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Used in the blog posts Tennessee's Cumberland Plateau and My Top Ten Favorite Photos from White County, Tennessee.
Apps Used:
TinType Camera
Stackables
ElementsFX
PixlrExpress+ I couldn't decide which one to share, so I created a collage within this app.
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Backstory:
I got home, from a long day at work, and turned to photography in order to relax. I generally walk through the house, looking for something ordinary to process into something unique. I spotted one of my paint brushes and the fire ignited from there. I'm intoxicated with mobile photography and processing, these days. I hope you enjoy this one. xo
used here
view back to back, barefoot & pregnant - _MG_7123 on a black background.
copyright © 2006 sean dreilinger
Wirrabara.
A Kaurna Aboriginal name meaning “gum trees with running water” was used to name the town when it was proclaimed in 1874 although the local Aboriginal people were the Ngadjuri tribe. Before 1874 the land was firstly leased by Samuel and Frederick White from 1844 who named their run Charlton. A small and not very successful copper mine, the Charlton mine, was established in the 1850s on this run just north of the present town site. The Charlton Mine was run by the Australian Mining Company from 1854 for just a few years. White’s leasehold was purchased by Charles. B. Fisher in 1861 who renamed the property Wirrabara instead of Charlton but Charles White retained his old homestead and some acreage around it. When Surveyor General George Goyder visited Fisher’s Wirrabara run in 1864 he estimated it was carrying 50,000 sheep. In 1866 the Wirrabara run was taken over by Alexander Borthwick Murray and his three sons of Mt Crawford as a sheep stud for their Murray Merinos. When parts of the run were resumed in 1872 for closer settlement Alexander Borthwick Murray used his employees to purchase extensive areas of freehold land in a system known as dummying. The Murray family built a homestead in 1872 on the property called Avonmore shown because they then had freehold to the property. When Alexander Scott Murray married in 1874 he extended and remodelled it into a grand ten roomed house with marble fireplaces and cedar architraves and it became his family home. There is a fine stone memorial to Alexander Scott Murray near the railway station with its silo art. He was only 34 years old when he died of ill health and he was the highly respected manager of Wirrabara Station. He had a large public role and apart from supporting local organisations he did public works like laying the foundation stone of the Laura Institute etc. On his death he left a wife and four children under five years of age. The memorial was unveiled in February 1882 two years after Alexander Scott Murray’s death in 1880. After Alexander Scott Murray’s death his brother John took over Avonmore but he too died of health issues in 1884 aged 35 years. Alexander Borthwick Murray and his remaining son Malcomb of Avonmore also had lands northwards along the ranges. In 1885 A.B. Murray had some of these lands surveyed and put up for sale as a private town named Murraytown after himself. Up to 50,000 sheep were shorn on the Wirrabara run in the late 19th century which by then occupied 20,700 acres freehold. But then son Malcom Murray committed suicide in April 1900. Malcom Pulteney Murray was known for his pranks, drunkenness and rash behaviours and his depressions. Alexander Borthwick Murray died in 1903 and his estate trustees managed Avonmore and the lands at Murraytown. The 20,700 acre Wirrabara Estate was sold as part of Alexander Borthwick’s estate in 1910 for over £141,000. At that time it was known for its fruit orchards, grain paddocks and lucerne flats. It was subdivided into 47 farms.
Apart from pastoralism forestry has been a major industry in the region even after grain farmers arrived in 1874. Some individual foresters were cutting timber and selling it from around 1865. Good quality straight posts were sold by them for the erection of the telegraph line to Melrose and Port Augusta in 1865. The first plantation forest in Australia was established by the SA government in 1875 at Bundaleer near Jamestown. The second forest was declared at Wirrabara in 1877. The government had resumed almost 50,000 acres in 1875 which was set aside as the Wirrabara Forest Reserve. A Forester’s residence and a Nurseryman’s residence were soon erected. The most drought resistant of the pine trees the Aleppo Pine from Syria was planted here in 1878. Tasmanian blue gum and other exotic and native trees were planted at Wirrabara. Most of the lands of the forest were about 1,700 feet above sea level (518 metres) and about 20 small leasehold farm blocks were created in it for fruit growing. The horticulturists were known as the Wirrabara Blockers. In these early years Wirrabara forest was also used to produce seedlings for plantings at Bundaleer. The first saw mill began in 1880 with another in 1902 to mill the Aleppo pines. In 1881 the Wirrabara Forest School opened as so many people lived in this area. A second Forest School was built in 1910. Forestry and saw milling remained an industry until the Bangor bushfires of 2014 destroyed large areas of the forests which the then current Labor government decided not to replant. The native trees along the ranges remain as forest or as conservation parks. Thus it is not surprising that the theme for the Wirrabara grain silo art is the forestry worker and the native birds of the forests like the red capped robin. The King Tree or Eucalyptus camaldulensis (usually called River Red Gum) is one of the main trees of the native forests. By 1889 the Blockers were under the control of the Commissioner of Crown Lands and some purchased their farms freehold. Most Blockers grew vines or fruit trees. Some blocks were sold by the government as soldier settler farms after World War One but this was not successful with farmers deserting their blocks by 1932.
The town began to emerge overnight in 1874 with many buildings being erected by 1875. The first stores in the town were opened by Melrose storekeepers. They were followed by a baker, a butcher, a saddler and the hotel. In fact the Wirrabara Hotel was licensed in 1875 and the fine sandstone building opened shortly thereafter. A government school followed the Free, Compulsory and Secular Education Act for 1875 by opening in 1879. It was replaced with a larger red brick school building in 1921. The Post Office started in 1880 and the Institute foundation stone was laid in 1884. Once open it was used for Anglican and Lutheran church services. It still runs a library service, the only independent library service left in SA. In 1912 a new local Wirrabara stone institute or hall was built and opened by the Governor Sir Day Bosanquet. The War Memorial in front of the Institute was unveiled in 1921. The first courtroom operated in Wirrabara from around 1880 with a temporary police station. One of the biggest events in the town growth was the arrival of the railway line from Laura in 1910 as it pushed northwards to Booleroo Centre. Public meetings in Wirrabara had called for this from 1901. Parliament approved the line in 1908 and the work was finished to Wirrabara in 1910. In 1923 the government bought a block of land in Fifth Street for a new police station but this was not erected until 1929. Apart from industry and commercial premises the town soon churches.
The Wesleyan Methodists opened their church in 1876 being the first in town. The Bible Christians Methodists opened theirs soon after. The Anglicans held early services in the first Institute until St Margaret’s Church opened in 1909 on the corner of Second and Fifth Streets. The old or first Institute was left vacant for some time after 1912 and then in 1920 it was taken over by Manning’s Furniture Store. In the early 1940s the Anglican began planning for a new and larger church. When Manning’s Furniture store came on the market in the first institute the Anglicans purchased that and it was consecrated in 1964 with the old foundation stone on the front. The Lutheran church opened in 1921. The foundation stone of Catholic Church was laid on 1 June 1930 by the Bishop of Port Augusta with the church opening in February 1931.
Wirrabara received an $80,000 federal government grant through the Fund My Neighbourhood program to have their silos painted. The Mount Remarkable Council conducted a local survey to select the artist and the theme of the painting. The most favoured artist was Sam Bates, alias Smug, of Melbourne and he was awarded the task. The most popular theme voted for was forestry and woodcutters. The woodcutter depicted on the silos is Dion Lebrun of Tumby Bay and the beautiful bird is a red capped robin. Since the closure of the forests the silo art is just one of a number of measures the locals are taking to keep their town alive. A farmers’ market is held once a month on a Sunday morning, they maintain a community website, the volunteer staffed craft shop distributes tourist information and some locals still grow apricots, peaches and nectarines and one enterprising horticulturist is now growing Manuka bushes to produce Manuka honey in a few years’ time.
Using Cluck Cluck Sew's stack'n'whack method. Quilt blogged here: www.eatplaysew.blogspot.com.au/2012/06/archers-quilt.html
Using the photo of the cyclamen, I abstracted the flowers into shapes. Not sure if it goes as far as I had hoped.
My Gold plated SVD Ivory Stock and handguard custom engraving and gold who doesn't love gold?This is my first submission.I have to give big credits to The~bus' for the idea and the brass knuckles,Sharpshot Sid for the stock and {ABA}Worlock for the engravings.
Using part of Dasha’s garage as a photo studio!
Still working out lighting, and trying to get everyone in a group photo in focus with the fancy camera. Bit of a learning curve; I wonder if I should stick to phone camera photos for groups this large for now?
Oops! I forgot Tilda Brisby!!
The Albatros D.V was a fighter aircraft used by the Luftstreitkräfte (Imperial German Air Service) during World War I. The D.V was the final development of the Albatros D.I family, and the last Albatros fighter to see operational service.
The Albatros D. V though not the most famous plane piloted by Baron Manfred von Richthofen, famously known as the Red Baron, was the one in which he sustained his most serious injuries in WW I prior to being shot down to his death a year later. The model shown here features the paint scheme flown by Richthofen with this aeroplane specification.
On 6 July 1917, during combat with a formation of F.E.2d two seat fighters of No. 20 Squadron RFC, near Wervicq, Richthofen sustained a serious head-wound, causing instant disorientation and temporary partial blindness. He regained consciousness in time to ease the aircraft out of a free-falling spin and executed a rough landing in a field within friendly territory. The injury required multiple surgical operations to remove bone splinters from the impact area. The air victory was credited to Captain Donald Cunnell of No. 20, who was himself shot down and killed a few days later (by anti-aircraft fire). The Red Baron returned to active service (against doctor's orders) on 25 July, but went on convalescent leave from 5 September to 23 October. His wound is thought to have caused lasting damage (he later often suffered from post-flight nausea and headaches) as well as a change in temperament. There is even a theory linking this injury with his eventual death.
In April 1917, Albatros received an order from the Idflieg (Inspektion der Fliegertruppen) for an improved version of the D.III. The resulting D.V prototype flew later that month.
The D.V closely resembled the D.III and used the same 127 kW (170 hp) Mercedes D.IIIa engine. The most notable difference was a new fuselage which was 32 kg (70 lb) lighter than that of the D.III. The elliptical cross-section required an additional longeron on each side of the fuselage. The vertical fin and tailplane remained unchanged from the D.III. The prototype D.V retained the standard rudder of the Johannisthal-built D.III, but production examples used the enlarged rudder featured on D.IIIs built by Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke (OAW). The D.V also featured a larger spinner and ventral fin.
The Albatros' Daimler-Merceds D.IIIa engine forms the link between aircraft and car.
The Daimler Motors Works, the cars of which bore the name 'Mercedes', had supplied aero engines with an inline six configuration to the German airforce and aero industry (the three pointed star representing air, land and sea transportation).
Prior to the introduction of the 28-95, Mercedes cars had features engines up to the configuration of the inline four cylinder (though of large capacity). The 28-95 featured a road car-developed version of the Daimler D.F. 80 Aero engine. The engine was of 7.25 litre capacity, featured overhead camshaft. The car engine debuted in the Mercedes racing cars at the Sarthe Grand Prix at Le Mans in August 1913.
The engine then formed the basis for a series of premium Mercedes models for 1914 on two wheelbase lengths, 3,555mm (140 in) and 3065mm (120.6 in). Few were built prior to the war, 20 in 1914, and a further 5 in 1915.
After the war, the 28-95 was reintroduced in 1920, 40 cars being completed that year.
A limitation of the engine was a four bearing crank and unbalance crankshaft. This limited to road engines to engine speed not far above the vibration limitation of the aero engines of 1,800 rpm. Output at 1,800 rpm was calculated at 99 bhp. Further development with a larger 7.3 litre capacity along with supercharging led to the 1922 racecar which took victory at the 1922 Targa Florio, driven by Max Sailer.
The Mercedes 28-95 Roadster shown here was an un-supercharged model released for public sale. Known as the 'Targa Florio' after the race-winning works models, and small number of which were produced with this rakish roadster bodywork.
This Albatros D. V Biplane (1917) & Daimler Mercedes 28-95 Targa Florio Roadster (1923) have both been created in Lego miniland-scale for Flickr LUGNuts' 79th build challenge, - "LUGNuts goes Wingnuts" , - featuring automotive creation inspired by, or with some relationship to aeronautical vehicles.
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Francisco Aragão © 2014. All Rights Reserved.
Use without permission is illegal.
Attention please !
If you are interested in my photos, they are available for sale. Please contact me by email: aragaofrancisco@gmail.com. Do not use without permission.
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Portuguese
Brasília (pron. [bɾaˈziʎɐ]) é a capital federal do Brasil e a sede do governo do Distrito Federal. A cidade está localizada na região Centro-Oeste do país, ao longo da região geográfica conhecida como Planalto Central. No censo demográfico realizado pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística em 2010, sua população era de 2 562 963 habitantes (3 716 996 em sua área metropolitana), sendo, então, a quarta cidade brasileira mais populosa. A capital brasileira é a maior cidade do mundo construída no século XX.
A cidade possui o segundo maior produto interno bruto per capita do Brasil (45 977,59 reais), o quinto maior entre as principais cidades da América Latina e cerca de três vezes maior que a renda média brasileira. Como capital nacional, Brasília é a sede dos três principais ramos do governo brasileiro e hospeda 124 embaixadas estrangeiras. A cidade também abriga a sede de muitas das principais empresas brasileiras. A política de planejamento da cidade, como a localização de prédios residenciais em grandes áreas urbanas, a construção da cidade através de enormes avenidas e a sua divisão em setores, tem provocado debates sobre o estilo de vida nas grandes cidades no século XX. O projeto da cidade a divide em blocos numerados, além de setores para atividades pré-determinadas, como o Setor Hoteleiro, Bancário ou de Embaixadas.
O plano urbanístico da capital, conhecido como "Plano Piloto", foi elaborado pelo urbanista Lúcio Costa, que, aproveitando o relevo da região, adequou-o ao projeto do lago Paranoá, concebido em 1893 pela Missão Cruls. A cidade começou a ser planejada e desenvolvida em 1956 por Lúcio Costa e pelo arquiteto Oscar Niemeyer. Inaugurada em 21 de abril de 1960, pelo então presidente Juscelino Kubitschek, Brasília tornou-se formalmente a terceira capital do Brasil, após Salvador e Rio de Janeiro. Vista de cima, a principal área da cidade se assemelha ao formato de um avião ou de uma borboleta.15 16 A cidade é comumente referida como "Capital Federal" ou "BSB". A cidade é considerada um Patrimônio Mundial pela UNESCO, devido ao seu conjunto arquitetônico e urbanístico 18 e possui a maior área tombada do mundo, com 112,5 quilômetros quadrados.
A palavra "Brasília" pode se referir ao Distrito Federal como um todo ou apenas à primeira Região Administrativa do Distrito Federal, que é formada basicamente pelo Plano Piloto e pelo Parque Nacional de Brasília. O Distrito Federal acumula características de município e estado. As outras regiões administrativas, também chamadas "cidades-satélites", que formam o Distrito Federal não são municípios.
English
Brasília (Portuguese pronunciation: [bɾaˈziljɐ]) is the federal capital of Brazil and the seat of government of the Federal District. The city is located along the Brazilian Highlands in the country's Central-West region. It was founded on April 21, 1960, to serve as the new national capital. Brasília had an estimated population of 2,789,761 in 2013, making it the 4th most populous city in Brazil.
Among major Latin American cities, Brasília has the highest GDP per capita at R$61,915 (US$36,175).
Brasília was planned and developed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer in 1956 in order to move the capital from Rio de Janeiro to a more central location. The landscape architect was Roberto Burle Marx. The city's design divides it into numbered blocks as well as sectors for specified activities, such as the Hotel Sector, the Banking Sector and the Embassy Sector. Brasília was chosen as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its modernist architecture.
The city has a unique status in Brazil, as it is an administrative division rather than a legal municipality like other cities in Brazil. Nationally, the term is almost always used synonymously with the Federal District, which constitutes an indivisible Federative Unit, analogous to a state. Several satellite cities are also part of the Federal District.
The centers of all three branches of the federal government of Brazil are in Brasília, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. The city also hosts 124 foreign embassies.[6] Brasília International Airport connects the capital to all major Brazilian cities and many international destinations, and is the third busiest airport in Brazil.
The city is one of the main host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and will be the host city of 2019 Summer Universiade. Additionally, Brasília hosted the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.
Spanish
Brasilia (en portugués Brasília) es la capital federal del Brasil y la sede del Gobierno del Distrito Federal, localizada en la parte central del país. Tiene una población de 2.562.963 habitantes según las estimaciones del censo de 2010,1 lo que la convierte en la cuarta ciudad del país por población. Es sede del gobierno federal, conformado por el presidente —quien trabaja en el Palacio de Planalto—, el Supremo Tribunal Federal de Brasil y el Congreso Nacional de Brasil.
Wikipedia
Photographed using the Zenit 35F, and Agfaphoto Vista Plus 400 film. Taken in Olinda, Victoria, Australia.
View from my window..
I'm still trying to get used to this buliding on top of a field that was used for sports and leisure activities..
Used to look like this:
www.flickr.com/photos/yanidimitri/22593011795/in/datepost...
NDG, Montreal, Qc
A visit to see the locomotives and railway system at the Guinness brewery at Park Royal on 12 April 1975 also found some ex-BR/GWR five-plank open wagons. This is 13T 135749, although it's use is unknown, they may have been used for permanent way duties.
Unknown borrowed 6x6 TLR
Ilford FP4
This was my first opportunity to try out the new Sony NEX-7 which will be generally available next month. For this session I used the SEL16F28 16mm f/2.8 Wide-Angle pancake lens and I have never liked it. I have ordered the SEL30M35 30mm f/3.5 Macro Lens and the SEL50F18 but they have not yet arrived.
[ I have just been informed that i will not receive them until April ]
And now a word about the location:
Henrietta Street is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin – it is the model from which Dublin’s Georgian identity is derived. Construction on the street started in the mid 1720's, on land bought by the Gardiner family in 1721. Construction was still taking place in the 1750s. Gardiner had a mansion, designed by Richard Cassels, built for his own use around 1730.
Henrietta Street was lined on both sides by massive Georgian houses built on a palatial scale. At the top end of the street, a new James Gandon building, the King's Inns, was erected between 1795 and 1816. In this building, barristers were trained and earned their academic qualifications. Such was the prestige of the street that many of the most senior figures in Irish 'establishment' society, peers of the realm, judges, barristers, bishops bought houses here. Under the anti-Catholic Penal Laws, Roman Catholics, though the overwhelming majority in Ireland, were harshly discriminated against, barred from holding property rights or from voting in parliamentary elections until 1793. Thus the houses of Georgian Dublin, particularly in the early phase before Catholic Emancipation was granted in 1829, were almost invariably owned by a small Church of Ireland Anglican elite, with Catholics only gaining admittance to the houses as skivvies and servants.
The street fell into disrepair during the 19th and 20th centuries, with the houses being used as tenements, but has been the subject of restoration efforts in recent years.
There are currently 13 houses on the street. The street is a cul-de-sac, with the Law Library of King's Inns facing onto its western end.
Used with several other photos in today's blog post.
dennissylvesterhurd.blogspot.com/2023/03/getting-reacquai...
Had an hour out yesterday and made a good count of 6 grass snakes. Went out for 5 hours this morning walked about 6+ miles and saw 3 adders all in none photographical situations. Supposedly that area had been really busy at the weekend so maybe the snakes away from the paths?
So this is a large female grass snake from yesterday. It was taken with a telephoto and cropped.
Blog from the weekend;
oliverwrightphotography.com/blog/view/lakes-mountains-and...
Right better get to the studio and start painting!
Absolutely no use of TurnAround_2048 photographs without prior written permission.
Member: Pinoy Bus Fanatic (PBF)
Basic Details:
Line: Southern Star Bus Transit, Inc.
Fleet No.: 12192
License Plate No.: *******
Coachbuilder: Vallacar Transit, Inc. - Transport Engineering and Bus Body Assembly Plant (VTI-TEBBAP)
Model: Crius FB4J
Route of operation: Intra-provincial route (Bohol): Tagbilaran City - Ubay via Baclayon/Alburquerque/Loay/Lila/Dimiao/Valencia/Garcia-Hernandez/Jagna/Duero/Guindulman/Candijay/Alicia
Seating configuration/capacity: 3x2 / 39
Location: Tagbilaran East Road, Lila, Bohol
Date: 2016-05-04
Engine:
Engine Manufacturer: Hino Motors, Ltd.
Engine Type: J05C
Number of Cylinders & Arrangement:
Displacement, cc: 5,307
Power Output:
> In bhp: 162.74
> In PS: 165.00
> In kW: 121.36
Chassis:
Chassis Manufacturer: Hino Motors, Ltd.
Chassis Type: FB4J
Chassis Length: *unknown*
Transmission:
Method: Manual Transmission
Nr. of Gears:
> Forward: 5
> Reverse: 1
Notes:
1) Specifications are subject to change without prior notice.
2) The license plate of the bus concerned was blurred to prevent any conflict.
3) I have taken this photo for the enjoyment of anyone interested in buses.
4) For any corrections, comment it.
5) Violent and personal comments will be deleted without any notice. Personal comments should be in FlickrMail, not in the comments. I don't want my reputation be ruined.
This texture is free to use in your creative works.
Please do not redistribute or make small changes and claim it as your own.
Please provide credit via a link under your work back to this image or to my account where possible.
I would love to see the results of your work, so please leave me a link or a small copy in my comment box below.
Thank you,
Brenda.
I belong to this set. ~Textures Vol 2~
If you are looking for more stock images and textures, please check out my group
This is a free texture that I am offering to anyone that would like to download and use it.
See more photos and read the blog at
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Original Size:
Used to know this building as the Battersea Power Station and this old turbine hall has been turned into the cavernous main entrance to the Tate Modern Gallery in London. Even though this is an old pic now I can still remember how I wanted to try and show the impressive size of the main hall. The walkway in is actually on a steep slope which isnt really shown here..
The use of hybrids on other than their allocated routes continues, particularly at the weekend when the PVR for the type drops. Old Farnley`s and Morley's are usual but 39236 "Alan Bennett" on a 33 diagram was noteworthy in December. I think Alan Bennett was an actor & author, possibly something to do with playwriting also, born in Armley it means he has the distinction of his name on one of the Hybrids anyhow.
IR converted Canon Rebel XTi. AEB +/-2 total of 3 exposures processed with Photomatix.
High Dynamic Range (HDR)
High-dynamic-range imaging (HDRI) is a high dynamic range (HDR) technique used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of luminosity than is possible with standard digital imaging or photographic techniques. The aim is to present a similar range of luminance to that experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through adaptation of the iris and other methods, adjusts constantly to adapt to a broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a wide range of light conditions.
HDR images can represent a greater range of luminance levels than can be achieved using more 'traditional' methods, such as many real-world scenes containing very bright, direct sunlight to extreme shade, or very faint nebulae. This is often achieved by capturing and then combining several different, narrower range, exposures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, referred to as LDR, resulting in the loss of detail in highlights or shadows.
The two primary types of HDR images are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple low-dynamic-range (LDR) or standard-dynamic-range (SDR) photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image sensors, such as an oversampled binary image sensor.
Due to the limitations of printing and display contrast, the extended luminosity range of an HDR image has to be compressed to be made visible. The method of rendering an HDR image to a standard monitor or printing device is called tone mapping. This method reduces the overall contrast of an HDR image to facilitate display on devices or printouts with lower dynamic range, and can be applied to produce images with preserved local contrast (or exaggerated for artistic effect).
In photography, dynamic range is measured in exposure value (EV) differences (known as stops). An increase of one EV, or 'one stop', represents a doubling of the amount of light. Conversely, a decrease of one EV represents a halving of the amount of light. Therefore, revealing detail in the darkest of shadows requires high exposures, while preserving detail in very bright situations requires very low exposures. Most cameras cannot provide this range of exposure values within a single exposure, due to their low dynamic range. High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard-exposure images, often using exposure bracketing, and then later merging them into a single HDR image, usually within a photo manipulation program). Digital images are often encoded in a camera's raw image format, because 8-bit JPEG encoding does not offer a wide enough range of values to allow fine transitions (and regarding HDR, later introduces undesirable effects due to lossy compression).
Any camera that allows manual exposure control can make images for HDR work, although one equipped with auto exposure bracketing (AEB) is far better suited. Images from film cameras are less suitable as they often must first be digitized, so that they can later be processed using software HDR methods.
In most imaging devices, the degree of exposure to light applied to the active element (be it film or CCD) can be altered in one of two ways: by either increasing/decreasing the size of the aperture or by increasing/decreasing the time of each exposure. Exposure variation in an HDR set is only done by altering the exposure time and not the aperture size; this is because altering the aperture size also affects the depth of field and so the resultant multiple images would be quite different, preventing their final combination into a single HDR image.
An important limitation for HDR photography is that any movement between successive images will impede or prevent success in combining them afterwards. Also, as one must create several images (often three or five and sometimes more) to obtain the desired luminance range, such a full 'set' of images takes extra time. HDR photographers have developed calculation methods and techniques to partially overcome these problems, but the use of a sturdy tripod is, at least, advised.
Some cameras have an auto exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from the 3 EV of the Canon EOS 40D, to the 18 EV of the Canon EOS-1D Mark II. As the popularity of this imaging method grows, several camera manufactures are now offering built-in HDR features. For example, the Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode that captures an HDR image and outputs (only) a tone mapped JPEG file. The Canon PowerShot G12, Canon PowerShot S95 and Canon PowerShot S100 offer similar features in a smaller format.. Nikon's approach is called 'Active D-Lighting' which applies exposure compensation and tone mapping to the image as it comes from the sensor, with the accent being on retaing a realistic effect . Some smartphones provide HDR modes, and most mobile platforms have apps that provide HDR picture taking.
Camera characteristics such as gamma curves, sensor resolution, noise, photometric calibration and color calibration affect resulting high-dynamic-range images.
Color film negatives and slides consist of multiple film layers that respond to light differently. As a consequence, transparent originals (especially positive slides) feature a very high dynamic range
Tone mapping
Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of an entire image while retaining localized contrast. Although it is a distinct operation, tone mapping is often applied to HDRI files by the same software package.
Several software applications are available on the PC, Mac and Linux platforms for producing HDR files and tone mapped images. Notable titles include
Adobe Photoshop
Aurora HDR
Dynamic Photo HDR
HDR Efex Pro
HDR PhotoStudio
Luminance HDR
MagicRaw
Oloneo PhotoEngine
Photomatix Pro
PTGui
Information stored in high-dynamic-range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors as they should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called scene-referred, in contrast to traditional digital images, which are device-referred or output-referred. Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called gamma encoding or gamma correction. The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges.
HDR images often don't use fixed ranges per color channel—other than traditional images—to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. For that purpose, they don't use integer values to represent the single color channels (e.g., 0-255 in an 8 bit per pixel interval for red, green and blue) but instead use a floating point representation. Common are 16-bit (half precision) or 32-bit floating point numbers to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with a color depth that has as few as 10–12 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.
History of HDR photography
The idea of using several exposures to adequately reproduce a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard methods, as the luminosity range was too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two into one picture in positive.
Mid 20th century
Manual tone mapping was accomplished by dodging and burning – selectively increasing or decreasing the exposure of regions of the photograph to yield better tonality reproduction. This was effective because the dynamic range of the negative is significantly higher than would be available on the finished positive paper print when that is exposed via the negative in a uniform manner. An excellent example is the photograph Schweitzer at the Lamp by W. Eugene Smith, from his 1954 photo essay A Man of Mercy on Dr. Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa. The image took 5 days to reproduce the tonal range of the scene, which ranges from a bright lamp (relative to the scene) to a dark shadow.
Ansel Adams elevated dodging and burning to an art form. Many of his famous prints were manipulated in the darkroom with these two methods. Adams wrote a comprehensive book on producing prints called The Print, which prominently features dodging and burning, in the context of his Zone System.
With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods.
Color film capable of directly recording high-dynamic-range images was developed by Charles Wyckoff and EG&G "in the course of a contract with the Department of the Air Force". This XR film had three emulsion layers, an upper layer having an ASA speed rating of 400, a middle layer with an intermediate rating, and a lower layer with an ASA rating of 0.004. The film was processed in a manner similar to color films, and each layer produced a different color. The dynamic range of this extended range film has been estimated as 1:108. It has been used to photograph nuclear explosions, for astronomical photography, for spectrographic research, and for medical imaging. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of Life magazine in the mid-1950s.
Late 20th century
Georges Cornuéjols and licensees of his patents (Brdi, Hymatom) introduced the principle of HDR video image, in 1986, by interposing a matricial LCD screen in front of the camera's image sensor, increasing the sensors dynamic by five stops. The concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras by a group from the Technion in Israel led by Dr. Oliver Hilsenrath and Prof. Y.Y.Zeevi who filed for a patent on this concept in 1988.
In February and April 1990, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the first real-time HDR camera that combined two images captured by a sensor3435 or simultaneously3637 by two sensors of the camera. This process is known as bracketing used for a video stream.
In 1991, the first commercial video camera was introduced that performed real-time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image, by Hymatom, licensee of Georges Cornuéjols.
Also in 1991, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the HDR+ image principle by non-linear accumulation of images to increase the sensitivity of the camera: for low-light environments, several successive images are accumulated, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.
In 1993, another commercial medical camera producing an HDR video image, by the Technion.
Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic-range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping the result. Global HDR was first introduced in 19931 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard.
On October 28, 1998, Ben Sarao created one of the first nighttime HDR+G (High Dynamic Range + Graphic image)of STS-95 on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. It consisted of four film images of the shuttle at night that were digitally composited with additional digital graphic elements. The image was first exhibited at NASA Headquarters Great Hall, Washington DC in 1999 and then published in Hasselblad Forum, Issue 3 1993, Volume 35 ISSN 0282-5449.
The advent of consumer digital cameras produced a new demand for HDR imaging to improve the light response of digital camera sensors, which had a much smaller dynamic range than film. Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Laboratory. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: (1) generate one floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods); and then (2) convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a lightspace image, lightspace picture, or radiance map. Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.
21st century
In 2005, Adobe Systems introduced several new features in Photoshop CS2 including Merge to HDR, 32 bit floating point image support, and HDR tone mapping.
On June 30, 2016, Microsoft added support for the digital compositing of HDR images to Windows 10 using the Universal Windows Platform.
HDR sensors
Modern CMOS image sensors can often capture a high dynamic range from a single exposure. The wide dynamic range of the captured image is non-linearly compressed into a smaller dynamic range electronic representation. However, with proper processing, the information from a single exposure can be used to create an HDR image.
Such HDR imaging is used in extreme dynamic range applications like welding or automotive work. Some other cameras designed for use in security applications can automatically provide two or more images for each frame, with changing exposure. For example, a sensor for 30fps video will give out 60fps with the odd frames at a short exposure time and the even frames at a longer exposure time. Some of the sensor may even combine the two images on-chip so that a wider dynamic range without in-pixel compression is directly available to the user for display or processing.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-dynamic-range_imaging
Infrared Photography
In infrared photography, the film or image sensor used is sensitive to infrared light. The part of the spectrum used is referred to as near-infrared to distinguish it from far-infrared, which is the domain of thermal imaging. Wavelengths used for photography range from about 700 nm to about 900 nm. Film is usually sensitive to visible light too, so an infrared-passing filter is used; this lets infrared (IR) light pass through to the camera, but blocks all or most of the visible light spectrum (the filter thus looks black or deep red). ("Infrared filter" may refer either to this type of filter or to one that blocks infrared but passes other wavelengths.)
When these filters are used together with infrared-sensitive film or sensors, "in-camera effects" can be obtained; false-color or black-and-white images with a dreamlike or sometimes lurid appearance known as the "Wood Effect," an effect mainly caused by foliage (such as tree leaves and grass) strongly reflecting in the same way visible light is reflected from snow. There is a small contribution from chlorophyll fluorescence, but this is marginal and is not the real cause of the brightness seen in infrared photographs. The effect is named after the infrared photography pioneer Robert W. Wood, and not after the material wood, which does not strongly reflect infrared.
The other attributes of infrared photographs include very dark skies and penetration of atmospheric haze, caused by reduced Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering, respectively, compared to visible light. The dark skies, in turn, result in less infrared light in shadows and dark reflections of those skies from water, and clouds will stand out strongly. These wavelengths also penetrate a few millimeters into skin and give a milky look to portraits, although eyes often look black.
Until the early 20th century, infrared photography was not possible because silver halide emulsions are not sensitive to longer wavelengths than that of blue light (and to a lesser extent, green light) without the addition of a dye to act as a color sensitizer. The first infrared photographs (as distinct from spectrographs) to be published appeared in the February 1910 edition of The Century Magazine and in the October 1910 edition of the Royal Photographic Society Journal to illustrate papers by Robert W. Wood, who discovered the unusual effects that now bear his name. The RPS co-ordinated events to celebrate the centenary of this event in 2010. Wood's photographs were taken on experimental film that required very long exposures; thus, most of his work focused on landscapes. A further set of infrared landscapes taken by Wood in Italy in 1911 used plates provided for him by CEK Mees at Wratten & Wainwright. Mees also took a few infrared photographs in Portugal in 1910, which are now in the Kodak archives.
Infrared-sensitive photographic plates were developed in the United States during World War I for spectroscopic analysis, and infrared sensitizing dyes were investigated for improved haze penetration in aerial photography. After 1930, new emulsions from Kodak and other manufacturers became useful to infrared astronomy.
Infrared photography became popular with photography enthusiasts in the 1930s when suitable film was introduced commercially. The Times regularly published landscape and aerial photographs taken by their staff photographers using Ilford infrared film. By 1937 33 kinds of infrared film were available from five manufacturers including Agfa, Kodak and Ilford. Infrared movie film was also available and was used to create day-for-night effects in motion pictures, a notable example being the pseudo-night aerial sequences in the James Cagney/Bette Davis movie The Bride Came COD.
False-color infrared photography became widely practiced with the introduction of Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film and Ektachrome Infrared EIR. The first version of this, known as Kodacolor Aero-Reversal-Film, was developed by Clark and others at the Kodak for camouflage detection in the 1940s. The film became more widely available in 35mm form in the 1960s but KODAK AEROCHROME III Infrared Film 1443 has been discontinued.
Infrared photography became popular with a number of 1960s recording artists, because of the unusual results; Jimi Hendrix, Donovan, Frank and a slow shutter speed without focus compensation, however wider apertures like f/2.0 can produce sharp photos only if the lens is meticulously refocused to the infrared index mark, and only if this index mark is the correct one for the filter and film in use. However, it should be noted that diffraction effects inside a camera are greater at infrared wavelengths so that stopping down the lens too far may actually reduce sharpness.
Most apochromatic ('APO') lenses do not have an Infrared index mark and do not need to be refocused for the infrared spectrum because they are already optically corrected into the near-infrared spectrum. Catadioptric lenses do not often require this adjustment because their mirror containing elements do not suffer from chromatic aberration and so the overall aberration is comparably less. Catadioptric lenses do, of course, still contain lenses, and these lenses do still have a dispersive property.
Infrared black-and-white films require special development times but development is usually achieved with standard black-and-white film developers and chemicals (like D-76). Kodak HIE film has a polyester film base that is very stable but extremely easy to scratch, therefore special care must be used in the handling of Kodak HIE throughout the development and printing/scanning process to avoid damage to the film. The Kodak HIE film was sensitive to 900 nm.
As of November 2, 2007, "KODAK is preannouncing the discontinuance" of HIE Infrared 35 mm film stating the reasons that, "Demand for these products has been declining significantly in recent years, and it is no longer practical to continue to manufacture given the low volume, the age of the product formulations and the complexity of the processes involved." At the time of this notice, HIE Infrared 135-36 was available at a street price of around $12.00 a roll at US mail order outlets.
Arguably the greatest obstacle to infrared film photography has been the increasing difficulty of obtaining infrared-sensitive film. However, despite the discontinuance of HIE, other newer infrared sensitive emulsions from EFKE, ROLLEI, and ILFORD are still available, but these formulations have differing sensitivity and specifications from the venerable KODAK HIE that has been around for at least two decades. Some of these infrared films are available in 120 and larger formats as well as 35 mm, which adds flexibility to their application. With the discontinuance of Kodak HIE, Efke's IR820 film has become the only IR film on the marketneeds update with good sensitivity beyond 750 nm, the Rollei film does extend beyond 750 nm but IR sensitivity falls off very rapidly.
Color infrared transparency films have three sensitized layers that, because of the way the dyes are coupled to these layers, reproduce infrared as red, red as green, and green as blue. All three layers are sensitive to blue so the film must be used with a yellow filter, since this will block blue light but allow the remaining colors to reach the film. The health of foliage can be determined from the relative strengths of green and infrared light reflected; this shows in color infrared as a shift from red (healthy) towards magenta (unhealthy). Early color infrared films were developed in the older E-4 process, but Kodak later manufactured a color transparency film that could be developed in standard E-6 chemistry, although more accurate results were obtained by developing using the AR-5 process. In general, color infrared does not need to be refocused to the infrared index mark on the lens.
In 2007 Kodak announced that production of the 35 mm version of their color infrared film (Ektachrome Professional Infrared/EIR) would cease as there was insufficient demand. Since 2011, all formats of color infrared film have been discontinued. Specifically, Aerochrome 1443 and SO-734.
There is no currently available digital camera that will produce the same results as Kodak color infrared film although the equivalent images can be produced by taking two exposures, one infrared and the other full-color, and combining in post-production. The color images produced by digital still cameras using infrared-pass filters are not equivalent to those produced on color infrared film. The colors result from varying amounts of infrared passing through the color filters on the photo sites, further amended by the Bayer filtering. While this makes such images unsuitable for the kind of applications for which the film was used, such as remote sensing of plant health, the resulting color tonality has proved popular artistically.
Color digital infrared, as part of full spectrum photography is gaining popularity. The ease of creating a softly colored photo with infrared characteristics has found interest among hobbyists and professionals.
In 2008, Los Angeles photographer, Dean Bennici started cutting and hand rolling Aerochrome color Infrared film. All Aerochrome medium and large format which exists today came directly from his lab. The trend in infrared photography continues to gain momentum with the success of photographer Richard Mosse and multiple users all around the world.
Digital camera sensors are inherently sensitive to infrared light, which would interfere with the normal photography by confusing the autofocus calculations or softening the image (because infrared light is focused differently from visible light), or oversaturating the red channel. Also, some clothing is transparent in the infrared, leading to unintended (at least to the manufacturer) uses of video cameras. Thus, to improve image quality and protect privacy, many digital cameras employ infrared blockers. Depending on the subject matter, infrared photography may not be practical with these cameras because the exposure times become overly long, often in the range of 30 seconds, creating noise and motion blur in the final image. However, for some subject matter the long exposure does not matter or the motion blur effects actually add to the image. Some lenses will also show a 'hot spot' in the centre of the image as their coatings are optimised for visible light and not for IR.
An alternative method of DSLR infrared photography is to remove the infrared blocker in front of the sensor and replace it with a filter that removes visible light. This filter is behind the mirror, so the camera can be used normally - handheld, normal shutter speeds, normal composition through the viewfinder, and focus, all work like a normal camera. Metering works but is not always accurate because of the difference between visible and infrared refraction. When the IR blocker is removed, many lenses which did display a hotspot cease to do so, and become perfectly usable for infrared photography. Additionally, because the red, green and blue micro-filters remain and have transmissions not only in their respective color but also in the infrared, enhanced infrared color may be recorded.
Since the Bayer filters in most digital cameras absorb a significant fraction of the infrared light, these cameras are sometimes not very sensitive as infrared cameras and can sometimes produce false colors in the images. An alternative approach is to use a Foveon X3 sensor, which does not have absorptive filters on it; the Sigma SD10 DSLR has a removable IR blocking filter and dust protector, which can be simply omitted or replaced by a deep red or complete visible light blocking filter. The Sigma SD14 has an IR/UV blocking filter that can be removed/installed without tools. The result is a very sensitive digital IR camera.
While it is common to use a filter that blocks almost all visible light, the wavelength sensitivity of a digital camera without internal infrared blocking is such that a variety of artistic results can be obtained with more conventional filtration. For example, a very dark neutral density filter can be used (such as the Hoya ND400) which passes a very small amount of visible light compared to the near-infrared it allows through. Wider filtration permits an SLR viewfinder to be used and also passes more varied color information to the sensor without necessarily reducing the Wood effect. Wider filtration is however likely to reduce other infrared artefacts such as haze penetration and darkened skies. This technique mirrors the methods used by infrared film photographers where black-and-white infrared film was often used with a deep red filter rather than a visually opaque one.
Another common technique with near-infrared filters is to swap blue and red channels in software (e.g. photoshop) which retains much of the characteristic 'white foliage' while rendering skies a glorious blue.
Several Sony cameras had the so-called Night Shot facility, which physically moves the blocking filter away from the light path, which makes the cameras very sensitive to infrared light. Soon after its development, this facility was 'restricted' by Sony to make it difficult for people to take photos that saw through clothing. To do this the iris is opened fully and exposure duration is limited to long times of more than 1/30 second or so. It is possible to shoot infrared but neutral density filters must be used to reduce the camera's sensitivity and the long exposure times mean that care must be taken to avoid camera-shake artifacts.
Fuji have produced digital cameras for use in forensic criminology and medicine which have no infrared blocking filter. The first camera, designated the S3 PRO UVIR, also had extended ultraviolet sensitivity (digital sensors are usually less sensitive to UV than to IR). Optimum UV sensitivity requires special lenses, but ordinary lenses usually work well for IR. In 2007, FujiFilm introduced a new version of this camera, based on the Nikon D200/ FujiFilm S5 called the IS Pro, also able to take Nikon lenses. Fuji had earlier introduced a non-SLR infrared camera, the IS-1, a modified version of the FujiFilm FinePix S9100. Unlike the S3 PRO UVIR, the IS-1 does not offer UV sensitivity. FujiFilm restricts the sale of these cameras to professional users with their EULA specifically prohibiting "unethical photographic conduct".
Phase One digital camera backs can be ordered in an infrared modified form.
Remote sensing and thermographic cameras are sensitive to longer wavelengths of infrared (see Infrared spectrum#Commonly used sub-division scheme). They may be multispectral and use a variety of technologies which may not resemble common camera or filter designs. Cameras sensitive to longer infrared wavelengths including those used in infrared astronomy often require cooling to reduce thermally induced dark currents in the sensor (see Dark current (physics)). Lower cost uncooled thermographic digital cameras operate in the Long Wave infrared band (see Thermographic camera#Uncooled infrared detectors). These cameras are generally used for building inspection or preventative maintenance but can be used for artistic pursuits as well.