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I realised today that I had greatly underestimated the photographic value of the north lagoon.
Edit: Explored and dropped, #334 :^)
"All truth and knowledge is important, but amidst the constant distractions of our daily lives, we must especially pay attention to increasing our gospel knowledge so we can understand how to apply gospel principles to our lives. As our gospel knowledge increases, we will begin to feel confident in our testimonies and be able to state: I know it.'" (Anne M. Dibbs). Model Kelsey Garry. (Photo by Karen Petitt)
On being a Mormon: "I know it. I live it. I love it." (Anne M. Dibbs). Model Kelsey Garry. (Photo by Karen Petitt)
SLADE GR.3 -we leaned to make our colours darker and lighter...but the best part was at the end when we got to mix ALL the colours together. It makes blahh.
Mojo 2.5
Bringing inspiration and innovation to value performance wake boating, the Mojo 2.5 wide-bow boat is an experience in wakes, handling, ride, reliability and fun. This 22-foot 6-inch wake slider's dream rolls off the production line with a boat-load of standard features and more wake sport performance than its price class can handle. A definite departure from the “me too” pickle fork trend in wakeboard boat design, this Moomba gives value performance buyers a safe, deep, wide bow in addition to extreme functionality. Simply comfortable interior design compliments the functional nature of the boat with snap-out carpet covering an, easily maintained, all fiberglass floor. This unique boat design is pushed by the torquey Indmar Assault 330 horse power engine, perfect to pull all levels of riders. Beginner to pro will flip for the Moomba Multisport Wakeplate, Digital Pro speed control, the new upgradable 1800-pound Gravity III-D ballast system and the new standard Surf+ wakesurfing platform. Put some more pop in your lake life with the 2013 Moomba Mojo 2.5.
Overall Length w/o Platform: 22' 6"
Overall Length w/ Platform: 24' 6"
Overall Length w/ Trailer: 26' 2"
Width (Beam): 99"
Overall Width w/ Trailer: 102"
Draft: 27.5"
Weight - Boat only: 3,900 lbs
Weight - Boat and Trailer: 5,100 lbs
Capacity - Passenger: 16
Capacity - Weight: 2,400 lbs
Capacity - Fuel: 49 gals
Capacity - Ballast (Standard): 1,800 lbs
Capacity - Ballast (Optional): NA
Engine - Electronic Fuel Injection: 330 HP, V-8
The Project on Prosperity and Development will host the Creating Shared Value Conference as part of its ongoing work on the role of the private sector in addressing enduring socioeconomic challenges in the world's poorest countries. Join us for a discussion on ways to maximize shared value between businesses and the often rural communities in which they operate. The conference will build on the energy generated by Nestlé's Creating Shared Value Annual 2014 report to discuss innovative ways government and civil society can work with the private sector to achieve rural development goals. This event is made possible with support from the Nestlé Corporation.
Agenda
7:30AM-8:00AM - Registration and Breakfast
8:00AM-9:00AM - Keynote Panel: “Leveraging Shared Value as a Catalyst for Development”
His Excellency Martin Dahinden, Ambassador, Embassy of Switzerland; Former Director General, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
The Honorable Daniel Glickman, Former United States Secretary of Agriculture
The Honorable Ann Veneman, Former Executive Director, UNICEF
Moderator:
The Honorable William Garvelink, Former United States Ambassador to the Democratic Republic of the Congo
9:00AM-10:30AM - Panel 1: “Integrating Women Smallholder Farmers Into Global Value Chains”
Janet Voûte, Global Head of Public Affairs, Nestlé
Deirdre White, CEO, PYXERA Global
Macani Toungara, Senior Manager for Program Development, TechnoServe
Margaret Enis Spears, Director, Office of Market and Partnership Innovations; Bureau for Food Security, U.S. Agency for International Development
Moderator:
Daniel Runde, Director, Project on Prosperity and Development, CSIS
10:45-12:00PM - Panel 2: “The Food, Water, and Energy Nexus”
Anders Berntell, Executive Director, 2030 Water Resources Group
Paul Guenette, Executive Vice President for Communications and Outreach, ACDI/VOCA
Late Lawson-Lartego, Director, Agriculture and Market System Team, CARE USA
Christian Holmes, Global Water Coordinator, U.S. Agency for International Development
Moderator:
Johanna Nesseth, Senior Associate, Global Food Security Project, CSIS
12:45PM-2:00PM - Panel 3: “Challenges and Opportunities of Youth and Rural Workforce Development”
Bill Reese, President and CEO, International Youth Foundation
Bill Guyton, President, World Cocoa Foundation
Sherry Youssef, Youth and Workforce Development Specialist, Development Alternatives Inc.
Moderator:
Nicole Goldin, Senior Associate, Project on Prosperity and Development, CSIS
Istanbul Turkish Restaurant Stoke Newington Road Dalston Lunch with Sopie from Côte d'Ivoire. The Lunch menu is good Value at £10.95 each. However the Lamb Chops at £20 are not cheap. Excellent food and service.
Sarah C. and I drove up to Value Village the other day and I'm pretty sure I was out of the car before it stopped to grab these lamps. I couldn't believe my dumb luck! They will look awesome in my turquoise living room, once I have side tables to put them on. $4.99 each! The blue bases are made of GLASS. Do you understand how awesome these are?
Collection: A. D. White Architectural Photographs, Cornell University Library
Accession Number: 15/5/3090.01377
Title: Mount
Style: Late Gothic
Provenance: Gift of Andrew Dickson White
Persistent URI: http://hdl.handle.net/1813.001/5tk7
There are no known U.S. copyright restrictions on this image. The digital file is owned by the Cornell University Library which is making it freely available with the request that, when possible, the Library be credited as its source.
We had some help with the geocoding from Web Services by Yahoo!
Blue Value
Dave Bärtsch / Guitar & Vocal
Peter Oberholzer / Guitar
Paddy Nobs / Bass
Chris Glarner / Drums
Live Concert: 07.10.2022 Bogenkeller, Bluesclub Bühler
Foto / Video by Fredi Schefer
Foto by Fredi Schefer
Aufnahme mit Nikon Z7 II
Bearbeitung mit Camera RAW
In India, cows are considered sacred and their milk is revered as a precious gift that comes straight from the Goddess.1 Since ancient times, Ayurveda has highly valued milk for its building and tonifying qualities and its ability to strengthen ojas, our vital immunity.
Yet when it comes to the gifts of the goddess, some of us take in her nourishment more readily through mantras and kirtan than from cow dairy. And while there is much to be revered about this creamy white nectar of the gods, the Ayurvedic perspective on milk is more nuanced than you might suspect.
When it comes to milk and dairy products, it’s helpful to keep the context of Ayurveda’s origins in mind. This nature-based system of healing developed in ancient India, long before the advent of synthetic hormones, factory farms, food manufacturing facilities, or agribusiness.
While milk and dairy products are common, they are often not of the same quality enjoyed centuries ago. Yet, like so much of the wisdom and tools of Ayurveda that have withstood the test of time, the benefits of high-quality, organic milk still have much to offer.
The Ayurvedic perspective on milk, whether from animals or plants, is that fresh is best.
The fresher the milk, the more prana or life force it can offer us.
I know one Ayurvedic physician who regularly makes her way to a local dairy farm for the freshest, purest milk and goes straight home to make her ghee and swiftly boiled milk. For those of us who can do this, or raise animals with respect, be they cows, goats, sheep, water buffalo, or others, I rejoice!
But for most of us, this direct relationship with dairy fresh from the farm is not always possible. So, what can we do, within the boundaries of our ethics, resources, and the planet at large? Here is some information on milk and milk alternatives from an Ayurvedic perspective. I leave it to you to respond appropriately for yourself.
Environmental Impacts and Considerations
Inherent in the philosophy of Ayurveda is a commitment to live in harmony with nature, which leads to a sense of respect for food, the earth, and its inhabitants—including humans, animals, and plants.
And while this thread of respect for the earth has survived and resurfaced in the awareness of many people today, as a species we have strayed far from it over time and environmental responsibility is still lacking on many fronts.
Because of the modern agribusiness practices that affect dairy and so many other foods today, it’s important to keep in mind where your milk is coming from and what environmental impacts it may have. If you can find dairy that is fresh and local, it will likely be the best choice for both your body and the planet.
In terms of carbon footprints, plant-based milks generally have less impact than animal dairy. In fact, rice, almond, and soymilk have one-third the climate impact of cow milk.2 Goat milk here in the US has a modest carbon footprint, with fewer goats than cows, but this is not true worldwide. Sadly, goats exceed cows on the planetary emission level.3
Lest you race out immediately to purchase that virtuous almond milk, I invite you to consider another factor: plastic containers. Ruth Ozeki wrote compellingly about the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch” of plastic bags in her novel, A Tale for the Time Being. Unfortunately, many fine products are robed in plastic these days.
Nutritional Benefits of Dairy
Dairy is a rich source of proteins and minerals that are essential to the health of the human body, helping build and maintain healthy bones, teeth, nerve function, and muscle contraction.
A cup of goat’s milk offers 327 milligrams of calcium, 271 milligrams of phosphorus, a whopping 498 milligrams of alkalizing potassium, and close to 9 grams of protein.
Cow’s milk offers very similar nutritional benefits, and sheep’s milk is even richer in calcium and protein.5 Growing children and pregnant women need these minerals and proteins the most.
If mineral balances are askew, physiologic functions can falter. This is especially common with calcium and phosphorus in the predominant American diet. While Americans get more calcium-rich foods than much of the planet, we have high rates of osteoporosis. Why? One factor could be our relative intake of calcium to phosphorus.
Rather than a healthy 1:1 ratio of calcium to phosphorus, we range toward 1:4, taking in four times more phosphorus than calcium, mostly through meat and sodas. This unbalanced ratio of minerals does not support healthy bones and teeth.6
While animal dairy is a great source of balanced minerals, it’s also possible to get calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and protein from wholesome plant-based milks, with attention and wise choices.
The Importance of Preparation
How one prepares milk has a lot to do with how well the body can receive and absorb its benefits. Traditionally, milk came directly from the mother animal and was not pasteurized or genetically modified. It was then heated to just below boiling and consumed warm.
Animal dairy’s mucus-forming and kapha-increasing qualities are likely to be more pronounced if milk is served cold, frozen, dried into powder, otherwise processed, or served without spices. In these latter cases, dairy can be congesting, constipating, and ama-producing.
Adding spices to milk also counters its cool qualities and balances its heaviness. Ginger, cinnamon, and cardamom enhance its digestibility substantially and reduce mucus production.
Another thing to consider from an Ayurvedic perspective is the importance of proper food combining. While milk gets along well with many foods, we often combine foods that Ayurveda considers incompatible with it, such as sour fruits, bananas, cherries, melons, yeasted breads, yogurt, kitchari, fish, and meat. Eating these foods at different times than milk will help with the body’s ability to digest them well.
The Qualities of Milk and the Effects on the Doshas
Dairy is food produced from the milk of mammals. In looking at any food, Ayurvedic nutrition takes into account its qualities (gunas), such as cold and hot, its unique balance of the six tastes, and its energetic impact on the doshas.
Each food is unique and has a different impact on the doshas, the three biological energies of vata, pitta, and kapha. Each person is also unique and receives nourishment in differing ways. Thankfully there are a variety of both animal and plant-based milks, and what may not work for one person could be perfect for another.
Cow Milk
Cow’s milk is cool, heavy, laxative, and mucus-forming. It has a sweet taste (rasa), a cooling effect on the gut (virya), and a sweet, building long-term effect (vipaka). If you warm it up and spice it appropriately, cow’s milk is highly regarded in Ayurveda for calming both vata and pitta. Its cool heaviness can aggravate already cool kapha.
Goat Milk
The rasa, virya, and vipaka for goat’s milk is sweet, cooling, and pungent. Like cow dairy, it is nourishing and strengthening, but tends to be lighter and less mucus-forming. According to Vasant Lad, MASc, it is tridoshic (balancing for all three doshas) and a preferable milk in moderation for kapha. Goat milk is slightly astringent, which for some can rile vata.
Sheep Milk
Sheep’s milk is more heating than cow or goat milk. It calms vata, but aggravates pitta and kapha.7
Buffalo Milk
Buffalo milk was recommended by the sages for its ability to induce sleep. Colder and heavier than cow’s milk, it soothes pitta and vata, but increases kapha. It is used to slow rapid elimination. Buffalo milk is available in India and Italy, yet here in the United States, it is rare to find.8
What about Plant-Based Milks?
Taking into account both environmental and physiological considerations, plant-based milks offer a viable alternative for those who wish to avoid animal dairy. If we can make our own plant milk, it means less plastic in the ocean and provides a direct benefit to our body’s energy.
For the person with a dairy allergy, a lactose sensitivity, or for those who find animal milks congesting, plant-based milks can be a better option.
Almond milk in particular builds ojas, strength, and immunity in the same way that warm, well-spiced cow’s milk does. It calms vata and pitta and can be used occasionally by kapha.
Plant-based milks offer healthy fat, relaxing magnesium, and small amounts of fiber, yet a lot of them have appalling amounts of cane sugar. Sugar impairs immunity, and at this point, we need as strong an immune response as possible. Many plant milks also contain various gums, like carrageenan, which can aggravate some digestive tracts.
If you prefer a plant-based milk option, be sure to look for plain, unsweetened, and organic varieties. There are several fine companies offering tasty milks with just a few simple ingredients—organic nuts, water, and a pinch of salt.
If you want to add a little sweetness, you can use raw honey, stevia, or coconut sugar. Honey in particular carries the nourishment of milk deep into the tissues.
When you’re trying out different plant-based milks, you can ask yourself, is this calming, tonifying, and building for me? From an Ayurvedic perspective, these are milk’s most important purposes.
Nut and Seed-Based Milks
Sunflower, pumpkin, and hemp seed milks are well-tolerated by all doshas. Warm, heavy sesame seed milk is better for vata than pitta or kapha. It is a rich source of calcium, with 312 milligrams per two tablespoons of milk.9
Nut milks are a little heavier and oiler, fine for vata but best used in moderation by pitta and kapha. Coconut milk is the exception to this rule, as it is cooling enough for pitta while also nourishing and pacifying for vata. Because of its cooling and heavy qualities, it is not the best choice for kapha.
Consider making raw, homemade pumpkin (or sunflower) seed milk. Both of these seeds are affordable and rich in zinc, a trace mineral that supports immunity and healthy blood sugar metabolism. If you can find raw hemp seeds, they also make a tasty, high-protein plant milk that is rich in healthy omega-3 fatty acids.
Grain Milks
To assess a plant-milk’s impact on the doshas, consider its ingredients, as well as how your body responds to it. Sweet-cooling-sweet oat milk is a popular choice, calming to vata and pitta, yet increasing to kapha. If you follow a gluten-free diet, shop carefully with oat milks, as most are not gluten-free.10
Rice milk is also sweet-cool-sweet in nature and best for vata and pitta constitutions. Watch out for the added sweeteners in rice milk and try to avoid them when possible.
Organic Soymilk
Organic certification is especially important in soy milks. Soy is a legume that’s been widely genetically modified in the United States, but GMOs are prohibited in every step of organic farming. Organic soy milk is sweet and astringent, with a cooling virya and a pungent after-effect. It is best for pitta, and aggravates both vata and kapha.
Relax and Enjoy
Personally, I’m milkvorious. Last night my husband Gord and I taste-tested hot, spiced macadamia milk in our favorite creamy carob hot drink before bedtime. This plant “creamer” gave us 100 milligrams of calcium per cup, along with all the other herbal benefits of the recipe. And I’ve got to say, it was delicious and we slept like stones.
Now that you’re equipped with the Ayurvedic perspective, you can more easily choose which type of milk will best support you. Here’s hoping you find the drink that brings the most happiness and nourishment to your body, mind, and spirit—and have fun experimenting in the meantime!
The value of investment funds committed to selling off fossil fuel assets has jumped to $5.2 trillion, doubling in one year #FossilFuelsKill
Istanbul Turkish Restaurant Stoke Newington Road Dalston Lunch with Sopie from Côte d'Ivoire. The Lunch menu is good Value at £10.95 each. However the Lamb Chops at £20 are not cheap. Excellent food and service.
DLD*women (Digital-Life-Design) Conference is taking place for 3rd time in Munich, July 11-12, 2012 "New Rules, New Values"
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Glenn Beck speaking at the Values Voter Summit in Washington, DC.
Please attribute to Gage Skidmore if used elsewhere.
A Cheese Quesadilla is only 99 cents at the Western, in the newly renamed (but not remodeled) Eazy Cafe. Apparently "easy" is not as easy to spell as they thought.
Rosaries are valued in Kurdistan both for praying and for its ornamental use. The most popular, and probably most common (and surely more artistic one) is the handmade Qazwan rosary.
Copp's Hill is an elevation in the historic North End of Boston, Massachusetts. It is bordered by Hull Street, Charter Street and Snow Hill Street. The hill takes its name from William Copp, a shoemaker who once owned the land. Copp's Hill Burying Ground is a stop on the Freedom Trail.
Like all of the Shawmut Peninsula, the hill was Algonquian territory before the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The first English settlers to the hill arrived in the 1630s and built a windmill atop the hill to grind grain.
Founded by the town of Boston in 1659, Copp's Hill Burying Ground is the second oldest burying ground in the city. The cemetery's boundaries were extended several times, and the grounds contain the remains of many notable Bostonians in the thousands of graves and 272 tombs.
Among the Bostonians buried here are the original owner, William Copp, his children, Increase Mather, Cotton Mather, Robert Newman (the patriot who placed the signal lanterns in the steeple of Old North Church for Paul Revere's midnight ride to Lexington and Concord), Prince Hall (the father of Black Freemasonry), and many unmarked graves of the African Americans who lived in the "New Guinea" community at the foot of the hill. The cemetery was not an official stop on the Freedom Trail when it was created in 1951, but it has since been added and is much-
During the Revolutionary War, the British used the hill to train artillery onto Charlestown. For several years starting in 1806, soil was taken from the top of Copp's Hill to increase the available building land by filling the Mill Pond. This removal reduced the height of the hill by about 7 feet (about 2 meters).