime environment, able to operate from the decks of ships including frigates and during extreme weather conditions.
The Tiger is capable of equipping various armaments including rockets, cannon, and a range of air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, controlled via a dedicated weapons control computer. The Finnish variant’s main armament is the AGM-114 ‘Hellfire’ missile, up to sixteen of these weapons can be carried. Other munitions for anti-ground warfare include an assortment of external gun pods and up to four launchers for 70mm and 68mm rockets, all to be mounted under the Tiger's stub-wings. A nose-mounted Nexter turret with a GIAT 30 mm gun is also available.
In March 2008, EC665 deliveries began, together with the delayed NH90s. To minimize further delay, aircraft were first delivered to an Initial Operational Configuration (IOC-) and Nearly Operational Configuration (IOC+), to be later modified by Patria into a Final Operational Configuration (FOC). In parallel, initial pilot training and conversion had been conducted at the Franco-German pilot training school at Le Luc in Provence. Operational status of the first batch was achieved in early 2009, and delivery of the second batch started in 2010.
In June 2011, six Finnish EC665 participated in the Finnish Defense Forces' main field exercise, escorting NH90 troop transports; their performance was described as having exceeded expectations.
General characteristics
Crew: Two (pilot and weapon systems officer)
Length: 14.08 m fuselage (46 ft 2 in)
Rotor diameter: 13.00 m (42 ft 8 in)
Height: 3.83 m (12 ft 7 in)
Disc area: 133 m² (1,430 ft²)
Internal fuel capacity: 1,080 kg (2,380 lb)
Empty weight: 3,060 kg (6,750 lb)
Loaded weight: 5,090 kg (11,311 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 6,000 kg (13,000 lb)
Powerplant:
2× MTU Turbomeca Rolls-Royce MTR390 turboshafts, 958 kW (1.303 shp) each
Performance:
Maximum speed: 290 km/h (157 knots, 181 mph)
Range: 800 km (430 nm, 500 mi) in combat configuration
1,300km with external tanks in the inboard stations
Service ceiling: 4,000 m (13,000 ft)
Rate of climb: 10.7 m/s (2,105 ft/min)
Power/mass: 0.23 hp/lb (0.38 kW/kg)
Armament:
1× 30 mm (1.18 in) GIAT 30 cannon in chin turret, with up to 450 rounds.
Four stub wing hardpoints for e.g. 20 mm (0.787 in) autocannon pods, 68 mm (2.68 in) SNEB or
70 mm (2.75 in) Hydra 70 unguided rockets pods or starters with 4x AGM-114 Hellfire missiles
The kit and its assembly:
This whiffy Tiger helicopter was (again) inspired by a CG side profile by fellow users nighthunter & Darth Panda at whatifmodelers.com. The model is more or less a hardware recreation of this profile on the basis of the Italeri kit.
The Italeri kit itself ain’t bad, but it has raised details and fit, esp. around the engines and the rotor mast, is rather dubious. Anyway, it was built more or less OOB, the only changes are the added pilot figures (Hobby Master pygmies), other antennae and the different armament. The Hellfires and their racks come from an Italeri AH-64, the small six-shot rocket pods belong to a Revell G.91 and actually contain unguided air-to-air rockets. Another modification is the use of the OOB French chin turret implanted under the German nose with a scratched mount, a scratched IR jammer and a pair of chaff/flare dispensers on the stub wings’ upper sides (AH-1 style, scratched, too). Internally, a vertical styrene tube in the kit’s CG offers an attachment point for an iron wire holder (for the beauty pics).
The model is not a 100% match with the CG benchmark, but the most important and obvious elements are there.
Painting and markings:
CG profiles are, like print colors, always hard to interpret, and this case was no different. nighthunter’s profile shows the Tiger in a tricolor paint scheme with two greens and black. These could be the German colors (which are actually used on the Finnish NH90 transporters, RAL 6003, FS 34079 and RAL 7021), but then the typical German Tiger camouflage pattern would not match, the CG profile rather shows the French pattern. Alternatively, the colors could be those from contemporary Finnish Army ground vehicles carry, but these carry a splinter scheme.
I decided to combine both options, using the original, organic wraparound pattern in French style and use the Finnish Army colors. I could not find official descriptions of the latter, so I improvised, using several vehicle pics as reference.
Choice of colors was not easy: my basic tones are Revell 45 (RAL 7003 ‘Moosgrau’, a kind of dark variant of RLM 02), FS 34096 (very close to the typical Finnish WWII olive green) and the German RAL 7021, a very dark grey. The greens appear rather light and pale, but I wanted the more greyish look and a strong contrast to the dark grey.
The interior as well as the rotor blades were painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), the latter with orange tips.
After the basic painting process a black ink wash was applied, and panels were shaded with lighter tones, including RLM 02 and FS 37066 from ModelMaster as well as Humbrol 105. As usual, everything was done with brushes.
Decals came next. The national markings are 1:144 aftermarket roundels and the tactical code was created from single letters and numbers from TL Modellbau. The few warning stencils etc. were taken from the OOB sheet and from the scrap box.
After that, the kit was carefully and only slightly rubbed with grinded graphite on a soft cotton cloth, in order to emphasize the fine, raised surface details. Finally, the kit was sealed under a coat of matt acrylic varnish.
The paint scheme ended up lighter than expected, but the result looks IMHO good and has that special “Finnish Touch”. It’s also relatively close to the CG profile that inspired it, a quick and rather smooth build.
Go to the Book with image in the Internet Archive
Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 6, Nos. 1-4, 1912
Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Publisher:
Sponsor:
Contributor:
Date: 1912
Language: eng
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Table of Contents</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 1</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface v</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The medical man and vital statistics, by J. D. Gatewood 1</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A plea for more liberal nomenclature for the Naval Medical Service, by A.
W. Dunbar 22</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Acid fast bacilli in the circulating blood of lepers, by G. B. Crow 26</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The tenth convention of the second Hague conference of 1907, and its
relation to the evacuation of the wounded in naval warfare, by F. L. Pleadwell (second
paper) 34</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A study of 3,268 venereal prophylactic treatments, by R. C. Holcomb and
D. C. Gather 52</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A year's experience in venereal prophylaxis on board the U. S. S.
Georgia, July 1, 1910-June 30, 1911, by C. L. Moran 60</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The recent advances in the prophylaxis and treatment of typhoid fever, by
M. W. Baker 62</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">United States Medical School laboratories:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The Naval Medical School collections, by P. E. Garrison 69</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the helminthological collection, United States Naval
Medical School, September-November, 1911 72</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the pathological collection, United States Naval Medical School,
September-November, 1911 72</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Modification in shoe for prevention of blisters on the heel, by W. S.
Sims. . 73</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An improved cot for hospital ships and sick bays aboard ship, by E. M. Blackwell
73</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Umbilical hernia, by H. F. Strine 76</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of a case resembling gangosa in which treponema pertenuis was present,
by P. S. Rossiter 78</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Bunion operations, by A. M. Fauntleroy 79</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Late positive Wassermann in syphilis and tuberculosis, by W. B. Grove.
... 81</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Salvarsan in frambcesia, by G. F. Cottle<span> </span><span> </span>82</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Salvarsan in filariasis, by G. F. Cottle 84</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Current comment:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The twentieth annual meeting of the Association of Military Surgeons.
... 89</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The ninth international Red Cross conference 90</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Typhoid fever 91</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Yellow fever at Honolulu 92</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Opening of the Naval Hospital, Great Lakes training station, <span> </span><span> </span>92</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences: </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine. —Pulmonary tuberculosis, experiences with, during
last year; possible infectious origin of pernicious anemia; differential diagnosis
in albuminuria; observations on urine of marathon runners; alcohol in dermal
therapeutics; baldness and its cures; relationship of syphilis and
tuberculosis; present status of salvarsan therapeutics; effect of salvarsan upon
the heart; utilization of Wassermann reaction in the Navy; possible specific
treatment of diabetes mellitus; bromidrosis and hyperidrosis</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">of the feet; by A. W. Dunbar and J. L. Neilson 93</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery. —Open treatment of transverse fracture of femoral shaft; cure
of prostatic obstruction; organization at main battle dressing station; by R.
Spear 107</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation. — A strength and endurance test; dangers to
health from automobile engine gases; decomposing power of bacteria in water; epidemic
due to Gartner bacillus; bacteriological investigation of ice cream in Boston;
emergency rations; accidents of decompression; merits of low protein diet;
concerning particles of albuminous substance in exhaled air; influence of
storage and preservatives upon dissolved oxygen in waters; bacteriological
examinations of oysters; by H. G.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Beyer and C.N. Fiske 113</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine. — Preliminary report on method of preventing pernicious
malaria; recent advances in knowledge of sleeping sickness; experiments on the
cause of beriberi; action of quinine, salvarsan and atoxyl on Plasmodium
prrecox in canary birds; relationship between Gl. Morsitans and sleeping
sickness; by E. R. Stitt 124</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology. —Detection of tubercle bacilli in sputum; method
of infection in pneumonic plague; study of arteritis of syphilitic origin;
isolation of typhoid, paratyphoid and dysentery bacilli; bacteriological
examination of stools in quarantine protection against cholera; local
production of antibodies; by M. E. Higgins 130</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology.—Etiology of pellagra, by P. E. Garrison 136</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy. —Determination of arsenic in urine after administering
salvarsan; method for detection of salvarsan; method for estimation of gastric
acidity; absorption of chloroform and other chlorinated hydrocarbons by men and
animals; by E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge... 136</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Eye, ear, nose, and throat. —Acute nephritis following acute tonsillitis;
when to remove tonsils and what operation to be used; recent contributions to
knowledge of sympathetic ophthalmia; protest against indiscriminate use of
organic compounds of silver in ophthalmic practice; two cases of iritis treated
with salvarsan ; a quick and easy method for removal of eyeball; by E. M. Shipp
138</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Sanitary report on Hampton Roads, Norfolk, and vicinity, by G. A. Lung.
149</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Recent pellagra clinic at Columbia, S. C, by P. E. Garrison 152</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A visit to the Finsen Institute, by R. B. Williams 157</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 2</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface vi</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Lead poisoning from inhalation of red-lead laden dust. The possible frequency
of lead encephalopathy in such cases, by E. R. Stitt 161</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Loss of life by drowning in naval warfare, by T. W. Richards 166</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Etiology of gangosa, based upon complement fixation, by E. P. Halton. .
. 190</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Further observations on the insane of the Navy, by Heber Butts 193</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Roaches and their extermination by the use of sodium fluorid, by M. F. Gates
212</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The prophylaxis of boils, by E. W. Phillips 214</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Extract from sanitary report, U. S. S. Washington, by J. H. Iden 215</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Comment, by J. D. Gatewood 216</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Damage table for physical disability in the United States Navy, 1910. International
nomenclature, by C. N. Fiske 217</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Indications for intubation and tracheotomy, by G. B. Trible 219</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on methods of administration of and results obtained from
"salvarsan." Based upon the treatment of over 200 cases of syphilis
at the naval hospital, Mare Island, Cal., by J. A. Biello 221</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Method used at naval hospital, Chelsea, Mass., by F. M. Furlong 225</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Method used at naval hospital, Norfolk, Va., by W. M. Garton 225</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Method used at naval hospital, New York, N. Y., by C. M. Oman 226</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Distribution of tubercle bacilli in the sputa of tuberculous patients,
by R. W. King 227</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">United States Naval Medical School laboratories:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Specimens added to the helminthological collection, December, 1911-February,
1912 229</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Specimens added to the pathological collection, December,
1911-February, 1912 231</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Miscellaneous collection, December, 1911-February, 1912 231</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An incubator for gelatine cultures, by F. L. Letts 233</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of a case of perforation of the sigmoid by an ulcer, in a case
of dysentery (Flexner-Strong), by Raymond Spear and M. E. Higgins 235</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Plastic operation of lip, by R. A. Bachmann 236</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Removal of entire fibula, by J. L. Neilson 236</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Frontal sinusitis, followed by double mastoiditis; operations, by G. B.
Trible 239 </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">"Salvarsan " in syphilis, leprosy, and yaws, by W. M. Kerr
240</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Two surgical cases occurring on the U. S. S. South Carolina, by R. B. Williams
242</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">1. Abscess of prostate, gangrene of scrotum, pyemia, death.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">2. Tonsillitis; tonsillectomy, acute nephritis, uremia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgical cases from the naval hospital, Norfolk, Va., by H. F. Strine
243</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">1. Lacerated kidney, nephrectomy.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">2. Gastro-enterostomy.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">3. Cholecystocolostomy; external biliary fistula; stricture of common duct.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">4. Multiple abscess of liver.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Editorial comment:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Yellow fever on the Yorktown, by C. F. Stokes 249</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The Naval Medical Bulletin 260</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hospital ships 250</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Paresis and "line of duty " 253</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine. — Relation of so-called Brill's disease to typhus
fever. Diagnostic importance of hemoptysis. Acute dilatation of the stomach in
pneumonia. Reaction induced by antityphoid vaccination, by A. W. Dunbar and J.
L. Neilfon 255</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery. —Organization of the medical service at the main dressing
station in battle, by H. G. Beyer. The error of overlooking ureteral or renal stones
under the diagnosis of appendicitis. The incision for lumbar</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">exposure of the kidney. Iodine as the sole dressing for operation
wounds. A review of recent methods for the radical cure of hernia. Studies in peritoneal
adhesions. The surgical treatment of colitis, by Raymond Spear and C. M. Oman
259</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation. —A symposium on the effects of athletics on
young men, by J. L. Neilson. Mosquito larvicides, by E. R. Stitt. Sur une cause
possible du gout empyreumatique de l'eau de boisson a bord des navires de
guerre, by C. L. Moran. Organic matter in expired air. Tests for freshness of
milk, by E. W. Brown. Experiments in book disinfection. The purification of
water by anhydrous chlorine. Oral hygiene (preliminary contribution on the care
of the mouth). On the survival of specific microorganisms in pupae and imagines
of musca domestica raised from experimentally infected larvae : Experiments
with B. typhosus. On the varieties of B. coli associated with the house fly, by
C. N. Fiske. 271</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine. —A few words on the distribution of smallpox,
tuberculosis, and typhoid in the tropics. Do mosquitoes require blood as
nourishment in the development of their eggs? By E. R. Stitt 279</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology. —An attempt to differentiate the
diphtheroid group of organisms. The period of infectivity of the blood of
measles; an experimental demonstration of the presence of the virus of measles
in the mixed buccal and nasal secretions; the nature of the virus of measles; the
infectivity of the secretions and disquamating scales of measles. A new
conception of immunity. Complement in human serum, by M. E. Higgins 281</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology. —A comparative study of the ameba in the Manila water supply,
in the intestinal tract of healthy persons and in amebic dysentery. The Rocky
Mountain spotted fever tick, with special reference to the problems of its
control in Bitter Root Valley, Montana, by P. B. Garrison 283</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy. —Some considerations on the absorption and excretion
of drugs. Detection of albumoses in urine. Estimation of free HC1 in gastric
contents by capillary method. Detection of albumin in urine by Merck's tablets.
Estimation of acetone in animal liquids. New test for bile in urine. Method for
determining formaldehyde. Indirect method for determining total volume of
gastric contents, by E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge 286</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Eye, ear, nose, and throat.—Abscess of the nasal septum. Observations upon
the treatment of gonorrheal conjunctivitis in the adult, by E. M. Shipp 291</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters: </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Yellow fever occurring on board the U. S. S. Yorktown at Guayaquil, Ecuador,
extracts from a report on cases of, by C. B. Camerer 295</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on military surgery at Foochow, China, by J. G. Omelvena 300</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Notes on Camp Meyer, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, by L. W. Johnson 303</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special report on the general surgical department, Naval Hospital,
Norfolk, Va. Anesthesia. Prophylaxis of wound infection. Appendicitis. Post-operative
treatment, by H. F. Strine 305</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">American Public Health Association meeting (abstract of report on), by W.
H. Short 309</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 3</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface v</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Leprosy, with notes on, and illustrations of the cases as they occurred
in the Tumon Leper Colony, Guam, Marianas, during the months of October and
November, 1911, by W. M. Kerr, assistant surgeon, United States Navy 313</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Photographs of lepers, by G. F. Cottle, passed assistant surgeon,
United States Navy 342</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Vision in relation to marksmanship, by E. J. Grow, surgeon, United States
Navy 344</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Technique of a Wassermann test in which guinea-pig complement is not required;
Emery technique; Noguchi reagents, by E. R. Stitt, medical inspector, United
States Navy 362</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Some minor sanitary defects in modern battleships, and their correction,
by F. L. Pleadwell, surgeon, United States Navy 309</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additional report of cases with unusual symptoms caused by contact with
some unknown variety of jelly fish, by E. H. Old, passed assistant surgeon,
United States Navy 377</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The effects of high temperature on the personnel of the fire rooms of
naval vessels with special reference to heat cramps (myalgia thermica), by W.
L. Mann, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 380</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Detection of methyl alcohol, by C. Schaffer, hospital steward, United States
Navy 392</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">United States Naval Medical School laboratories:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the helminthological collection 395</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the pathological collection 395</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the miscellaneous collection 396</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices: </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A bunk locker, a tray, and a bracket stool for use in sick bays and
wards of hospital ships, by E. M. Blackwell, surgeon, United States Navy 397</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A method for use in opsonic index work and vaccine standardization, by R.
E. Weaver, hospital steward, United States Navy 398</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A note on a case of fish poisoning in Guam, by W. M. Kerr, assistant
surgeon, United States Navy 401</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Two cases of climatic bubo, by E. W. Phillips, assistant surgeon,
United States Navy 402</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Rupture of the left kidney (nephrectomy), by A. M. Fauntleroy, surgeon,
United States Navy 404</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Abscess of the liver in a young infant, by F. E. Sellers, passed
assistant surgeon, United States Navy 405</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Appendectomy on a haemophiliac, by B. F. Jenness, passed assistant surgeon.
United States Navy 407</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Editorial comment: </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">New accounting system at naval hospitals, by Surg. Gen. C. F. Stokes, United
States Navy 411</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The relations of the American National Red Cross with the Medical
Department of the Navy in war 413</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine. — Physical exercise and blood pressure. On the
identity of typhus fever and Brill's disease. Studies on the virus of typhus,
by A. W. Dunbar and J. L. Neilson 417</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery.— The prevention and treatment of ventral hernia. Technique and
remote results of vascular anastomoses. Accidents and deaths from exploratory
puncture of the pleura. The control of bleeding in brain operations. Surgical
pathology of the stomach and duodenum, by R. Spear and C. M. Oman 421</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation.— The physiological influence of ozone.
Influence of benzine, toluene, and light and heavy "benzines" on the
organism, by E. W. Brown. Disinfection experiments with perautan and paragan. A
new and rapid method of bacteriological water examination, its applicability to
the testing of filtered and well water. A mosquito larvacide disinfectant and
the methods of its standardization. The sterilization of milk bottles with
calcium hypochlorite. Apyrexial malaria carriers, by H. G. Beyer and O. N.
Kiske 431</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine. — Cell-inclusions in the blood of a case of
blackwater fever. The estimation of the specific gravity of the blood and its
value in the treatment of cholera, by E. R. Stitt 436</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology.— A study of 35 strains of streptococci
isolated from samples of milk, by C. N. Fiske. Method for the quantitative determination
of fecal bacteria, by E. W. Brown. Pure cultivation of</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">spirochieta refringens, by M. E. Higgins 438</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy. —On the diagnostic value of colloidal nitrogen
in the urine in cases of carcinoma. Determination of the quantity of residual
urine. Clarification of the urine in the estimation of sugar. On the excretion
of formaldehyde, ammonia, and hexamethylenamine. Organic compounds of the
aromatic series as cholagogucs, by E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge 439</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Eye, ear, nose, and throat. — An operation for glaucoma. Notes from an Indian
eye clinic. In the report from the St. Louis Ophthalmological Society in a
discussion on the antiseptic and germicidal properties of the silver salts.
Notes of three cases illustrating infection of the accessory sinuses by entry
of water into the nose during bathing. Three cases of chronic suppurative
otitis media, by G. B. Trible 441</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An account of the sinking of the Japanese battleship Hatsuse in the
late Russo-Japanese war, by F. L. Pleadwell, surgeon, United States Navy.. 447</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Organization, camp management, and sanitation in effect at the marine barracks,
Camp Elliott, Isthmus Canal Zone, Panama, April 15, 1910, to February 26, 1912,
by S. D. Butler, major, United States Marine Corps.. 458</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Sanitary conditions in Samoa, by R. U. Reed, passed assistant surgeon, United
States Navy 462</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Sanitary conditions in Guam, by C. P. Kindleberger, surgeon, United
States Navy 464</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 4</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface v</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A description of recent hospital construction in the United States
Navy, by A. W. Dunbar, surgeon, United States Navy 473</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A few general principles of hospital construction, by F. W. Southworth,
S. B., architect 523</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Ventilation of warships, by R. H. Robinson, naval constructor, United States
Navy 529</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Plans and description of a hospital ship for the United States Navy, by
E. M. Blackwell, surgeon, United States Navy 539</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A report on the prevalence of framboesia (yaws) in Guam, and its
connection with the etiology of gangosa, by W. M. Kerr, assistant surgeon,
United States Navy 549</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Diagnosis and dosage in hookworm cases in the Navy, by J. F. Leys,
surgeon, United States Navy 552</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Nitrous oxide-oxygen anesthesia, by H. F. Strine, surgeon, United
States Navy 555</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A theoretical discussion of the character and genesis of thermic
myospasms, with further observations on myalgia thermica, by W. L. Mann, passed
assistant surgeon. United States Navy 558</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Eight hundred and twenty complement-fixation tests on 461 patients, by E.
P. Huff, passed assistant surgeon. United States Navy 562</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">United States Naval Medical School laboratories:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the helminthological collection 575</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the pathological collection 575</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Additions to the miscellaneous collection 575</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A simple method of securing shelf-bottle stoppers during target
practice, by H. S. Coombs, hospital apprentice, first class. United States
Navy. . . . 577</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The rat guard used in the Philippine Islands, by C. Fox, passed assistant
surgeon, United States Public Health Service 577</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Case reports from the United States naval hospital, Philadelphia, by G.
B. Crow, L. W. Johnson, A. J. Toulon, and C. W. Smith, passed assistant surgeons,
United States Navy 579</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of very large stone in kidney without acute symptoms.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pneumonia following an injury.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The effect of salvarsan on the average number of sick days from
syphilis.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of extensive adenocarcinoma.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of exceptionally severe syphilitic Irido-cyclltis with marked
changes in the interior of the eye and total loss of light perception.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An interesting case of gunshot wound, by J. M. Minter, passed assistant
surgeon, United States Navy<span> </span>584</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Fracture of humerus by muscular action, by R. G . Davis, assistant
surgeon, United States Navy 585</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Editorial comment :</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Participation of Medical Officers in Professional Conferences 587</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Sight tests for seamen 588</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Recent legislation affecting the Medical Department of the Navy 589</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Naval Hospital Corps 590</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine. —Bier's hypersemic treatment in gonorrhceal epididymitis,
by C. N . Fiske. Normal human blood serum in obstetric practice. The cutaneous
reaction of syphilis. Clinical experience with neosalvarsan. By A. W. Dunbar
and J. L. Neilson 591</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery. — Local anesthesia in traumatic surgery. Surgery of the bile
ducts. Vanadium steel bone plates and screws. Observations on the diagnosis of
renal tuberculosis, the indications for nephrectomy in its treatment, and the
technic of the operation. Pyloroplasty. By R. Spear and C. M. Oman 596</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation. —Notes on the ventilation of troopships in the Tropics.
The structure and functions of the foot. By H. G. Beyer and C. N. Fiske 608</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine. — The antineuritic bases of vegetable origin in
relation to beriberi, with a method of isolation of torulin, the antineuritic
base of yeast, by J. L. Neilson 609</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology. —Double-stain method for the polar bodies
of diphtheria bacilli, by O. G. Huge. The examination of diphtheria specimens;
a new technique in staining with toluidin blue. A critical</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">study of the organisms cultivated from the lesions of human leprosy,
with a consideration of their etiological significance. By M. E. Higgins 611</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology. — Trypanosoma rhodesiense, a second species of
trypanosome producing sleeping sickness in man, by J. L. Neilson 612</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy.— Studies in bacterial metabolism, by C. N. Fiske.
The definition of normal urine. The estimation of indican in urine. A new
method for the determination of total nitrogen in urine.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">On the determination of ammonia in urine. By E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge
613</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Eye, ear, nose, and throat. —Tonsillectomy with consideration of its
complications. Protargol in antisepsis of the visual apparatus. The trachoma
question. Keratitis as a cause of myopia. By G. B. Trible 617</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Fourth Provisional Regiment, United States Marines, Camp Thomas, North
Island, San Diego, Cal., by R. E. Hoyt, passed assistant surgeon, United States
Navy 623</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Marine Expeditionary Force, Pekin, China, by R. B. Henry, assistant surgeon,
United States Navy 632</p>
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The lower part of the building was constructed in 1925 and originally a garage. It was owned by Olof Asklund Bakery (the bakery was situated in the adjacent block).
The new building with apartments on top was constructed in the year 2000. It is a tenant-owners' society (named "Brf Kastellgatan 21") with 33 apartments in this building plus another building in the yard. There are now 11 parking spaces in the garage, all with charging stations for electric cars.
Architects: Stjernberg Hultén Ehrenborg Arkitekter AB.
www.sha.se (website in Swedish)
This customer wanted a single story family room added to their ranch home. Vaulted ceilings and large windows make this space large and full of light.
Picture taken 1983 - digitally captured from paper print
__________________________________________
The orangutans (also spelled orang-utan, orangutang, or orang-utang) are the two exclusively Asian species of extant great apes. Native to Indonesia and Malaysia, orangutans are currently found in only the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were considered to be one species. Since 1996, they have been divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (P. pygmaeus) and the Sumatran orangutan (P. abelii). In addition, the Bornean species is divided into three subspecies.
Based on genome sequencing, the two extant orangutan species evidently diverged around 400,000 years ago. The orangutans are also the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which also included several other species, such as the three extinct species of the genus Gigantopithecus, including the largest known primate Gigantopithecus blacki. The ancestors of the Ponginae subfamily split from the main ape line in Africa 16 to 19 million years ago (mya) and spread into Asia.
Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes and spend most of their time in trees. Their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typical of chimpanzees and gorillas. Males and females differ in size and appearance. Dominant adult males have distinctive cheek pads and produce long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals. Younger males do not have these characteristics and resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes, with social bonds occurring primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring, who stay together for the first two years. Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan's diet; however, the apes will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and even bird eggs. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates; they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations. Field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Birutė Galdikas. Both orangutan species are considered to be endangered, with the Sumatran orangutan being critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in the populations and ranges of both species. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching, habitat destruction, and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild.
ETYMOLOGY
The name "orangutan" (also written orang-utan, orang utan, orangutang, and ourang-outang) is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words orang meaning "person" and hutan meaning "forest", thus "person of the forest". Orang Hutan was originally not used to refer to apes, but to forest-dwelling humans.
The Malay words used to refer specifically to the ape are maias and mawas, but it is unclear if those words refer to just orangutans, or to all apes in general. The first attestation of the word to name the Asian ape is in Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius' 1631 Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis – he reported that Malays had informed him the ape was able to talk, but preferred not to "lest he be compelled to labour". The word appeared in several German-language descriptions of Indonesian zoology in the 17th century. The likely origin of the word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay.
Cribb et al. (2014) suggest that Bontius' account referred not to apes (which were not known from Java) but rather to humans suffering some serious medical condition (most likely endemic cretinism) and that his use of the word was misunderstood by Nicolaes Tulp, who was the first to use the term in a publication.
The word was first attested in English in 1691 in the form orang-outang, and variants with -ng instead of -n as in the Malay original are found in many languages. This spelling (and pronunciation) has remained in use in English up to the present, but has come to be regarded as incorrect. The loss of "h" in Utan and the shift from n to -ng has been taken to suggest that the term entered English through Portuguese. In 1869, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, co-creator of modern evolutionary theory, published his account of Malaysia's wildlife: The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise.
The name of the genus, Pongo, comes from a 16th-century account by Andrew Battell, an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in Angola, which describes two anthropoid "monsters" named Pongo and Engeco. He is now believed to have been describing gorillas, but in the 18th century, the terms orangutan and pongo were used for all great apes. Lacépède used the term Pongo for the genus following the German botanist Friedrich von Wurmb who sent a skeleton from the Indies to Europe.
TAXONOMY, PHYLOGENY AND GENETICS
The two orangutan species are the only extant members of the subfamily Ponginae. This subfamily also included the extinct genera Lufengpithecus, which lived in southern China and Thailand 2–8 mya, and Sivapithecus, which lived India and Pakistan from 12.5 mya until 8.5 mya. These apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today. Khoratpithecus piriyai, which lived in Thailand 5–7 mya, is believed to have been the closest known relative of the orangutans. The largest known primate, Gigantopithecus, was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, India and Vietnam from 5 mya to 100,000 years ago.
Within apes (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene (between 19.7 and 24.1 mya, according to molecular evidence) and the orangutans split from the African great ape lineage between 15.7 and 19.3 mya.
HISTORY OF ORANGUTAN TAXONOMY
The orangutan was first described scientifically in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus as Simia satyrus. The populations on the two islands were classified as subspecies until 1996, when they were elevated to full species status, and the three distinct populations on Borneo were elevated to subspecies. The population currently listed as P. p. wurmbii may be closer to the Sumatran orangutan than the other Bornean orangutan subspecies. If confirmed, abelii would be a subspecies of P. wurmbii (Tiedeman, 1808).
Regardless, the type locality of P. pygmaeus has not been established beyond doubts, and may be from the population currently listed as P. wurmbii (in which case P. wurmbii would be a junior synonym of P. pygmaeus, while one of the names currently considered a junior synonym of P. pygmaeus would take precedence for the northwest Bornean taxon). To further confuse, the name P. morio, as well as some suggested junior synonyms, may be junior synonyms of the P. pygmaeus subspecies, thus leaving the east Bornean populations unnamed.
In addition, some fossils described under the name P. hooijeri have been found in Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to P. pygmaeus or
P. abelii or, in fact, represent distinct species.
GENOMICS
The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011. Following humans and chimpanzees, the Sumatran orangutan has become the third species of hominid to have its genome sequenced. Subsequently, the Bornean species would have its genome sequenced. Genetic diversity was found to be lower in Bornean orangutans (P. pygmaeus) than in Sumatran ones (P. abelii), despite the fact that Borneo is home to six or seven times as many orangutans as Sumatra.
The comparison has shown these two species diverged around 400,000 years ago, more recently than was previously thought. Also, the orangutan genome was found to have evolved much more slowly than chimpanzee and human DNA. Previously, the species was estimated to have diverged 2.9 to 4.9 mya. The researchers hope these data may help conservationists save the endangered ape, and also prove useful in further understanding of human genetic diseases.
Bornean orangutans have 48 diploid chromosomes.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
An orangutan has a large, bulky body, a thick neck, very long, strong arms, short, bowed legs, and no tail. It is mostly covered with long, reddish-brown hair and grey-black skin. Sumatran orangutans have more sparse and lighter-coloured coats. The orangutan has a large head with a prominent mouth area. Though largely hairless, their faces can develop some hair in males, giving them a moustache.
Adult males have large cheek flaps to show their dominance to other males. The cheek flaps are made mostly of fatty tissue and are supported by the musculature of the face. Mature males' throat pouches allow them to make loud calls. The species display significant sexual dimorphism; females typically stand 115 cm tall and weigh around 37 kg, while flanged adult males stand 136 cm tall and weigh 75 kg. A male orangutan has an arm span of about 2 m.
Orangutan hands are similar to human hands; they have four long fingers and an opposable thumb. However, the joint and tendon arrangement in the orangutans' hands produces two adaptations that are significant for arboreal locomotion. The resting configuration of the fingers is curved, creating a suspensory hook grip. Additionally, without the use of the thumb, the fingers and hands can grip tightly around objects with a small diameter by resting the tops of the fingers against the inside of the palm, creating a double-locked grip.
Their feet have four long toes and an opposable big toe. Orangutans can grasp things with both their hands and their feet. Their fingers and toes are curved, allowing them to get a better grip on branches. Since their hip joints have the same flexibility as their shoulder and arm joints, orangutans have less restriction in the movements of their legs than humans have. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans are not true knuckle-walkers, and are instead fist-walkers.
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR
Orangutans live in primary and old secondary forests, particularly dipterocarp forests and peat swamp forests. Both species can be found in mountainous and lowland swampy areas. Sumatran orangutans live at elevations as high as 1500 m, while Bornean orangutans live no higher than 1000 m. Other habitats used by orangutans include grasslands, cultivated fields, gardens, young secondary forest, and shallow lakes. Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes, spending nearly all their time in the trees.Most of the day is spent feeding, resting, and travelling. They start the day feeding for 2–3 hours in the morning. They rest during midday then travel in the late afternoon. When evening arrives, they begin to prepare their nests for the night. Orangutans do not swim, although they have been recorded wading in water. The main predators of orangutans are tigers. Other predators include clouded leopards, wild dogs and crocodiles. The absence of tigers on Borneo may explain why Bornean orangutans can be found on the ground more often than their Sumatran relatives.
DIET
Orangutans are opportunistic foragers, and their diets vary markedly from month to month. Fruit makes up 65–90% of the orangutan diet, and those with sugary or fatty pulp are favoured. Ficus fruits are commonly eaten and are easy to harvest and digest. Lowland dipterocarp forests are preferred by orangutans because of their plentiful fruit. Bornean orangutans consume at least 317 different food items that include young leaves, shoots, bark, insects, honey and bird eggs.
A decade-long study of urine and faecal samples at the Gunung Palung Orangutan Conservation Project in West Kalimantan has shown that orangutans give birth during and after the high fruit season (though not every year), during which they consume various abundant fruits, totalling up to 11,000 calories per day. In the low-fruit season, they eat whatever fruit is available in addition to tree bark and leaves, with daily intake at only 2,000 calories. Together with a long lactation period, orangutans also have a long birth interval.
Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the climber species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine. It does not appear to have any effect on orangutans except for excessive saliva production.
Geophagy, the practice of eating soil or rock, has been observed in orangutans. There are three main reasons for this dietary behaviour: for the addition of mineral nutrients to their diet; for the ingestion of clay minerals that can absorb toxic substances; or to treat a disorder such as diarrhoea. Orangutans also use plants of the genus Commelina as an anti-inflammatory balm.
SOCIAL LIFE
Orangutans live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes. Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring. Adult males and independent adolescents of both sexes tend to live alone. Orangutan societies are made up of resident and transient individuals of both sexes. Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females, which may be their immediate relatives. One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male, who is their main mating partner.
Transient males and females move widely. Orangutans usually travel alone, but they may travel in small groups in their subadult years. However, this behaviour ends at adulthood. The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as solitary but social. Interactions between adult females range from friendly to avoidance to antagonistic. Resident males may have overlapping ranges and interactions between them tend to be hostile.
During dispersal, females tend to settle in home ranges that overlap with their mothers. However, they do not seem to have any special social bonds with them. Males disperse much farther from their mothers and enter into a transient phase. This phase lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant, resident male from his home range. Adult males dominate sub-adult males.
Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed. The fruits tend to be abundant, so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions. Orangutans will also form travelling groups with members moving between different food sources. These groups tend to be made of only a few individuals. They also tend to be consortships between an adult male and female.
COMMUNICATION
Orangutans communicate with various sounds. Males will make long calls, both to attract females and advertise themselves to other males. Both sexes will try to intimidate conspecifics with a series of low guttural noises known collectively as the "rolling call". When annoyed, an orangutan will suck in air through pursed lips, making a kissing sound that is hence known as the "kiss squeak". Infants make soft hoots when distressed. Orangutans are also known to blow raspberries.
NESTING
Orangutans build nests specialized for both day or night use. These are carefully constructed; young orangutans learn from observing their mother's nest-building behaviour. In fact, nest-building is a leading cause in young orangutans leaving their mother for the first time. From six months of age onwards, orangutans practice nest-building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old.
Construction of a night nest is done by following a sequence of steps. Initially, a suitable tree is located, orangutans being selective about sites though many tree species are used. The nest is then built by pulling together branches under them and joining them at a point. After the foundation has been built, the orangutan bends smaller, leafy branches onto the foundation; this serves the purpose of and is termed the "mattress". After this, orangutans stand and braid the tips of branches into the mattress. Doing this increases the stability of the nest and forms the final act of nest-building. In addition, orangutans may add additional features, such as "pillows", "blankets", "roofs" and "bunk-beds" to their nests.
REPRODUCTION AND PARENTING
Males mature at around 15 years of age, by which time they have fully descended testicles and can reproduce. However, they exhibit arrested development by not developing the distinctive cheek pads, pronounced throat pouches, long fur, or long-calls until they are between 15 and 20 years old. The development of these characteristics depends largely on the absence of a resident male.
Males without them are known as unflanged males in contrast to the more developed flanged males. The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur very quickly. Unflanged and flanged males have two different mating strategies. Flanged males attract oestrous females with their characteristic long calls. Those calls may also suppress development in younger males. Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one, will force copulation on her. While both strategies are successful, females prefer to mate with flanged males and seek their company for protection against unflanged males. Resident males may form consortships with females that can last days, weeks or months after copulation.
Female orangutans experience their first ovulatory cycle around 5.8–11.1 years. These occur earlier in females with more body fat. Like other great apes, female orangutans enter a period of infertility during adolescence which may last for 1–4 years. Female orangutans also have a 22– to 30-day menstrual cycle. Gestation lasts for 9 months, with females giving birth to their first offspring between the ages of 14 and 15 years.
Female orangutans have eight-year intervals between births, the longest interbirth intervals among the great apes. Unlike many other primates, male orangutans do not seem to practice infanticide. This may be because they cannot ensure they will sire a female's next offspring because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies.
Male orangutans play almost no role in raising the young. Females do most of the caring and socializing of the young. A female often has an older offspring with her to help in socializing the infant. Infant orangutans are completely dependent on their mothers for the first two years of their lives. The mother will carry the infant during travelling, as well as feed it and sleep with it in the same night nest. For the first four months, the infant is carried on its belly and never relieves physical contact. In the following months, the time an infant spends with its mother decreases.
When an orangutan reaches the age of two, its climbing skills improve and it will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans, a behaviour known as "buddy travel". Orangutans are juveniles from about two to five years of age and will start to temporarily move away from their mothers. Juveniles are usually weaned at about four years of age. Adolescent orangutans will socialize with their peers while still having contact with their mothers. Typically, orangutans live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
INTELLIGENCE
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates. Experiments suggest they can figure out some invisible displacement problems with a representational strategy. In addition, Zoo Atlanta has a touch-screen computer where their two Sumatran orangutans play games. Scientists hope the data they collect will help researchers learn about socialising patterns, such as whether the apes learn behaviours through trial and error or by mimicry, and point to new conservation strategies.
A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed orangutans can use "calculated reciprocity", which involves weighing the costs and benefits of gift exchanges and keeping track of these over time. Orangutans are the first nonhuman species documented to do so. Orangutans are very technically adept nest builders, making a new nest each evening in only in 5 to 6 minutes and choosing branches which they know can support their body weight.
TOOL USE AND CULTURE
Tool use in orangutans was observed by primatologist Birutė Galdikas in ex-captive populations. In addition, evidence of sophisticated tool manufacture and use in the wild was reported from a population of orangutans in Suaq Balimbing (Pongo abelii) in 1996. These orangutans developed a tool kit for use in foraging that consisted of both insect-extraction tools for use in the hollows of trees and seed-extraction tools for harvesting seeds from hard-husked fruit. The orangutans adjusted their tools according to the nature of the task at hand, and preference was given to oral tool use. This preference was also found in an experimental study of captive orangutans (P. pygmaeus).
Primatologist Carel P. van Schaik and biological anthropologist Cheryl D. Knott further investigated tool use in different wild orangutan populations. They compared geographic variations in tool use related to the processing of Neesia fruit. The orangutans of Suaq Balimbing (P. abelii) were found to be avid users of insect and seed-extraction tools when compared to other wild orangutans. The scientists suggested these differences are cultural. The orangutans at Suaq Balimbing live in dense groups and are socially tolerant; this creates good conditions for social transmission. Further evidence that highly social orangutans are more likely to exhibit cultural behaviours came from a study of leaf-carrying behaviours of ex-captive orangutans that were being rehabilitated on the island of Kaja in Borneo.
Wild orangutans (P. pygmaeus wurmbii) in Tuanan, Borneo, were reported to use tools in acoustic communication. They use leaves to amplify the kiss squeak sounds they produce. The apes may employ this method of amplification to deceive the listener into believing they are larger animals.
In 2003, researchers from six different orangutan field sites who used the same behavioural coding scheme compared the behaviours of the animals from the different sites. They found the different orangutan populations behaved differently. The evidence suggested the differences were cultural: first, the extent of the differences increased with distance, suggesting cultural diffusion was occurring, and second, the size of the orangutans' cultural repertoire increased according to the amount of social contact present within the group. Social contact facilitates cultural transmission.
POSSIBLE LINGUISTIC CAPABILITIES
A study of orangutan symbolic capability was conducted from 1973 to 1975 by zoologist Gary L. Shapiro with Aazk, a juvenile female orangutan at the Fresno City Zoo (now Chaffee Zoo) in Fresno, California. The study employed the techniques of psychologist David Premack, who used plastic tokens to teach linguistic skills to the chimpanzee, Sarah. Shapiro continued to examine the linguistic and learning abilities of ex-captive orangutans in Tanjung Puting National Park, in Indonesian Borneo, between 1978 and 1980.
During that time, Shapiro instructed ex-captive orangutans in the acquisition and use of signs following the techniques of psychologists R. Allen Gardner and Beatrix Gardner, who taught the chimpanzee, Washoe, in the late 1960s. In the only signing study ever conducted in a great ape's natural environment, Shapiro home-reared Princess, a juvenile female, which learned nearly 40 signs (according to the criteria of sign acquisition used by psychologist Francine Patterson with Koko, the gorilla) and trained Rinnie, a free-ranging adult female orangutan, which learned nearly 30 signs over a two-year period. For his dissertation study, Shapiro examined the factors influencing sign learning by four juvenile orangutans over a 15-month period.
ORANGUTANS AND HUMANS
Orangutans were known to the native people of Sumatra and Borneo for millennia. While some communities hunted them for food and decoration, others placed taboos on such practices. In central Borneo, some traditional folk beliefs consider it bad luck to look in the face of an orangutan. Some folk tales involve orangutans mating with and kidnapping humans. There are even stories of hunters being seduced by female orangutans.
Europeans became aware of the existence of the orangutan possibly as early as the 17th century. European explorers in Borneo hunted them extensively during the 19th century. The first accurate description of orangutans was given by Dutch anatomist Petrus Camper, who observed the animals and dissected some specimens.
Little was known about their behaviour until the field studies of Birutė Galdikas, who became a leading authority on the apes. When she arrived in Borneo, Galdikas settled into a primitive bark and thatch hut, at a site she dubbed Camp Leakey, near the edge of the Java Sea. Despite numerous hardships, she remained there for over 30 years and became an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat, which is rapidly being devastated by loggers, palm oil plantations, gold miners, and unnatural forest fires.
Galdikas's conservation efforts have extended well beyond advocacy, largely focusing on rehabilitation of the many orphaned orangutans turned over to her for care. Galdikas is considered to be one of Leakey's Angels, along with Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey. According to the World Wildlife Fund, half of the habitat of the Bornean orangutan has been lost since 1994.
A persistent folktale on Sumatra and Borneo and in popular culture, is that male orangutans display sexual attraction to human women, and may even forcibly copulate with them. The only serious, but anecdotal, report of such an incident taking place, is primatologist Birutė Galdikas' report that her cook was sexually assaulted by a male orangutan. This orangutan, though, was raised in captivity and may have suffered from a skewed species identity, and forced copulation is a standard mating strategy for low-ranking male orangutans.
A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation. She has been re-socialised to live with other orang-utans.
LEGAL STATUS
In December 2014, Argentina became the first country to recognize a non-human primate as having legal rights when it ruled that an orangutan named Sandra at the Buenos Aires Zoo must be moved to a sanctuary in Brazil in order to provide her "partial or controlled freedom". Although animal rights groups interpreted the ruling as applicable to all species in captivity, legal specialists considered the ruling only applicable to hominid apes due to their genetic similarities to humans.
CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Sumatran and Bornean species are both critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and both are listed on Appendix I of CITES.
The Bornean orangutan population declined by 60% in the past 60 years and is projected to decline by 82% over 75 years. Its range has become patchy throughout Borneo, being largely extirpated from various parts of the island, including the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk.
Sumatran orangutan populations declined by 80% in 75 years. This species is now found only in the northern part of Sumatra, with most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. In late March 2012, some of the last Sumatran orangutans in northern Sumatra were reported to be threatened with approaching forest fires and might be wiped out entirely within a matter of weeks.
Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7,300 Sumatran orangutans and between 45,000 and 69,000 Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2007 study by the Government of Indonesia noted a total wild population of 61,234 orangutans, 54,567 of which were found on the island of Borneo in 2004.
During the early 2000s, orangutan habitat has decreased rapidly due to logging and forest fires, as well as fragmentation by roads. A major factor in that period of time has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Palm oil is used for cooking, cosmetics, mechanics, and biodiesel. Hunting is also a major problem as is the illegal pet trade.
Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade, crop protection, or for use for traditional medicine. Orangutan bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets, and many of these infants die without the help of their mother. Since 2004, several pet orangutans were confiscated by local authorities and sent to rehabilitation centres.
CONSERVATION CENTRES AND ORGANISATIONS
A number of organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits. It is audited by a multinational auditor company and operates a number of large projects, such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Drøscher Nielsen.
Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park and Sebangau National Park in Central Kalimantan, Kutai in East Kalimantan, Gunung Palung National Park in West Kalimantan, and Bukit Lawang in the Gunung Leuser National Park on the border of Aceh and North Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre in Sarawak and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary near Sandakan in Sabah. Major conservation centres that are headquartered outside of the orangutan's home countries; include Frankfurt Zoological Society, Orangutan Foundation International, which was founded by Birutė Galdikas, and the Australian Orangutan Project.
Conservation organisations such as Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans. It works to bring different stakeholders together to achieve conservation of the species and its habitat.
WIKIPEDIA
Angkor Wat or "Capital Temple" is a temple complex in Cambodia and the largest religious monument in the world. It was first a Hindu and later a Buddhist temple. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura, present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum.
Breaking from the Shiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple, based on early Dravidian architecture, with key features such as the Jagati. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.
The modern name, Angkor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer; Angkor, meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor (នគរ), which comes from the Sanskrit word nagara (नगर). Wat is the Khmer word for "temple grounds" (Sanskrit: वाट vāṭa ""enclosure").
HISTORY
Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. It is in an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures. It is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.
According to one legend, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to act as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea.
According to the 13th century Chinese traveler Daguan Zhou, it was believed by some that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect. The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-C. 1150). Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished.
In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometers to the north.
In the late 13th century, Angkor Wat gradually moved from Hindu to Theravada Buddhist use, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned, its preservation being due in part to the fact that its moat also provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle.
One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese monk who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."
In the mid-19th century, the temple was visited by the French naturalist and explorer, Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:
"One of these temples - a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo - might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged."
Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple, and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from stylistic and epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole Angkor site. There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites. Instead there is the evidence of the monuments themselves.
Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century, mainly the removal of accumulated earth and vegetation. Work was interrupted by the civil war and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period other than the theft and destruction of mostly post-Angkorian statues.The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States and its neighbor Thailand. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and even transcultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937. Angkor Wat's aesthetics were also on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from C. 1880 to the mid-1920s. The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country that had been under Siamese (Thai) control since 1351 AD (Manich Jumsai 2001), or by some accounts, 1431 AD. Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time.
ARCHITECTURE
SITE AND PLAN
Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of the temple mountain, the standard design for the empire's state temples and the later plan of concentric galleries. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction - prasavya in Hindu terminology - as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.
A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.
STYLE
Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture - the Angkor Wat style - to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested. The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.
FEATURES
OUTER ENCLOSURE
The outer wall, 1024 by 802 m and 4.5 m high, is surrounded by a 30 m apron of open ground and a moat 190 m wide. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which may originally have occupied the temple's central shrine.Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres, which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.
CENTRAL STRUCTURE
The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu.
Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners, forming a quincunx with the central tower. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.
The outer gallery measures 187 by 215 m, with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (the "Hall of a Thousand Gods"). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water.
North and south of the cloister are libraries.
Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 by 115 m, and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru.
Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called the Bakan, is a 60 m square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m to a height of 65 m above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level.
DECORATION
Integrated with the architecture of the building, and one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these, "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".
From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hindu mythology.
On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras, and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice). It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst"). and a battle between the Hindu gods and asuras. The north-west and south-west corner pavilions both feature much smaller-scale scenes, some unidentified but most from the Ramayana or the life of Krishna. Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110 cm) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewelry and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
The stones, as smooth as polished marble, were laid without mortar with very tight joints that are sometimes hard to find. The blocks were held together by mortise and tenon joints in some cases, while in others they used dovetails and gravity. The blocks were presumably put in place by a combination of elephants, coir ropes, pulleys and bamboo scaffolding. Henri Mouhot noted that most of the blocks had holes 2.5 cm in diameter and 3 cm deep, with more holes on the larger blocks. Some scholars have suggested that these were used to join them together with iron rods, but others claim they were used to hold temporary pegs to help manoeuvre them into place. The monument was made out of millions of tonnes of sandstone and it has a greater volume as well as mass than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The Angkor Wat Temple consumes about 6 million to 10 million blocks of sandstone with an average weight of 1.5 tons each. In fact, the entire city of Angkor used up far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely half a km away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 km to the northeast. The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres along a canal towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres upstream and against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres. However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2012 a shorter 35-kilometre canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1000 square metres of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers. While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 m, this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labor force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artifacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.
ANGKOR WAT TODAY
The Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple between 1986 and 1992. Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has seen continued conservation efforts and a massive increase in tourism. The temple is part of the Angkor World Heritage Site, established in 1992, which has provided some funding and has encouraged the Cambodian government to protect the site. The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the devatas and other bas-reliefs which decorate the temple from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005. World Monuments Fund began conservation work on the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008 after several years of conditions studies. The project restored the traditional Khmer roofing system and removed cement used in earlier restoration attempts that had resulted in salts entering the structure behind the bas-relief, discoloring and damaging the sculpted surfaces. The main phase of work ended in 2012, and the final component will be the installation of finials on the roof of the gallery in 2013. Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat, Preah Khan, and the Bayon and West Prasat in Angkor. The dehydration and radiation resistant filamentous cyanobacteria can produce organic acids that degrade the stone. A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and external Preah Khan samples, while the alga Trentepohlia was found only in samples taken from external, pink-stained stone at Preah Khan. Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 2004 and 2005, government figures suggest that, respectively, 561.000 and 677.000 foreign visitors arrived in Siem Reap province, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia for both years. The site has been managed by the private SOKIMEX group since 1990, which rented it from the Cambodian government. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti; ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance - as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the whole Angkor site was spent on the temples - although most work is carried out by foreign government-sponsored teams rather than by the Cambodian authorities. Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organized seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism". Wanting to avoid commercial and mass tourism, the seminars emphasized the importance of providing high quality accommodation and services in order for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "Angkor Tourist City" which would be developed with regard to traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large amounts of tourists. The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for quality accommodations in the area, such as the development of a large highway, has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat. Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern over the charming nature and atmosphere of their town being compromised in order to entertain tourism. Since this charming local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture. At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, both parties have agreed Borobudur and Angkor Wat to become sister sites and the provinces will become sister provinces. Two Indonesian airlines are considering the opportunity to open a direct flight from Yogyakarta, Indonesia to Siem Reap.
WIKIPEDIA
Earth Designs Garden Design and Build were asked to created a landscape and propose garden design in Acton, London*. Here are the details of the project
Brief: The plot for this design was a mid-size family garden, which had recently benefited from the addition of a large sunroom on the back of the property. It was a fairly blank canvas, with nothing of note to be retained in the re-design. The garden had side access and worn boundary fences which required replacing. There was no clear brief other than that the design include a seating area and some lawn, and that the transition from sunroom to garden be fairly seamless.
Solution: The focus of this design was to create an exterior space that serves as an extension to the interior, featuring several distinct and versatile areas that can be adapted to a variety of uses.
The garden's boundaries were replaced with new fencing to provide a uniform and attractive backdrop to the transformation within, while the long sideway down the right of the house was renovated with the addition of attractive 'bamboo' slate tile flooring in a random lay pattern.
The first section of the space comprises a large area of Western Red Cedar decking adjoining the house, and offers ample room for entertaining, with a long L-shaped fixed-bench seat stretching width-ways across the space from the left-hand side to the centre. This was backed with a rendered block raised bed, planted with fragrant lavender and capped with 'bamboo' slate tile, to provide a sense of enclosure and separation from the rest of the garden.
A decked walkway running down the right hand side of the space provides access to a 'spa' area, featuring a large square hot tub housed upon a reinforced paved hard-standing and nestled between existing and additional trees, shrubs and foliage to provide a secluded and intimate area for bathing throughout the seasons. Hidden behind mature and new planting in the bottom left corner, a large shed provides ample storage for the client's garden accessories. The middle of the space has been given over to a large lawn edges with slate.
A purple and yellow planting scheme of soft, cottage-style evergreen shrubs and flowering perennials will help to bring year round lightness and subtle colouring to the space.
After-dark hot tub bathing is enhanced by several strings of pea-lights woven through the existing shrubbery. Deck lights demark the main area of decking and guide one's journey along the decked walkway. Finally, spot lights in the beds highlight certain area while providing a gentle wash throughout the space.
Testimonial: "After months of planning and a full year of having builders everywhere, we had finally got the house into good shape but the garden was a nightmare. It had been somewhat overgrown before the builders moved in, but after a year of being used as a builders yard, it needed shock treatment.
We needed help fast so we searched the web. We were looking for garden designers with creative ideas for smaller London gardens. We didn't want anything too traditional but at the same time, nothing too extreme.
Earth Designs fitted the bill and after a design session with Katrina, we engaged them for the project. They had offered us a design service only, but as we only had a 4 week window in which to complete the job, we gave them the whole project.
We had built a new extension with wide glass doors that opened out into the garden, so the brief to Earth Designs was to "bring the outside, inside" and create a strong link between the new room and the garden beyond. The actual garden space was not large so we wanted to use the space as an extension of the living space - to be an "outside room".
Monday 18th April and three very charming men arrived on our doorstep at 8.0am sharp. Arlo was the project manager, ably aided and abetted by Paul and Phillip. They worked brilliantly as a team and always hit all the deadlines. In particular they did a great job in working with our neighbours to ensure the whole project ran smoothly.
The first week involved clearing the site - no mean feat with 30-year-old ivy stems that looked more like tree trunks.
The second week involved levelling the garden, putting up new fencing, building the corner seating base and planters, plus marking out the garden shape. It was good to be able to make minor changes to the design on the ground at this stage. The hot tub arrived too and was winched into place for connection later.
Week 3 saw the decking and seating built.
Then in week four the turf arrived, the lawn went down and on the last day, Katrina arrived with a truckload of wonderful specimens (and Matt) and we had a wonderful time planting. Ground Force Mk II - a complete garden from start to finish in just 4 weeks!
There were a few things that needed to be sorted out after the main work was complete. Earth Designs were great about coming back until all was complete and finished.
Our thanks to Katrina, Matt, Arlo, Paul and Phillip for a great job, completed on time and on budget with a great looking result."
If you dig this and would like to find out more about this or any of other of our designs, please stop by our web-site and have a look at our work.
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Earth Designs is located in East London, but has built gardens in Essex , gardens in Hertfordshire Hertfordshire and all over the South East. Earth Designs was formed by Katrina Wells in Spring 2003 and has since gone from strength to strength to develop a considerable portfolio of garden projects. Katrina, who is our Senior Garden Designer, has travelled all over the UK designing gardens. However we can design worldwide either through our postal garden design service or by consultation with our senior garden designer. Recent worldwide projects have included garden designs in Romania. Katrina’s husband. Matt, heads up the build side of the company, creating a unique service for all our clients.
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