Is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe and the senior member of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark borders both the Baltic and the North Sea. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland (Jylland) and many islands, most notably Zealand (Sjælland), Funen (Fyn), Vendsyssel-Thy, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago. Denmark has long controlled the approach to the Baltic Sea; before the digging of the Kiel Canal water passage to the Baltic was possible only through the three channels known as the "Danish straits".

Denmark is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. Denmark has a state-level government and local governments in 98 municipalities. Denmark has been a member of the European Union since 1973, although it has not joined the Eurozone. Denmark is a founding member of NATO and the OECD.

Denmark, with a mixed market capitalist economy and a large welfare state, ranks as having the world's highest level of income equality. Denmark has the best business climate in the world, according to the U.S. business magazine Forbes. From 2006 to 2008, surveys ranked Denmark as "the happiest place in the world," based on standards of health, welfare, and education. The 2009 Global Peace Index survey ranks Denmark as the second most peaceful country in the world, after New Zealand. Denmark was ranked as the least corrupt country in the world in the 2008 Corruption Perceptions Index, sharing a top position with Sweden and New Zealand.

The national language, Danish, is close to Swedish and Norwegian, with which it shares strong cultural and historical ties. 82.0% of the inhabitants of Denmark and 90.3% of the ethnic Danes are members of the Lutheran state church. As of 2009, 526,000 persons (9.5 % of the Danish population) were either immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants. Most of these (54%) have their origins in Scandinavia or elsewhere in Europe, while the remainder originate mainly from a wide range of Asian countries.

 

Etymology

The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a single Kingdom is a subject that attracts some debate. The debate is centered primarily around the prefix 'Dan' and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. The issue is further complicated by a number of references to various Dani people in Scandinavia or other places in Europe in ancient Greek and Roman accounts (like Ptolemy, Jordanes, and Gregory of Tours), as well as some medieval literature (like Adam of Bremen, Beowulf, Widsith, and Poetic Edda).

Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning "flat land", related to German Tenne "threshing floor", English den "cave", Sanskrit dhánuṣ- (धनुस्; "desert"). The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland (see marches), with probable references to the border forests in south Schleswig, maybe similar to Finnmark, Telemark, or Dithmarschen.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Denmark

 

Geography

Denmark is located in Western Europe (it is one of the Nordic countries) on the Jutland peninsula and several islands in the Baltic sea. It sidelines both the (Baltic Sea) and the North Sea along its 7,987 km coastline. Its size is comparable to that of Nova Scotia. Denmark has a 68 km border with Germany. Denmark experiences a temperate climate. This means that the winters are mild and windy and the summers are cool. The local terrain is generally flat with a few gently rolling plains. The territory of Denmark includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Its position gives Denmark complete control of the Danish Straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking Baltic and North Seas. The country's natural resources include Petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, stone, gravel and sand.

 

Oficial name:

Kongeriget Danmark

Kongeriget Danmark

deu: Königreich Dänemark / Königreich Dänemark

fao: Kongsríkið Danmark

kal: Kunngeqarfik Danmarki

 

Consolidation:

Pre-historic

 

Area:

43.098km2

 

Inhabitants:

6.000.000

 

Language:

Danish [dan] 5,000,000 in Denmark (1980). Population total all countries: 5,299,756. Also spoken in Canada, Germany, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, United Arab Emirates, USA. Alternate names: Dansk, Central Danish, Sjaelland. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, North, East Scandinavian, Danish-Swedish, Danish-Riksmal, Danish

More information.

 

Danish Sign Language [dsl] 3,500 (1986 Gallaudet Univ.). Dialects: Some signs are related to French Sign Language. Intelligible with Swedish and Norwegian sign languages with only moderate difficulty. Not intelligible with Finnish Sign Language. Classification: Deaf sign language

More information.

 

Faroese [fao] 45,400 (2001). Faroe Islands. Alternate names: Føroyskt. Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with Icelandic. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, North, West Scandinavian

More information.

 

German, Standard [deu] 23,000 in Denmark (1976 Stephens). North Slesvig (Sydjylland). Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, German, Middle German, East Middle German

More information.

 

Inuktitut, Greenlandic [kal] 7,000 on Denmark mainland (1990 L. D. Kaplan). Alternate names: Greenlandic, Kalaallisut. Classification: Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Inuit

More information.

 

Jutish [jut] German-Danish border area, Southern Jutland on the Danish side, and in northern Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Also spoken in Germany. Alternate names: Jutlandish, Jysk, Western Danish. Dialects: The westernmost and southernmost dialects differ so much from Standard Danish that many people from the Eastern Islands have great difficulty understanding it. From the viewpoint of inherent intelligibility, it could be considered a separate language (Norbert Strade). Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, North, East Scandinavian, Danish-Swedish, Danish-Riksmal, Danish

More information.

 

Scanian [scy] Bornholm Island. Alternate names: Skane, Skånska, Eastern Danish, Southern Swedish. Dialects: Hallaendska, Skånska, Blekingska, Bornholm. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, North, East Scandinavian, Danish-Swedish, Swedish

More information.

 

Traveller Danish [rmd] Alternate names: Rodi, Rotwelsch. Dialects: An independent language based on Danish with heavy lexical borrowing from Northern Romani. Not inherently intelligible with Angloromani. It may be intelligible with Traveller Norwegian and Traveller Swedish. Classification: Mixed Language, Danish-Romani

 

Capital city:

Copenhagen

 

Meaning country name:

From the native name, Danmark, meaning "march (i.e., borderland) of the Danes", the dominant people of the region since ancient times. Origin of the tribal name is unknown, but one theory derives it from PIE dhen "low" or "flat", presumably in reference to the lowland nature of most of the country.

 

Description Flag:

The national flag of Denmark, the Dannebrog, is red with a white Scandinavian cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. The cross design of the Danish flag was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries: Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Iceland. During the Danish-Norwegian personal union, the Dannebrog was also the flag of Norway and continued to be, with slight modifications, until Norway adopted its current flag in 1821.

The Dannebrog is the oldest state flag in the world still in use, with the earliest undisputed source dating back to the 14th century. Prior to the use of the Dannebrog, Danish forces were known to have used the raven banner.

 

Coat of arms:

The National Coat of Arms of Denmark consists of three crowned blue lions accompanied by nine red hearts, all in a golden shield. The oldest known depiction of the insignia dates from a seal used by King Canute VI c. 1194. The oldest documentation for the colours dates from c. 1270.[1] Historically, the lions faced the viewer and the number of hearts was not regulated and could be much higher. Historians believe that the hearts originally were søblade (literally: sea-leaves) but that this meaning was lost early due to worn and crudely made signets used during the Middle Ages. A royal decree of 1972 specifies these figures as søblade but Danes normally refer to them as hearts. The current version was adopted in 1819 during the reign of King Frederick VI who fixed the number of hearts to nine and decreed that the heraldic beasts were lions, consequently facing forward. A rare version exists from the reign of king Eric of Pomerania in which the three lions jointly hold the Danish banner, in a similar fashion as in the coat of arms of the former South Jutland County. Until c. 1960, Denmark used both a "small" and a "large" coat of arms, similar to the system still used in Sweden. The latter symbol held wide use within the government administration, e.g. by the Foreign Ministry. Since this time, the latter symbol has been classified as the coat of arms of the royal family, leaving Denmark with only one national coat of arms, used for all official purposes.

The crown on the shield is a heraldic construction based on the crown of King Christian V, not to be confused with the crown of King Christian IV. The main difference from the real crown is that the latter is covered with table cut diamonds rather than pearls. Both crowns, and other royal insignia, are located in Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen.

The blazon in heraldic terms is: Or, three lions passant in pale Azure crowned and armed Or langued Gules, nine hearts Gules.

This insignia is almost identical to the coats of arms of Estonia and Tallinn which can both be traced directly back to King Valdemar II and the Danish rule in northern Estonia 1219-1346. The main differences are as follows: In the Danish coat of arms the lions are crowned, face forward, and accompanied by nine hearts. In the Estonian coat of arms, the "leopards" face the viewer, they are not crowned, and no hearts are present. The coat of arms of Tallinn resembles the Estonian arms, but the leopards in the former arms are crowned with golden crowns[3] similar to the ones in the Danish arms. It shows great similarities with the contemporary insignia of England's Richard the Lionheart and the current arms of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. The Danish coat of arms has also been the inspiration for the coat of arms of the former Duchy of Schleswig, a former Danish province (two blue lions in a golden shield.) The hearts of the coat of arms also appear in the coat of arms of the German district of Lüneburg.

 

Motto:

Royal motto: "Guds hjælp, Folkets kærlighed, Danmarks styrke"

"The Help of God, the Love of the People, the Strength of Denmark"

 

National Anthem: Der er et yndigt land

 

Der er et yndigt land,

det står med brede bøge

nær salten østerstrand :|

Det bugter sig i bakke, dal,

det hedder gamle Danmark

og det er Frejas sal :|

Der sad i fordums tid

de harniskklædte kæmper,

udhvilede fra strid :|

Så drog de frem til fjenders mén,

nu hvile deres bene

bag højens bautasten :|

Det land endnu er skønt,

thi blå sig søen bælter,

og løvet står så grønt :|

Og ædle kvinder, skønne mø'r

og mænd og raske svende

bebo de danskes øer :|

Hil drot og fædreland!

Hil hver en danneborger,

som virker, hvad han kan! :|

Vort gamle Danmark skal bestå,

så længe bøgen spejler

sin top i bølgen blå :|

 

The whole version of the Danish national anthem, but it's only the four verses above which are sung.

 

Der er et yndigt land,

det står med brede bøge

nær salten østerstrand;

det bugter sig i bakke, dal,

det hedder gamle Danmark,

og det er Frejas sal.

Der sad i fordums tid

de harniskklædte kæmper,

udhvilede fra strid;

så drog de frem til fjenders men,

nu hviler deres bene

bag højens bautasten.

Det land endnu er skønt,

thi blå sig søen bælter,

og løvet står så grønt;

og ædle kvinder, skønne mør,

og mænd og raske svende

bebor de danske øer.

Vort sprog er stærkt og blødt,

vor tro er ren og lutret

og modet er ej dødt.

Og hver en dansk er lige fri,

hver lyder tro sin konge,

men trældom er forbi.

Et venligt syd i nord

er, grønne Danarige,

din aksbeklædte jord.

Og snekken går sin stolte vej.

Hvor plov og kølen furer,

der svigter håbet ej.

Vort Dannebrog er smukt,

det vifter hen ad havet

med flagets røde bugt.

Og stedse har sin farve hvid

dit hellige kors i blodet,

o Dannebrog, i strid.

Karsk er den danskes ånd,

den hader fordoms lænker,

og sværmeriets bånd.

For venskab åben, kold for spot,

slår ærlig jydes hjerte,

for pige, land og drot.

Jeg bytter Danmark ej

for Ruslands vinterørkner,

for sydens blomstermaj.

Ej pest og slanger kender vi,

ej Vesterlandets tungsind,

ej Østens raseri.

Vor tid ej står i dunst,

den hævet har sin stemme

for videnskab og kunst.

Ej Brages og ej Mimers råb

har vakt i lige strækning

et bedre fremtids håb.

Ej stor, vor fødestavn,

dog hæver sig blandt stæder

dit stolte København.

Til bedre by ej havet kom,

ja ingen flod i dalen,

fra Trondhjem og til Rom.

Med hellig varetægt

bevare du, Alfader!

vor gamle kongeslægt.

Kong Fredrik ligner Fredegod;

hvor er en bedre fyrste,

af bedre helteblod?

Hil drot og fædreland!

hil hver en danneborger,

som virker hvad han kan.

Vort gamle Danmark skal bestå,

sålænge bøgen spejler

sin top i bølgen blå.

  

Literal translation

 

There is a lovely country

it stands with broad beeches

near the salty eastern beach

It winds itself in hill, valley,

it is called old Denmark

and it is Freja's hall

There sat in former times,

the armour-suited warriors,

rested from conflict

Then they journeyed forwards to their enemies' injury,

now their bones are resting

behind the mound's menhir

That country is still lovely,

because the sea waves so blue frolic,

and the foliage stands so green

And noble women, beautiful maidens,

and men and brisk swains

inhabit the Danes' islands

Hail king and native country!

Hail every a Dane-citizen,

who works, what he can

Our old Denmark shall endure,

as long the beech reflects

its top in the blue wave

 

Royal Anthem: Kong Kristian

 

Kong Kristian stod ved højen mast

i røg og damp;

hans værge hamrede så fast,

at gotens hjelm og hjerne brast.

Da sank hvert fjendtligt spejl og mast

i røg og damp.

Fly, skreg de, fly, hvad flygte kan!

hvo står for Danmarks Kristian

hvo står for Danmarks Kristian

i kamp?

Niels Juel gav agt på stormens brag.

Nu er det tid.

Han hejsede det røde flag

og slog på fjenden slag i slag.

Da skreg de højt blandt stormens brag:

Nu er det tid!

Fly, skreg de, hver, som véd et skjul!

hvo kan bestå mod Danmarks Juel

hvo kan bestå mod Danmarks Juel

i strid?

O, Nordhav! Glimt af Wessel brød

din mørke sky.

Da ty'de kæmper til dit skød;

thi med ham lynte skræk og død.

Fra vallen hørtes vrål, som brød

den tykke sky.

Fra Danmark lyner Tordenskjold;

hver give sig i himlens vold

hver give sig i himlens vold

og fly!

Du danskes vej til ros og magt,

sortladne hav!

Modtag din ven, som uforsagt

tør møde faren med foragt

så stolt som du mod stormens magt,

sortladne hav!

Og rask igennem larm og spil

og kamp og sejer før mig til

og kamp og sejer før mig til

min grav!

 

English translation

  

King Kristian stood by the lofty mast

In mist and smoke;

His sword was hammering so fast,

Through Gothic helm and brain it passed;

Then sank each hostile hulk and mast,

In mist and smoke.

"Fly!" shouted they, "fly, he who can!

Who braves of Denmark's Kristian,

Who braves of Denmark's Kristian,

In battle?"

Nils Juel gave heed to the tempest's roar,

Now is the hour!

He hoisted his blood-red flag once more,

And smote upon the foe full sore,

And shouted loud, through the tempest's roar,

"Now is the hour!"

"Fly!" shouted they, "for shelter fly!

Of Denmark's Juel who can defy,

Of Denmark's Juel who can defy,

The power?"

North Sea! a glimpse of Wessel rent

Thy murky sky!

Then champions to thine arms were sent;

Terror and Death glared where he went;

From the waves was heard a wail, that rent

Thy murky sky!

From Denmark thunders Tordenskiol',

Let each to Heaven commend his soul,

Let each to Heaven commend his soul,

And fly!

Path of the Dane to fame and might!

Dark-rolling wave!

Receive thy friend, who, scorning flight,

Goes to meet danger with despite,

Proudly as thou the tempest's might,

Dark-rolling wave!

And amid pleasures and alarms,

And war and victory, be thine arms,

And war and victory, be thine arms,

My grave!

 

Internet Page: www.denmark.dk

www.visitdenmark.com

www.dt.dk

 

Danmark in diferent languages

 

eng | hau | jav: Denmark

bre | cor | dan | ina | nor | swe: Danmark

cos | ita | lld-bad | rup | scn | srd: Danimarca

ast | cat | glg | por | spa: Dinamarca

eus | mlt | sqi | tur | zza: Danimarka

gag | kaa | uzb: Daniya / Дания

hrv | hsb | slv: Danska

pap | tet | tgl: Dinamarka

aze | crh: Danimarka / Данимарка

ces | slk: Dánsko

deu | ltz: Dänemark / Dänemark

est | vor: Taani

fra | lin: Danemark

ind | msa: Denmark / دينمارك

kin | run: Danemarke

lat | pol: Dania

oci | roh: Danemarc

afr: Denemarke

arg: Dinamarca; Denamarca

bam: Danimaraki

bos: Danska / Данска

csb: Dëńskô

cym: Denmarc

dsb: Dańska

epo: Danujo; Danio

fao: Danmørk

fin: Tanska

frp: Danemârc

fry: Denemark

fur: Danimarche

gla: An Danmhairg; An Danmhairc

gle: An Danmhairg / An Danṁairg

glv: Yn Danvarg

hat: Dànmak

haw: Kenemaka

hun: Dánia

ibo: Denmak

isl: Danmörk

jnf: Dannemar

kal: Qallunaat Nunaat; Danmarki

kmr: Danmark / Данмарк / دانمارک

kur: Danmark / دانمارک; Danêmark / دانێمارک; Denîmerke / دەنیمەرکە; Denîmark / دەنیمارک

lav: Dānija

lim: Daenemark

lit: Danija

liv: Dēņmō

lld-grd: Denemarch

lug: Denmarki

mlg: Danemarka

mol: Danemarca / Данемарка

mri: Tenemāka

nah: Tanmac

nds: Däänmark / Däänmark

nld: Denemarken

non: Danmǫrk

nrm: Dannemâr

que: Dansuyu; Danmarka

rmy: Danemarka / दानेमार्का

ron: Danemarca

slo: Danzem / Данзем

sme: Dánmárku

smg: Danėjė

smo: Tenimaka

som: Danmaark

swa: Udenmarki

szl: Dańja

ton: Tenimaʻake

tuk: Daniýa / Дания

vie: Đan Mạch

vol: Danän

wln: Daenmåtche

wol: Danmaark

zul: iDenemaka

chu: Донь (Donĭ)

abq | alt | bul | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Дания (Danija)

che | chv | mon | oss: Дани (Dani)

bak: Дания / Daniya

bel: Данія / Danija

chm: Даний (Danij)

kaz: Дания / Danïya / دانيا

kbd: Дание (Danie)

mkd: Данска (Danska)

srp: Данска / Danska

tat: Дания / Daniä; Дәнмарк / Dänmark

tgk: Дания / دنیه / Danija

ukr: Данія (Danija)

xal: Дань (Dan')

ara: الدانمارك (ad-Dānmārk); الدانمرك (ad-Dānmark); الدنمارك (ad-Danmārk)

fas: دانمارک (Dānmārk)

prs: دنمارک (Danmārk)

pus: ډنمارک (Ḋanmārk); دنمارک (Danmārk); ډېنمارک (Ḋenmārk)

uig: دانىيە / Daniye / Дания

urd: ڈنمارک (Ḋanmārk); ڈینمارک (Ḋænmārk)

div: ޑެންމާކް (Ḋenmāk)

syr: ܕܢܡܪܟ (Denmark)

heb: דניה (Denyah / Danyah); דאניה (Dânyah); דנמרק (Denmarq / Danmarq); דנמארק (Denmârq); דאנמארק (Dânmârq)

lad: דינאמארקה / Dinamarka

yid: דענמאַרק (Denmark)

amh: ዴንማርክ (Denmark); ደንማርክ (Dänmark)

tir: ዳንማርክ (Danmark)

ell: Δανία (Danía)

hye: Դանիա (Dania)

kat: დანია (Dania)

hin: डेनमार्क (Ḍenmārk)

ben: ডেনমার্ক (Ḍenmārk); ডেন্মার্ক (Ḍenmārk)

pan: ਡੈਨਮਾਰਕ (Ḍænmārk)

kan: ಡೆನ್ಮಾರ್ಕ್ (Ḍenmārk)

mal: ഡെന്മാര്ക്ക് (Ḍenmārkk)

tam: டென்மார்க் (Ṭeṉmārk)

tel: డెన్మార్క్ (Ḍenmārk)

zho: 丹麥/丹麦 (Dānmài)

yue: 丹麥/丹麦 (Dàanmahk)

jpn: デンマーク (Denmāku)

kor: 덴마크 (Denmakeu)

bod: དན་མྲག་ (Dan.mrag.); དན་མེ་ (Dan.me.); དེན་མེ་ (Den.me.); ཏན་མེ་ (Tan.me.)

dzo: ཌེན་མཱཀ་ (Ḍen.māk.)

mya: ဒိန္းမတ္ (Deĩmaʿ)

tha: เดนมาร์ก (Dēnmā[r]k)

lao: ແດນມາກ (Dǣnmāk)

khm: ដាណឺម៉ាក (Dāṇʉ̄māk)

 

Is the largest country in South America and the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area and the fifth most populous country in the world.

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi).[ It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's eighth largest economy by nominal GDP and the ninth largest by purchasing power parity. Economic reforms have given the country new international recognition. Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, Mercosul and the Union of South American Nations, and is one of the BRIC Countries. Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats

 

History

Portuguese colonization and territorial expansion

The land now called Brazil (the origin of whose name is disputed), was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered stone age natives divided into several tribes, most of whom shared the same Tupi-Guarani linguistic family, and fought among themselves.

Colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies, but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony. The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity. By the mid 16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important export and the Portuguese imported African slaves to cope with the increasing international demand.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, taking São Luís in 1615. They sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered British and Dutch strongholds, founding villages and forts from 1669. In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day Uruguay).

At the end of the 17th century sugar exports started to decline but the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) around 1693, and in the following decades in current Mato Grosso and Goiás, saved the colony from imminent collapse. From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines.

The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, and succeeded in conquering the Eastern Strip in 1777. However, this was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian borders.

In 1808, the Portuguese royal family, fleeing the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I that were invading Portugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became the seat of the entire Portuguese Empire. In 1815 Dom João VI, then regent on behalf of his incapacitated mother, elevated Brazil from colony to sovereign Kingdom united with Portugal. In 1809 the Portuguese invaded French Guiana (which was returned to France in 1817) and in 1816 the Eastern Strip, subsequently renamed Cisplatina.

 

Independence and empire

 

King João VI returned to Europe on 26 April 1821, leaving his elder son Prince Pedro de Alcântara as regent to rule Brazil. The Portuguese government attempted to turn Brazil into a colony once again, thus depriving it of its achievements since 1808. The Brazilians refused to yield and Prince Pedro stood by them declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. On 12 October 1822, Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil and crowned Dom Pedro I on 1 December 1822.

At that time almost all Brazilians were in favor of a monarchy and republicanism had little support. The subsequent Brazilian War of Independence spread through almost the entire territory, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions. The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824 and independence was recognized by Portugal on 29 August 1825.

The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on 25 March 1824, after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country. Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown, leaving behind his five year old son and heir, who was to become Dom Pedro II. As the new emperor could not exert his constitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.

Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency. The rebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy, even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics, but only so long as Pedro II was a minor. Because of this, Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress."

Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the War of the Triple Alliance) and witnessed the consolidation of representative democracy, mainly due to successive elections and unrestricted freedom of the press. Most importantly, slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that began with the end of the international traffic in slaves in 1850 and ended with the complete abolition of slavery in 1888.The slave population had been in decline since Brazil's independence: in 1823, 29% of the Brazilian population were slaves but by 1887 this had fallen to 5%.

When the monarchy was overthrown on 15 November 1889 there was little desire in Brazil to change the form of government and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects. However, he "bore prime, perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow." After the death of his two sons, Pedro believed that "the imperial regime was destined to end with him." He cared little for the regime's fate and so neither did anything, nor allowed anyone else to do anything, to prevent the military coup, backed by former slave owners who resented the abolition of slavery.

 

States and municipalities

 

Brazil is a federation composed of twenty-six States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and municipalities. States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be voted by the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.

The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the application of federal funds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government. Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).

 

Geography

 

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior, sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every country in South America except for Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China and the United States, and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of 8,514,876.599 square kilometers (3,287,612 sq mi), including 55,455 square kilometers (21,411 sq mi) of water. It spans three time zones; from UTC-4 in the western states, to UTC-3 in the eastern states (and the official time of Brazil), and UTC-2 in the Atlantic islands.

Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation. The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country. The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar. In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 3,014 metres (9,890 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.

Brazil has a dense and complete system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic. Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.

 

Other Infos

Oficial name:

Republica Federativa do Brasil

 

Independence:

Declared September 7, 1822

- Recognized August 29, 1825

- Republic November 15, 1889

 

Area:

8.514.816 km2

 

Inhabitants:

182.670.000

 

Dialects:

Agavotaguerra,Amahuaca ,Amanayé ,Amapá Creole ,Amikoana ,Amundava ,Anambé ,Apalaí,Apiacá ,Apinayé ,Apurinã ,Arapaso ,Arára,Araweté ,Parakanã ,Tapirapé,Arikapú ,Aruá ,Arutani ,Ashéninka ,Asuriní ,Asuriní,Atorada ,Atruahí ,Aurá ,Avá-Canoeiro ,Awetí ,Bakairí ,Banawá ,Baniwa ,Borôro ,Brazilian Sign Language ,Cafundo Creole ,Caló ,Canela ,Carib ,Carútana ,Cashinahua ,Chiripá ,Cinta Larga ,Cocama-Cocamilla ,Cubeo ,Culina ,Curripaco ,Dâw ,Dení ,Desano ,Enawené-Nawé ,Fulniô ,Gavião do Jiparaná ,Gavião, ,Guajá ,Guajajára ,Guanano Guaraní, Mbyá ,Guarequena ,Guató ,Hixkaryána,Hupdë ,Iapama ,Ikpeng ,Ingarikó ,Ipeka-Tapuia Irántxe ,Jabutí ,Jamamadí Jaruára ,Júma ,Jurúna ,Kabixí ,Kadiwéu ,Kaingáng ,Kaiwá ,Kamayurá ,Kanamarí ,Karahawyana ,Karajá ,Karapanã ,Karipuná ,Karipúna Creole French ,Karitiâna ,Karo ,Katawixi ,Katukína ,Katukína, Panoan ,Kaxararí ,Kaxuiâna Kayabí ,Kayapó ,Kohoroxitari ,Korubo ,Krahô ,Kreen-Akarore ,Krenak ,Kreye ,Krikati-Timbira Kuikúro-Kalapálo ,Kuruáya ,Machinere ,Macuna ,Macushi ,Makuráp ,Mandahuaca ,Mapidian Maquiritari ,Marúbo ,Matipuhy ,Matís ,Matsés ,Maxakalí ,Mehináku ,Miarrã ,Miraña ,Mondé ,Morerebi ,Mundurukú ,Nadëb ,Nambikuára, Northern ,Nambikuára, Nhengatu ,Ninam ,Ofayé ,Omagua .Oro Win ,Pakaásnovos ,Palikúr ,Papavô ,Parakanã ,Parecís ,Paumarí ,Pemon ,Pirahã ,Piratapuyo,

Plautdietsch ,Pokangá ,Portuguese, Poyanáwa ,Puruborá ,Rikbaktsa, Sabanês ,Sakirabiá ,Salumá ,Sanumá ,Sateré-Mawé , Sharanahua ,Sikiana ,Siriano ,Suruahá ,Suruí ,Suruí do Pará ,Suyá ,Tapirapé ,Tariano ,Tembé, ,Tenharim ,Terêna ,Ticuna ,Torá ,Tremembé, Trumaí ,Tubarão ,Tucano ,Tuparí ,Tuyuca ,Urubú-Kaapor ,Urubú-Kaapor ,Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau ,Uru-Pa-In ,Waimaha ,Waiwai ,Wapishana ,Waurá ,Wayampi ,Wayana ,Wayoró ,Xavánte ,Xerénte ,Xetá Xipaya ,Xiriâna ,Xokleng ,Yaminahua ,Yanomámi ,Yanomamö ,Yawanawa,Yuhup ,Yurutí ,Zo'é.

 

Capital city:

Brasilia

 

Meaning of the Country name:

Named after the brazilwood tree, so-named because its reddish wood resembled the color of red-hot embers (brasil in Portuguese). In Tupi it is called "ibirapitanga", which means literally 'red wood'. The wood of the tree was used to color clothes and fabrics.

Another theory stands that the name of the country is related to the Irish myth of Hy-Brazil, a phantom island similar to St. Brendan's Island, situated southwest of Ireland. The legend was so strong that during the 15th century many expeditions tried to find it, the most important being John Cabot. As the Brazilian lands were reached by Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 A.D., the Irish myth would have influenced the late name given to the country (after "Island of Real Cross" and "Land of Holy Cross"). The proof that the legend was popular among Iberic people may be verified by the name of the Azorean Terceira Island, registered in the 14th century in the Atlas Catalan and around 1436 on the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco.

 

Description Flag:

Brazil's current flag was inspired by the flag of the former Brazilian Empire. On the imperial flag, the green represented the Imperial House of Braganza of Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil, and the yellow represented the Habsburg Imperial Family of Empress Leopoldina, Pedro I's first wife. Thus, green and yellow are the colours of the Families of origin of the first imperial couple, founders of the Brazilian monarchy. The centre of the old imperial flag bore the Imperial Coat of Arms.

The Empire Flag, September 18, 1822–November 15, 1889On the modern republican flag, the coat of arms has been replaced by the blue circle, which depicts the sky over Rio de Janeiro on the morning of November 15, 1889 – the day the Republic of Brazil was declared. It is shown as seen from outside of the celestial sphere (i.e. the view is mirrored).

The stars, whose position in the flag reflect the sky above Rio de Janeiro on November 15, 1889, represent the union's member-states - each star representing a specific state (which is not the case of the stars in the flag of the United States). The number of stars changes with the creation of new states and, since the early days of the republic, has risen from an original 21 stars to the current 27, standing for the 26 states and the Federal District.

The star that represents the Federal District is Sigma Octantis, a star whose position near the south celestial pole makes it visible across almost the whole country, all year round. In addition, given its polar position, all the other stars depicted on the flag trace appear to rotate around Sigma Octantis. Choosing this star to represent Brazil's capital is therefore particularly apt (although it is a much fainter star than any of the others).

The motto Ordem e Progresso ("Order and Progress") is inspired by Auguste Comte's motto of positivism: L’amour pour principe et l’ordre pour base; le progrès pour but ("Love as a principle and order as the basis; progress as the goal"). It was inserted due to the fact that several of the people involved in the military coup d'état that deposed the monarchy and proclaimed Brazil a republic were followers of the ideas of Comte's thought.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of arms of Brazil was created in November 19, 1889, 4 days after Brazil became a republic.

The coat of arms consists of the central emblem surrounded by coffee (at the left) and tobacco (at the right) branches, which are important crops in Brazil.

In the blue circle in the center, the Southern Cross (also known as Crux) can be seen. The ring of 27 stars around it represents Brazil's 26 states and 1 federal district.

The blue ribbon contains the official name of Brazil (República Federativa do Brasil — Federative Republic of Brazil) in its first line. In the second line, the date of the federative republic's establishment (November 15, 1889) is written.

  

Motto:

"Order and Progress"

 

National Anthem: Brazilian national anthem

  

Tupi Language

 

Embeyba Ypiranga sui, pitúua,

Ocendu kirimbáua sacemossú

Cuaracy picirungára, cendyua,

Retama yuakaupé, berabussú.

 

Cepy quá iauessáua sui ramé,

Itayiuá irumo, iraporepy,

Mumutara sáua, ne pyá upé,

I manossáua oiko iané cepy.

 

Iassalssú ndê,

Oh moetéua

Auê, Auê !

 

Brasil ker pi upé, cuaracyáua,

Caissú í saarússáua sui ouié,

Marecê, ne yuakaupé, poranga.

Ocenipuca Curussa iepé !

 

Turussú reikô, ara rupí, teen,

Ndê poranga, i santáua, ticikyié

Ndê cury quá mbaé-ussú omeen.

 

Yby moetéua,

Ndê remundú,

Reikô Brasil,

Ndê, iyaissú !

 

Mira quá yuy sui sy catú,

Ndê, ixaissú, Brasil!

 

Ienotyua catú pupé reicô,

Memê, paráteapú, quá ara upé,

Ndê recendy, potyr America sui.

I Cuaracy omucendy iané !

 

Inti orecó purangáua pyré

Ndê nhu soryssára omeen potyra pyré,

ìCicué pyré orecó iané caaussúî.

Iané cicué, ìndê pyá upé, saissú pyréî.

 

Iassalsú ndê,

Oh moetéua

Auê, Auê !

 

Brasil, ndê pana iacy-tatá-uára

Toicô rangáua quá caissú retê,

I quá-pana iakyra-tauá tonhee

Cuire catuana, ieorobiára kuecê.

 

Supí tacape repuama remé

Ne mira apgáua omaramunhã,

Iamoetê ndê, inti iacekyé.

 

Yby moetéua,

Ndê remundú,

Reicô Brasil,

Ndê, iyaissú !

 

Mira quá yuy sui sy catú,

Ndê, ixaissú,

Brasil!

 

Portuguese

 

1

Ouviram do Ipiranga as margens plácidas

De um povo heróico o brado retumbante,

E o sol da Liberdade, em raios fúlgidos,

Brilhou no céu da Pátria nesse instante.

 

Se o penhor dessa igualdade

Conseguimos conquistar com braço forte,

Em teu seio, ó Liberdade,

Desafia o nosso peito a própria morte!

 

Ó Pátria amada,

Idolatrada,

Salve! Salve!

 

Brasil, um sonho intenso, um raio vívido,

De amor e de esperança à terra desce,

Se em teu formoso céu, risonho e límpido,

A imagem do Cruzeiro resplandece.

 

Gigante pela própria natureza,

És belo, és forte, impávido colosso,

E o teu futuro espelha essa grandeza.

 

Terra adorada

Entre outras mil

És tu, Brasil,

Ó Pátria amada!

 

Dos filhos deste solo

És mãe gentil,

Pátria amada,

Brasil!

 

2

Deitado eternamente em berço esplêndido,

Ao som do mar e à luz do céu profundo,

Fulguras, ó Brasil, florão da América,

Iluminado ao sol do Novo Mundo!

 

Do que a terra mais garrida

Teus risonhos, lindos campos têm mais flores,

"Nossos bosques têm mais vida",

"Nossa vida" no teu seio "mais amores".

 

Ó Pátria amada,

Idolatrada,

Salve! Salve!

 

Brasil, de amor eterno seja símbolo

O lábaro que ostentas estrelado,

E diga o verde-louro dessa flâmula

- Paz no futuro e glória no passado.

 

Mas se ergues da justiça a clava forte,

Verás que um filho teu não foge à luta,

Nem teme, quem te adora, a própria morte.

 

Terra adorada

Entre outras mil

És tu, Brasil,

Ó Pátria amada!

 

Dos filhos deste solo

És mãe gentil,

Pátria amada,

Brasil!

 

English

 

The placid banks of the Ipiranga heard

the resounding cry of heroic people

and brilliant beams from the sun of liberty

shone in our homeland's skies at that very moment.

 

If we have fulfilled the promise

of equality by our mighty arms,

in thy bosom, O freedom,

our brave breast shall defy death itself!

 

O beloved,

idolized homeland,

Hail, hail!

 

Brazil, an intense dream, a vivid ray

of love and hope descends to earth

if in thy lovely, smiling and clear skies

the image of the (Southern) Cross shines resplendently.

 

A giant by thine own nature,

thou art a beautiful, strong and intrepid colossus,

and thy future mirrors thy greatness.

 

Beloved Land

amongst a thousand others

art thou, Brazil,

O beloved homeland!

 

To the sons of this land

thou art a gentle mother,

beloved homeland,

Brazil!

 

2

 

Eternally lying in a splendid cradle,

by the sound of the sea and the light of the deep sky,

thou shinest, O Brazil, garland of America,

illuminated by the sun of the New World!

 

Thy smiling, lovely fields have more flowers

than the most elegant land abroad,

"Our woods have more life,

"our life" in thy bosom "more love."

 

O beloved,

idolized homeland,

Hail, hail!

 

Brazil, let the star-spangled banner thou showest forth

be the symbol of eternal love,

and let the laurel-green of thy pennant proclaim

'Peace in the future and glory in the past.'

 

But if thou raisest the strong gavel of Justice,

thou wilt see that a son of thine flees not from battle,

nor does he who loves thee fear death itself.

 

Beloved Land,

amongst a thousand others

art thou, Brazil,

O beloved homeland!

 

To the sons of this land

thou art a gentle mother,

beloved homeland,

Brazil!

 

Internet Page: www.turismo.gov.br

www.brazil.gov.br

 

Brazil in diferent languages

 

eng | bre | hau | hrv | ibo | lin | tpi: Brazil

arg | ast | cat | cor | cym | eus | glg | grn | ina | jav | lld | nor | oci | pap | por | que | sme | spa | tgl: Brasil

fao | fin | lat | roh: Brasilia

cos | ita | srd: Brasile

deu | ltz | nds: Brasilien / Braſilien

bos | crh: Brazil / Бразил

dan | swe: Brasilien

dsb | hsb: Brazilska

est | vor: Brasiilia

hun | slk: Brazília

jnf | nrm: Brési

kaa | uzb: Braziliya / Бразилия

kin | run: Brazile

lit | slv: Brazilija

ron | rup: Brazilia

sqi | swa: Brazili

tur | zza: Brezilya

afr: Brasilië

aze: Braziliya / Бразилија

bam: Berezili

ces: Brazílie

epo: Brazilo

fra: Brésil

frp: Brèsil

fry: Brazylje

fur: Brasîl

gla: Braisil; Brasil

gle: An Bhrasaíl / An Ḃrasaíl

glv: Yn Vrasseel

hat: Brezil

ind: Brasil / براسيل

isl: Brasilía

kmr: Brazîlî / Бразили / برازیلی; Brazîl / Бразил / برازیل

kur: Brazîl / برازیل

lav: Brazīlija

lim: Braziel; Brazilië

mlg: Brezila

mlt: Brażil

mol: Brazilia / Бразилия

msa: Brazil / برازيل

nld: Brazilië

pol: Brazylia

rmy: Brazil / ब्राज़िल

scn: Brasili

slo: Brazilia / Бразилиа

smg: Brazilėjė

smo: Parasili

som: Braasiil; Baraasiil

szl: Brazylijo

tet: Brazíl

ton: Palasili

tuk: Braziliýa / Бразилия

vie: Ba Tây; Bra-xin

vol: Brasilän

wln: Braezi

wol: Bereesil

alt | bul | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Бразилия (Brazilija)

che | chv | oss: Бразили (Brazili)

mkd | mon: Бразил (Brazil)

abq: Бразилия (Braziłija)

bak: Бразилия / Braziliya

bel: Бразілія / Brazilija; Бразылія / Brazylija

chm: Бразилий (Brazilij)

kaz: Бразилия / Brazïlïya / برازيليا

kbd: Бразилие (Brazilie)

srp: Бразил / Brazil

tat: Бразилия / Braziliä

tgk: Бразилия / برزیلیه / Brazilija

ukr: Бразилія (Brazylija)

ara: البرازيل (al-Barāzīl)

fas: برزیل (Berzīl / Berezīl)

prs: برازیل (Brāzīl)

pus: برازيل (Brāzīl)

uig: برازىلىيە / Braziliye / Бразилия

urd: برازیل (Barāzīl)

div: ބްރެޒިލް (Breżil); ބުރެޒިލް (Bureżil)

heb: ברזיל (Brazîl); בראזיל (Brâzîl)

lad: בראסיל / Brasil

yid: בראַזיליע (Brazilye)

amh: ብራዚል (Brazil)

ell: Βραζιλία (Vrazilía)

hye: Բրազիլիա (Brazilia)

kat: ბრაზილია (Brazilia)

hin: ब्राज़ील (Brāzīl); ब्राजील (Brājīl); ब्राज़िल (Brāzil)

mar: ब्राजील (Brājīl)

ben: ব্রাজিল (Brājil)

guj: બ્રાજીલ (Brājīl)

pan: ਬਰਾਜ਼ੀਲ (Brāzīl)

kan: ಬ್ರಾಜಿಲ್ (Brājil)

mal: ബ്രസീല് (Brasīl)

tam: பிரேசில் (Pirēčil); பிரேஸில் (Pirēsil)

tel: బ్రెజిల్ (Brejil)

zho: 巴西 (Bāxī)

yue: 巴西 (Bāsāi)

jpn: ブラジル (Burajiru)

kor: 브라질 (Beurajil)

bod: པུ་རུ་ཟིལ་ (Pu.ru.zil.); པའ་ཤིས་ (Pa'a.šis.)

dzo: བཱརཱ་ཛིལ་ (Bārā.dzil.)

mya: ဘရာဇီး (Bʰáẏazì)

tha: บราซิล (Brāsin)

lao: ບາເລຊີນ (Bālēsīn)

khm: ប្រេស៊ីល (Bresīl); ប្រាហ៊សិល (Brāhsil)

 

officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast. The east and northeast of the country have an extensive coastline on the Red Sea, directly across from Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands are part of Eritrea. Its size is just under 118,000 km2 (45,560 sq mi) with an estimated population of 5 million. The capital is Asmara.

 

History

Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its Greek form Erythraía (Greek alphabet Ερυθραία), and its derived Latin form Erythræa. In the past, Eritrea had given its name to the Red Sea, then called the Erythræan Sea. The Italians created the colony of Eritrea in the 19th century around Asmara, and named it with its current name. After World War II Eritrea was annexed to Ethiopia.In 1991 the People's Liberation Front defeated the Ethiopian government. Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1992.

 

Prehistory

One of the oldest hominids, representing a possible link between Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens, was found in Buya (Eritrean Danakil) in 1995 by Italian scientists. The cranium was found to be over 1 million years old. Furthermore, in 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team discovered some of the earliest evidence of human tool-use in the harvesting of marine resources. The site contained obsidian tools dated to the paleolithic era, over 125,000 years old.

Epipaleolithic or mesolithic cave paintings in central and northern Eritrea attest to early hunter-gatherers in this region. An American paleontologist, William Sanders of the University of Michigan, also discovered a possible missing link between ancient and modern elephants in the form of the fossilized remains of a pig-sized creature in Eritrea. The fossil, which is 27 million years old, pushes the origins of elephants and mastodons five million years further into the past and indicates that modern elephants originated in Africa.

 

Antiquity

The oldest written reference to the territory now known as Eritrea is the chronicled expedition launched to the fabled Punt (or Ta Netjeru, meaning land of the Gods) by the Ancient Egyptians in the twenty-fifth century BC under Pharaoh Sahure. Later sources from the Pharaoh Hatshepsut in the fifteenth century BC present a more detailed portrayal of an expedition in search of frankincense. The geographical location of the missions to Punt is described as roughly corresponding to the southern west coast of the Red Sea. The name Eritrea is a rendition of the ancient Greek name Ἐρυθραία, Erythraía, meaning the "Red Land". The earliest evidence of agriculture, urban settlement and trade in Eritrea was found in the western region of the country consisting of archaeological remains dating back to 3500 BC in sites called the Gash group. Based on the archaeological evidence, there seems to have been a connection between the peoples of the Gash group and the civilizations of the Nile Valley namely Ancient Egypt and Nubia.

 

In the highlands, especially in Asmara's suburbs, scores of ancient sites have been documented, including Sembel, Mai Chiot, Ona Gudo, Mai Temenai, Weki Duba and Mai Hutsa. Mostly dating to the early and mid-1st millennium BCE (800 to 350 BCE), these communities consisted of small towns, villages, and hamlets built of stone. The proximity of these ancient communities to gold mines suggest that part of their prosperity was linked to the mining and processing of gold. Around the mid-1st millennium, several sites with Sabaean remains (inscriptions, artifacts, and monuments) seem to emerge in the central highlands, for example, at Keskese. Between the eighth and fifth century BCE, a kingdom known as D'mt was supposedly established in what is today Eritrea and the Tigray province of northern Ethiopia.

 

After D'mt's decline around the fifth century BC, the state of Aksum arose in much of Eritrea and the northern Ethiopian Highlands. It grew during the fourth century BC and came into prominence during the first century AD, minting its own coins by the third century, and converting in the fourth century to Christianity, thereby becoming the second official Christian state (after Armenia), and the first country to feature the cross on its coins. According to Mani, it grew to be one of the four greatest civilizations in the world, on a par with China, Persia, and Rome. In the seventh century, with the advent of Islam across the Red Sea in Arabia and the Arab invasion and subsequent destruction of Adulis, Aksum's main port city, Aksum's trade and power on the Red Sea began to decline and the empire gradually diminished and was overtaken by smaller rival kingdoms.

 

Medieval period

During the medieval period, contemporary with and following the gradual disintegration of the Aksumite state between the 9th and 10th centuries, several states as well as tribal and clan lands emerged in the area known today as Eritrea. Between the eighth and thirteenth century, northern and northwestern Eritrea had largely come under the domination of the Beja, a Cushitic people from northeastern Sudan. The Beja brought Islam to large parts of Eritrea and connected the region to the greater Islamic world. Nonetheless, Christians of the Axumite era continued to inhabit these areas and retain their religion.

 

In the main highland area and adjacent coastline of what were previously Muslim (Beja) ruled areas, a Christian Kingdom called Midir Bahr or Midri Bahri (Tigrinya for land of the sea) arose, ruled by the Bahr Negus or Bahr Negash, ("ruler of the sea") emerged in the 15th century. The southeastern parts of Eritrea, inhabited by the independent Afar since ancient times, came to form part of the Islamic Adal Sultanate. Parts of the southwestern lowlands of Eritrea were under the dominion of the then Christian/Animist Funj Sultanate of Sinnar.

 

An invading force of the Turkish Ottoman Empire, under Suleiman I, conquered Massawa in 1557 from the Christians, building what is now considered the "old town" of Massawa on Batsi island. They also conquered the towns of Hergigo and Debarwa, the capital city of Yeshaq, the contemporary Christian Bahr Negus, before being driven back to the coast by 1578. The Ottomans remained in control of the important ports of Massawa and Hergigo and their environs, and maintained their dominion over the coastal areas for nearly 300 years, absorbing the coastal areas of the disintegrated Adal Sultanate as vassals in the 16th century. The Funj Sultanate of Sinnar converted to Islam in the 16th century but maintained independent control of the southwestern areas of Eritrea until being absorbed into the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century.

 

With the feudal rule of the Bahr Negus in the predominantly Christian highland interior severely weakened from the 17th century up until modern times, the area was dubbed Mereb Mellash by locals and neighboring Ethiopians alike, meaning "beyond the Mereb" (in Tigrinya). This name defined the territory as being north of the Mareb River which to this day is a natural boundary between the modern states of Eritrea and Ethiopia.[18] Roughly the same area also came to be referred to as Hamasien, a name that survived until modern times, designating a much smaller area (province) immediately surrounding the capital Asmara, until being absorbed into the new administrative divisions in 1994. In these areas, feudal authority was particularly weak or nonexistent, and the autonomy of the landowning peasantry was particularly strong; a kind of republican rule was prevalent, governed by local customary laws legislated by elected elder's councils (shimagile). In 1770, the Scottish researcher James Bruce describes Hamasien and Abyssinia as "different countries who are often fighting" (SUKE, p. 25).

 

Colonialism

Italian colonisation arguably began with the purchase of the locality of Assab by a Roman Catholic priest by the name of Giuseppe Sapeto acting on behalf of a Genovese shipping company called "Rubattino" who bought the land from the Afar Sultan of Obock (a vassal of the Ottomans) in 1869. This happened in the same year as the opening of the Suez Canal.

 

With the approval of the Italian parliament and King Umberto I of Italy (later succeeded by his son Victor Emmanuel III), the government of Italy in 1879 bought the Rubattino company's holdings and from 1882 expanded its possessions northward along the Red Sea coast toward and beyond Massawa, encroaching on and quickly expelling previous 'Egyptian' possessions but meeting stiffer resistance in the Eritrean highlands from the invading army of the Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia.

 

Italy declared Eritrea a territory of Italy as of New Years Day 1890. The Kingdom of Italy ruled Eritrea from 1890 to 1941. Approximately 100,000 Italian colonists settled during the 1930s in the Colonia Primigenia (as Eritrea was called by the Italians, meaning they considered Eritrea their first and most important colony). Some of the greatest feats accomplished by the Italian colonialists in Eritrea was the building of Eritrea's modern capital; Asmara, and the Eritrean railway.

 

Between 1936 and 1941, the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini briefly created the Italian Empire, with the short-lived union of Eritrea, Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. Eritrea enjoyed considerable industrialization and development of modern infrastructure during Italian rule (such as roads and the Eritrean Railway). The Italians remained the colonial power in Eritrea throughout the lifetime of Fascism and the beginnings of World War II, until they were defeated by Allied forces in 1941, and Eritrea came under British administration.

 

In the Peace Treaty of February 1947, Italy surrendered all her colonies, including Eritrea. While under British trusteeship, the United Nations decided to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia in 1950 after a lengthy inquiry regarding the status of Eritrea.

 

Eritrean War of Independence

The sandals worn by the fighters of independence have become iconic. A monument in central Asmara of such sandals was erected in memoriam. Barely 10 years into the federation with Ethiopia, in 1961, the 30-year Eritrean Struggle for Independence began, following the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I's dissolution of the federation and shutting down of Eritrea's parliament.

 

The Emperor declared Eritrea the fourteenth province of Ethiopia in 1962.[22] Eritreans formed the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) and rebelled.

 

The ELF was initially a conservative grass-roots movement dominated by Muslim lowlanders. The ELF received backing from Nasser's Egypt as part of a policy of expanding Arab Nationalist political influence in the region (some Eritreans were Arabic-speakers - one of the rather loose conditions for being part of the 'Arab Nation'). Ethiopia's imperial government received support from the United States which had established a radio listening base, called the Kagnew Station, in Eritrea's Ethiopian-occupied capital, Asmara. Internal divisions within the ELF based on religion, ideology, ethnicity, clan and, sometimes, personalities, led to the weakening and factioning of the ELF from which sprang the Eritrean People's Liberation Front.

 

The EPLF professed Marxism and egalitarian values devoid of gender, religion, or ethnic bias. Its leadership was educated in China. It came to be supported by a growing Eritrean diaspora. Bitter fighting broke out between the ELF and EPLF during the late 1970s and 1980s for dominance over Eritrea. The ELF continued to dominate the Eritrean landscape well into the 1970s when the struggle for independence neared victory due to Ethiopia's internal turmoil caused by a socialist revolution against the monarchy there.

 

The ELF's gains suffered when Ethiopia's ailing US-backed Emperor was deposed and replaced by the Derg, a Marxist military junta with backing from the Soviet Union and other communist countries, who continued the Ethiopian policy of repressing Eritrean "separatists" with increased military assistance and fervor. Nevertheless, the Eritrean resistance, which saw itself forced to retreat from most of the Eritrean countryside it had previously occupied, became instead entrenched in the northern parts of the country around the Sudanese border from where the most important supply lines came. The heavily bombarded and embattled northern town of Nakfa came to symbolize the Eritrean struggle. (The Eritrean currency is named after it.)

 

The numbers of the EPLF swelled in the 1980s. The EPLF relied largely on armaments captured from the Ethiopian army itself as well as financial and political support from the Eritrean diaspora and the cooperation of neighboring states hostile to Ethiopia's government Somalia and Sudan (although the support of the latter turned into hostility in agreement with Ethiopia during the Gaafar Nimeiry administration between 1971 and 1985) as well as Ethiopian resistance and separatist movements. Drought, famine, and intensive offensives launched by the Ethiopian army on Eritrea took a heavy toll on the population — more than half a million fled to Sudan as refugees. In 1985, Eritrean elite commandos infiltrated the Ethiopian- and Soviet-held air force base in Asmara and destroyed all 30 fighter jets there, suffering only one casualty. In 1988, a massive Ethiopian military offensive against Eritrean rebels backfired with a third of the Ethiopian army annihilated in the northern Eritrean town of Afabet.

 

Following the decline of the Soviet Union in 1989 and diminishing support for the Ethiopian war, Eritrean rebels advanced further, capturing the port of Massawa and putting the Ethiopian and Soviet naval capabilities there out of action. By 1990 and early 1991 virtually all Eritrean territory had been liberated by the EPLF except for the capital, whose only connection with the rest of government-held Ethiopia during the last year of the war was by an air-bridge. In 1991, the Ethiopian army finally capitulated and its leader Mengistu Hailemariam fled to Zimbabwe where he resides to this day. Eritrean rebels entered the capital Asmara and began to govern Eritrea on May 24, 1991. The new Ethiopian government, consisting of a coalition of Ethiopian resistance and separatist movements allied with Eritrea's rebels, conceded Eritrea's demand to have an internationally (UN) supervised referendum dubbed UNOVER to be held in Eritrea. This took place in April 1993 with an overwhelming vote by Eritreans for independence. Independence was declared on May 24, 1993.

 

Independence

Upon Eritrea's declaration of independence, the leader of the EPLF, Isaias Afewerki, became Eritrea's first Provisional President, and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (later renamed the People's Front for Democracy and Justice, or PFDJ) created a government.

 

Faced with limited economic resources and a country shattered by decades of war, the government embarked on a reconstruction and defense effort, later called the Warsai Yikalo Program, based on the labour of national servicemen and women. It is still continuing and deploys the conscripted, which is drawn from anyone male or female who has graduated high school, into a combination of duties ranging from military service to construction projects, health care, teaching and training/education as well as agricultural work to improve the country's food security.

 

The government also attempts to tap into the resources of the Eritreans living abroad by levying a 2% tax on the gross income of those who wish to gain full economic rights and access as citizens in Eritrea (land ownership, business licenses and other privileges for nationals etc), while at the same time encouraging tourism and investment both from Eritreans living abroad and other foreign investors. This has been complicated by Eritrea's tumultuous relations with its neighbours, lack of stability and subsequent political problems.

 

Eritrea severed diplomatic relations with Sudan in 1994, citing that the latter was hosting Islamic terrorist groups to destabilize Eritrea, and both countries entered into an acrimonious relationship, each accusing the other of hosting various opposition rebel groups or "terrorists" and soliciting outside support to destabilize the other. Diplomatic relations were resumed in 2005 following a reconciliation agreement reached with the help of Qatar's negotiation in 1999.[29][30] Eritrea now plays a prominent role in the internal Sudanese peace and reconciliation effort.

 

Perhaps the conflict with the deepest impact on independent Eritrea has been the renewed hostility with Ethiopia. In 1998, a border war with Ethiopia over the town of Badme occurred. The Eritrean-Ethiopian War ended in 2000 with a negotiated agreement known as the Algiers Agreement, which assigned an independent, UN-associated boundary commission known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), whose task was to clearly identify the border between the two countries and issue a final and binding ruling. Along with the agreement the UN established a temporary security zone consisting of a 25-kilometre demilitarized buffer zone within Eritrea, running along the length of the disputed border between the two states and patrolled by UN troops in the mission named UNMEE. Ethiopia was to withdraw to positions held before the outbreak of hostilities in May 1998. The peace agreement would be completed with the implementation of the Border Commission's ruling, also ending the task of the peacekeeping mission of UNMEE. The EEBC's verdict came in April 2002, which awarded Badme to Eritrea. However, Ethiopia refused to withdraw its military from positions in the disputed areas, including Badme, and also refused to implement the EEBC's ruling, and the dispute is ongoing.

 

Eritrea's diplomatic relations with Djibouti were briefly severed during the border war with Ethiopia in 1998 due to a dispute over Djibouti's intimate relation with Ethiopia during the war but were restored and normalized in 2000. Relations are again tense due to a renewed border dispute. Similarly, Eritrea and Yemen had a border conflict between 1996 to 1998 over the Hanish Islands and the maritime border, which was resolved in 2000 by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague.

 

Geography

Eritrea is located in Northeast Africa, more specifically in the Horn of Africa, and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea. The country is virtually bisected by one of the world's longest mountain ranges, formed by the processes that formed the Great Rift Valley, with fertile lands to the west, descending to desert in the east. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline. The land to the south, in the highlands, is slightly drier and cooler.

 

The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somali plate) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS). The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 meters (9,902 ft) above sea level.

 

The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Asseb in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, and Keren to the north.

 

Other Info

Oficial Name:

tir: ሃግሬ ኤርትራ (Hagəre Ertra)

ara: دولة إرتريا (Dawlâtu Iritriyā)

Hagere Ertra

 

Independence:

May 24, 1991

-de jure May 24, 1993

 

Area:

121.320 km2

 

Inhabitants:

4.906.585

 

Language:

Afar [aar] 160,000 in Eritrea (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Southern Eritrea. May also be in Somalia. Alternate names: Afaraf, "Danakil", "Denkel". Dialects: Central Afar, Northern Afar, Aussa, Ba'adu. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Saho-Afar

More information.

 

Arabic, Hijazi Spoken [acw] Red Sea coast. Alternate names: Hijazi. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Standard [arb] Middle East, North Africa. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Bedawi [bej] 150,000 in Eritrea (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population includes 20,000 Hadendoa (1970 Bendor). Alternate names: Bedàwie, Beja, Bedawiye, Bedawye, Bedauye, Bedwi, Bedya, Bedja, Lobat. Dialects: Hadareb (Hadaareb), Bisharin (Bisarin, Bisariab), Hadendoa (Hadendowa), Beni-Amir, Ababda, Amara. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, North

More information.

 

Bilen [byn] 70,000 (1995). Central Eritrea, in and around the town of Keren. Alternate names: Bogo, Bogos, Bilayn, Bilin, Balen, Beleni, Belen, Bilein, Bileno, North Agaw. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, Central, Northern

More information.

 

English [eng] Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, English

More information.

 

Italian [ita] A few monolinguals. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Italo-Dalmatian

More information.

 

Kunama [kun] 107,000 in Eritrea (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population includes 1,000 in Ilit, 600 in Odasa. Population total all countries: 108,883. Western Eritrea, on the Gash and Setit rivers, Sudan border and into Tigray Province. Barka is south of Barentu; Marda is north, northeast, and east of Barentu and in Barentu; Aimara is west of Barentu; Laki-Tukura is south of Aimara, west of Barka; Tika is south of Laki-Tukura, west of Barka. None in Sudan. Also spoken in Ethiopia. Alternate names: Baza, Baaza, Bazen, Baazen, Baazayn, Baden, Baaden, Bada, Baada, Cunama, Diila. Dialects: Barka (Berka), Marda, Aimara (Aaimasa, Aymasa, Odasa), Tika (Tiika, Lakatakura-Tika), Ilit (Iliit, Iiliit, Iilit), Bitama (Bitaama), Sokodasa (Sogodas, Sogadas), Takazze-Setiit (Setiit, Setit), Tigray. Bitama and Ilit are nearly unintelligible to speakers of other Kunama. Barka is the largest dialect and intelligible to speakers of all others. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Kunama

More information.

 

Nara [nrb] 80,000 (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). In and north of Barentu, western Eritrea, adjoining Kunama territory which is to the south. Alternate names: Nera, "Barea", "Barya", "Baria", Higir, Koyta, Mogareb, Santora. Dialects: Considerable dialect variation within the four main groups: Higir, Mogareb, Koyta, Santora. Little intelligibility of Kunama. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Eastern, Nara

More information.

 

Saho [ssy] 180,000 in Eritrea (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population total all countries: 202,759. Southern Eritrea. Also spoken in Ethiopia. Alternate names: Sao, Shaho, Shoho, Shiho. Dialects: Very close to Afar. The Irob dialect is only in Ethiopia. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Saho-Afar

More information.

 

Tigré [tig] 800,000 in Eritrea (1997 census). Also spoken in Sudan. Alternate names: Khasa, Xasa. Dialects: Mansa' (Mensa). Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, South, Ethiopian, North

More information.

 

Tigrigna [tir] 1,200,000 in Eritrea (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). South and central Eritrea. Alternate names: Tigrinya, Tigray. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, South, Ethiopian, North

More information.

  

Extinct languages

Geez [gez] Extinct. Alternate names: Ancient Ethiopic, Ethiopic, Ge'ez, Giiz. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, South, Ethiopian, North

 

Capital city:

Asmara

 

Meaning country name:

Named by Italian colonizers, from the Latin name for the Red Sea "Mare Erythraeum" ("Erythraean Sea") which in turn derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea: "Erythrea Thalassa".

 

Description Flag:

The current flag of Eritrea was adopted on December 5, 1995, and uses the basic layout of the flag of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, with the wreath with upright olive branch symbol derived from the 1952 flag.

The flag is dominated by a red triangle extending from the hoist to the fly with complementary green and blue triangles above and below. Green stands for the fertility of the country respectively for agriculture; blue stands for the ocean and red for the blood lost in the fight for freedom. In the red triangle a yellow wreath symbol with 14 leaves on each side derived from the 1952 flag replaces the yellow star of the EPLF flag. The use of triangles is also important, because reading the flag from left to right it is important to note that the red shrinks which represents that in the end Eritrea will see peace and blood will no longer be spilled for the nation.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of Arms of Eritrea was adopted May 24, 1993, on the date of declaration of independence. It shows a dromedary in natural colors surrounded by an olive wreath. On the bottom is a band with the name of the nation in the official languages - English in the middle, Tigrinya on the left and Arabic on the right.

 

National Anthem: Ertra, Ertra, Ertra ,

Tigrinya: ኤርትራ ኤርትራ ኤርትራ

 

Tigrinya

ኤርትራ ኤርትራ ኤርትራ፡

በዓል ደማ እናልቀሰ ተደምሲሱ፡

መስዋእታ ብሓርነት ተደቢሱ።

  

መዋእል ነኺሳ ኣብ ዕላማ፡

ትእምርቲ ጽንዓት ኰይኑ ስማ፡

ኤርትራ'ዛ ሓበን ውጹዓት፡

ኣመስኪራ ሓቂ ከምትዕወት፡

  

ኤርትራ ኤርትራ (ክልተ ግዜ)

ኣብ ዓለም ጨቢጣቶ ግቡእ ክብራ።

 

ናጽነት ዘምጽኦ ልዑል ኒሕ፡

ንህንጻ ንልምዓት ክንሰርሕ፡

ስልጣኔ ከነልብሳ ግርማ

ሕድሪ'ሎና ግምጃ ክንስልማ፡

 

ኤርትራ ኤርትራ (ክልተ ግዜ)

ኣብ ዓለም ጨቢጣቶ ግቡእ ክብራ።

 

Tigrinya with Romanization

 

Ertra, Ertra, Ertra,

Beal dema'nalkese tedemsisu,

Meswaéta bharnet tdebisu.

 

Mewaél nekhisa'b élame,

TémErti tsnt koynu sma,

Ertra za haben wtsuAt,

Ameskira haki kem téwet.

 

Ertra, Ertra,

Abalem chebitato gbué kbra.

 

Natsänet zemtsä’ lä‘ul nihh,

N'hntsa n'lm‘at k'serihh,

S'lthane k'nelbsa grma,

Hihdri-lena gmja k'nslma.

 

Ertra, Ertra,

Abalem chebitato gbué kbra.

  

English translation

Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea,

Her enemy decimated,

and her sacrifices vindicated by liberation.

 

Steadfast in her goal,

symbolizing endurance,

Eritrea, the pride of her oppressed people,

proved that the truth prevails.

 

Eritrea, Eritrea,

holds her rightful place in the world.

 

Dedication that led to liberation,

Will buildup and make her green,

We shall honour her with progress,

We have a word to her to embellish.

 

Eritrea, Eritrea,

holds her rightful place in the world.

 

Internet Page: www.eritreaeritrea.com

www.shabait.com

 

eritrea in diferent languages

 

eng | afr | arg | ast | bre | cat | ces | cor | cym | dan | est | eus | fao | fin | glg | glv | hun | ibo | ina | ita | jav | jnf | lim | lld | mlg | mlt | nld | nor | roh | rup | slk | sme | spa | sqi | srd | swa | swe | tgl | vor: Eritrea

dsb | hrv | hsb | lav | slv: Eritreja

crh | kaa | uzb: Eritreya / Эритрея

deu | ltz | nds: Eritrea / Eritrea; Erythräa / Erythräa

hat | tur | zza: Eritre

hau | kin | run: Eritreya

ind | msa: Eritrea / اريتريا

pol | szl: Erytrea

aze: Eritreya / Еритреја

bam: Eritire

bos: Eritreja / Еритреја

epo: Eritreo

fra: Érythrée

frp: Èritrê

fur: Eritree

gla: Ertra

gle: An Eiritré / An Eiritré

haw: ʻElikilea

isl: Erítrea

kmr: Êrîtrê / Еритре / ئێریترێ

kur: Erître / ئەریترە

lat: Erythraea

lin: Elitré

lit: Eritrėja

mol: Eritreea / Еритрея

nrm: Éritraée

oci: Eritrèa

por: Eritreia / Eritréia

que: Iritrya

rmy: Eritreya / एरित्रेया

ron: Eritreea

scn: Eritrìa

slo: Eritrea / Еритреа

smg: Eritrėjė

smo: Eriteria

som: Ereteeriya; Eriteeriya; Eretareeya

tet: Eritreia

tuk: Eritreýa / Эритрея

vie: Ê-ri-tơ-rê-a

vol: Lerüträn

wln: Eritrêye

wol: Eritere

abq | alt | che | chm | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Эритрея (Ėritreja)

bak: Эритрея / Eritreya

bel: Эрытрэя / Erytreja

bul: Еритрея (Eritreja)

chv: Эритрейӑ (Ėritrejă)

kaz: Эритрея / Erïtreya / ەريترەيا

kbd: Эритрея (Ăritreja)

mkd: Еритреа (Eritrea)

mon: Эритрей (Äritrej)

oss: Эритрей (Ėritrej)

srp: Еритреја / Eritreja

tat: Эритрея / Eritreä

tgk: Эритрея / اریتریه / Eritreja

ukr: Еритрея (Erytreja)

ara: إريتريا (Irītriyā); أريتريا (Arītriyā); إرتريا (Iritriyā); أرتريا (Aritriyā); إرتيريا (Irtīriyā); أرتيريا (Artīriyā)

fas: اریتره (Erītre)

prs: اریتریا (Erītriyā)

pus: اريتريا (Irītriyā); اېريتريا (Erītriyā)

uig: ئېرىترېيە / Éritréye / Эритрея

urd: اریٹریا (Irīṫriyā); ارٹریا (Iriṫriyā); اریٹیریا (Irīṫīriyā)

div: އެރިތްރިއާ (Eritri'ā)

heb: אריטראה (Erîṭreʾah); אריטריאה (Erîṭrêʾah); אריתריאה (Erîtrêʾah)

lad: איריטריאה / Eritrea

yid: עריטרײאַ (Eritreya)

amh | tir: ኤርትራ (Ertra)

ell-dhi: Ερυθραία (Eryṯraía)

ell-kat: Ἐρυθραία (Eryṯraía)

hye: Էրիտրեա (Ēritrea)

kat: ერიტრეა (Eritrea)

hin: इरिट्रिया (Iriṭriyā); एरिट्रिया (Eriṭriyā); एरीट्रिया (Erīṭriyā)

ben: ইরিত্রিয়া (Iritriyā); এরিট্রিয়া (Eriṭriyā)

pan: ਈਰਿਟਰੀਆ (Īriṭrīā)

kan: ಎರಿಟ್ರಿಯ (Eriṭriya)

mal: എരിട്രിയ (Eriṭriya)

tam: எரித்திரியா (Erittiriyā); எரித்ரியா (Eritriyā)

tel: ఎరిట్రియా (Eriṭriyā)

zho: 厄立特里亞/厄里特尼亚 (Èlǐtèlíyà)

jpn: エリトリア (Eritoria)

kor: 에리트레아 (Eriteuraea)

mya: အီရီထရီးယား (Iẏitʰáẏìyà)

tha: เอริเทรีย (Ēritʰriya)

khm: អេរីទ្រា (Erītrā)

 

Kazakhstan (also spelled Kazakstan, Kazakh: Қазақстан Qazaqstan,قازاقستان, pronounced [qɑzɑqstɑ́n]; Russian: Казахстан [kəzɐxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a country in Eurasia ranked as the ninth largest country in the world. It is also the world's largest landlocked country. Its territory of 2,727,300 km² is greater than Western Europe. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. The capital moved in 1997 to Astana from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city.

Vast in size, the terrain of Kazakhstan ranges from flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, and snow-capped mountains to deserts. With 16.0 million people (2009 census), Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.).

For most of its history the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan has been inhabited by nomadic tribes. By the 16th century the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three hordes. The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, a part of the USSR. During the 20th century, Kazakhstan was the site of major Soviet projects, including Khrushchev's Virgin Lands campaign, the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and the Semipalatinsk "Polygon", the USSR's primary nuclear weapon testing site.

Kazakhstan declared itself an independent country on December 16, 1991, the last Soviet republic to do so. Its communist-era leader, Nursultan Nazarbayev, became the country's new president. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued a balanced foreign policy and worked to develop its economy, especially its hydrocarbon industry. While the country's economic outlook is improving, President Nazarbayev maintains strict control over the country's politics. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan's international prestige is building. It is now considered to be the dominant state in Central Asia. The country is a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. In 2010, Kazakhstan is chairing the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.

Kazakhstan is ethnically and culturally diverse, in part due to mass deportations of many ethnic groups to the country during Stalin's rule. Kazakhs are the largest group. Kazakhstan has 131 nationalities including Kazakh, Russian, Ukrainian, Uzbek and Tatar. It has a population of 16.0 million, of whom around 63% percent are Kazakhs

Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion, and many different beliefs are represented in the country. Islam is the primary religion. The Kazakh language is the state language, while Russian is also officially used as an "equal" language (to Kazakh) in Kazakhstan's institutions.

 

History

Kazakh Khanate

Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Stone Age: the region's climate and terrain are best suited for nomads practicing pastoralism. Historians believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road connecting East and West, real political consolidation only began with the Mongol invasion of the early 13th century. Under the Mongol Empire, administrative districts were established, and these eventually came under the emergent Kazakh Khanate.

Throughout this period traditionally nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes, a process which was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of a distinctive Kazakh language, culture, and economy.

Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which has effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes (jüz). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between East and West weakened the Kazakh Khanate.

During the 17th century Kazakhs fought Oirats, a federation of western Mongol tribes, among which the Dzungars were particularly aggressive. The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungars, following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territories. Under leadership Abul Khair Khan the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River, in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungars from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. Kazakhs were also a victims of constant raids carried out by the Volga Kalmyks.

 

Russian Empire

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and the British Empire. The first Russian outpost, Orsk, was built in 1735. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the extreme resentment by the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and the associated hunger which was rapidly wiping out some Kazakh tribes. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle them.

From the 1890s onwards ever-larger numbers of settlers from Russian Empire began colonising the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of Semirechye. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg. During the 19th century about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.

The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of Tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides. The Russians' revenge was merciless. A military force drove 300,000 Kazakhs to flee into the mountains or to China. When approximately 80,000 of them returned the next year, many of them were slaughtered by Tsarist forces. During the 1921–22 famine, another million Kazakhs died from starvation.

 

Kazakh SSR

Although there was a brief period of autonomy (Alash Autonomy) during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, many uprisings were brutally suppressed, and the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within the Soviet Union.

Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s–1930s, brought mass hunger and led to unrest (See also: Soviet famine of 1932–1933). Between 1926 and 1939, the Kazakh population declined by 22%, due to starvation, violence and mass emigration. Today, the estimates suggest that the population of Kazakhstan would be closer to 20 million if there had been no starvation or massacre of Kazakhs. During the 1930s, many renowned Kazakh writers, thinkers, poets, politicians and historians were slaughtered on Stalin's orders, both as part of the repression and as a methodical pattern of suppressing Kazakh identity and culture. Soviet rule took hold, and a Communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. In 1936 Kazakhstan became a Soviet republic. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of millions exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s; many of the deportation victims were deported to Siberia or Kazakhstan merely due to their ethnic heritage or beliefs, and were in many cases interned in some of the biggest Soviet labour camps, including ALZHIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people". (See also: Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.)

The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. In 1947, two years after the end of the war, the Semipalatinsk Test Site, the USSR's main nuclear weapon test site was founded near the city of Semey.

The period of World War II marked an increase in industrialisation and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" programme to turn the traditional pasture lands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. By 1959, Kazakhs made up 30% of the population. Ethnic Russians accounted for 43%.

Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. A factor that has contributed to this immensely was Lavrentii Beria's decision to test a nuclear bomb on the territory of Kazakh SSR in Semey in 1949. This had a catastrophic ecological and biological effect which was felt generations later, and Kazakh anger toward the Soviet system has escalated.

In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called Jeltoqsan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed and many demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost

 

Independence

Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 aborted coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991. It was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence.

The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet-style economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.

Democracy, however, has not gained much ground since 1991. In 2007, Kazakhstan's parliament passed a law granting President Nursultan Nazarbayev lifetime powers and privileges, immunity from criminal prosecution, and influence over domestic and foreign policy. Critics say he has become a de facto "president for life."

Over the course of his ten years in power, Nazarbayev has repeatedly censored the press through arbitrary use of "privacy" laws, and refused demands that the governors of Kazakhstan's 14 provinces be elected, rather than appointed by the president.

 

Geography

With an area of 2.7 million square kilometers (1.05 million sq. mi), Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country and the largest landlocked country in the world. It is equivalent to the size of Western Europe. It shares borders of 6,846 kilometers (4,254 mi) with Russia, 2,203 kilometers (1,369 mi) with Uzbekistan, 1,533 kilometers (953 mi) with China, 1,051 kilometers (653 mi) with Kyrgyzstan, and 379 kilometers (235 mi) with Turkmenistan. Major cities include Astana, Almaty, Karagandy, Shymkent, Atyrau and Oskemen. While located primarily in Asia, a small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.

The terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The Kazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around 804,500 square kilometres (310,600 sq. mi), occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterized by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. Important rivers and lakes include: the Aral Sea, Ili River, Irtysh River, Ishim River, Ural River, Syr Darya, Charyn River and gorge, Lake Balkhash and Lake Zaysan.

The climate is continental, with warm summers and colder winters. Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions.

 

Other info

 

Oficial names:

 

Republic of Kazakhstan

Қазақстан Республикасы

Qazaqstan Respwblïkası

قازاقستان رهسپۋبلٸكاسى

Республика Казахстан

Respublika Kazakhstan

  

Independence:

1st Khanate 1361 as White Horde

- 2nd Khanate 1428 as Uzbek Horde

- 3rd Khanate 1465 as Kazakh Khanate

- Declared December 16, 1991

- Finalized December 25, 1991

 

Area:

2.726.908

 

Inhabitants:

17.456.400

 

Language:

Dungan [dng] Dialects: Shaanxi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese

More information.

 

German, Standard [deu] 958,000 in Kazakhstan. Population excludes Plautdietsch. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, German, Middle German, East Middle German

More information.

 

Ili Turki [ili] Ili Valley near Kuldja, Xinjiang, China. There may be none in Kazakhstan. Alternate names: T'urk, Tuerke. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern

More information.

 

Kazakh [kaz] 5,293,400 in Kazakhstan (1979 census). Population total all countries: 8,178,879. Kazakhstan, northern Soviet Middle Asia and into western Siberia. Also spoken in Afghanistan, China, Germany, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia (Asia), Tajikistan, Turkey (Asia), Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. Alternate names: Kazak, Kaisak, Kosach, Qazaq. Dialects: Northeastern Kazakh, Southern Kazakh, Western Kazakh. Minor dialect differences. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Western, Aralo-Caspian

More information.

 

Plautdietsch [pdt] 100,000 in Russia and Kazakhstan (1986). Various locations including Alma Ata near the China border, beyond Tashkent, and Kazakhstan. Alternate names: Low German. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Saxon-Low Franconian, Low Saxon

More information.

 

Romani, Sinte [rmo] Kazakhstan (formerly Volga area until 1941). Alternate names: Sinti, Tsigane, Manuche, Manouche. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Northern

More information.

 

Uyghur [uig] 300,000 in Kazakhstan (1993). Taranchi dialect in Kazakhstan, Kashgar-Yarkand dialect in Uzbekistan. Alternate names: Uighur, Uiguir, Uygur, Novouygur. Dialects: Taranchi (Kulja), Kashgar-Yarkand. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern

 

Capital city:

Astana

 

Meaning of the country name:

Means "land of the Kazakhs". The word "Kazakh" does not have a straightforward exact English translation, but it means something along the lines of "independent/rebellious/wanderer/brave/free". The Russian term kazak (казак) - "cossack" in English - offers a cognate word. -stan as a Persian suffix means "land".

 

Description Flag:

The current flag of Kazakhstan was adopted on June 4, 1992, replacing the flag of the Kazakh SSR.It consists of a sky-blue background, with a steppe eagle beneath a golden sun with 32 rays in the centre, and a web-like pattern running down the left-hand side

The pattern represents the art and cultural traditions of the old khanate and the Kazakh people. The light blue background stands for the various Turkic peoples that make up the present-day population of the country, including the Tatars, Mongols, Uyghurs and others. Among these peoples blue has a religious significance, representing the sky God Gök-Tanry, "the eternal wide blue sky"; a more modern interpretation is that the sky blue background stands for Kazakhstan's broad skies, and for freedom.

The golden eagle is associated with the empire of Genghis Khan, who ruled Kazakhstan under a blue banner with such an eagle on it; thus, it is a reminder of the proud history of the people who form the modern nation of Kazakhstan

 

Coat of arms:

The coat of arms of Kazakhstan was adopted following the dissolving of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991.

The coat of arms has a circular form and carries the colors blue and yellow. Blue represents the blue sky and yellow is the symbol of the agriculture which blossomed in the Soviet era. To the left and right of the coat of arms, two unicorns with wings look away from each other.

Like other post-Soviet republics whose arms do not predate the October Revolution, the current arms retains some components of the Soviet one. In the upper part of the coat of arms, there is a star; the rays behind the yurt smokehole also bespeak the Soviet arms.

The name of the country in Kazakh is in the lower part of the coat of arms is stated: "ҚA3AҚCTAH."

In the middle there is a shangrak (Kazakh: Шаңырақ, shangyraq; Russian: Шанырак, shanyrak), the crown of the Kazakh yurt. The shangrak symbolizes both wealth of heritage and a hopeful future.

 

National Anthem: My Kazakhstan , Kazakh: Менің Қазақстаным

 

Kazakh

 

Алтын күн аспаны,

Алтын дән даласы,

Ерліктің дастаны -

Еліме қарашы!

 

Ежелден ер деген,

Даңқымыз шықты ғой,

Намысын бермеген,

Қазағым мықты ғой!

 

Қайырмасы:

Менің елім, менің елім,

Гүлің болып егілемін,

Жырың болып төгілемін, елім!

Туған жерім менің — Қазақстаным!

 

Ұрпаққа жол ашқан,

Кең байтақ жерім бар.

Бірлігі жарасқан,

Тәуелсіз елім бар.

 

Қарсы алған уақытты,

Мәңгілік досындай.

Біздің ел бақытты,

Біздің ел осындай!

Қайырмасы:

 

Transliteration

 

Altın kün aspanı,

Altın dän dalası,

Erliktiñ dastanı -

Elime qaraşı!

Ejelden er degen,

Dañqımız şıqtı ğoy,

Namısın bermegen,

Qazağım mıqtı ğoy!

Chorus:

Meniñ elim, meniñ elim,

Güliñ bolıp egilemin,

Jırıñ bolıp tögilemin, elim!

Twğan jerim meniñ — Qazaqstanım!

 

Urpaqqa jol aşqan,

Keñ baytaq jerim bar.

Birligi jarasqan,

Täwelsiz elim bar.

Qarsı alğan waqıttı,

Mäñgilik dosınday.

Bizdiñ el baqıttı,

Bizdiñ el osınday!

 

Chorus

 

English

Sky of golden sun,

Steppe of golden seed,

Legend of courage -

Take a look at my country.

From the antiquity

Our heroic glory emerged,

They did not give up their pride

My Kazakh people are strong!

Chorus:

My country, my country,

As your flower I will be planted,

As your song I will stream, my country!

My native land — My Kazakhstan!

The way was opened to the posterity

I have a vast land.

It's unity is proper,

I have an independent country.

It welcomed the time

Like an eternal friend,

Our country is happy,

Such is our country.

Chorus

 

Internet Page: www.government.kz

www.akorda.kz

www.aboutkazakhstan.com

www.tourkz.com

 

Kazakhstan in diferent laguages

 

eng | cat | dan | eus | fra | jav | jnf | swa: Kazakhstan

csb | dsb | hsb | lim | nld | pol | slk | szl: Kazachstan

fin | fry | hat | ibo | swe: Kazakstan

deu | ltz | nds: Kasachstan / Kaſachſtan

fao | isl | sme: Kasakstan

hrv | ron | slv: Kazahstan

bos | gag: Kazahstan / Казахстан

cym | roh: Casachstan

ind | msa: Kazakhstan / كازاخستان

ita | lld: Kazakistan

kin | run: Kazakstani

afr: Kasakstan; Kazakstan

arg: Kasajstán; Kasajistán; Kazajstán

ast: Kazahistán; Kazakhistán

aze: Qazaxıstan / Газахыстан

bam: Kazakisitan

bre: Kazac’hstan

ces: Kazachstán

cor: Pow Kasagh

crh: Qazahistan / Къазахистан

epo: Kazaĥstano; Kazaĥio

est: Kasahstan

frp: Kazacstan

fur: Cosachistan

gla: Casachstan; Casagstan

gle: An Chasacstáin / An Ċasacstáin

glg: Casaquistán

glv: Yn Chassaghstaan

hun: Kazahsztán

ina: Kazakhstan; Kazakstan

kaa: Qazaqstan / Қазақстан

kal: Kasakhstani

kmr: Qazaẍistan / Qазаг’ьстан / قازاغستان

kur: Qazaxistan / قازاخستان

lat: Cazastania; Kazakistania; Casachia

lav: Kazahstāna

lin: Kazakstáni

lit: Kazachstanas

mlg: Kazakistana

mlt: Każakstan; Każakistan

mol: Kazahstan / Казахстан

nor: Kasakhstan

nrm: Cazaqùie

oci: Cazacstan

por: Cazaquistão; Casaquistão

que: Qasaqsuyu

rmy: Kazaxstan / काज़ाख़्स्तान

rup: Cazahstan

scn: Kazakstàn

slo: Kazahia / Казахиа; Kazahzem / Казахзем

smg: Kazakstans

smo: Kasakisitani

som: Kasaakhistaan

spa: Kazajstán; Kazajistán

sqi: Kazakistani

srd: Kazakhstàn

tet: Kazakistaun

tgl: Kasakstan; Kasahstan

ton: Kasākisitani

tuk: Gazagystan / Газагыстан

tur: Kazakistan; Kazakeli

uzb: Qozogʻiston / Қозоғистон

vie: Ka-dắc-xtan

vol: Kasakän

vor: Kasakstan; Kasastan

wln: Kazaxhtan

wol: Kaasakestaan

zza: Qazaxıstan

abq | alt | bul | chm | chv | kbd | kjh | kom | rus | tyv | udm | ukr | xal: Казахстан (Kazaĥstan)

krc | kum: Къазахстан (Qazaĥstan)

lbe | lez: Къазахсттан (Q̱azaḫsttan)

bak: Ҡаҙағстан / Ķaźağstan

bel: Казахстан / Kazachstan

che: Казахстан (Kazaḫstan)

kaz: Қазақстан / Qazaqstan / قازاقستان

kir: Казакстан (Kazakstan)

mkd: Казахстан (Kazahstan)

mon: Казакстан (Kazakstan); Казахстан (Kazaĥstan)

oss: Хъазахстан (Qazaĥstan)

srp: Казахстан / Kazahstan; Казакстан / Kazakstan

tab: Къазакъистан (Q̱azaq̄istan)

tat: Казакстан / Qazaqstan

tgk: Қазоқистон / قزاقستان / Qazoqiston

ara: كازاخستان (Kāzāḫistān); قازاقستان (Qāzāqistān); كازخستان (Kāzaḫistān)

fas: قزاقستان / Qazâqestân; کازاخستان / Kâzâxestân

prs: قزاقستان (Qazāqestān)

pus: قزاقستان (Qazāqistān); قازاقستان (Qāzāqistān)

uig: قازاقىستان / Qazaqistan / Қазақистан

urd: قزاقستان (Qazāqistān); قازقستان (Qāzaqistān)

div: ކަޒަކިސްތާން (Każakistān)

heb: קזחסטן (Qazaḥsṭan); קזחסטאן (Qazaḥsṭân); קאזאחסטאן (Qâzâḥsṭân)

lad: קאזאכסטאן / Kazaxstan

yid: קאַזאַכסטאַן (Kazaḫstan); קאַזאַקסטאַן (Kazakstan)

amh: ካዛክስታን (Kazakstan); ካዛኽስታን (Kazaĥstan)

ell: Καζακστάν (Kazakstán); Καζαχστάν (Kazaĥstán)

hye: Ղազախստան (Ġazaĥstan)

kat: ყაზახეთი (Qazaĥeṭi)

hin: कज़ाख़स्तान (Kazāĥstān); कज़ाख़िस्तान (Kazāĥistān); कज़ाकिस्तान (Kazākistān)

ben: কাজাখস্তান (Kājākʰstān); কাজাকস্তান (Kājākstān); কাজাকিস্তান (Kājākistān)

pan: ਕਜ਼ਾਕਸਤਾਨ (Kazākstān)

kan: ಕಜಾಕಸ್ತಾನ್ (Kajākastān)

mal: കസാഖ്സ്ഥാന് (Kasākʰstʰān); കസാഖിസ്ഥാന് (Kasākʰistʰān)

tam: கஸாக்ஸ்தான் (Kasākstāṉ); கஜகஸ்தான் (Kajakastāṉ)

tel: కజకిస్తాన్ (Kajakistān); కజకస్తాన్ (Kajakastān)

zho: 哈薩克斯坦/哈萨克斯坦 (Hāsàkèsītǎn)

jpn: カザフスタン (Kazafusutan)

kor: 카자흐스탄 (Kajaheuseutan)

mya: ကာဇက္စတန္ (Kazeʿsátã)

tha: คาซัคสถาน (Kʰāsâksatʰān)

lao: ກາຊ້ກສະຖານ (Kāsáksatʰān)

khm: កាហ្សាក់ស្តង់ (Kāhsakstăṅ)

 

The Charyn Canyon is 150–300 metres deep and 80 kilometres long, cutting through the red sandstone plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern Tian Shan ("Heavenly Mountains", 200 km east of Almaty) at 43°21′1.16″N 79°4′49.28″E / 43.3503222°N 79.0803556°E / 43.3503222; 79.0803556. The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of 150–300 m. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare ash tree that survived the Ice Age and is now also grown in some other areas. Bigach crater is a Pliocene or Miocene asteroid impact crater, 8 kilometres (5 mi) in diameter and estimated at 5 ±3 million years old at 48°30′N 82°00′E / 48.5°N 82°E / 48.5; 82.

 

A country to Visit

Is a country in central and southeastern Europe, at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Adriatic Sea. Its capital (and largest city) is Zagreb. Croatia borders Slovenia and Hungary to the north, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southeast, and Serbia and Montenegro to the east.

The Croats arrived in the early seventh century in what is Croatia today. They organized the state into two dukedoms. The first king, King Tomislav was crowned in AD 925 and Croatia was elevated into the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for almost two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Demetrius Zvonimir. Croatia entered a union with Hungary in 1102. In 1526, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand from the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, Croatia declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. An independent Croatian state briefly existed during World War II, during which Croatia was a dependency of Nazi Germany during 1941–1945. After World War II, Croatia became a founding member of the Second Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence and became a sovereign state.

Croatia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization and CEFTA. The country is a candidate for European Union membership and is a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean. Croatia is classified as an emerging and developing economy by the International Monetary Fund and a high income economy by the World Bank.

 

History

Early History

The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Paleolithic have been unearthed in the area of Krapina and Vindija. More recent (late Mousterian) Neanderthal remains have been discovered in Mujina pećina near the coast.

In the early Neolithic period, the Starčevo, Vučedol and Hvar cultures were scattered around the region. The Iron Age left traces of the Hallstatt culture (early Illyrians) and the La Tène culture (Celts).

Much later the region was settled by Liburnians, Dacians and Illyrians, and Greek colonies were established on the islands of Vis (by Dionysius I of Syracuse) and Hvar. In 9 AD the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire. Emperor Diocletian built a massive palace in Split where he retired from politics in AD 305. During the 5th century the last Roman Emperor Julius Nepos ruled his small empire from Diocletian's Palace before he was killed in AD 480. The early history of Croatia ends with the Avar invasion in the first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to strategically better defended points on the coast, islands and mountains. The modern city of Dubrovnik was founded by those survivors.

 

Kingdom of Croatia

The Croats arrived in what is today Croatia probably in the early 7th century. They organized into two dukedoms; the duchy of Pannonia in the north and the duchy of Littoral Croatia in the south. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that Porga, duke of the Dalmatian Croats, who had been invited into Dalmatia by Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, sent to Heraclius for Christian teachers. According to Constantine, at the request of Heraclius, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to the Croatian Provinces. These missionaries converted Porga, and also a great many of the clan that was under his immediate authority, to the Christian faith in 640. The Christianization of the Croats was mostly complete by the 9th century. Both duchies became Frankish vassals in late 8th century, and eventually became independent in the following century.

The first native Croatian ruler recognized by the Pope was duke Branimir, whom Pope John VIII called dux Croatorum ("duke of Croats") in 879. Duke Tomislav of Littoral Croatia was one of the most prominent members of the House of Trpimirović. He united the Croats of Dalmatia and Pannonia into a single Kingdom in 925. Traditionally it's stated that Tomislav's state extended from the Adriatic Sea to the Drava river, and from the Raša river to the Drina river, but the precise borders are unknown. Under his rule, Croatia became one of the most powerful kingdoms in Medieval Europe. Tomislav defeated the invasions of the Arpads in battle and forced them across the Drava. He also annexed a part of Pannonia. This included the area between the rivers Drava, Sava and Kupa, so his Duchy bordered with Bulgaria for a period of time. This was the first time that the two Croatian Realms were united, and all Croats were in one state. The union was later recognised by Byzantium, which gave the royal crown to Stjepan Držislav and papal crown to king Zvonimir. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak during the reign of Kings Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Zvonimir (1075–1089).

 

Kingdom of Croatia existed ever since it's foundation in 925 till the end of WWI, first as an indeprndent kingdom and later as a crown in different multietnic empires such as Kingdom of Hungary, Habsburg monarchy or Austria-Hungary.

 

Personal union with Hungary

Following the extinction of the Croatian ruling dynasty in 1091, Ladislaus I of Hungary, the brother of Jelena Lijepa, the last Croatian queen, became the king of Croatia. Croatian nobility of the Littoral opposed this crowning, which led to 10 years of war and the recognition of the Hungarian ruler Coloman as the king of Croatia and Hungary in the treaty of 1102 (often referred to as the Pacta conventa). In return, Coloman promised to maintain Croatia as a separate kingdom, not to settle Croatia with Hungarians, to guarantee Croatia's self-governance under a Ban, and to respect all the rights, laws and privileges of the Croatian Kingdom. During this union, the Kingdom of Croatia never lost the right to elect its own king, had the ruling dynasty become extinct. In 1293 and 1403 Croatia chose its own king, but in both cases the Kingdom of Hungary declared war and the union was reestablished.

For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor and Bans appointed by the Hungarian king. The Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia remained a legally distinct constitutional entity, but the advent of a Hungarian king brought about other consequences such as: the introduction of feudalism and the rise of native noble families such as the Frankopans and the Šubićs. The 1273 Congregatio Regni tocius Sclavonie Generalis, the oldest surviving document written by the Croatian parliament, dates from this period. Subsequent kings sought to restore some of their previously lost influence by granting certain privileges to towns.

The first period of personal union between Croatia and Hungary ended in 1526 with the Battle of Mohács and the defeat of Hungarian forces by the Ottomans. After the death of King Louis II, Croatian nobles at the Cetingrad assembly chose the Habsburgs as new rulers of the Kingdom of Croatia, under the condition that they provide the troops and finances required to protect Croatia against the Ottoman Empire.

 

Republic of Ragusa

The city of Dubrovnik/Ragusa was founded in 7th century after Avar and Slavic raiders destroyed the Roman city of Epidaurum. The surviving Roman population escaped to a small island near the coast where they founded a new settlement. During the Fourth Crusade the city fell under control of the Republic of Venice until the 1358 Zadar treaty when Venice, defeated by the Hungarian kingdom, lost control of Dalmatia and the Republic of Ragusa became a tributary of that kingdom. Through the next 450 years the Republic of Ragusa would be a tributary Republic protected by Ottomans and Habsburgs until the Napoleon abolished in 1808 when Ragusa, Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia was briefly the Illyrian Provinces. During this time the republic became rich through trade.

The republic became the most important publisher of Croatian literature during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Aside from poets and writers like Marin Držić and Ivan Gundulić, whose works were important for Croat literature development, the most famous person from the Republic of Dubrovnik was the scientist Ruđer Josip Bošković, who was a member of the Royal Society and the Russian Academy of Sciences. The republic would survive until 1808 when it was annexed by Napoleon. Today the city of Dubrovnik features on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list and is a famous tourist destination.

 

Ottoman wars

Shortly after the Battle of Mohács, the Habsburgs unsuccessfully sought to stabilise the borders between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Croatia by creating a captaincy in Bihać. However, in 1529, the Ottoman army swept through the area and captured Buda and besieged Vienna; an event which brought violence and turmoil to the Croatian border areas (see Ottoman wars in Europe). After the failure of the first military operations, the Kingdom of Croatia was split into civilian and military units in 1553. The latter became Croatian Krajina and Slavonian Krajina and both eventually became parts of the Croatian Military Frontier which was directly under the control of Vienna. Ottoman raids on Croatian territory continued until the Battle of Sisak in 1593, after which the borders stabilised for some time. The kingdom of that time became known as the Reliquiae reliquiarum olim inclyti Regni Croatiae ("The remains of the remains of the once famous Kingdom of Croatia"). An important battle during this time was the Battle of Szigetvár (1566), when 2,300 soldiers under the leadership of ban Nikola Šubić Zrinski held back for two months 100,000 Ottoman soldiers led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, fighting to the last man. Cardinal Richelieu was reported to have called the event "the battle that saved civilization."

During the Great Turkish War (1667–1698), Slavonia was regained but hilly western Bosnia, which had been a part of Croatia until the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control and the current border, which resembles a crescent or a horseshoe, is a remnant of this historical outcome. The southern part of the 'horseshoe' was created by the Venetian conquest following the Siege of Zara and was defined by the 17–18th century wars with the Ottomans. The de jure reason for Venetian expansion was the decision of the king of Croatia, Ladislas of Naples, to sell his rights on Dalmatia to Venice in 1409.

During more than two centuries of Ottoman wars, Croatia underwent great demographic changes. The Croats left the riverland areas of Gacka, Lika and Krbava, Moslavina in Slavonia, and an area in present day north-western Bosnia to move towards Austria where they remained and the present day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers. To replace the fleeing Croats, the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in Croatian and Slavonian Krajina. Serbian migration into this region, which had started in the 16th century, peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39. The rights and obligations of new populace of the Military frontier were decided with the Statuta Valachorum in 1630.

 

National Revival

National revival in Croatia started in 1813 when the bishop of Zagreb Maksimilijan Vrhovac issued a plea for the collection of "national treasures". At the beginning of the 1830s, a group of young Croatian writers gathered in Zagreb and established the Illyrian movement for national renewal and unity of all South Slavs within the Habsburg Monarchy. The most important focus of the Illyrians was the establishment of a standard language as a counter-weight to Hungarian, and the promotion of Croatian literature and official culture. Important members of this movement were Count Janko Drašković, who initiated the movement by writing a pamphlet in 1832, Ljudevit Gaj who received permission from the royal government of Habsburg for printing the first newspaper in the Croatian language, Antun Mihanović, who wrote the lyrics for the Croatian national anthem, Vatroslav Lisinski, composer of the first Croatian language opera, "Ljubav i zloba" ("Love and Malice", 1846), and many others.

Fearful first of Hungarian and then Habsburg (Austrian) pressure of assimilation, the Kingdom of Croatia had always refused to change the status of Latin as its official language until the middle of the 19th century. Only on 2 May 1843 the Croatian language was first spoken in parliament, finally gaining official status in 1847 due to the popularity of the Illyrian movement.

Even with a large Slavic (Croatian) majority, Dalmatia retained large Italian communities in the coast (in the cities and the islands, largest concentration in Istria). According to the 1816 Austro-Hungarian census, 22% of the Dalmatian population was Italian-speaking. Starting in the 19th century, most Dalmatian Italians and Morlachs with an Istro-Romanian language gradually assimilated to the prevailing Croatian culture and language.

 

Austria–Hungary

On January 1, 1527, Croatian noblemen gathered in the Cetin fortress in the city of Cetingrad for the Parliament on Cetin and elected Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria as the new king of the Croatian kingdom. Croatia of that time was carring a name triune kingdom; Kingdom of Croatia, Kingdom of Dalmatia and Kingdom of Slavonia. Kingdom of Croatia and kingdom of Slavonia united in 1868, creating Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.

The Croatian answer to the Hungarian revolution of 1848 was a declaration of war. Austrian, Croatian and Russian forces together defeated the Hungarian army in 1849 and the following 17 years were remembered in Croatia and Hungary for the policy of Germanization. The eventual failure of this policy resulted in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the creation of a monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The treaty left unanswered the question of the status of Croatia. The following year the Croatian and Hungarian parliaments created a constitution for union of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and the Kingdom of Hungary.

After the Ottoman Empire lost military control over Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary abolished Croatian Krajina and Slavonian Krajina, restoring the territories to Croatia in 1881. During the second half of the 19th century pro-Hungarian and pro-Austrian political parties played Croats against Serbs with the aim of controlling the parliament. This policy failed in 1906 when a Croat-Serb coalition won the elections. The newly created political situation remained unchanged until the advent of World War I.

 

Kingdom of Yugoslavia

On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Sabor (parliament) declared independence, creating the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Pressured by the Italian army, which was entering its territory from south and west, the National Council (Narodno vijeće) started expedient negotiations with the Kingdom of Serbia and on November 23, 1918, a delegation was sent to Belgrade with the aim of a proclamation of union. The National Council delegation delivered 11 points which needed to be fulfilled for the creation of a future state.[25] The most important of these points was the first, which referred to the need of a constitution for the new state, a proposal that was passed with a two thirds majority. Eventually, a constitution for a centralized state was passed with a majority of 50% + 1 vote and caused the end of state autonomy. On 1 December 1918, the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, colloquially known as Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was created. This decision created public outcry among Croats, which started a political upheaval for the restoration of state autonomy by the leadership of the Croatian Peasant Party.

The unhealthy political situation in Yugoslavia became much worse after Stjepan Radić, the president of CPP, was killed in the Yugoslav parliament building in 1928 by Serbian ultranationalist Puniša Račić.

The ensuing chaotic period ended the next year when King Alexander abolished the Constitution, prorogued the Parliament and introduced a personal dictatorship. The next four years of the Yugoslav regime were described by Albert Einstein in 1931 as a "horrible brutality which is being practised upon the Croatian People". During the dictatorship, Vladko Maček, leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, was imprisoned, only becoming free after king Alexander was killed in a plot organized by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization. Upon Maček's release, the political situation was restored to that before the murder of Stjepan Radić, continuing Croatian demands for autonomy. The Croatian question was solved only on August 26, 1939 by the Cvetković-Maček Agreement, when Croatia received autonomy and an extension of its borders and Maček became Yugoslav vice-prime minister. The ensuing peace was terminated by the German invasion of 1941.

 

Geography

Croatia is located between South-Central Europe and Middle Europe. Its shape resembles that of a crescent or a horseshoe, which flanks its neighbours Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. To the north lie Slovenia and Hungary; Italy lies across the Adriatic Sea. Its mainland territory is split in two non-contiguous parts by the short coastline of Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum.

Its terrain is diverse, including:

plains, lakes and rolling hills in the continental north and northeast (Central Croatia and Slavonia, part of the Pannonian Basin);

densely wooded mountains in Lika and Gorski Kotar, part of the Dinaric Alps;

rocky coastlines on the Adriatic Sea (Istria, Northern Seacoast and Dalmatia).

Phytogeographically, Croatia belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Central European and Illyrian provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the WWF, the territory of Croatia can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.

The country is famous for its many national parks. Croatia has a mixture of climates. In the north and east it is continental, Mediterranean along the coast and a semi-highland and highland climate in the south-central region. Istra has a temperate climate, while the Palagruža archipelago is home to a subtropical climate.

Insular Croatia consists of over one thousand islands varying in size. The largest islands in Croatia are Cres and Krk which are located in the Adriatic Sea. The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar. Dinara, the eponym of the Dinaric Alps, is the highest peak of Croatia at 1,831 metres (6,007 ft) above sea level.

Karst topography makes up more than 50% of Croatia and is especially obvious in the area south of Karlovac. There are 49 caves deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft) in Croatia, 14 of them are deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m (3,280.84 ft) (the Lukina jama-Trojama, Slovacka jama and Velebita cave systems). The deepest Croatian pits are mostly found in two regions – Mt. Velebit and Mt. Biokovo.

 

Other Info

Oficial name:

Republika Hrvatska

 

Establishment:

Founded First half of 7th century

- Medieval duchy March 4, 852

- Independence May 21, 879

- Elevated to kingdom 925

- Union with Hungary 1102

- Joined Habsburg Empire January 1, 1527

- Independence from Austria-Hungary, October 29, 1918

- Joined Yugoslavia (co-creator), December 1, 1918

- Declared independence June 25, 1991

 

Area:

56.542 km2

 

Inhabitants:

5.250.000

 

Languages

Croatian [hrv] 4,800,000 in Croatia (1995). Population total all countries: 6,214,643. Also spoken in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Slovakia, Slovenia. Alternate names: Hrvatski. Dialects: Kaykavski, Chakavski, Shtokavski (Ijekavski). Shtokavski is the official dialect, but the others are recognized as valid dialects, with a large body of literature. Other dialects in other countries, like Burgenland Croatian in Austria, are less intelligible. Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western

More information.

 

Istriot [ist] 1,000 (2000 Salminen). Western coast of Istrian Peninsula, now only in the towns of Rovinj (Rovigno) and Vodnjan (Dignano). Dialects: Reported to be an archaic Romance language, often confused with Istro-Rumanian. Perhaps closer to Friulian or Dalmatian than to Istro-Rumanian. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Italo-Dalmatian

More information.

 

Italian [ita] 70,000 in Croatia whose first language is Italian or Venetian (1998 Eugen Marinov). Population includes 30,000 ethnic Italian and 40,000 ethnic Croats and Istrian people. Ethnic population: 30,000 (1998). Istria. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Italo-Dalmatian

More information.

 

Romanian, Istro [ruo] 555 to 1,500 (1994). Northeast Istrian Peninsula, Zejane village and a few villages to the south. Alternate names: Istro-Romanian. Dialects: Structurally a separate language from Romanian (F. B. Agard). Split from the other 3 Romanian languages between 500 and 1000 A.D. Not the same as the Istriot language. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Eastern

More information.

 

Venetian [vec] 100,000 in Croatia and Slovenia (1994 Tapani Salminen). See also Italian in Croatia. Istrian Peninsula and Dalmatia. Dialects: Istrian, Tretine, Venetian Proper. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Italian

More information.

 

Capital city:

Zagreb

 

Meaning country name:

Latinization of the Croatian name Hrvatska, derived from Hrvat (Croat): a word of unknown origin, possibly from a Sarmatian word for "herdsman" or "cowboy"[citation needed]. May be related to an aboriginal tribe of Alans.

 

Description Flag:

The Croatian flag consists of three equal size, horizontal stripes in the pan-Slavic colours red, white and blue. In the middle is the Coat of Arms of Croatia.

The red-white-blue tricolour has been used as the Croatian flag since 1848, symbolising the Pan-Slavic colours. While Croatia was part of Yugoslavia its tricolour was the same, but it had a five-pointed red star with a yellow border in place of the coat of arms. The star was replaced by the coat in May of 1990, shortly after the first multi-party elections. The current flag and the coat of arms were formally adopted on December 21, 1990, about ten months before the proclamation of independence from Yugoslavia.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of arms of Croatia consists of one main shield and five smaller shields which form a crown over the main shield. The main coat of arms is a checkerboard (chequy) that consists of 13 red and 12 silver (white) fields. It's commonly known as šahovnica ("chessboard", from šah, "chess" in Croatian). The five smaller shields represent five different geographical regions that comprise Croatia.

History

The red and white checkerboard has been a symbol of Croatian kings since at least the 10th century, ranging in size from 3×3 to 8×8, but most commonly 5×5, like the current coat. It was traditionally conjenctured that the colours originally represented two ancient Croat tribes, Red Croats and White Croats, but there is no generally accepted proof for this theory. The oldest source confirming the coat as an official symbol is a genealogy of the Habsburgs, dated from 1512 to 1518. In 1525 it was used on a votive medal.

The oldest known example of the šahovnica in Croatia is to be found on the wings of four falcons on a baptismal font donated by king Petar Krešimir IV of Croatia (1058–1074) to the Archbishop of Split.

The oldest known coat of arms of Croatia (six-pointed star over a moon), coat of arms of Dalmatia and coat of arms of Slavonia (as well as the šahovnica) were all at times used as the Coat of Arms to represent the whole Croatia, especially in early heraldic period. Towards the Late Middle Ages the distinction for the three crown lands (Croatia 'proper', Dalmatia, Slavonia) was made. The šahovnica was used as the coat of arms of Croatia proper & together with the shields for Slavonia and Dalmatia was often used to represent the whole of Croatia in Austria-Hungary. An example of where the Croatian coat of arms was constituted of the šahovnica & Dalmatian (top half of coat of arms), & Slavonian (bottom half of coat of arms) crests include the:

Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in Habsburg Empire (1848-1852) - as depicted on the roof of St Mark's Church in Zagreb;

Triune Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia (1867 - 1918).

The two are the same except for the position of the šahovnica & Dalmatian coat of arms which are switched around & with different crowns used above the shield - the later employing St Stephen's crown (associated with Hungarian kings).

By late 19th century šahovnica had come to be considered a generally recognized symbol for Croats and Croatia and in 1919, it was included in the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) to represent Croats. When the Banovina of Croatia was formed, the šahovnica (chequy gules and argent) was retained as the official symbol.

The Ustashe regime which had ruled Croatia during the World War II superimposed their ideological symbol, the letter "U" above or around the šahovnica (upper left square white) as the official national symbol during their rule.

After the Second World War, the new Socialist Republic of Croatia became a part of the federal Second Yugoslavia. The šahovnica was included in the new socialist coat of arms which like the Ustashe before them, superimposed their ideological symbols. It was designed in the socialist tradition, including symbols like wheat for peasants and an anvil for workers, as well as a rising sun to symbolize a new morning and a red star for communism.

During the change to multiparty elections in Croatia (as part of the collapse of Communist rule in Eastern Europe from the late 1980s), and prior to the establishment of the current design, the šahovnica, shedding the communist symbols that were the hallmark of Croatia in the second Yugoslavia, reappeared as a stand-alone symbol as both the 'upper left square red' and 'upper left square white' variants.

The current design

On 21 December 1990, the post-communist government of Croatia, passed a law prescribing the design created by the graphic designer Miroslav Šutej, under the aegis of a commission chaired by Nikša Stančić, then head of the Department of Croatian History at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb.

The new design added the five crowning shields which represent the historical regions from which Croatia originated. They are, from left to right:

the oldest known Croatian coat of arms: a golden six-pointed star (representing the morning star) over a silver moon on a blue shield. It represents the capital city Zagreb and central Croatia in general.

an older coat of arms of the Republic of Dubrovnik: two red stripes on a dark blue shield. The coat of arms on the flags and stone portals of Dubrovnik were painted black as a sign of grief by Dubrovnik' s citizens after the invasion by Napoleon.

the coat of arms of Dalmatia: three golden, crowned leopards, two over one, on a blue shield. This coat of arms originates from the Roman Emperor Diocletian who made his palace (the core of city of Split) the capital of the Western Roman Empire. His palace, to this day, still stands in Split.

the coat of arms of Istria: a golden goat with red hooves and horns, on a dark blue shield.

the coat of arms of Slavonia: two silver stripes on blue shield (representing the rivers Drava and Sava that mark the northern and the southern border of Slavonia), between them on a red field a black, running marten (kuna in Croatian - note national currency is related to the marten - Croatian kuna), above a six-pointed, golden star. This coat was to Slavonia was officially recognised by king Ladislaus Jagiello in 1496.

Some of the more traditional heraldic pundits have criticized the latest design for various unorthodox solutions, such as adding a crown to the coat, varying shades of blue in its even fields, and adding the red border around the coat. The government has accepted their criticism insofar as not accepting further non-traditional designs for the county coats of arms, but the national symbol has remained intact.

Unlike in many countries, Croatian design more commonly uses symbolism from the coat-of-arms, rather than from the Croatian flag. This is partly due to the geometric design of the shield which makes it appropriate for use in many graphic contexts (e.g. the insignia of Croatia Airlines or the design of the shirt for the Croatia national football team), and partly due to the fact that neighbouring countries like Slovenia and Serbia use the same Pan-Slavic colours on their flags as Croatia.

Trivia

The pattern of šahovnica resembles an autochthonous flower called kockavica, which is sometimes associated with the coat of arms.

Some right-wing Croats claimed that the colour of the top left square is a mark of whether Croatia is independent or ruled by foreigners, white or red respectively. However, this notion is contradicted by the coat of arms during the quisling Independent State of Croatia, periods of the Habsburg rule & domination by the Magyar monarchs - all with an upper left square white. In the case of Republic of Croatia the first square is red. The preferred design also varies by geography with 'upper left square white' historically preferred by Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina and 'upper left square red' by those in Hrvatsko Zagorje and parts of Dalmatia. The stand-alone 'upper left square white' design being associated with nationalists is a red herring because of its adoption by politically neutral groups and that existing on many historic buildings and cultural artifacts in Croatia and other parts of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, is the šahovnica in both its 'upper left square red' and 'upper left square white' variants; stand-alone or with other crests and predate the perceived political connotations of the modern era. The choice of 'upper left square red' or 'upper left square white' is more often dictated by heraldic laws and aesthetic requirements.

On the issue of whether the upper left square should be white or red, the following is stated on a 'vexillology and heraldry' website ("Croatia - History of the National Flag" - by Željko Heimer)

"What does heraldry say on that? Heraldic definition of chequered red and white does not say anything on which one goes first. However, most of books refer that if the shield stands for its own, it should have red first, mainly for aestethical purposes, making the borders of the shield more visible. If the shield stands together with others, e.g. in the trierced shield of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia, or the one of Kingdom of Yugoslavia, it is better to have the white one first, so that more metal (white) than colour (red) is against the coloured fields (red, blue) of the other two."

In heraldry sources, the šahovnica is often referred to as chequy arms.

The Croatian Coat of arms bears a strong resemblance with the flag of the Dutch province of Noord-Brabant

 

National Anthem: Lijepa naša domovino

 

Croatian Official

 

Lijepa naša domovino,

Oj junačka zemljo mila,

Stare slave djedovino,

Da bi vazda sretna bila!

Mila, kano si nam slavna,

Mila si nam ti jedina.

Mila, kuda si nam ravna,

Mila, kuda si planina!

Teci Dravo, Savo teci,

Nit ti Dunav silu gubi,

Sinje more svijetu reci,

Da svoj narod Hrvat ljubi.

Dok mu njive sunce grije,

Dok mu hrašće bura vije,

Dok mu mrtve grobak krije,

Dok mu živo srce bije!

 

English Translation

 

Our beautiful homeland,

O so fearless and gracious,

Our fathers' ancient glory,

May you be blessed forever.

Dear, you are our only glory,

Dear, you are our only one,

Dear, we love your plains,

Dear, we love your mountains.

Drava, Sava, keep on flowing,

Danube, do not lose your vigor,

Deep blue sea, tell the world,

That a Croat loves his homeland.

Whilst his fields are kissed by sunshine,

Whilst his oaks are whipped by wild winds,

Whilst his dear ones go to heaven,

Whilst his live heart beats.

 

Internet Page:http://www.croatia.com

www.croatia.hr

www.visit-croatia.co.uk

 

Croatia in diferent languages

 

eng | cym | ina | rup: Croatia

bre | fao | fin | kal | nor | swa: Kroatia

arg | ita | lld | roh: Croazia

ast | glg | spa: Croacia

deu | ltz | nds: Kroatien / Kroatien

cat | oci: Croàcia

dan | swe: Kroatien

dsb | hsb: Chorwatska

fra | jnf: Croatie

jav | lin: Kroasia

kaa | uzb: Xorvatiya / Хорватия

lim | nld: Kroatië

afr: Kroasië

aze: Xorvatıstan / Хорватыстан; Xorvatiya / Хорватија

bam: Kɔrɔwasi

bos: Hrvatska / Хрватска

ces: Chorvatsko; Charvátsko

cor: Kroati

crh: Hırvatistan / Хырватистан

csb: Chòrwackô

epo: Kroatujo; Kroatio

est: Horvaatia; Kroaatia

eus: Kroazia

frp: Croacie

fry: Kroaasje

fur: Cravuazie

gag: Horvatiya / Хорватия

gla: Croàisia

gle: An Chróit / An Ċróit

glv: Yn Chroit

hat: Kroasi

hrv: Hrvatska

hun: Horvátország

ibo: Kroetia

ind: Kroasia / كرواسيا

isl: Króatía

kmr: Xorvatî / Хорвати / خۆرڤاتی

kur: Xirvatistan / خرڤاتستان; Krovatya / کرۆڤاتیا

lat: Croatia; Crovatia; Chorbatia; Chrobatia; Liburnia

lav: Horvātija

lit: Kroatija

mlg: Krôasia

mlt: Kroazja

mol: Croaţia / Кроация

mri: Koroātia

msa: Croatia / كرواتيا

nrm: Croassie

pol: Chorwacja

por: Croácia

que: Hurwatsuyu

rmy: Kroatiya / क्रोआतिया

ron: Croaţia

scn: Croazzia

slk: Chorvátsko

slo: Horvatia / Хорватиа; Horvatzem / Хорватзем

slv: Hrvaška

sme: Kroátia

smg: Kroatėjė

som: Korweeshiya

sqi: Kroacia

srd: Croàtzia

szl: Chorwacyjo

tet: Kroásia

ton: Koloēsia

tuk: Horwatiýa / Хорватия

tur: Hırvatistan

vie: Crô-a-ti-a

vol: Kroatän

vor: Horvaatia

wln: Crowåceye

wol: Korwaasi

zza: Xırvatıstan

chu: Хръватія (Ĥrŭvatīja); Хръватьска (Ĥrŭvatĭska)

abq | alt | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Хорватия (Ĥorvatija)

che | chv | oss: Хорвати (Ĥorvati)

mon | xal: Хорват (Ĥorvat)

bak: Хорватия / Ĥorvatiya

bel: Харватыя / Charvatyja

bul: Хърватия (Ĥǎrvatija); Хърватско (Ĥǎrvatsko)

chm: Хорватий (Ĥorvatij)

kaz: Хорватия / Xorvatïya / حورۆاتيا

kbd: Хорватие (Ĥorvatie)

mkd: Хрватска (Hrvatska)

srp: Хрватска / Hrvatska

tat: Хорватия / Xorvatiä

tgk: Хорватия / خاروتیه / Xorvatija

ukr: Хорватія (Ĥorvatija)

ara: كرواتيا (Kurwātiyā)

ckb: کرواتیا / Kirwatya; کرواتسان / Kirwatistan

fas: کرواسی (Koroāsī)

prs: کروویشیا (Krōvēšiyā); کروشیا (Krōšiyā)

pus: کرووېشيا (Krowešiyā); کروشيا (Krošiyā)

uig: كرودىيە / Krodiye / Кродия; خورۋاتىيە / Xorwatiye / Хорватия

urd: کروشیا (Karošiyā); کروایشیا (Kroʾešiyā)

div: ކްރޮއޭށިއާ (Kro'ēŝi'ā); ކުރޮއޭޝިއާ (Kuro'ēši'ā)

syr: ܟܪܘܬܝܐ (Krōtiyā)

heb: קרואטיה (Qrôʾaṭyah)

lad: קרואסיה / Kroasia

yid: קראָאַטיע (Kroatye)

amh: ክሮኤሽያ (Kro'ešya); ክሮዌሺያ (Krowešiya)

ell: Κροατία (Kroatía)

hye: Խորվաթիա (Ĥorvaṭia); Հորվաթիա (Horvaṭia)

kat: ხორვატია (Ĥorvatia); ჰორვატია (Horvatia)

hin: क्रोशिया (Krošiyā); क्रोएशिया (Kroešiyā)

nep: क्रोएसिया (Kroesiyā)

ben: ক্রোয়েশিয়া (Kroyešiyā)

pan: ਕਰੋਟੀਆ (Kroṭīā)

kan: ಕ್ರೊಯೇಶಿಯ (Kroyēšiya)

mal: ക്രൊയേഷ്യ (Kroyēṣya)

tam: குரோசியா (Kurōčiyā)

tel: క్రొయేషియా (Kroyēṣiyā)

zho: 克羅地亞/克罗地亚 (Kèluódìyà)

jpn: クロアチア (Kuroachia)

kor: 크로아티아 (Keuroatia)

mya: ခရုိအေးရ္ဟား (Kʰáẏo'èšà)

tha: โครเอเชีย (Kʰrō'ēčʰiya)

khm: ក្រូអាត (Krū'āt)

 

The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. Lying along the Indian Ocean, at the equator, Kenya is bordered by Ethiopia (north), Somalia (northeast), Tanzania (south), Uganda plus Lake Victoria (west), and Sudan (northwest). The capital city is Nairobi. The population has grown rapidly in recent decades to nearly 38 million. Kenya has numerous wildlife reserves, containing thousands of animal species.

The country is named after Mount Kenya, a significant landmark and the second among the highest mountain peaks of Africa, and both were originally usually pronounced /ˈkiːnjə/ in English, though the native pronunciation and the one intended by the original transcription Kenia was [ˈkɛnja]. During the presidency of Jomo Kenyatta in the 1960s, the current English pronunciation of /ˈkɛnjə/ became widespread because his name retained the native pronunciation. Before 1920, the area now known as Kenya was known as the British East Africa Protectorate and so there was no need to mention mount when referring to the mountain

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kenya

 

Geography

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Kenya

 

Other info

Oficial Name:

Jamhuri ya Kenya

Republic of Kenya

 

Independence:

December 12, 1963

- Republic declared December 12, 1964

 

Area:

582.650km2

 

Inhabitants:

33.450.000

 

Languages:

Arabic, Omani Spoken [acx] 15,000 in Kenya (1995). Along the coast. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Boni [bob] 3,500 in Kenya (1994). In forest hinterland behind Lamu, Lamu, and Tana River districts, Coast Province; Garissa District, North-Eastern Province. At least 11 villages. Also spoken in Somalia. Alternate names: Aweera, Aweer, Waata, Wata, Sanye, Wasanye, Waboni, Bon, Ogoda, Wata-Bala. Dialects: Close to Garre of Somalia, but not close in culture or appearance. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Rendille-Boni

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Borana [gax] 152,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 96,000 Borana (1994), 43,000 Gabra (1994), 13,000 Sakuye (1994). Marsabit and Isiolo districts, Eastern Province. Alternate names: Boran, Booran, Boraan, Southern Oromo, Oromo, "Galla". Dialects: Boran, Gabra (Gabbra, Gebra), Sakuye (Saguye). Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Oromo

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Bukusu [bxk] 565,000 (1987 BTL). Population includes 47,000 Tachon (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Western Province, Bungoma District, Mt. Elgon. Alternate names: Lubukusu. Dialects: Bukusu, Tachoni (Tachon). Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Masaba-Luyia (J.30), Luyia

More information.

 

Burji [bji] 7,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen). Mainly around Marsabit township, Moyale. Alternate names: Bambala. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Highland

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Chonyi [coh] 121,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Kilifi District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Chichonyi. Dialects: Chonyi speakers may understand Giryama. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Mijikenda

More information.

 

Chuka [cuh] 70,000 (1980 SIL). Southern Meru District, Eastern Province. Alternate names: Suka, Chuku. Dialects: Comprehension of northern Meru dialects is borderline. Close to Tharaka. Lexical similarity 73% with Embu, 70% with Gikuyu, 67% with Meru, 63% with Kamba. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20), Meru

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Cutchi-Swahili [ccl] 46,003 in Kenya (2000 WCD). Also spoken in Tanzania. Alternate names: Asian Swahili. Dialects: May be adequately intelligible to speakers of standard Swahili. Cutchi-Swahili and Asian Swahili may not be the same. Classification: Creole, Swahili based

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Daasanach [dsh] 2,500 in Kenya (1980 SIL). Northeastern shore of Lake Turkana, around Illeret, Marsabit District, Eastern Province. Alternate names: Geleb, Dama, Marille, Reshiat, "Shangilla", Daasanech, Dasenech, Dathanaik, Geleba, Gheleba. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Western Omo-Tana

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Dahalo [dal] 400 (1992 Brenzinger). Ethnic population: 400. Near the mouth of the Tana River, Lamu and Tana River districts, Coast Province. Alternate names: Sanye, Guo Garimani. Dialects: The language has clicks, although unrelated to Khoisan languages. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, South

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Digo [dig] 217,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population total all countries: 305,000. Kwale District, Coast Province, south of Mombasa. Also spoken in Tanzania. Alternate names: Kidigo, Chidigo. Dialects: Partially intelligible with Giryama but the most remote from Giryama of the Mijikenda Subgroup. Lexical similarity 74% with Duruma, 72% with Chonyi and Swahili, 71% with Swahili dialects Mrima and Mvita, 67% with Amu, 62% with Bajun, 58% with Lower Pokomo. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Mijikenda

More information.

 

Duruma [dug] 247,000 (1994 SIL). West Kwale District, Coast Province, south of Mombasa to the Tanzanian border. Dialects: Of the nine Mijikenda dialects, Duruma is the second most remote from Giryama linguistically. Lexical similarity 4% with Digo, 66% with Swahili. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Mijikenda

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El Molo [elo] 8 (1994 Larsen). Ethnic population: 400 (2000 M. Brenzinger). Southeastern shore of Lake Turkana, Elmolo Bay, Marsabit District, Eastern Province. Alternate names: Elmolo, Fura-Pawa, Ldes, Dehes, "Ndorobo". Dialects: The original language is close to Daasanach. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Western Omo-Tana Nearly extinct.

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Embu [ebu] 429,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 150,000 in Embu, 61,725 in Mbeere (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Embu District, Eastern Province. Alternate names: Kiembu. Dialects: Mbeere (Mbere, Kimbeere), Embu. Mbeere is reported to have adequate intelligibility of Embu. The population estimate may include Chuka and Mwimbi-Muthambi. Lexical similarity 85% with Mbeere, 73% with Gikuyu and Chuka, 66% with Kamba, 63% to 65% with Meru. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20)

More information.

 

Endo [enb] 80,000 (1997 SIL). Rift Valley Province, Elgeyo Marakwet District. Alternate names: Endo-Marakwet, Marakuet, Markweta. Dialects: Endo, Sambirir. Low intelligibility with major Kalenjin dialects and Talai. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Nandi-Markweta, Markweta

More information.

 

English [eng] Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, English

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Garreh-Ajuran [ggh] 128,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 96,000 Garreh, 32,000 Ajuran. Mandera and Wajir districts, North Eastern Province. Dialects: Garreh (Gurreh, Garre, Gari), Ajuran (Ajuuraan, Ujuuraan). Part of a dialect cluster. Lexical similarity 85% with Boran. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Oromo

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Gikuyu [kik] 5,347,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). West central Kenya, in Kiambu, Murang'a, Nyeri, and Kirinyaga districts, Central Province. Alternate names: Kikuyu, Gekoyo, Gigikuyu. Dialects: Southern Gikuyu (Kiambu, Southern Murang'a), Ndia (Southern Kirinyaga), Gichugu (Northern Kirinyaga), Mathira (Karatina), Northern Gikuyu (Northern Murang'a, Nyeri). Lexical similarity 73% with Embu, 70% with Chuka, 67% with Kamba, 63% with Meru. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20)

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Giryama [nyf] 623,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 496,000 Giryama, 17,000 Kauma, 19,000 Jibana, 13,000 Kambe, 72,000 Rabai, 6,000 Ribe. North of Mombasa, Kilifi and Kwale districts, Coast Province. Alternate names: Giriama, Agiryama, Kigiriama, Nika, Nyika, Kinyika. Dialects: Kauma, Ribe (Rihe), Jibana (Dzihana), Kambe, Giryama, Chwaka, Rabai. Digo and Duruma are the most distinct from Giryama. Dialect speakers may understand Chonyi. Lexical similarity 72% with Digo, 63% with Mrima, 62% with Mvita, 61% with Amu, 59% with Lower Pokomo and Bajun. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Mijikenda

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Gujarati [guj] 50,000 in Kenya (1995 SIL). Mainly in Nairobi. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Gujarati

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Gusii [guz] 1,582,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Southwestern, south of Kavirondo Gulf, Kisii District, Nyanza Province. Alternate names: Kisii, Kosova, Guzii, Ekegusii. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kuria (E.10)

More information.

 

Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki [ida] 306,000 (1987 BTL). Population includes Idakho 65,000, Isukha 90,000, Tiriki 100,000 (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Kakamega District, Western Province. Dialects: Idakho (Idaxo, Itakho, Kakamega, Kakumega), Isukha (Isuxa, Lwisukha), Tiriki. Speakers have high comprehension of Logooli, but there is resistance to each other's pronunciation. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Masaba-Luyia (J.30), Luyia

More information.

 

Kachchi [kfr] 10,000 in Kenya (1995 SIL). Nairobi, Mombasa, and main trade routes. Alternate names: Cutchi, Kacchi, Katchi, Cutch. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Sindhi

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Kalenjin [kln] 2,458,123 (1989 census). Population includes 471,459 Kipsigis, 261,969 Nandi, 110,908 Keiyo, 130,249 Tugen (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Mainly Nandi, Kericho, and Uasin Gishu districts, Rift Valley Province. Dialects: Nandi (Naandi, Cemual), Terik (Nyang'ori), Kipsigis (Kipsiikis, Kipsikis, Kipsikiis), Keiyo (Keyo, Elgeyo), South Tugen (Tuken), Cherangany. Lexical similarity 60% with Omotik, 50% with Datooga. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Nandi-Markweta, Nandi

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Kamba [kam] 2,448,300 (1989 census). South central, Machakos and Kitui districts, Eastern Province. Some in Kwale District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Kikamba, Kekamba. Dialects: Masaku, South Kitui, North Kitui, Mumoni. Lexical similarity 67% with Gikuyu, 66% with Embu, 63% with Chuka, 57% to 59% with Meru. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20)

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Kenyan Sign Language [xki] Students in primary schools in 1990: 2,600. There are around 200,000 deaf people in Kenya. It is not known how many know KSL. 32 primary schools for the deaf in Hola, Kapsabet, Karatina, Karen, Kerugoya, Kilifi, Kisumu, Kitui, Kwale, Meru, Mombasa, Mumias, Murang'a, Nairobi, Nakuru, North Kinangop, Ruiru, Sakwa. Schools under the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) use a Kenyan version of (American) Exact Signed English, including one at Machakos. KSL is used at Nyangoma School at Bondo, a primary and boys' technical school (Sakwa), and in one girl's school. A school in Mombasa uses British Sign Language. Some Belgian brothers use Belgian Sign language in a school near Oyugis. 4 churches in Nairobi: 2 use KIE Signed English, 1 a mixture of that and KSL, the other uses a mixture of Korean, American, and Kenyan Sign Languages. Alternate names: KSL. Dialects: Mainly unrelated to other sign languages. It has become standardized with slight variations since 1961, when elementary schools for deaf children were begun. The deaf from Kisumu (western Kenya) to the deaf in Mombasa (eastern Kenya) can understand each other completely even with some dialect differences. The deaf in Uganda and Tanzania do not really understand KSL, though they have much in common. Classification: Deaf sign language

More information.

 

Konkani, Goanese [gom] 3,900 in Kenya (1987). Nairobi. Alternate names: Gomataki, Goan, Goanese. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Southern zone, Konkani

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Kuria [kuj] 135,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). The first four dialects listed are in Kenya, Kuria District, Nyanza Province. The last three dialects are in Tanzania. Alternate names: Kikuria, Igikuria, Ekiguria, Kurya, Tende. Dialects: Nyabasi, Bugumbe, Bukira, Bwirege, Kiroba, Simbiti, Sweta. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kuria (E.10)

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Logooli [rag] 197,000 (1987 BTL). Kakamega District, Western Province. Alternate names: Ragoli, Uluragooli, Llugule, Lugooli, Maragooli, Luragoli, Llogole, Maragoli. Dialects: Lexical similarity 70% to 80% with Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Masaba-Luyia (J.30), Luyia

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Luo [luo] 3,185,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population total all countries: 3,465,000. Nyanza Province. Also spoken in Tanzania. Alternate names: Dholuo, Nilotic Kavirondo, Kavirondo Luo. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Western, Luo, Southern, Luo-Acholi, Luo

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Luyia [luy] 3,418,083 in Kenya (1989 census). Population includes 135,000 Wanga, 65,000 Marama, 45,000 Tsotso 60,000 Kisa, 105,000 Kabras, 50,000 Saamia, 35,000 West Nyala, 60,000 Khayo, 60,000 Marachi (1980 SIL). Population total all countries: 3,643,461. Lake Victoria area, Western Province. Saamia and Songa dialects are in Uganda. Also spoken in Uganda. Alternate names: Luluyia, Luhya. Dialects: Kisa (Shisa, Lushisa), Marama, Wanga (Hanga, Luhanga, Oluhanga, Kawanga, Oluwanga), Tsotso, Saamia (Samia, Olusamia, Lusamia, Lusaamia, Samya), West Nyala (Nyala-B), Khayo, Songa, Marachi, Kabras. Saamia has 88% lexical similarity with Wanga, 80% with Nyore, 62% with Masaba, 59% to 61% with Ganda, 52% with Isuxa, 51% with Gwere. Dialects in Uganda have 92% lexical similarity. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Masaba-Luyia (J.30), Luyia

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Maasai [mas] 453,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population total all countries: 883,000. Kajiado and Narok districts, Rift Valley Province. Also spoken in Tanzania. Alternate names: Masai. Dialects: Kaputiei, Keekonyokie, Matapo, Laitokitok, Iloodokilani, Damat, Purko, Loitai, Siria, Moitanik (Wuasinkishu), Kore, Arusa (Arusha), Parakuyo (Baraguyu, Kwavi), Kisonko. Arusha is distinct from the Bantu Chaga-related variety. One source reports that Arusha who are pastoralists dress like the Maasai and speak a Maasai-related variety, whereas those who are agriculturalists intermarry with the Chaga. Other sources say the Arusha originally spoke a Bantu language. The dialects listed in Tanzania have 82% to 86% lexical similarity with Kenya dialects. In Kenya, Purko has 91% to 96% lexical similarity with other Kenya dialects, 82% with Baraguyu, 86% with Arusha, 77% to 89% with Samburu, 82% to 89% with Chamus, 60% with Ngasa (Ongamo). Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Eastern, Lotuxo-Teso, Lotuxo-Maa, Ongamo-Maa

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Malakote [mlk] 8,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Tana River north of Pokomo, between Bura and Garissa, Tana River District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Ilwana. Dialects: Not intelligible with Upper Pokomo or Lower Pokomo. Lexical similarity 57% with Lower Pokomo, 55% with Upper Pokomo. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Malakote

More information.

 

Meru [mer] 1,305,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 540,000 Meru, 26,400 Igoji (1980 Berne and Mölig). Meru District, Eastern Province, northeast of Mt. Kenya. Alternate names: Kimeru. Dialects: Meru, Igembe, Tigania, Imenti, Miutini, Igoji. Lexical similarity 85% between Imenti and Tigania. 67% similarity with Chuka, 63% with Embu and Gikuyu, 57% with Kamba. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20), Meru

More information.

 

Mwimbi-Muthambi [mws] 70,000 (1980 SIL). Central Meru District, Eastern Province. Dialects: Mwimbi (Kimwimbi), Muthambi. People may be able to use Meru literature. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20), Meru

More information.

 

Nubi [kcn] 10,000 in Kenya. Population includes 3,000 to 6,000 in Kibera. Kibera, outside Nairobi. Alternate names: Ki-Nubi, Kinubi. Classification: Creole, Arabic based

More information.

 

Nyala, East [nle] 35,000 (1980 SIL). Lake Victoria area, Western Province. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Masaba-Luyia (J.30), Luyia

More information.

 

Nyore [nyd] 120,000 (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Above Kavirondo Gulf, Kakamega District, Western Province. Alternate names: Olunyore, Lunyore, Nyole, Nyoole, Lunyole, Olunyole. Dialects: Lexical similarity 61% with Nyole of Uganda. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Masaba-Luyia (J.30), Luyia

More information.

 

Okiek [oki] Few speakers in Kenya (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Population total all countries 500. Ethnic population: 36,869 (2000). On East Mau Escarpment, Nakuru District, Rift Valley Province. The Sogoo live in the southern Mau Forest between the Amala and Ewas Ng'iro rivers near the Nosogami stream. Also spoken in Tanzania. Alternate names: Akiek, Akie, Ogiek, "Ndorobo", Kinare. Dialects: Okiek, Suiei, Sogoo (Sokoo). Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Okiek

More information.

 

Omotik [omt] 50 (1980). Ethnic population: 200 or more (2000). Around Lemek, Narok District, Rift Valley Province. Alternate names: Omotic, Laamoot, "Ndorobo". Dialects: Suiei. Lexical similarity 60% with Kalenjin, 50% with Datooga. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Tatoga Nearly extinct.

More information.

 

Orma [orc] 55,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 5,000 Munyo. Garissa and Tana River districts, Northeastern and Coast provinces. The Oromo spoken in the Lower Jubba Region of Somalia may actually be Orma. The Orma controlled that area until the mid or late 19th century. They move from the lower Tana River inland toward Kitui District during rainy season. Alternate names: Uardai, Wadai, Warday, Wardei. Dialects: Munyo (Korokoro, Munyo Yaya), Waata (Sanye), Orma. Distinct from Boran. Munyoyaya is an ethnic group speaking a dialect of Orma. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Oromo

More information.

 

Panjabi, Eastern [pan] 10,000 in Kenya (1995 SIL). Nairobi. Alternate names: Punjabi, Gurmukhi, Gurumukhi. Dialects: Panjabi Proper. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Panjabi

More information.

 

Pokomo, Lower [poj] 29,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Lower Tana River, Tana River District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Kipokomo, Pfokomo, Malachini. Dialects: Mwina, Buu I, Buu II, Buu III, Kulesa, Ngatana, Dzunza, Kalindi. Lexical similarity 76% with Upper Pokomo, 63% with Mvita, 61% with Amu, 60% with Mrima, 59% with Giryama, 58% with Digo, 57% with Bajun. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Pokomo

More information.

 

Pokomo, Upper [pkb] 34,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 5,000 Malalulu, 6,000 Zubaki, 2,100 Ndura, 2,600 Kinakomba, 1,500 Gwano, 6,150 Ndera. Upper Tana River, Tana River District, Coast Province. Dialects: Malalulu, Zubaki, Ndura, Kinakomba, Gwano, Ndera. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Pokomo

More information.

 

Pökoot [pko] 264,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Baringo and West Pokot districts, Rift Valley Province. Also spoken in Uganda. Alternate names: Pökot, Suk, Pakot. Dialects: East Pokot, West Pokot. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Pokot

More information.

 

Rendille [rel] 32,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Marsabit District, between Lake Turkana and Marsabit Mt., Eastern Province. Alternate names: Rendile, Randile. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Rendille-Boni

More information.

 

Sabaot [spy] 143,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Mt. Elgon District, Western Province. Also Trans-Nzoia District in Rift Valley Province. Alternate names: Mt. Elgon Maasai. Dialects: Bong'omeek (Bong'om, Pong'om), Koony (Kony), Book (Bok, Pok). Related to Sebei of Uganda. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Elgon

More information.

 

Sagalla [tga] 10,000 (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Taita Hills, slopes of Sagala Hill, Taita District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Kisagala, Kisagalla, Sagala, Teri, Saghala. Dialects: Dambi, Mugange, Teri, Kishamba, Gimba, Kasigau. Lexical similarity 62% with Taita. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Taita

More information.

 

Samburu [saq] 147,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 128,000 Samburu, 19,000 Chamus. Samburu District, and south and east shores of Lake Baringo, Baringo District, Rift Valley Province (Chamus). Alternate names: Sambur, Sampur, Burkeneji, Lokop, E Lokop, Nkutuk. Dialects: Chamus (Ilcamus, Njemps). Lexical similarity 94% to 88% with Chamus, 89% to 77% with Maasai, 59% with Ngasa (Ongamo), 82% between Chamus and Maasai. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Eastern, Lotuxo-Teso, Lotuxo-Maa, Ongamo-Maa

More information.

 

Sanye [ssn] 5,000 (1980 SIL). Lower parts of Tana River, Lamu District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Sanya, Wasanye, Ariangulu, Langulo, Waata, Waat. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Oromo

More information.

 

Somali [som] 420,354 in Kenya (2000 WCD). Population includes 45,098 Somali, 27,244 Hawiyah, 100,400 Degodia,139,597 Ogaden (1989 census). Northeastern Province around Wajir. Alternate names: Standard Somali. Dialects: Degodia, Ogaden. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Somali

More information.

 

Suba [suh] 129,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population includes 37,000 Mfangano, 32,000 Gwasi, 22,000 Kaksingri, 15,000 Muhuru, 10,000 Suna, 8,000 Wiregi, 5,000 Ungoe (1997). Population total all countries: 159,000. Eastern shores of Lake Victoria, Mfangano and Rusinga islands. Also spoken in Tanzania. Dialects: Mfangano, Gwasi, Kaksingri, Muhuru, Suna, Wiregi, Ungoe. Suba is a major part of the Kuria subgroup. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kuria (E.10)

More information.

 

Swahili [swh] 131,000 in Kenya. Population includes 66,000 Bajuni (1994 I. Larsen BTL), 6,000 Siyu, 3,000 Pate, 15,000 Amu, 25,000 to 30,000 Mvita, 13,900 Shirazi (1989 census), 2,000 Vumba (1980 Heine and Möhlig). Coast Province. Alternate names: Kiswaheli, Kiswahili, Suahili, Kisuahili, Arab-Swahili. Dialects: Amu, Mvita (Kimvita, Mombasa), Bajuni (Bajun, T'ik'uu, Tikulu, Tukulu, Gunya, Mbalazi, Chimbalazi), Pate, Pemba (Phemba, Hadimu, Tambatu), Mrima, Fundi, Siu (Siyu), Shamba (Kishamba), Matondoni. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, G, Swahili (G.40)

More information.

 

Taita [dav] 203,389 (1989 census). Taita hills, Taita District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Dabida, Davida, Kidabida, Teita, Kitaita, Dawida. Dialects: Mbololo, Werugha, Mbale, Chawia, Bura, Mwanda. Lexical similarity 62% with Sagalla, 46% with Gweno, 41% to 44% with Chaga. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Nyika (E.40), Taita

More information.

 

Talai [tle] 38,091 (2000 WCD). Rift Valley Province. Alternate names: Marakwet. Dialects: Low intelligibility of basic Kalenjin dialects and Endo. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Nandi-Markweta, Markweta

More information.

 

Taveta [tvs] 14,358 (1989 census). Around Taveta in adjacent areas. Taita District, Coast Province. Alternate names: Kitaveta, Kitubeta, Tubeta. Dialects: Closely related to Asu. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, G, Shambala (G.20)

More information.

 

Teso [teo] 279,000 in Kenya (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Busia District, Western Province. Alternate names: Ateso. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Eastern, Lotuxo-Teso, Teso-Turkana, Teso

More information.

 

Tharaka [thk] 112,000 (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Eastern Meru District, Embu District, and some in Kitui District, Eastern Province. Alternate names: Kitharaka, Saraka, Sharoka. Dialects: Gatue (North Tharaka), Thagichu (Kitui), Ntugi (Central Tharaka), Tharaka (South Tharaka). Thagichu dialect has extensive Kamba borrowings. Gatue dialect is influential. Difficult intelligibility of northern Meru dialects. Some Meru words have offensive meanings in Tharaka. Close to Chuka. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kamba (E.20), Meru

More information.

 

Tugen, North [tuy] 144,000 (1987 BTL). West central, west of the Kalenjin. Alternate names: North Tuken, Tuken. Dialects: People may not be able to use Kalenjin literature. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern, Kalenjin, Nandi-Markweta, Nandi

More information.

 

Turkana [tuv] 340,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL). Population total all countries: 365,163. Turkana, Samburu, Trans-Nzoia, Laikipia, Isiolo districts, Rift Valley Province, west and south of Lake Turkana, and Turkwel and Kerio rivers. Also spoken in Ethiopia. Alternate names: Bume, Buma, Turkwana. Dialects: Northern Turkana, Southern Turkana. Inherently intelligible with Toposa, but hostile toward the speakers. Also partially intelligible with Karamojong, Jie, and Nyangatom, but all five are ethnically distinct. There are a few phonological, lexical, and discourse marker differences between them. Northern Turkana and Eastern Toposa are closer; Southern Turkana and Western Toposa are farther apart linguistically. The four varieties form a cluster divided in the middle by the Kenya-Sudan border. Lexical similarity 85% similarity with Karamojong, 76% with Teso. Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Eastern, Lotuxo-Teso, Teso-Turkana, Turkana

More information.

 

Yaaku [muu] 50 (1983). Ethnic population: 250 (1983). Laikipia District, Mukogodo Division, Mukogodo Forest west of Doldol, foothills north of Mt. Kenya. Alternate names: Mukogodo, Mogogodo, Mukoquodo, Siegu, Yaakua, "Ndorobo". Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic, East, Yaaku Nearly extinct

 

Capital city:

Nairobi

 

Meaning country name:

After Mount Kenya, from the Kĩkũyũ name "Kere-Nyaga" ("Mountain of Whiteness").

 

Description Flag:

The flag of Kenya was officially adopted on December 12, 1963.

The Kenyan flag is based on that of Kenya African National Union. The colours symbolize black majority, red for the blood shed during the struggle for freedom, and green for natural wealth; the white fimbriation was added later and symbolizes peace. The black, red, and white traditional Maasai shield and two spears symbolize the defense of all the things mentioned above.

Origin of the Kenyan flag

The Kenyan flag is based on the black over red over green flag of Kenya African National Union (KANU), the political party that led the fight for freedom and independence of Kenya. Upon independence, the white fimbriation, symbolizing peace and unity, and the shield were added.

The colours of the flag have been specified by the Kenya National Archives.

 

Coat of arms:

The coat of arms of Kenya features two lions holding Maasai spears and a shield. The shield contains the national colours, of which:

Black represents the native people of Kenya

Green the agriculture and natural resources

Red the struggle for freedom

White for unity and peace.

The middle red strip bears a rooster holding an axe, which according to local customs, denotes a new and prosperous life.

The shield and lions stand on a silhouette of Mount Kenya containing in the foreground examples of Kenya agricultural produce - coffee, pyrethrum , sisal , tea , maize and pineapples.

The coat of arms is supported by scrolls having the words HARAMBEE

 

Motto: "Harambee"

 

National anthem: Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu

 

Kiswahili Lyrics

 

Ee Mungu nguvu yetu

Ilete baraka kwetu

Haki iwe ngao na mlinzi

Natukae na undugu

Amani na uhuru

Raha tupate na ustawi.

 

Amkeni ndugu zetu

Tufanye sote bidii

Nasi tujitoe kwa nguvu

Nchi yetu ya Kenya

Tunayoipenda

Tuwe tayari kuilinda.

 

Natujenge taifa letu

Ee, ndio wajibu wetu

Kenya istahili heshima

Tuungane mikono

Pamoja kazini

Kila siku tuwe na shukrani.

 

English Lyrics

O God of all creation,

Bless this our land and nation.

Justice be our shield and defender,

May we dwell in unity,

Peace and liberty.

Plenty be found within our borders.

 

Let one and all arise

With hearts both strong and true.

Service be our earnest endeavour,

And our Homeland of Kenya,

Heritage of splendour,

Firm may we stand to defend.

 

Let all with one accord

In common bond united,

Build this our nation together,

And the glory of Kenya,

The fruit of our labour

Fill every heart with thanksgiving

 

Coat of arms: www.kenya.go.ke

www.magicalkenya.com

www.best-kenya-safaris.com

 

Kenya in diferent languages

 

eng | bre | cor | dan | fra | fry | hat | hun | ina | jav | jnf | kin | lin | mlg | nld | nor | run | rup | swa | swe | tur | zza: Kenya

afr | arg | eus | fin | frp | ibo | ita | lat | lim | lld | oci | pap | pol | roh | ron | scn | sme | spa | sqi | ton | tpi | wln: Kenia

dsb | hrv | hsb | lav | lit | slv: Kenija

crh | kaa | uzb: Keniya / Кения

deu | ltz | nds: Kenia / Kenia

ces | slk: Keňa

fao | mlt: Kenja

ind | msa: Kenya / كيڽا

ast: Keña; Kenia

aze: Keniya / Кенија

bam: Keniya

bos: Kenija / Кенија

cat: Kènia

cym: Cenia

epo: Kenjo

est: Keenia

fur: Chenie

gla: Ceinia

gle: An Chéinia / An Ċéinia

glg: Quenia

glv: Yn Cheinney

hau: Keniya; Kenya

isl: Kenýa

kmr: Kênî / К’ени / کێنی

kur: Kenya / کەنیا

mol: Kenia / Кения

nrm: Qùenia

por: Quénia / Quênia

que: Kinya

rmy: Keniya / केनिया

slo: Kenia / Кениа

smg: Kėnėjė

smo: Kinia

som: Kiiniya; Kiinya; Keeniya; Keenya

srd: Kénya

szl: Kyńjo

tet: Kénia

tgl: Kenya; Kinya

tuk: Keniýa / Кения

vie: Kê-ni-a

vol: Keniyän

vor: Keeniä

wol: Keeñaa

abq | alt | bul | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Кения (Kenija)

che | chv | mon | oss: Кени (Keni)

bak: Кения / Keniya

bel: Кенія / Kienija

chm: Кений (Kenij)

kaz: Кения / Kenïya / كەنيا

kbd: Кение (Kenie)

mkd: Кенија (Kenija)

srp: Кенија / Kenija

tat: Кения / Keniä

tgk: Кения / کنیه / Kenija

ukr: Кенія (Kenija)

ara: كينيا (Kīniyā)

fas: کنیا / Keniyâ

prs: کینیا (Kēniyā)

pus: کېنيا (Keniyā)

snd: ڪينيا (Keniyā)

uig: كېنىيە / Kéniye / Кения

urd: کینیا (Keniyā / Kīniyā)

div: ކެންޔާ (Kenyā)

heb: קניה (Qenyah)

lad: קינייה / Kenya

yid: קעניאַ (Kenya)

amh: ኬንያ (Kenya)

ell: Κένυα (Kénya)

hye: Քենիա (Ḳenia)

kat: კენია (Kenia)

hin: कीनिया (Kīniyā); केन्या (Kenyā); केनिया (Keniyā)

ben: কেনিয়া (Keniyā)

pan: ਕੀਨੀਆ (Kīnīā)

kan: ಕೀನ್ಯಾ (Kīnyā)

mal: കെനിയ (Keniya)

tam: கென்யா (Keṉya); கெனியா (Keṉiya)

tel: కెన్యా (Kenyā)

zho: 肯尼亞/肯尼亚 (Kěnníyà)

jpn: ケニア (Kenia)

kor: 케냐 (Kenya)

bod: ཁེ་ནི་ཡ་ (Kʰe.ni.ya.)

dzo: ཀེ་ནི་ཡ་ (Ke.ni.ya.)

mya: ကင္ညာ (Kĩña)

tha: เคนยา (Kʰēnyā)

lao: ເກເນຍ (Kēniya)

khm: កេនយ៉ា (Kenyā)

 

is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. Russia shares borders with the following countries (from northwest to southeast): Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan (by the Sea of Okhotsk) and the United States (by the Bering Strait).

At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is by far the largest country in the world, covering more than a ninth of the Earth's land area. Russia is also the ninth most populous nation in the world with 142 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 11 time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, and is considered an energy superpower. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.

The nation's history began with that of the East Slavs, who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a noble Viking warrior class and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century and adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal states.

The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was Moscow, which served as the main force in the Russian reunification process and independence struggle against the Golden Horde. Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America.

Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the Russian Empire to being the largest and leading constituent of the Soviet Union, the world's first constitutionally socialist state and a recognized superpower, that played a decisive role in the allied victory in World War II. The Russian Federation was founded following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the Soviet state. Russia has the world's 11th largest economy by nominal GDP or the eighth largest by purchasing power parity, with the fifth largest nominal military budget. It is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the world's largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.

Russia is a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the G8, G20, the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Eurasian Economic Community, and is the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Russian nation has a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences, as well as a strong tradition in technology, including such significant achievements as the first human spaceflight.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia

 

Geography

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia#Geography

 

Other info

Oficia name:

Росси́йская Федера́ция

Rossískaia Federatsíia

 

Formation :

Declared June 12, 1990

- Finalized December 25, 1991

 

Area:

17.075.400 km2

 

Inhabitants:

150.000.000

 

Languages:

Ainu.Aleut Aleut, Mednyj Altai, Northern Altai, Southern Alutor Bohtan Neo-Aramaic Buriat, Russia Chukot Chulym Dolgan Enets, Forest Enets, Tundra Even Evenki Gilyak Itelmen Karagas Kerek Ket Khakas Khanty Koryak Mansi Mongolian, Halh Nanai Negidal Nenets Nganasan Oroch Orok Selkup Shor Tuvin Udihe Ulch Yakut Yugh Yukaghir, Northern Yukaghir, Southern Yupik, Central Siberian Yupik, Naukan

(europe)

Abaza Adyghe Aghul Akhvakh Andi Archi Avar Bagvalal Bashkir Bezhta Botlikh Chamalal Chechen Chuvash Dargwa Dido Domari Erzya Finnish Ghodoberi Hinukh Hunzib Ingrian Ingush Judeo-Tat Kabardian Kalmyk-Oirat Karachay-Balkar Karata Karelian Khvarshi Komi-Permyak Komi-Zyrian Kumyk Lak Lezgi Livvi Ludian Mari, Eastern Mari, Western Moksha Nogai Romani, Vlax Russian Russian Sign Language Rutul Saami, Akkala Saami, Kildin Saami, Skolt Saami,Ter Serbian Tabassaran Tat, Muslim Tatar Tindi Tsakhur Udmurt Veps Vod

Capital city:

Moscow

 

Meaning country name:

From a Varangian group known as the Rus' and from the state of Kievan Rus' they co-founded. (Soviet scholars disliked attributing the foundation of the Old East Slavic state to Scandinavian dynasts rather than to Slavic cultural groups, and therefore often insisted that the term "Rossija" derived from the name of the river Ros near Kiev.)

An Rúis — (Irish name) means, literally, "The Rus", though using a singular definite article (an) rather than the plural form na which would be grammatical. Use of an' to denote a country is standard in Irish.

Krievija (Latvian) : named after the ancient Krivichs tribe, related to modern Belarusians.

Vene, Venemaa (Estonian), Venäjä (Finnish): after the ancient people Venedes.

 

Decription Flag:

The flag of Russia is a tricolor of three equal horizontal fields, white on the top, blue in the middle and red on the bottom. The flag was first used as an ensign for merchant and war ships and only became official in 1896. Rumored to be based on the Dutch tricolor, the flag was in use until the 1917 Revolution, which toppled the tsar and established a communist government. For that time period, a red flag charged with communist symbols was favored over the tricolor. It was not until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the tricolor was brought back as the official flag of the new Russian Federation. The modern era flag underwent a slight change in 1993 and has been official since 2000. The flag of Russia provided the Pan-Slavic colours of red, blue and white that appear in the flags of Slavic countries.

The three colors purportedly came from the coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which depict Saint George wearing white (silver) armor, riding a white horse, wearing a blue cape and holding a blue shield, on a red field. According to another version, these three colors were associated with the robes of the Virgin Mary, the holy protectress of Russia.

A different interpretation associates white with the bright future (where the colour itself is associated with brightness, while its placement at the top - with future); blue with clouded present, and red with bloody past.

 

Coat of arms:

The Russian Coat of Arms comes from the old Russian Empire, and it was restored after the fall of the Soviet Union. Even if it has undergone several modifications since the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), the current Coat of Arms is directly derived from the various precedent versions. The general chromatic layout corresponds to the early XVth century standard. The shape of the eagle can be traced back to the times of Peter the Great (Peter I).

Great Coat of Arms of the Russian Empire, 1882The two major symbolic elements of Russian state symbols (the two-headed eagle and St. George slaying the dragon) predate Peter the Great. The Great State Seal of Ivan III, Duke of Moscow, featured a horse rider slaying a (or struggling with) a dragon. The figure was not officially identified as Saint George until 1730, when it was described as such in an Imperial decree. The older form (a mounted dragon slayer known as Saint George the Victory-bearer, "Победоносец") was always associated with the Grand Duchy of Moscovy, later becoming the official arms of the city of Moscow. The earliest graphic representation of a rider with a spear (1390) figures in a seal of the prince of Moscow, Vasiliy Dmitriyevich. The serpent or dragon was added under Ivan III. Saint George henceforth became the patron of Moscow (and, by extension, of Russia). Today, the official description does not refer to the rider on the central shield as representing Saint George, mainly in order to maintain the secular character of the modern Russian state.

The double-headed eagle was adopted by Ivan III after his marriage with the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologue, whose uncle Constantine was the last Byzantine Emperor. The double-headed eagle was the official state symbol of the late Byzantine Empire, spanning both East and West. It, amongst other aspects, symbolized the unity of Church and State. After the Fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, Ivan III and his heirs considered Moscovy (Moscow) to be the last stronghold of the true, orthodox, Christian faith, and in effect, the last Roman Empire (hence the expression "Third Rome" for Moscow and - by extension - for the whole of Imperial Russia). From 1497 on the double-headed eagle proclaimed a Russian sovereignty equal to that of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The first remained evidence of the double-headed eagle officialised as an emblem of Russia is on the great prince's seal, stamped in 1497 on a Charter of share and allotment of independent princes' possessions. At the same time the image of gilded double-headed eagle on red background appeared on the walls of the Palace of Facets in the Kremlin.

Central element of the Great Coat of Arms of the Russian Empire, 1882Under the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty, Mikhail Feodorovich, the image of the coat of arms changed. In 1625 the double-headed eagle was adorned with three crowns for the first time. Through time, the latter have alternatively been interpreted at the conquered kingdoms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia, or as the unity of Grand Russia (Russia), Little Russia (today's Ukraine) and White Russia (Belarus). Today, the imperial crowns stand for the unity and sovereignty of Russia both as a whole and in its subdivisions (republics and regions). The orb and sceptre are traditional heraldic symbols of sovereign power and autocracy. It has been decided to retain them in the modern Coat of Arms of Russia despite the fact that the Russian Federation is not a monarchy, which led to objections by the Communists. However, after having lost both the blue band of the Order of St. Andrew supporting the three crowns and the corresponding Chain surrounding Moscow's shield, the modern Coat of Arms of Russia was (re-)instated by decree in 1993, and the corresponding law act was paraphed by President Vladimir Putin on December 20, 2000.

 

National Anthem: National Anthem of Russia

 

Русский

 

Россия — священная наша держава,

Россия — любимая наша страна.

Могучая воля, великая слава —

Твоё достоянье на все времена!

 

Припев:

Славься, Отечество наше свободное,

Братских народов союз вековой,

Предками данная мудрость народная!

Славься, страна! Мы гордимся тобой!

 

От южных морей до полярного края

Раскинулись наши леса и поля.

Одна ты на свете! Одна ты такая —

Хранимая Богом родная земля!

 

Припев

 

Широкий простор для мечты и для жизни

Грядущие нам открывают года.

Нам силу даёт наша верность Отчизне.

Так было, так есть и так будет всегда!

 

Припев

 

Transliteration

 

Rossiya — svyashchennaya nasha derzhava,

Rossiya — lyubimaya nasha strana.

Moguchaya volya, velikaya slava —

Tvoyo dostoyanye na vse vremena!

 

Chorus:

Slavsya, Otechestvo nashe svobodnoye,

Bratskikh narodov soyuz vekovoy,

Predkami dannaya mudrost narodnaya!

Slavsya, strana! My gordimsya toboy!

 

Ot yuzhnykh morey do polyarnovo kraya

Raskinulis nashi lesa i polya.

Odna ty na svete! Odna ty takaya —

Khranimaya Bogom rodnaya zemlya!

 

Chorus

 

Shirokiy prostor dlya mechty i dlya zhizni.

Gryadushchiye nam otkryvayut goda.

Nam silu dayot nasha vernost Otchizne.

Tak bylo, tak yest i tak budet vsegda!

 

Chorus

 

English

 

Russia—our sacred state,

Russia—our beloved country.

A mighty will, a great glory

Are yours forever for all time!

 

Chorus:

Be glorious, our free Fatherland,

Ancient union of brotherly peoples,

Ancestor given wisdom of the people!

Be glorious, country! We are proud of you!

 

From the southern seas to the polar region

Lie our forests and our fields.

You are one in the world! You are one of a kind,

Native land protected by God!

 

Chorus

 

Wide spaces for dreams and for living

Are open to us by the coming years.

Our faith in our Fatherland gives us strength.

So it was, so it is, and so it will always be!

 

Chorus

 

Internet Page: www.duma.ru

www.council.gov.ru

www.kremlin.ru

www.gov.ru

www.russia-travel.com

www.russia-tourism.ru

www.visitrussia.org

 

Russia in diferent languages

 

eng | cos | ina | ita | oci | roh | scn: Russia

arg | ast | bre | glg | jav | pap | ron | smo | spa | sqi: Rusia

fra | frp | fur | jnf | nrm: Russie

que | tgl | tur | zza: Rusya

afr | dan | nld: Rusland

deu | ltz | nds: Russland / Ruſsland

hrv | lit | slv: Rusija

cat | por: Rússia

ces | slk: Rusko

fao | nor: Russland

kin | run: Rusiya

xho | zul: iRashiya

aze: Rusiya / Русија

bam: Irisi

bos: Rusija / Русија

cor: Russi

crh: Rusiye / Русие

csb: Ruskô

cym: Rwsia

dsb: Ruska; Rusojska

epo: Rusujo; Rusio

est: Venemaa

eus: Errusia

fin: Venäjä

frr: Ruslönj

fry: Ruslân

gag: Rusiya / Русия

gla: An Ruis; An Ruisia

gle: An Rúis / An Rúis

glv: Yn Roosh

hat: Risi

hau: Rasha; Russia

haw: Lukia

hsb: Ruska

hun: Oroszország

ibo: Rọsia

ind: Rusia / روسيا

isl: Rússland

kaa: Rossiya / Россия

kal: Russit Nunaat; Ruslandi

kmr: Ûrisêt / Ур’ьсет / ئووڕسێت; Rûsistan / Р’усьстан / ڕووسستان; Ûristan / Ур’ьстан / ئووڕستان

kur: Rûsya / رووسیا; Ûris / ئوورس; Ûristan / ئوورستان

lat: Russia; Ruthenia

lav: Krievija

lim: Rösland

lin: Rusí

liv: Krīevõmō

lld: Ruscia

lug: Rassa

mlg: Rosia

mlt: Russja

mol: Rusia / Русия

mri: Rūhia

msa: Russia / روسيا

nah: Ruxitlān

pol: Rosja

rmy: Rusiya / रुसिया

rup: Arusia

sco: Roushie

slo: Rosia / Росиа; Rusia / Русиа; Ruszem / Русзем

sme: Ruošša

smg: Rosėjė

som: Ruush

srd: Rùssia

swa: Urusi

swe: Ryssland

szl: Rusyjo

tah: Rūtia

tet: Rúsia

tly: Urusiyət / Урусијәт

ton: Lūsia

tpi: Rasa

tuk: Russiýa / Руссия; Rossiýa / Россия

uzb: Oʻrusiya / Ўрусия; Rusiya / Русия; Rossiya / Россия

ven: Rashia

vie: Nga

vol: Rusän

vor: Vinnemaa

wln: Rûsseye

wol: Riisi

chu: Рѻссія (Rōssīja); Рѻсія (Rōsīja)

abq | alt | ava | kjh | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Россия (Rossija)

lez | tab: Урусат (Urusat)

abk: Урыстәыла (Urəstʷəla)

ady: Арысей (Arəsej)

bak: Рәсәй / Räsäy; Россия / Rossiya

bel: Расія / Rasija; Расея / Rasieja

bua: Ород улас (Orod ulas)

bul: Русия (Rusija)

che: Оьрсийн Пачхьалкх (Örsijn Pačḥalq); Росси (Rossi); Росси Пачхьалкх (Rossi Pačḥalq)

chm: Россий (Rossij)

chv: Раҫҫей (Raśśеj); Российӑ (Rossijă)

ddo: ГӀурус (ʿUrus); Расси (Rassi)

kaz: Ресей / Resey / رەسەي

kbd: Урысей (Urəsej); Россие (Rossie)

kir: Орусия (Orusija); Россия (Rossija)

kom: Роч му (Roč mu); Россия (Rossija)

lbe: Аьрасай (Ärasaj)

mdf: Рузмастор (Ruzmastor)

mkd: Русија (Rusija)

mon: Орос (Oros)

myv: Россия Мастор (Rossija Mastor)

oss: Уӕрӕсе (Uäräse)

sah: Арассыыйа (Arassyyja); Россия (Rossija)

srp: Русија / Rusija

tat: Рәсәй / Räsäy; Русия / Rusiä; Россия / Rossiä

tgk: Русия / روسیه / Rusija; Россия / راسیه / Rossija

ukr: Росія (Rosija)

xal: Әрәсә (Äräsä)

ara: روسيا (Rūsiyā)

ckb: ڕووسیا / Ṟûsya

fas: روسیه / Rusiye

prs: روسیه (Rūsīyâ)

pus: روسيه (Rūsiyâ); روس (Rūs)

snd: روس (Rūsu)

uig: رۇسىيە / Rusiye / Русия; روسسىيە / Rossiye / Россия

urd: روس (Rūs)

div: ރަށިއާ (Raŝi'ā); ރޫސީވިލާތް (Rūsīvilāt)

syr: ܪܘܣܝܐ (Rūsiyā)

heb: רוסיה (Rûsyah)

lad: רוסיה / Rusia

yid: רוסלאַנד (Rusland)

amh: ሩሲያ (Rusiya); ሩስያ (Rusya)

tir: ራሻ (Raša)

ell-dhi: Ρωσία (Rōsía)

ell-kat: Ρωσσία (Rōssía); Ρωσία (Rōsía)

hye: Ռուսաստան (Ṙousastan)

kat: რუსეთი (Ruseṭi)

hin: रूस (Rūs)

mar: रशिया (Raŝiyā)

nep: रूस (Rūs); रसिया (Rasiyā)

ben: রাশিয়া (Rāšiyā)

guj: રશિયા (Rašiyā)

pan: ਰੂਸ (Rūs)

kan: ರಷ್ಯಾ (Raṣyā); ರಷ್ಯ (Raṣya)

mal: റഷ്യ (Ṟaṣya)

tam: ரஷ்யா (Rašyā)

tel: రష్యా (Raṣyā)

zho: 俄國/俄国 (Éguó); 俄羅斯/俄罗斯 (Éluósī)

jpn: ロシア (Roshia)

kor: 러시아 (Reosia)

bod: ཨུ་རུ་སུ་ (U.ru.su.); རྒྱ་སེར་ (rGya.ser.)

mya: ရုရ္ဟား (Ẏúšà)

tha: รัสเซีย (Râtsiya)

lao: ລັດເຊັຽ (Lâtsiẏa)

khm: រុស្ស៊ី (Russī)

chr: ᎶᏏᏴ / Losiyv

iku: ᐅᓛᓴ / Olaasa

 

Officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and known as Ceylon before 1972, is an island country in South Asia, located about 31 kilometres (19.3 mi) off the southern coast of India.

As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia.[citation needed] It has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times as well as being a bastion of Hinduism. The Sinhalese community forms the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the indigenous Vedda people.

The country is famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, coconuts, rubber and cinnamon - which is native to the country. The natural beauty of Sri Lanka's tropical forests, beaches and landscape, as well as its rich cultural heritage, make it a world famous tourist destination. The island also boasts the first female Prime Minister in the world, Sirimavo Bandaranaike.

After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by Portugal and the Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before control of the entire country was ceded to the British Empire in 1815. During World War II, Sri Lanka served as an important base for Allied forces in the fight against the Japanese Empire. A nationalist political movement arose in the country in the early 20th century with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka

 

Geography

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Sri_Lanka

 

Other info

Oficial Name:

sin: ශ්රී ලංකා ප්රජාතාන්ත්රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය (Šrī Laṁkā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya)

tam: இலங்கை ஜனநாயக சமத்துவ குடியரசு (Ilaṅkai Jaṉanāyaka Čamattuva Kuṭiyaraču)

 

Independence:

Declared February 4, 1948

Republic May 22, 1972

 

Area:

65.610km2

 

Inhabitants:

19.900.000

 

Languages:

English [eng] 74,170 in Sri Lanka (2000 WCD). Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, English

More information.

 

Indo-Portuguese [idb] 3,406 in Sri Lanka (2000 WCD). Population includes 250 families in Batticaloa (1984 Ian Smith), but possibly only about 30 speakers left (1992 P. Baker). Colombo, Kandy, Trincomalee, Galle, Batticaloa. Also spoken in Australia, India. Dialects: Similar to Tamil in phonology and syntax. Varieties of creole Portuguese were also spoken in Myanmar, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, China. See also Malaccan Creole Portuguese (Peninsular Malaysia), Macao Creole Portuguese (Hongkong), Ternateño (Maluku, Indonesia), Timor Pidgin (East Timor). Classification: Creole, Portuguese based

More information.

 

Sinhala [sin] 13,190,000 in Sri Lanka (1993). Population total all countries: 13,220,256. All parts of Sri Lanka except some districts in the north, east, and center. Also spoken in Canada, Maldives, Singapore, Thailand, United Arab Emirates. Alternate names: Sinhalese, Singhalese, Singhala, Cingalese. Dialects: Rodiya. There is a great difference between the literary and the colloquial language. The Rodiya dialect is spoken by low caste Rodiya people. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Sinhalese-Maldivian

More information.

 

Sri Lankan Creole Malay [sci] 50,000 (1986 Hussainmiya, Prentice 1994:411). Especially the cities of Colombo, Kandy, Badulla, Hambantota. Alternate names: Sri Lankan Malay, Melayu Bahasa, Java Jati. Dialects: Not intelligible with standard Malay because of phonological and syntactic differences, and strong influence from Tamil. May be close to Malaccan Creole Malay (S. Lim 1981). Classification: Creole, Malay based

More information.

 

Sri Lankan Sign Language [sqs] 12,800 deaf persons (1986 Gallaudet Univ). Classification: Deaf sign language

More information.

 

Tamil [tam] 3,000,000 in Sri Lanka (1993). North and northeast coasts, a few pockets in the south. Classification: Dravidian, Southern, Tamil-Kannada, Tamil-Kodagu, Tamil-Malayalam, Tamil

More information.

 

Veddah [ved] 300 (1993 Johnstone). Ethnic population: 2,500 (2002). Eastern mountains, Badulla and Polonnaruwa districts. Alternate names: Veddha, Veda, Weda, Weddo, Beda, Bedda, Vaedda. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Sinhalese-Maldivian

More information.

  

Extinct languages

Pali [pli] Extinct. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified

 

Capital city:

Colombo

 

Meaning country name:

"Resplendent Lanka" in Sanskrit, the name "Lanka" sometimes appears translated as "island" - "magnificent island".

Serendip (ancient name): derived from the Sanskrit "sharan-dweepa", meaning either "island of salvation".

Ceylon (English), Ceilão (Portuguese), Seilan (former names): from the Pali Sinhalana meaning "land of the lions

 

Description Flag:

The Flag of Sri Lanka, also called the Lion Flag, consists of gold lion passant, holding a sword in its right fore paw, in front of a crimson background with four golden bo leaves in each corner. Around the background is a yellow border, and to its left are 2 vertical stripes of equal size in saffron and green, with the saffron stripe closest to the lion.

It was adopted in 1950 following the recommendations of a committee appointed by the 1st Prime Minister of Sri Lanka D.S. Senanayake.

The National Flag of Sri Lanka represents the country and its heritage as rallying device that integrates the minorities with the majority race.

Most symbols in the flag have distinctive meanings.

Symbol... Represents

The lion... The Sinhalese ethnicity

The bo leaves Buddhism and its influence on the nation... They also stand for the four virtues of Kindness, Friendliness, Happiness and Equanimity.

The sword of the lion... The sovereignty of the nation

The tail of the lion... The noble eightfold path of Buddhism

The curly hair on the lion's head... Religious observance, wisdom and meditation

The beard of the lion... Purity of words

The handle of the sword... The elements of water, fire, air and earth

The nose of the lion... Intelligence

The two front paws of the lion... Purity in handling wealth.

The vertical orange stripe... The Tamil ethnicity

The vertical green stripe... The Muslim faith and Moorish ethnicity

The yellow border round the flag... The Buddhist clergy

The crimson ...background Other minor religions

 

Coat of arms:

Before gaining the independence the coat of arms of the United Kingdom was used as the national emblem. As Sri Lanka gained its independence from the British in 1948, the need of a proper national emblem arose. A committee was named in order to fulfill the importance. According to its recommendation a national emblem was adopted in 1952.

But when Sri Lanka became a republic, the need of a new national emblem arose. In order to accomplish this, a new committee consisting of 6 people was named. They were, Mr S.S. Kulathilake, the minister of Cultural affairs, Mr Nissanka Wijerathne, the secretary of the ministry of Cultural affairs, Dr Nandadeva Wijesekera, Prof. Senarath Paranavithana, Mr M.R. Premarathne and Mr. Roland Silva. The National emblem of the republic used today is their creation.

 

National Anthem: Sri Lanka Matha

 

sin: ශ්රී ලංකා මාතා (šrī laṁkā mātā)

 

ශ්රී ලංකා මාතා අප ශ්රී ලංකා

නමෝ නමෝ නමෝ නමෝ මාතා

සුන්දර සිරි බරිනි

සුරැදි අති ශෝබමාන ලංකා

ධාන්ය ධනය නෙක මල් පලතුරු පිරි ජය භූමිය රම්යා

අපහට සැප සිරි සෙත සදනා ජීවනයේ මාතා

පිලිගනු මැන අප භක්තී පූජා

නමෝ නමෝ මාතා

අප ශ්රී ලංකා

නමෝ නමෝ නමෝ නමෝ මාතා

 

ඔබ වේ අප විද්යා, ඔබමය අප සත්යා

ඔබ වේ අප ශක්තී , අප හද තුල භක්තී

ඔබ අප ආලෝකේ, අපගේ අනුප්රාණෙ

ඔබ අප ජීවන වේ, අප මුක්තිය ඔබ වේ

නව ජීවන ෙදමිේන

නිතින අප පුබුදු කරන් මාතා

ඥාන වීර්ය වඩවමින් රැගෙන යනු

මැන ජය භූමි කරා

එක මවකෙග දරු කැල බැවිනා

යමු යමු වී ෙනාපමා

ප්රේම වඩා සැම භීද දුරැර දා

නමෝ නමෝ මාතාඅ

අප ශ්රී ලංකා

නමෝ නමෝ නමෝ නමෝ මාතා

 

Sri Lanka Matha

 

Sri Lanka Matha, apa Sri Lanka,

Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha.

Sundara siri barini,

Surendi athi Sobamana Lanka

Dhanya dhanaya neka mal pala thuru piri, Jaya bhoomiya ramya.

Apa hata sapa siri setha sadana, jeevanaye Matha!

Piliganu mena apa bhakti pooja,

Namo Namo Matha.

Apa Sri Lanka,

Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha,

 

Obave apa vidya, Obamaya apa sathya

Obave apa shakti, Apa hada thula bhakti

Oba apa aloke, Aapage anuprane

oba apa jeevana ve, Apa muktiya obave

Nava jeevana demine

Nnithina apa Pubudu karan matha

Gnana veerya vadavamina ragena yanu

mena jaya bhoomi kara

Eka mavekuge daru kala bavina

yamu yamu wee nopama

Prema vada sama bheda durara da

Namo Namo Matha

Apa Sri Lanka,

Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha.

 

tam: ஸ்ரீ லங்கா தாயே (srī laṅkā tāyē)

 

ஸ்ரீ லங்கா தாயே நம் ஸ்ரீ லங்கா

நமோ நமோ நமோ நமோ தாயே

நல்லெழில் பொலி சீரணி

நலங்கள் யாவும் நிறை வான்மணி லங்கா

ஞாலம் புகழ் வள வயல் நதி மலை மலர்

நறுஞ்சோலை கொள் லங்கா

நமதுறு புகலிடம் என ஒளிர்வாய்

நமதுதி ஏல் தாயே

நமதலை நினதடி மேல் வைத்தோமே

நமதுயிரே தாயே நம் ஸ்ரீ லங்கா

நமோ நமோ நமோ நமோ தாயே

நமதாரருள் ஆனாய்

நவை தவிர் உணர்வானாய்

நமதோர் வலியானாய்

நவில் சுதந்திரம் ஆனாய்

நமதிளமையை நாட்டே

நகு மடி தனையோட்டே

அமைவுறும் அறிவுடனே

அடல்செறி துணிவருளே நம் ஸ்ரீ லங்கா

நமோ நமோ நமோ நமோ தாயே

நமதோர் ஒளி வளமே

நறிய மலர் என நிலவும் தாயே

யாமெல்லாம் ஒரு கருணை அனைபயந்த

எழில்கொள் சேய்கள் எனவே

இயலுறு பிளவுகள் தமை அறவே

இழிவென நீக்கிடுவோம்

ஈழ சிரோமணி வாழ்வுறு பூமணி

நமோ நமோ தாயே நம் ஸ்ரீ லங்கா

நமோ நமோ நமோ நமோ தாயே

 

Transliteration

 

srī laṅkā tāyē nam srī laṅkā

namō namō namō namō tāyē

nalleḻil poli čīraṇi

nalaṅkaḷ yāvum niṛai vāṉmaṇi laṅkā

ñālam pukaḻ vaḷa vayal nati malai malar

naṛuñčōlai koḷ laṅkā

namatuṛu pukaliṭam eṉ oḷirvāy

namatuti ēl tāyē

namatalai niṉataṭi mēl vaittōmē

namatuyirē tāyē nam srī laṅkā

namō namō namō namō tāyē

namatāraruḷ āṉāy

navai tavir uṇarvāṉāy

namatōr valiyāṉāy

navil čutantiram āṉāy

namatiḷamaiyai nāṭṭē

naku maṭi taṉaiyōṭṭē

amaivuṛum aṛivuṭaṉē

aṭalčeṛi tuṇivaruḷē nam srī laṅkā

namō namō namō namō tāyē

namatōr oḷi vaḷamē

naṛiya malar eṉ nilavum tāyē

yāmellām oru karuṇai aṉaipayanta

eḻilkoḷ čēykaḷ eṉavē

Iayaluṛu piḷavukaḷ tamai aṛavē

iḻiveṉa nīkkiṭuvōm

īḻa čirōmaṇi vāḻvuṛu pūmaṇi

namō namō tāyē nam srī laṅkā

namō namō namō namō tāyē

 

English translation

Mother Lanka we salute Thee!

Plenteous in prosperity, Thou,

Beauteous in grace and love,

Laden with corn and luscious fruit

And fragrant flowers of radiant hue,

Giver of life and all good things,

Our land of joy and victory,

Receive our grateful praise sublime,

Lanka! we worship Thee.

Thou gavest us Knowledge and Truth,

Thou art our strength and inward faith,

Our light divine and sentient being,

Breath of life and liberation.

Grant us, bondage free, inspiration.

Inspire us for ever.

In wisdom and strength renewed,

Ill-will, hatred, strife all ended,

In love enfolded, a mighty nation

Marching onward, all as one,

Lead us, Mother, to fullest freedom.

 

Internet Page: www.gov.lk

www.presidentsl.org

www.srilankatourism.org

www.srilankareference.org

 

Sri Lanka in diferent languages

 

eng | afr | arg | ast | bre | cat | csb | cym | dan | dsb | est | eus | fao | fin | fra | frp | glg | glv | hsb | ina | ita | jav | jnf | kin | lim | lin | lld | mfe | mlg | mlt | nld | nor | oci | pol | que | ron | run | rup | scn | sme | spa | srd | swa | swe | szl | tur | vor | wln | zza: Sri Lanka

aze | crh | gag | tuk: Şri-Lanka / Шри-Ланка

hrv | lit | slv | smg: Šri Lanka

deu | ltz | nds: Sri Lanka / Sri Lanka

hun | isl | slk: Srí Lanka

cor | sqi: Shri Lanka

gla | roh: Sri Lanca

hat | tet: Srilanka

ind | msa: Sri Lanka / سري لانكا

kaa | uzb: Shri-Lanka / Шри-Ланка

bam: Siri-Lanka

bos: Šri Lanka / Шри Ланка

ces: Šrí Lanka

epo: Sri-Lanko

fry: Sry Lanka

fur: Sri Lanke

gle: Srí Lanca / Srí Lanca

ibo: Sri Laṅka

kmr: Şrî-Lanka / Шри-Ланка / شری لانکا

kur: Srî Lanka / سری لانکا

lat: Sri Lanca; Taprobane

lav: Šrilanka

mol: Sri Lanka / Сри Ланка

nrm: Ceilaun

por: Seri Lanca; Sri Lanca; Sri Lanka

rmy: Sri Lanka / स्री लान्का

slo: Sri-Lanka / Сри-Ланка

som: Siirilaanka

vie: Tích Lan; Xri Lan-ca

vol: Sri-Lankän

wol: Siri Laaŋka

alt | che | chm | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Шри-Ланка (Šri-Lanka)

bak | tat: Шри-Ланка / Şri-Lanka

bul | mkd: Шри Ланка (Šri Lanka)

abq: Шри-Ланка (Šri-Łanka)

bel: Шры-Ланка / Šry-Łanka; Шры-Лянка / Šry-Lanka

chv: Шри-Ланкӑ (Šri-Lankă)

kaz: Шри-Ланка / Şrï-Lanka / شري-لانكا

kbd: Шри-Ланкэ (Šri-Lankă)

mon: Шри-Ланк (Šri-Lank)

oss: Шри-Ланкӕ (Šri-Lankä)

srp: Шри Ланка (Šri Lanka)

tgk: Шри-Ланка / شری لنکه / Şri-Lanka

ukr: Шрі-Ланка (Šri-Lanka)

ara: سري لانكا (Sirī Lānkā); سريلانكا (Sirīlānkā); سيرلانكا (Sīrilānkā); سيريلانكا (Sīrīlānkā)

fas: سریلانکا / Serilânkâ; سیلان / Seylân; سراندیب / Sarândib

prs: سری لانکا (Srī Lānkā)

pus: سري لانکا (Srī Lānkā); سري لنکا (Srī Lankā)

snd: سري لنڪا (Srī Lankā)

uig: سرىلانكا / Srilanka / Сриланка; سىرىلانكا / Sirilanka / Сириланка

urd: سری لنکا (Sirī Lankā)

div: ސްރީލަނކާ (Srīlaṅkā); އޮޅުދޫކަރަ (Oḷudūkara)

heb: סרי-לנקה (Srî-Lanqah); סרי-לאנקה (Srî-Lânqah)

lad: סרי לאנקה / Sri Lanka

yid: סרי לאַנקאַ (Sri Lanka)

amh: ስሪ ላንካ (Sri Lanka)

ell-dhi: Σρι-Λάνκα (Sri-Lánka)

ell-kat: Σρὶ-Λάνκα (Srì-Lánka)

hye: Շրի Լանկա (Šri Lanka)

kat: შრი-ლანკა (Šri-Lanka)

hin: श्रीलंका (Šrīlaṁkā)

mar: श्रीलंका (Ŝrīlaṁkā)

nep: श्रीलङ्का (Šrīlaṅkā)

ben: শ্রীলঙ্কা (Šrīlôṅkā); শ্রীলংকা (Šrīlôṁkā); সিংহল (Siṁhôl); লঙ্কাদ্বীপ (Lôṅkādvīp)

pan: ਸ੍ਰੀਲੰਕਾ (Srīlaṁkā)

sin: ශ්රී ලංකාව (Šrī Laṁkāva)

kan: ಶ್ರೀಲಂಕಾ (Šrīlaṁkā); ಶ್ರೀ ಲಂಕೆ (Šrī Laṁke); ಸಿಂಹಳ (Siṁhaḷa)

mal: ശ്രീലങ്ക (Šrīlaṅka)

tam: இலங்கை (Ilaṅkai); சிறீ லங்கா (Čiṛī Laṅkā); ஸ்ரீலங்கா (Srīlaṅkā)

tel: శ్రీలంక (Šrīlaṁka)

zho: 斯里蘭卡/斯里兰卡 (Sīlǐlánkǎ)

jpn: スリランカ (Suriranka)

kor: 스리랑카 (Seurirangka)

bod: ལང་ཀ་ (Laṅ.ka.); སེང་ག་ལ་ (Seṅ.ga.la.); སེང་ག་གླིང་ (Seṅ.ga.gliṅ.)

dzo: ཤྲཱྀ་ལངཀ་ (Ṣrī.laṅka.)

mya: သီရိလင္ကာ (Ṯiẏí Láṅka)

tha: ศรีลังกา (S[r]īlâṅkā)

lao: ສີລັງກາ (Sīlâṅkā); ລັງກາ (Lâṅkā); ສີຫົນ (Sīhôn)

khm: ស្រីលង្កា (Srīlaṅkā); សេរីលង្កា (Serīlaṅkā)

 

Is a country in South-East Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina (also: Bosnia-Herzegovina/Bosnia and Hercegovina) is almost landlocked, except for 26 kilometres of Adriatic Sea coastline, centered on the town of Neum. The interior of the country is mountainous centrally and to the south, hilly in the northwest, and flatland in the northeast. Inland is the larger geographic region with a moderate continental climate, marked by hot summers and cold, snowy winters. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plane topography.

The country is home to three ethnic groups so-called "constituent peoples", a term unique for Bosnia-Herzegovina. These are: Bosniaks, the largest population group of three, with Bosnian Serbs in second and Bosnian Croats in third. Regardless of ethnicity, a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. The term Herzegovinian is maintained as a regional rather than ethnic distinction, while Herzegovina has no precisely defined borders of its own. The country is politically decentralized and comprises two governing entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with District Brčko.

Formerly one of the six federal units constituting the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independence during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. Bosnia and Herzegovina can be described as a Parliamentary democracy that is transforming its economy into a market-oriented system, and it is a potential candidate for membership in the European Union and NATO. Additionally, the nation has been a member of the Council of Europe since 24 April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment on 13 July 2008.

 

History

Pre-Slavic Period (until 958)

Bosnia has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic age. The earliest Neolithic population became known in the Antiquity as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the fourth century BC were also notable. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BC, but Rome would not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9.

It was precisely in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars, as described by the Roman historian Seutonius. This was the Roman campaign against the revolt of indigenous communities from Illyricum, known in history as the Great Illyrian Revolt, known also as Pannonian revolt, or Bellum Batonianum, the latter named after the name of two leaders of the revolting Illyrian communities, Bato/Baton of the Daesitiates, and Bato of the Breuci. The Great Illyrian revolt was a revolt of Illyrians against the Romans, more specifically Illyrian revolt against Tiberius' attempt to recruit Illyrians for his war against the Germans. The Illyrians put up a fierce resistance to the most powerful army on earth at the time (the Roman Army) for four years (AD 6 to AD 9). The revolting Illyrians were finally subdued by Rome in AD 9, with Roman side suffering heavy losses. The last Illyrian stronghold, in which Illyrian defence caused admiration of Roman historians is said to have been Arduba. Bato of Daesitiates was captured and taken to Italy. It is alleged that when Tiberius asked Bato and the Daesitiates why they had rebelled, Baton was reputed to have answered: "You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." Bato spent the rest of his life in the Italian town of Ravenna.

In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from all over the Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.

The land was originally part of the Illyria up until the Roman occupation. Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire. Some claim that the region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and Huns. By the sixth century, Emperor Justinian had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Illyrians were conquered by the Avars in the sixth century

 

Medieval Bosnia (958–1463)

Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late ninth century. It was also around this time that the Illyrians were Christianized. Bosnia and Herzegovina, because of its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. Nothing is known on the governing affairs in the ninth and tenth century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early twelfth century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans.

The first Bosnian monarch was Ban Borič. The second was Ban Kulin whose rule marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by the Roman Catholic church, which he allowed access in the country. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254.

Bosnian history from then until the early fourteenth century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanić became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on 26 October 1377 as Stephen Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside.

Based on archaeological evidence, he was crowned in the in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in the time of Stephen II Kotromanić's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the fifteenth century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463.

 

Ottoman Era (1463–1878)

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Although the kingdom had been crushed and its high nobility executed and replaced by elite Sephardic Jews inported from Spain in 1492 who quickly converted to Islam in exchange for nobility titles of Beys and Aghas, the Ottomans allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Also unique was the fact that they leveled to the ground virtually all of Bosnia's 500 castles and forts, destroying evidence of its statehood. Within of Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation.

The three centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economimc migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to Islam), and conversions-for-gain. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were to some minor extent protected by official imperial decree. The Orthodox community in Bosnia – initially confined to Herzegovina and Podrinje – spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the nineteenth century. Meanwhile, the schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.

As the Ottoman Empire continued their rule in the Balkans (Rumelia), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province, and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, madrassa's, school of Sufi philosophy, and clock tower (Sahat Kula), along with numerous other important cultural structures, bridges such as the Stari Most and the Tsar's Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque. Furthermore, some Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as Matrakçı Nasuh; generals such as Isa-Beg Isaković, Gazi Husrev-beg and Telli Hasan Pasha; administrators such as Ferhat-paša Sokolović and Osman Gradaščević; and Grand Viziers such as the influential Mehmed Paša Sokolović. Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Ali Džabič; and poets in the Turkish, Albanian, Arabic, and Persian languages.However, by the late seventeenth century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. The Porte's false efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to become great hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms. This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east, culminated in a famous and ultimately unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaščević, in 1831 after the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II slaughtered and abolished the Janissary. Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the treaty of Berlin in 1878.

 

Austro-Hungarian Rule (1878–1918)

Although an Austro-Hungarian side quickly came to an agreement with Bosniaks, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly south) and a mass emigration of predominantly Slavic dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernisation. The Austro-Hungarian Empire built the three Roman Catholic churches in Sarajevo and these three churches are among only 20 Catholic churches in the state of Bosnia. Although successful economically, Austro-Hungarian policy – which focused on advocating the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation (largely favored by the Muslims) – failed to curb the rising tides of nationalism. The concept of Croat and Serb nationhood had already spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholics and Orthodox communities from neighboring Croatia and Serbia in the mid-nineteenth century under the Ottomans, and was too well entrenched to allow for the widespread acceptance of a parallel idea of Bosnian nationhood. By the latter half of the 1910s, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections.

The idea of a unified South Slavic state, typically expected to be spear-headed by independent Serbia, became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian government's decision to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina formally in 1908 added to a sense of urgency among these nationalists. Russia opposed this annexation. Eventually Russia recognised Austro-Hungary's sovereignty over Bosnia in return for Austria-Hungary's promise that it would recognise Russia's right to the Dardanelles Straits in the Ottoman Empire. Unlike Russia, Austro-Hungary did not keep its side of the bargain and did nothing to encourage Russia's recognition of the straits.The political tensions caused by all this culminated on 28 June 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo — an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.

 

The First Yugoslavia (1918–1941)

Following the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution, and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. Even though there were over three million Bosnians in Yugoslavia, outnumbering Slovenes and Montenegrins combined, Bosnian nationhood was denied by the new Kingdom. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole.

The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the signing of the Tripartite Treaty, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.

 

Geography

Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia (932 km) to the north and south-west, Serbia (302 km) to the east, and Montenegro (225 km) to the southeast. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic. The country has only 20 kilometers (12 mi) of coastline, around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by United Nations law, Bosnia has a right of passage to the outer sea. Neum has many hotels and is an important tourism destination.

The country's name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country.

The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Bijeljina and Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica and Doboj in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina.

The south part of Bosnia has Mediterranean climate and a great deal of agriculture. Central Bosnia is the most mountainous part of Bosnia featuring predominate mountains Vlašić, Čvrsnica, and Prenj. Eastern Bosnia also features mountains like Trebević, Jahorina, Igman, Bjelašnica and Treskavica. It was here that the 1984 Winter Olympics were held.

Eastern Bosnia is heavily forested along the river Drina, and overall close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Northern Bosnia contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The river Sava and corresponding Posavina river basin hold the cities of Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, Bosanski Brod and Bosanska Gradiška.

The northwest part of Bosnia is called Bosanska Krajina and holds the cities of Banja Luka, Prijedor, Sanski Most, Cazin, Velika Kladuša and Bihać. Kozara National Park is in this forested region.

There are seven major rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sava is the largest river of the country, but it only forms its northern natural border with Croatia. It drains 76% of the country's territory into the Danube and the Black Sea.

Una, Sana and Vrbas are right tributaries of Sava river. They are located in the northwestern region of Bosanska Krajina.

Bosna river gave its name to the country, and is the longest river fully contained within it. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source near Sarajevo to Sava in the north.

Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, and for the most part it forms a natural border with Serbia.

Neretva is the major river of Herzegovina and the only major river that flows south, into the Adriatic Sea.

Phytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.

 

Oficial name:

Peпyблика Босна и Херцеговина

Republika Bosna i Hercegovina

República da Bósnia e Herzegovina

 

Area:

51.197 km2

 

Inhabitants:

4.500.000

 

Languages: Bosanski (Bosnien), Hrvastski (Croata) and српски језик--srpski jezik (Servio)

Bosnian [bos] 4,000,000 (2004). Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western

 

Croatian [hrv] 469,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2004). Dialects: Croatian, Serbian. Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western

 

Romani, Vlax [rmy] 400,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2004). Alternate names: Tsigene, Danubian, Gypsy, Vlax. Dialects: Serbo-Bosnian (Machwaya, Machvano), Kalderash, Southern Vlax. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Vlax.

 

Serbian [srp] 400,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2004). Alternate names: Montenegrin. Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western

 

Capital city:

Sarajevo

 

Meaning of the country name:

The country consists of two distinct regions: the larger northern section, Bosnia, represents the name of the Bosna river. The smaller southern territory, Herzegovina takes its name from the German noble title Herzog, meaning "Duke". Frederick IV, King of the Romans, made the territory's ruler, the Grand Vojvoda Stjepan Vukcic, a duke in 1448.

 

Description Flag:

The flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag. The remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle.

The three points of the triangle are understood to stand for the three nations of Bosnia: Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. It is also seen to represent the map of Bosnia which looks like a triangle or a heart as some people call it the 'heart-shaped nation'. The stars, representing Europe, are meant to be infinite in number and thus they continue from top to bottom. The flag features colors often associated with neutrality and peace - white, blue, and yellow. The colors yellow and blue are also seen to be taken from the flag of the European Union and signify Bosnia's gratitude to the EU for ending the conflict. They are also colors traditionally associated with Bosnia.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of Arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina was adopted in 1998, replacing an older design that had been used since 1991, when Bosnia gained independence.

The coat of arms follows the design of the national flag. The triangle shape is supposed to symbolize the three major ethnic groups of Bosnia, as well as the shape of the nation. The stars have replaced the fleur-de-lis that were found on the old coat of arms, to avoid singling out the Bosniak symbol only, and possibly to copy the flag of the European Union due to a desire of Bosnia and Herzegovina to join that body.

It is not quite certain how to blazon these arms. One proposal is Per bend enhanced or and azure, a bend of mullets palewise argent.

 

Nathional Anthem: Intermeco

On February 10, 1998, as an inclusionist measure, a new anthem was adopted for Bosnia and Hercegovina, one without words. The piece is entitled "Intermeco", yet reports are that this may not be the title of the anthem. Keep watching this space for more details.

 

Internet Page: www.bhtourism.ba

 

B.H. in diferent languages

 

eng: Bosnia and Herzegovina

deu | ltz | nds: Bosnien-Herzegowina / Bosnien-Herzegowina

kal | nor | sme: Bosnia-Hercegovina

roh-enb | roh-eno | roh-gri: Bosnia ed Erzegovina

ast | spa: Bosnia y Herzegovina

ces | slk: Bosna a Hercegovina

dsb | hsb: Bosniska a Hercegowina

est | vor: Bosnia ja Hertsegoviina

eus | jav: Bosnia-Herzegovina

afr: Bosnië en Herzegowina

arg: Bosnia y Erzegobina; Bosnia y Hercegovina

aze: Bosniya və Herseqovina / Боснија вә Һерсеговина

bam: Bɔsini ani Ɛrɛzegɔwini

bos: Bosna i Hercegovina / Босна и Херцеговина

bre: Bosnia ha Herzegovina

cat: Bòsnia i Hercegovina

cor: Bosni-Hertsegovina

crh: Bosna ve Hertsegovina / Босна ве Херцеговина

csb: Bosańskô ë Hercegòwina; Bòsnijô ë Hercegòwina

cym: Bosnia a Hertsegofina; Bosna-Hercegovina

dan: Bosnien-Hercegovina

epo: Bosnio kaj Hercegovino

fao: Bosnia-Hersegovina

fin: Bosnia ja Hertsegovina

fra: Bosnie-Herzégovine; Bosnie-et-Herzégovine

frp: Bosnie-Hèrzègovena

fry: Bosnje en Herzegowina

fur: Bosgne-Erzegovine; Bosnie-Erzegovine

gag: Bosniya hem Herţegovina / Босния хем Херцеговина

gla: Bosna agus Heartsagobhana

gle: An Bhoisnia-Heirseagaivéin / An Ḃoisnia-Heirseagaivéin

glg: Bosnia e Herzegovina; Bosnia e Hercegovina

glv: Bosnia as Herzegovina

hat: Bosni ak Erzegovin

hrv: Bosna i Hercegovina

hun: Bosznia-Hercegovina; Bosznia és Hercegovina

ibo: Bọsnia na Hasegọvina

ina: Bosnia e Herzegovina

ind: Bosnia-Herzegovina / بوسنيا هيرزيڬوۏينا

isl: Bosnía og Hersegóvína

ita: Bosnia-Erzegovina; Bosnia ed Erzegovina

jnf: Bosnie et Herzegovina

kaa: Bosniya haʻm Gertsegovina / Босния ҳәм Герцеговина

kmr: Bosnî û Hersegovîna / Босни у Һәрсәговина / بۆسنی و هەرسەگۆڤینا; Bosnî û Gersogovîn / Босни у Гәрсоговин / بۆسنی و گەرسۆگۆڤین

kur: Bosna û Hersek / بۆسنا و هەرسەک

lat: Bosnia et Herzegovina; Bosnia et Herzegovia

lav: Bosnija un Hercegovina

lim: Bosnië en Hercegovina

lin: Bosnia na Erzegovina

lit: Bosnija ir Hercegovina

lld: Bosnia y Erzegovina

mlg: Bosnia sy Herzegovina

mlt: Bosnja-Ħerzegovina

mol: Bosnia şi Herţegovina / Босния ши Херцеговина

mri: Pōngia

msa: Bosnia dan Herzegovina / بوسنيا دان هيرزيڬوۏينا

nld: Bosnië en Herzegovina

nrm: Bosnie-et-Herzégovène

oci: Bòsnia e Ercegovina

pol: Bośnia i Hercegowina

por: Bósnia-Herzegovina; Bósnia e Herzegovina

que: Busna-Hirsiquwina

rmy: Bosniya ťai Hercegovina / बोस्निया थाइ हेर्त्सेगोविना

ron: Bosnia şi Herţegovina

rup: Bosna shi Hertsegovina

scn: Bosnia-Erzegòvina

slo: Bosnia i Hercegovinia / Босниа и Херцеговиниа; Bosnia-Hercegovinia / Босниа-Херцеговиниа; Bosna i Hercegovinia / Босна и Херцеговиниа; Bosna-Hercegovinia / Босна-Херцеговиниа

slv: Bosna in Hercegovina

smg: Bosnėjė ėr Hercuogovėna

som: Boosniya iyo Heersigofiina

sqi: Bosnja dhe Hercegovina

srd: Bòsnia-Erzegòvina; Bosna-Erzegòvina; Bosna e Erzegòvina

swa: Bosnia na Herzegowina

swe: Bosnien och Hercegovina

szl: Bośńa a Hercygowina

tet: Bóznia no Erzegovina

tuk: Bosniýa we Gersegowina / Босния ве Герцеговина

tur: Bosna-Hersek; Bosna ve Hersek

uzb: Bosniya va Gertsegovina / Босния ва Герцеговина

vie: Bô-xni-a Héc-xê-gô-vi-na

vol: Bosnän e Härzegovän

wln: Bosneye eyet Herzegovine

wol: Bosni Hersegowin

zza: Bosna-Hersek; Bosna u Hersek

chu: Босна и Херцеговина (Bosna i Ĥercegovina)

abq | kom: Босния-Герцеговина (Bosnija-Gercegovina)

alt: Босния ла Герцеговина (Bosnija la Gercegovina)

bak: Босния һәм Герцеговина / Bosniya häm Gercegovina

bel: Боснія і Герцагавіна / Bosnija i Hiercahavina; Босьнія і Гэрцагавіна / Bośnija i Hercahavina

bul: Босна и Херцеговина (Bosna i Ĥercegovina)

che: Босни-Герцеговина (Bosni-Gercegovina)

chm: Босний да Герцеговина (Bosnij da Gercegovina)

chv: Боснипе Герцеговинӑ (Bosnipe Gercegovină)

kaz: Босния және Герцеговина / Bosnïya jäne Gercegovïna / بوسنيا جانە گەرتسەگوۆينا

kbd: Босниерэ Герцеговинэрэ (Bosnieră Gercegovinără)

kir: Босния жана Герцеговина (Bosnija ǧana Gercegovina)

kjh: Босния паза Герцеговина (Bosnija paza Gercegovina)

krc: Босния эм Герцеговина (Bosnija ėm Gercegovina)

kum: Босния ва Герцеговина (Bosnija va Gercegovina)

mkd: Босна и Херцеговина (Bosna i Hercegovina)

mon: Босни ба Герцеговин (Bosni ba Gercegovin)

oss: Босни ӕмӕ Герцеговинӕ (Bosni ämä Gercegovinä)

rus: Босния и Герцеговина (Bosnija i Gercegovina)

srp: Босна и Херцеговина / Bosna i Hercegovina

tat: Босния һәм Герцеговина / Bosniä häm Hersegovina

tgk: Босния у Ҳерсеговина / باسنیه و هرسگاوینه / Bosnija u Hersegovina; Босния ва Ҳерсеговина / باسنیه و هرسگاوینه / Bosnija va Hersegovina; Босния у Герсеговина / باسنیه و گرسگاوینه / Bosnija u Gersegovina; Босния ва Герсеговина / باسنیه و گرسگاوینه / Bosnija va Gersegovina

tyv: Босния биле Герцеговина (Bosnija bile Gercegovina)

udm: Босния но Герцеговина (Bosnija no Gercegovina)

ukr: Боснія і Герцеґовина (Bosnija i Hercegovyna)

xal: Боснь болнн Герцеговин (Bosn' bolnn Gercegovin)

ara: البوسنة والهرسك (al-Būsnâtu wa-l-Harsak)

fas: بوسنی و هرزگوین / وسنی و هرزگووین (Bosnī-vo Herzegovīn / Bosnī va Herzegovīn)

prs: بوسنیا و هرزیگووینا (Bōsniyā va Harzēgōvīnā)

pus: بوسنيا او هرزېګووينا (Bosniyā au Harzegowīnā)

uig: بوسنىيە ۋە ھېرسېگوۋىنا / Bosniye we Hérségowina / Босния вә Һерцеговина

urd: باسنیا و ہیرزیگووینا (Bāsniyā va Herzegovīnā); بوسنیا و ہیرزیگووینا (Bosniyā va Herzegovīnā); بوسنیا و ہرزیگووینا (Bosniyā va Harzegovīnā); بوسنیا و ہرزگووینا (Bosniyā va Harzigovīnā); بوسنیا اور ہرزگووینا (Bosniyā ôr Harzigovīnā)

div: ބޮސްނިޔާ ހަރުޒެގޮވީނާ (Bosniyā Harużegovīnā)

syr: ܒܘܣܢܐ ܘ ܗܪܣܟ (Bōsnā wa Hersek)

heb: בוסניה והרצגובינה (Bôsniyah və-Hertsegôṿînah)

lad: בוסניה-הירזיגוב'ינה / Bosnia-Herzegovina

yid: באָסניע הערצעגאָװינע (Bosnye Hertsegovine)

amh: ቦስኒያ-ሄርጸጎቪና (Bosniya-Herṣägovina)

ell-dhi: Βοσνία και Ερζεγοβίνη (Vosnía kai Erzegovínī)

ell-kat: Βοσνία καὶ Ἑρζεγοβίνη (Vosnía kaì Herzegovínī)

hye: Բոսնիա և Հերցեգովինա (Bosnia yev Herc̣egovina); Բոսնիա և Հերցոգովինա (Bosnia yev Herc̣ogovina)

kat: ბოსნია და ჰერცეგოვინა (Bosnia da Herc̣egovina)

hin: बोसनिया हर्ज़ेगोविना (Bosniyā Harzegovinā)

ben: বসনিয়া ও হার্জেগোভিনা (Bôsniyā o Hārjegobʰinā)

pan: ਬੋਸਨੀਆ ਤੇ ਹਰਜ਼ੀਗੋਵੀਨਾ (Bosnīā te Harzīgovīnā)

kan: ಬಾಸ್ನಿಯ ಮತ್ತು ಹೆರ್ಜೆಗೊವಿನ (Bāsniya mattu Herjegovina)

mal: ബോസ്നിയ ഹെര്സഗോവിന (Bōsniya Hersagōvina)

tam: பொஸ்னியாவும் ஹெர்ஸகொவினாவும் (Posṉiyāvum Hersakoviṉāvum); பொசுனியாவும் எர்செகோவினாவும் (Počuṉiyāvum Erčekōviṉāvum); போஸ்னியா ஹெர்ஸிகோவினா (Pōsṉiyā Hersikōviṉā)

tel: బోస్నియా హెర్జగొవీనా (Bōsniyā Herjagovīnā)

zho: 波斯尼亞和黑塞哥維納/波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维纳 (Bōsīníyà hé Hēisègēwéinà)

jpn: ボスニア・ヘルツェゴヴィナ (Bosunia Herutsegovina); ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ (Bosunia Herutsegobina)

kor: 보스니아 헤르체고비나 (Boseunia Hereuchegobina)

mya: ဘော့စနီးယားန္ဟင့္ဟာဇီဂုိဗီးနား (Bʰɔ́sánìyà hnĩ́ Hazigobìnà)

tha: บอสเนียและเฮอร์เซโกวีนา (Bɔ̄tniya læ Hə̄[r]sēkōwīnā)

khm: បូស្ន៊ីនិងហឺហ្ស៊េហ្គោវីណា (Būsnī niṅ Hʉ̄hsehkōvīṇā); បូសស្នៀនិងហឺហ្ស៊េហ្គោវីណា (Būssnie niṅ Hʉ̄hsehkōvīṇā)

 

 

Morocco (Arabic: المغرب‎, al-Maġrib; Amazigh: ⴰⵎⵔⵔⵓⴽ/ ⵎⵓⵔⴰⴽⵓⵛ, Amrruk / Murakuc), officially the Kingdom of Morocco[5] (المملكة المغربية, al-Mamlakah al-Maġribiyya, Tagldit Umrruk), is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of nearly 32 million and an area just under 447,000 square kilometres (173,000 sq mi). Its capital is Rabat, and its largest city is Casablanca. Morocco has a coast on the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish exclaves, Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera), Algeria to the east, and Mauritania to the south.

Several dialects of Arabic and Berber are spoken in Morocco. However, this linguistic diversity doesn't affect the ethnic situation as the population is largely homogeneous.[citation needed] Morocco is one of the two countries in Africa that are not part of the African Union, the other being Eritrea.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morroco#History

 

Geography

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Morocco

 

Other Info

Oficial Name:

المملكة المغربية

Al-Mamlaka al-Maghribiyya

Tagldit n Lmeghrib

Royaume du Maroc

 

Independence:

From France March 2, 1956

- from Spain April 7, 1956

 

Area:

458.730km2

 

Inhabitants:

32.405.000

 

Languages:

Arabic, Hassaniyya [mey] 40,000 in Morocco (1995). Southern Morocco, from Laayoune on down. Alternate names: Sahrawi, Maure, Mauri, Moor, Sulaka, Hasanya, Hassani. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Judeo-Moroccan [aju] 8,925 in Morocco (2000 WCD). Casablanca. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Moroccan Spoken [ary] 18,800,000 in Morocco (1995). Population total all countries: 19,480,600. Northern Morocco and southern Morocco south of the Atlas Mountains, and including the port cities of the Sahara. Also spoken in Belgium, Egypt, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Netherlands, United Kingdom. Alternate names: Moroccan Arabic, Moroccan Colloquial Arabic, Moroccan Darija, Maghrebi Arabic, Maghribi Colloquial Arabic. Dialects: Rabat-Casablanca Arabic, Fez. Meknes, Tangier, Oujda, Jebli (Jebelia, Jbala), Southern Morocco Arabic, Marrakech. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Standard [arb] Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Moroccan Sign Language [xms] Used in Tetouan and other cities. Dialects: Algerian Sign Language has influenced the strong deaf community of 60 to 70 men in the city of Oujda in the north. Lexical similarity less than 50% with American Sign Language. Classification: Deaf sign language

More information.

 

Spanish [spa] 20,000 in Morocco (1993 Johnstone). Melilla and scattered across the north coast. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Castilian

More information.

 

Tachelhit [shi] 3,000,000 in Morocco (1998). Southwestern Morocco, from coast south to Ifni and north to near Agadir, northeast to outskirts of Marrakech, and east to Draa, including the valley of the Sous, and south near the border. Also spoken in Algeria, France. Alternate names: Tashilheet, Tashelheyt, Tachilhit, Tashelhit, Tasoussit, Shilha, Susiua, Southern Shilha. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Northern, Atlas

More information.

 

Tamazight, Central Atlas [tzm] 3,000,000 in Morocco (1998). Population total all countries: 3,150,000. Middle Atlas, High Atlas, eastern High Atlas Mountains. 1,200,000 in rural areas between Taza, Khemisset, Azilal, Errachidia; 100,000 outside the language area. Also spoken in Algeria, France. Alternate names: Central Shilha, Middle Atlas Berber, Shilha. Dialects: Central Atlas, South Oran. Much variety in dialects. May be more than one language. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Northern, Atlas

More information.

 

Tarifit [rif] 1,500,000 in Morocco (1991). Population total all countries: 1,700,000. Northern Morocco. The dialects listed are near Al Hoceima. Also spoken in Algeria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Spain. Alternate names: Rifi, Rifia, Northern Shilha, Shilha. Dialects: Urrighel, Beni Iznassen (Beni Snassen). There may be other dialects. Beni Snassen may be a separate language. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Northern, Zenati, Riff

More information.

  

Extinct languages

Ghomara [gho] Extinct. North and west of Tamazight, a small region near Chechaouen, western Rif mountains, Oued Laou Valley. Dialects: Coon says Ghomara is intelligible with Tarifit. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Northern, Zenati, Ghomara

More information.

 

Senhaja de Srair [sjs] Extinct. Northern, west of Tarifit. Alternate names: Sanhaja of Srair, Sinhaja Srir. Dialects: Coon (1939) says it was a separate language from Tarifit. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Northern, Zenati, Riff

 

Capital city:

Rabat

 

Meaning country name :

From Marruecos, the Spanish pronunciation of the name of the city of "Marrakesh" (more precisely Marrakush), believed to derive from the Berber words (ta)murt "land" (or (a)mur "part") + akush "God".

Al Maghrib (Arabic name):means "the Farthest West".

 

Description Flag:

The flag of Morocco (Arabic: علم المغرب) is made of a red field with a black-bordered green interwoven star.

At the time of the Marinid and Saadi dynasties ruling, the Moroccan flag used to be completely white. It’s only around 1666, that the Alaouite Dynasty changed the flag color from white to deep red, which is the color symbol of the descendants of Prophet Muhammad. The red-only flag stayed the same until the beginning of the French protectorate, during which period, red-colored flags started to create a general confusion because of the new communist nations who adopted red as a color for their own flags as well.

Rachid Sbihi, a Moroccan historian and numismatic specialist, says that the decision taken then, was to keep the red-only flag as a symbol for the Royal Makhzen while the national flag would bear a 6-branch green star in its center. It would stay like this until the royal Dahir of 1915 would forever change the 6-branch star to a 5-branch star.

The 6-branch star used in the Moroccan flag is also known as the Seal of Solomon (Sulaïman in Arabic) or the Star of David. However, this is a misconception since the 6-branch star is a symbol of life, wisdom and good health common to all three major monotheistic religions. The Seal of Solomon was also stamped on the 100 and 200 francs coins as well as on some Makhzen stamps until 1954.

According to Rachid Sbihi, it seems that the change of stars was done by General Hubert Lyautey when getting ready to send Moroccan troops to fight during World War I. Rachid Sbihi points out that reasons why General Lyautey would do such a thing were neither clear nor valid. The Moroccan people however, were given another explanation that could be the right one: the new star was best adapted to the country’s religion and faith since the 5 branches could symbolize the 5 pillars of Islam.

 

Coat of arms:

The current coat of arms of Morocco (formally the royal coat of arms) was introduced 14 August 1957. It was developed by the graphic artists Gauthier and Hainaut and shows a green pentagram on a red background before the Atlas Mountains and a rising sun. The royal crown is on top. Two lions function as the holders of the shield. On the ribbon underneath, the Arabic inscription is written: If you assist God, he will assist you (Quran, Verse 7, Sūra 47).

 

Motto :

"Allāh, al Waţan, al Malik"

 

National Anthem: Hymne Chérifien

 

Arab

 

منبت الأحرار * مشرق الأنوار

منتدى السؤدد وحماه

دمت منتداه

وحماه

عشت في الأوطان * للعلى عنوان

ملء كل جنان * ذكرى كل لسان

بالروح * بالجسد

هب فتاك

لبي نداك

في فمي وفي دمي

هواك ثار نور ونار

اخوتي هيا * للعلى سعيا

نشهد الدنيا * أنا هنا نحيا

بشعار

الله

الوطن الملك

 

Translation

 

Manbita al-aħrar, machriqa al-anwar,

Muntada as-su`adadi wa ħimah,

Dumta muntadah wa ħimah!

Âishta fi 'l-awtan li 'l-âula âunwan

Mil`a kulli janan, dikra kulli lisan.

Bi 'r-ruħi, bi 'l-jasadi

Habba fatak, Labba nidak,

Fi fami wa fi dami hawaka thara, nur wanar,

Ikhwati hayya, li 'l-âula saâya

Nushidi 'd-dunya, anna huna naħya.

Bi-shiâar: Allah, al-watan, al-malik

 

English

 

Fountain of Freedom

Source of Light

Where sovereignty and safety meet,

Safety and sovereignty

May you ever combine!

You have lived among nations

With title sublime,

Filling each heart,

Sung by each tongue,

Your champion has risen

And answered your call.

In my mouth

And in my blood

Your breezes have stirred

Both light and fire.

Up! my brethren,

Strive for the highest.

We call to the world

That we are here ready.

We salute as our emblem

God, Homeland, and King.

 

Internet Page: www.maroc.ma

www.visitmoroco.com

www.morocco.com

www.al-bab.com

 

Morocco in diferent languages

 

eng: Morocco

bre | ces | epo | est | eus | hrv | jav | pap | pol | slk | slv | szl | vor: Maroko

afr | dan | dsb | fao | fin | fry | hsb | lim | nld | nor | sme: Marokko

fra | frp | fur | jnf | roh-enb | roh-eno | roh-gri | ron: Maroc

kin | run | smo | swa: Moroko

arg | ast | spa: Marruecos

deu | ltz | nds: Marokko / Marokko

ina | ita | roh-srs: Marocco

cor | mlt: Marokk

cos | scn: Maroccu

glg | por: Marrocos

hun | isl: Marokkó

tur | zza: Fas

aze: Mərakeş / Мәракеш

bam: Marɔki

bos: Maroko / Мароко

cat: Marroc

crh: Mağrip / Магърип

cym: Moroco

gla: Maroco; Maroc; Moroco

gle: Maracó / Maracó

glv: Yn Varoc

hat: Mawòk

hau: Maroko; Marokko; Marocco; Morocco

haw: Moloko

ibo: Marọko

ind: Maroko / ماروكو

kaa: Marokko / Марокко

kmr: Merakêş / Мәракеш / مەراکێش; Maroko / Мароко / مارۆکۆ; Moroko / Мороко / مۆرۆکۆ; Meẍrîb / Мәг’риб / مەغریب

kur: Fas / فاس; Marok / مارۆک

lat: Maroccum; Marocum; Marochium; Marocia; Marochia

lav: Maroka

lin: Marɔkɛ

lit: Marokas

lld: Maroch

mlg: Maraoka

mol: Maroc / Марок

msa: Maghribi / مغربي

nrm: Maro

oci: Marròc

que: Muruku

rmy: Maroko / मारोको

rup: Maroco

slo: Marokia / Марокиа

smg: Maroks

som: Marooko

sqi: Maroku

srd: Marrocu

swe: Marocko

tet: Marrokus

tgl: Maruwekos; Moroko

ton: Moloko

tuk: Marokko / Марокко; Fas / Фас

uzb: Marokash / Марокаш

vie: Ma Rốc

vol: Marokän

wln: Marok

wol: Marook

zul: iMoroko

abq | alt | che | chm | chv | kbd | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | mon | oss | rus | tyv | udm | ukr: Марокко (Marokko)

bak | tat: Марокко / Marokko

bul | mkd: Мароко (Maroko)

bel: Марока / Maroka

kaz: Марокко / Marokko / ماروككو

srp: Мароко / Maroko

tgk: Марокаш / مراکش / Marokaş

ara: المغرب (al-Maġrib); مراكش (Marrākuš)

fas: مراکش / Marâkeš; مغرب / Maqreb

prs: مراکش (Marākeš)

pus: مراکش (Marākəš)

uig: ماراكەش / Marakesh / Маракәш

urd: مغرب (Maġrib); موروکو (Morôkko); مراکش (Marākiš)

div: މޮރޮކޯ (Morokō); މައުރިބު (Ma'uribu)

syr: ܡܓܪܒ (Magrib)

heb: מרוקו (Marôqô); מארוקו (Mârôqô)

lad: מארואיקוס / Marruekos

yid: מאַראָקאָ (Maroko)

tzm: ⵍⵎⴰⵖⵔⵉⴱ / Lmaɣrib

amh: ሞሮኮ (Moroko)

ell-dhi: Μαρόκο (Maróko)

ell-kat: Μαρόκον (Marókon)

hye: Մարոկո (Maroko)

kat: მაროკო (Maroko)

hin: मोरक्को (Morakko); मोरोक्को (Morokko)

ben: মোরক্কো (Morôkko); মরোক্কো (Môrokko); মরক্কো (Môrôkko)

pan: ਮੋਰੋੱਕੋ (Morokko)

kan: ಮೊರಾಕೊ (Morāko)

mal: മൊറോക്കോ (Moṟōkkō); മൊറോക്കൊ (Moṟōkko)

tam: மொரோக்கோ (Morōkkō)

tel: మొరాకో (Morākō)

zho: 摩洛哥 (Móluògē)

yue: 摩洛哥 (Mòlohkgō)

jpn: モロッコ (Morokko)

kor: 모로코 (Moroko)

bod: མོ་ལོ་གོ་ (Mo.lo.go.); མའེ་ལོ་ཀོ་ (Ma'e.lo.ko.)

mya: မော္ရုိကုိ (Mɔẏoko)

tha: โมร็อกโก (Mōrɔkkō)

lao: ມາຣົກ (Mālôk)

khm: ម៉ារ៉ុក (Māruk)

 

1983 URD C83 BMW M1, driven by Jørgen Strøjer in the "Le Mans & Prototypes" exhibition class of the 2014 CRAA (Classic Race Aarhus)

 

A "danish" classic, driven by Jens Winther (DK), David Mercer (GB) and Lars-Viggo Jensen (DK) in the 1986 Le Mans, taking an 11th place. It was the first time a danish driver finished the race. Now owned by Strøjer Samlingen (the Strøjer Collection)

Ala, a Princess of Ostland, was the first born child of King Ragnar the Pickled and his wife Ingrid the Demure. On the day of Ala's birth, the King was most displeased. A male child was needed to secure his throne.

 

Fortunately for Ala, her parents were mostly indifferent. She was left alone and unloved, raised by the serfs and slaves who served the Court of Cnute. One of these slaves was known as Gyda Pin-leg, so named for her lost limb.

 

In addition to learning all the things a princess of Ostland normally learned, Gyda Pin-leg taught Ala how to read the words of magic, how to evoke the darkness and how to makes one's enemies slumber. This all transpired in secret. Since Princess Ala was mostly ignored by her father and his court, it was easy for her to keep secrets.

 

Ala was twelve when her brother, Hord, was born. Shortly after Hord's birth, a fire mysteriously erupted in the nursery. Ingrid the Demure died a horrible death, but the life of Hord was saved. King Ragnar the Pickled was so very pleased that his legacy remained secure, but, still, he demanded to know the source of the fire.

 

Once it was determined magic was involved, Gyda Pin-leg was, naturally, blamed. Princess Ala silently watched her slow, brutal execution with the rest of the Court.

 

The Court of Cnute had ruled from the city of Zaeburg for six centuries. While King Ragnar the Pickled had no use for words or the books in which they were found, the previous rulers of Ostland had amassed a collection of quaint and curious volumes of forgotten lore. Into these obliviated chambers, the precocious princess disappeared. Great and terrible was the occult lore that she learned.

 

After the passage of some time, Ragnar the Pickled sought to form an alliance with Jarl Bjarke the Bent, the geriatric ruler of Soderfjord Jarldoms. To this end he offered his anomalous and reclusive daughter as a bride. Despite her singular ways, Princess Ala was strikingly beautiful. To the surprise of a few of the slaves and serfs, Ala silently acquiesced.

 

It was said that the Kraken of old, Hafgufa, sank the longship of Bjarke the Bent. He was traveling toward the Kingdom of Ostland to collect his promised bride. It was also said that in the days prior, Princess Ala went down to the sea and sang to the salty waters that flowed between Soderfjord and Ostland.

 

In a moment of rare sobriety, King Ragnar realized that his daughter, Princess Ala, had become a terrible and potent magician. Furthermore, she had become murderously willful. Trepidatiously, the King summoned his daughter to his Great Hall and banished Princess Ala from the Kingdom of Ostland. Without opening any doors, Ala the Sea Witch departed the Great Hall of Cnute.

 

For a decade, Princess Ala whereabouts was unknown. She had never been outgoing, so her absence didn't disrupt the court of Cnute. She had been all but forgotten.

 

Toward the end of this span, Hord Ragnarson ventured north to trod the icy plains of Norwold. It was in this strange land that he encountered the Crones of Crystykk. Some claim that these three witches are the Norns of the Northmen. In a strange place he found the three.

 

The youngest crone spoke, "Princess Ala shall kill your son." The oldest crone spoke, "Princess Ala shall kill your father." Finally, the crone of middle years spoke. "Indeed, Hord Ragnarson, once your eyes are dark with mourning, then your sister, Princess Ala, shall kill you, too."

 

Hord Ragnarson was both horrified and enraged. "Nay, witch sisters three, I shall thwart my fate," Hord swore. The Crones of Crystykk silently watched him depart.

 

For eighty-eight days and eighty-eight nights, Hord Ragnarson walked the world that his elder sister, Princess Ala, had walked. Thus Hord learned of the life that his sister had lived. Princess Ala had voluntarily enslaved herself to Tethys, daughter of Protius, enabling her to learn the enigmas of the waters. Later, Princess Ala become the consort of a huge, white dragon, Vladeck, that knew the secret language of the rocks. Later still, Princess Ala befriended Grugnir, Jarl of the Frost Giants, who bestowed upon her The Cloak of Endless Winters. Such had been the life of Princess Ala since she left the Kingdom of Ostland.

 

There is a place in the Ethengar Khanates where the Krandai River enters the steppes from the neighboring Kingdom of Vestland. Here the soil is rich in minerals carried from the hills of Trollheim, and the cherry trees bloom in early summer, adding a layer of pink to the succulent green grasses that grow upon the river bank. It was in this idyllic setting that Hord Ragnarson found his slumbering sister, Princess Ala.

 

Fearfully, Hord Ragnarson crept toward his sleeping sibling. His strong hands trembled as he freed his sword. He hesitated for but a moment, then he plunged his blade, Ulfbeht, through the heart of Princess Ala, pinning her to her petaled bower. The blood of Princess Ala flowed into the Krandai River.

 

At that moment, in the Kingdom of Ostland, Ragnar the Pickled clutched at his chest and coughed up black blood. He, too, died.

 

Bones scraped upon bones. That was the sound that brought Hord Ragnarson out of his reverie. A cloud passed overhead and a dark figure emerged. It was the feared and respected hakomon of Ethengar, Bakalgu the Destroyer. Bakalgu's face was hidden by the black mask carved into the visage of a leering evil spirit; his grey hair hung down to his knees; his eight-inch-long finger nails clattered arrhythmically against the various skulls and bones that adorned his black robes. Hord Ragnarson was terrified.

 

The hakomon spoke, "You are the prince of Ostland, Hord son of Ragnar. You just killed your sister while she slept."

 

Hord Ragnarson waited. The Destroyer had made statements; he had not asked questions. With a clatter of bones and a rustle of cloth, Bakalgu slowly circled the grim, yet beautiful tableau.

 

"You should go home. As I speak," said the hakomon, "your father, King Ragnar the Pickled, lies dead. The Kingdom of Ostland needs its heir." As if in a dream, Hord Ragnarson obeyed.

 

A terrible laugh emanated from behind the mask of evil. Bakalgu the Destroyer danced and sang and rattled his bones. The foliage joined the hakomon in his gyrations. Five of the cherry trees intertwined and enveloped the transfixed corpse of Princess Asa. This would be her tomb and her womb for nine months.

 

It is said that the soul of Princess Ala, borne by Ethengarian spirit magic, departed the Midgard and ventured toward the Well of Urd, whose waters impart cosmic knowledge and from whence the World Tree, Yggdrasil, is rooted. It is also said that Princess Ala confronted Mimir, a shadowy being whose knowledge of all things was practically unparalleled among the inhabitants of the nine worlds. Mimir achieved this status largely by taking his water from the Well of Urd.

 

Following the proscribed ritual, Princess Ala asked Mimir for a drink from the Well of Urd. The well’s guardian, knowing the value of such a draught, refused unless the seeker offered an eye in return. This is the way of Mimir. Straightaway, Princess Ala, gouged out one of her eyes and gave it to Mimir. Having made the necessary sacrifice, Mimir dipped his horn into the well and offered Princess Ala a draught.

 

In the Kingdom of Ostland, King Hord Dark-Eye had ascended the throne. Bakalgu the Destroyer had not lied when he said that King Ragnar the Pickled was dead. The coronation took place the day after Hord's longship arrived at the City of Zaeburg. Within a month King Hord Dark-Eye married Rhora Anlafsdottier, and seven months later she was seven months pregnant.

 

Exactly nine months after King Hord Dark-Eye had killed his sister, Princess Ala, Queen Rhora Anlafsdottier died. She choked to death upon a cherry pit. An effort was made to save the unborn heir; however, he emerged from the womb cold and still. Impossibly, a cherry pit was lodged in his throat, too.

 

The decades have passed. King Hord Dark-Eye rules the Kingdom of Ostland and waits for death. Ala the Sea Witch occupies Narvendul, the wandering island. She waits to kill. She is patient and cruel.

My Volks Ah! My Goddess figures, the Volks Belldandy & Holy Bell statue (original release, limited to 3000) and figures of Belldandy, Skuld, Urd, Peorth and Hild.

 

(Just taking some updated photos of my room ^__~" and a blog post about how the figures are suspended.)

 

37150 YN06 URD pictured at the James Paget Hospital working the 1 to Martham.

I am willing to bet that very few people who walk by this on a daily basis know the story behind this memorial fountain by Joseph Wackerle.

 

Operation Shamrock was a scheme bringing refugee children from mainland Europe to Ireland in the aftermath of the Second World War. It was organised by the Irish Red Cross, and involved about 500 children, mostly from Germany, who stayed for three years before returning home.

 

Irish assistance to Germany reinforced in Britain the perception, fostered by wartime neutrality, that Ireland was pro-Nazi. Conversely, West Germany in the 1950s had gratitude for Ireland's postwar relief aid, and ties grew between the countries. In January 1956 a memorial fountain sculpted by Joseph Wackerle and commissioned by the German Gratitude Fund was unveiled in St Stephen's Green, Dublin, by the West German ambassador.

 

In 1961, the German war cemetery was opened near St Kevin's Hostel, Glencree, for graves of German aviators killed in Ireland during the war. In 1974, the hostel became the Glencree Centre for Peace and Reconciliation, which played a role in the Northern Ireland peace process in the 1990s.

 

German-language courses provided for refugees in Dublin led to the foundation of St. Kilian's German School.

 

In March 1997, a reunion of over 300 foster-children and families was held at the German embassy in Dublin, attended by Presidents Mary Robinson of Ireland and Roman Herzog of Germany.

 

As part of The Gathering Ireland 2013, 21 refugee children from Germany, France and Austria returned to Glencree.

 

The sculpture consists of a group of three bronze figures from Norse mythology, representing the Three Fates, Urd (past), Verdandi (present) and Skuld (future). In Norse mythology these three female figures are known as norns, who rule the destiny of Gods and men. Around the fountain are three plaques. Each plaque says “This fountain, designed by the sculptor Josef Wackerle, is the gift of the people of the German Federal Republic to mark their gratitude for Ireland’s help after the war of 1939-45. The bronze group portrays the three legendary fates spinning and measuring the thread of man’s destiny.” One is in English, the second is in Gaelic, and the third is in German.

McGill’s Scotland East

Mercedes-Benz Tourismo Mellor Strata

Riverside C30

Stirling

Is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost 2 million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth-largest country in the Americas by total area and the 14th largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of 111 million, it is the 11th most populous country and the most populous Hispanophone country on earth. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.

In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory, which was administered as the viceroyalty of New Spain which would eventually become Mexico as the colony gained independence in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, territorial secession and civil war, including foreign intervention, two empires and two long domestic dictatorships. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional, PRI).

As a regional power and currently the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) since 1994, Mexico is firmly established as an upper middle-income country, and is considered a newly industrialized country and an emerging power . It has the 13th largest nominal GDP and the 11th largest by purchasing power parity. The economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Mexico

 

Geography

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Mexico

 

Other info

Flags and coat of arms from states

 

Oficial name:

Estados Unidos Mexicanos

 

Independence:

Declared September 16, 1810

- Recognized September 27, 1821

 

Area:

1.958.201 km2

 

Inhabitants:

106.090.000

 

Languages:

Afro-Seminole Creole Amuzgo, Guerrero Amuzgo, Ipalapa Amuzgo, San Pedro Amuzgos Chatino, Eastern Highland Chatino, Nopala Chatino, Tataltepec Chatino, Western Highland Chatino, Zacatepec Chatino, Zenzontepec Chiapanec Chichimeca-Jonaz Chinantec, Chiltepec Chinantec, Comaltepec Chinantec, Lalana Chinantec, Lealao Chinantec, Ojitlán Chinantec, Ozumacín Chinantec, Palantla Chinantec, Quiotepec Chinantec, Sochiapan Chinantec, Tepetotutla Chinantec, Tepinapa Chinantec, Tlacoatzintepec Chinantec, Usila Chinantec, Valle Nacional Chochotec Chol, Tila Chol, Tumbalá Chontal, Highland Oaxaca Chontal, Lowland Oaxaca Chontal, Tabasco Chuj, Ixtatán Cocopa Cora, El Nayar Cora, Santa Teresa Cuicatec, Tepeuxila Cuicatec, Teutila Huarijio Huastec, San Luís Potosí Huastec, Southeastern Huastec, Veracruz Huave, San Dionisio del Mar Huave, San Francisco del Mar Huave, San Mateo del Mar Huave, Santa María del Mar Huichol Ixcatec Jacaltec, Western Kanjobal, Western Kickapoo Kiliwa Kumiai Lacandon Mam, Northern Mam, Todos Santos Matlatzinca, Atzingo Matlatzinca, San Francisco Maya, Chan Santa Cruz Maya, Yucatán Mayo Mazahua Central Mazahua, Michoacán Mazatec, Ayautla Mazatec, Chiquihuitlán Mazatec, Huautla Mazatec, Ixcatlán Mazatec, Jalapa de Díaz Mazatec, Mazatlán Mazatec, San Jerónimo Tecóatl Mazatec, Soyaltepec Mexican Sign Language Mixe, Coatlán Mixe, Isthmus Mixe, Juquila Mixe, Mazatlán Mixe, North Central Mixe, Quetzaltepec Mixe, Tlahuitoltepec Mixe, Totontepec Mixtec, Alacatlatzala Mixtec, Alcozauca Mixtec, Amoltepec Mixtec, Apasco-Apoala Mixtec, Atatláhuca [Mixtec, Ayutla Mixtec, Cacaloxtepec Mixtec, Chayuco Mixtec, Chazumba Mixtec, Chigmecatitlán Mixtec, Coatzospan Mixtec, Cuyamecalco Mixtec, Diuxi-Tilantongo Mixtec, Huitepec Mixtec, Itundujia Mixtec, Ixtayutla Mixtec, Jamiltepec Mixtec, Juxtlahuaca Mixtec, Magdalena Peñasco Mixtec, Metlatónoc Mixtec, Mitlatongo Mixtec, Mixtepec Mixtec, Northern Tlaxiaco Mixtec, Northwest Oaxaca Mixtec, Ocotepec Mixtec, Peñoles Mixtec, Pinotepa Nacional Mixtec, San Juan Colorado Mixtec, San Juan Teita Mixtec, San Miguel el Grande Mixtec, San Miguel Piedras Mixtec, Santa Lucía Monteverde Mixtec, Santa María Zacatepec Mixtec, Silacayoapan Mixtec, Sindihui Mixtec, Sinicahua Mixtec, Southeastern Nochixtlán Mixtec, Southern Puebla Mixtec, Southwestern Tlaxiaco Mixtec, Soyaltepec Mixtec, Tacahua Mixtec, Tamazola Mixtec, Tezoatlán Mixtec, Tidaá Mixtec, Tijaltepec Mixtec, Tlazoyaltepec Mixtec, Tututepec Mixtec, Western Juxtlahuaca Mixtec, Yoloxochitl Mixtec, Yosondúa Mixtec, Yucuañe Mixtec, Yutanduchi Mocho Nahuatl, Central Nahuatl, Central Huasteca Nahuatl, Central Puebla Nahuatl, Coatepec Nahuatl, Durango Nahuatl, Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl, Guerrero Nahuatl, Highland Puebla Nahuatl, Huaxcaleca Nahuatl, Isthmus-Cosoleacaque Nahuatl, Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl, Isthmus-Pajapan Nahuatl, Michoacán Nahuatl, Morelos Nahuatl, Northern Oaxaca Nahuatl, Northern Puebla Nahuatl, Ometepec Nahuatl, Orizaba Nahuatl, Santa María la Alta Nahuatl, Southeastern Puebla Nahuatl, Temascaltepec Nahuatl, Tenango Nahuatl, Tetelcingo Nahuatl, Tlalitzlipa Nahuatl, Tlamacazapa Nahuatl, Western Huasteca Opata Otomi, Eastern Highland Otomi, Estado de México Otomi, Ixtenco Otomi, Mezquital Otomi, Querétaro Otomi, Temoaya Otomi, Tenango Otomi, Texcatepec Otomi, Tilapa Paipai Pame, Central Pame, Northern Pima Bajo Plautdietsch Popoloca, Coyotepec Popoloca, Mezontla Popoloca, San Felipe Otlaltepec Popoloca, San Juan Atzingo Popoloca, San Luís Temalacayuca Popoloca, San Marcos Tlalcoyalco Popoloca, Santa Inés Ahuatempan Popoluca, Highland Popoluca, Oluta Popoluca, Sayula Popoluca, Texistepec Purepecha Purepecha, Western Highland Seri Spanish Tacanec Tarahumara, Central Tarahumara, Lowland Tarahumara, Northern Tarahumara, Southeastern Tarahumara, Southwestern Tectitec Tepehua, Huehuetla Tepehua, Pisaflores Tepehua, Tlachichilco Tepehuan, Northern Tepehuan, Southeastern Tepehuan, Southwestern Tlapanec, Acatepec Tlapanec, Azoyú Tlapanec, Malinaltepec Tlapanec, Tlacoapa Tojolabal Totonac, Coyutla Totonac, Filomena Mata-Coahuitlán Totonac, Highland Totonac, Ozumatlán Totonac, Papantla Totonac, Patla-Chicontla Totonac, Xicotepec de Juárez Totonac, Yecuatla Triqui, Chicahuaxtla Triqui, Copala Triqui, San Martín Itunyoso Tzeltal, Bachajón Tzeltal, Oxchuc Tzotzil, Chamula Tzotzil, Chenalhó Tzotzil, Huixtán Tzotzil, San Andrés Larrainzar Tzotzil, Venustiano Carranza Tzotzil, Zinacantán Yaqui Yucatec Maya Sign Language Zapotec, Aloápam Zapotec, Amatlán Zapotec, Asunción Mixtepec Zapotec, Ayoquesco Zapotec, Cajonos Zapotec, Chichicapan Zapotec, Choapan Zapotec, Coatecas Altas Zapotec, Coatlán Zapotec, El Alto Zapotec, Elotepec Zapotec, Guevea de Humboldt Zapotec, Güilá Zapotec, Isthmus Zapotec, Lachiguiri Zapotec, Lachirioag Zapotec, Lachixío Zapotec, Loxicha Zapotec, Mazaltepec Zapotec, Miahuatlán Zapotec, Mitla Zapotec, Mixtepec Zapotec, Ocotlán Zapotec, Ozolotepec Zapotec, Petapa Zapotec, Quiavicuzas Zapotec, Quioquitani-Quierí Zapotec, Rincón Zapotec, San Agustín Mixtepec Zapotec, San Baltazar Loxicha Zapotec, San Juan Guelavía Zapotec, San Pedro Quiatoni Zapotec, San Vicente Coatlán Zapotec, Santa Catarina Albarradas Zapotec, Santa Inés Yatzechi Zapotec, Santa María Quiegolani Zapotec, Santiago Lapaguía Zapotec, Santiago Xanica Zapotec, Santo Domingo Albarradas Zapotec, Sierra de Juárez Zapotec, Southeastern Ixtlán Zapotec, Southern Rincon Zapotec, Tabaa Zapotec, Tejalapan Zapotec, Texmelucan Zapotec, Tilquiapan Zapotec, Tlacolulita Zapotec, Totomachapan Zapotec, Xadani Zapotec, Xanaguía Zapotec, Yalálag Zapotec, Yareni Zapotec, Yatee Zapotec, Yatzachi Zapotec, Yautepec Zapotec, Zaachila Zapotec, Zaniza Zapotec, Zoogocho Zoque, Chimalapa Zoque, Copainalá Zoque, Francisco León Zoque, Rayón Zoque, Tabasco

 

Capital city:

Mexico city

 

Meaning country name:

After the Mexica branch of the Aztecs. The origin of the term "Mexxica" remains uncertain. Some take it as the old Nahuatl word for the sun. Others say it derived from the name of the leader Mexitli. Yet others simply ascribe it to a type of weed that grows in Lake Texcoco. Leon Portilla suggests that it means "navel of the moon" from Nahuatl metztli (moon) and xictli (navel). Alternatively, it could mean "navel of the maguey" (Nahuatl metl).

 

Description Flag:

The Flag of Mexico is a vertical tricolor of green, white, and red with the national coat of arms charged in the center of the white stripe. While the meaning of the colors has changed over time, these three colors were adopted by Mexico following independence from Spain during the country's War of Independence. The current flag was adopted in 1968, but the overall design has been used since 1821 when the First National Flag was created. The current law of national symbols, Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, that governs the use of the national flag has been in place since 1984.

Throughout history, the flag has changed 4 times, as the design of the coat of arms and the length-width ratios of the flag have been modified. However, the coat of arms has had the same features throughout: an eagle, holding a serpent in its talon, is perched on top of a prickly pear cactus; the cactus is situated on a rock that rises above a lake. The coat of arms is derived from an Aztec legend that their gods told them to build a city where they spot an eagle and a serpent, which is now Mexico City. The current national flag, the Fourth National Flag, is also used as the Mexican naval ensign by ships registered in Mexico.

The Bandera Nacional is a rectangle divided into three vertical stripes of identical measures, with the colors placed in the following order from hoist to fly: green, white, and red. Centered in the white stripe, the National Coat of Arms has a diameter of three-fourths the width of the white stripe. The proportion of the flag is four to seven (Ratio 4:7). It could carry a rope or tie of the same colors below the truck.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of Arms is charged in the center of the flag, and was inspired by an Aztec legend regarding the founding of Tenochtitlán. According to popular legend, the Aztec people, then a nomadic tribe, were wandering throughout Mexico in search of a sign that would indicate the precise spot upon which they were to build their capital. The war god Huitzilopochtli had commanded them to find an eagle perched atop a prickly pear cactus (nopal in Spanish) growing on a rock submerged in a lake. The eagle would have a serpent trapped in its mouth that it had presently snatched. After two hundred years of wandering, they found the promised sign on a small island in the swampy Lake Texcoco. Here they founded their new capital, Tenochtitlán, which later became known as Mexico City, the current capital of Mexico.

The current coat of arms, which was redesigned in 1968, was designed by Francisco Eppens Helguera and approved by President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz.

 

Motto:

" Nuestra Historia, Nuestra Lucha "

 

National Anthem: Himno Nacional Mexicano

 

Mexicanos, al grito de guerra

el acero aprestad y el bridón

y retiemble en sus centros la tierra

al sonoro rugir del cañón.

 

Ciña ¡oh Patria! tus sienes de oliva

de la paz el arcángel divino

que en el cielo tu eterno destino

por el dedo de Dios se escribió.

 

Mas si osare un extraño enemigo

profanar con su planta tu suelo

piensa ¡oh Patria querida! que el cielo

un soldado en cada hijo te dio.

 

En sangrientos combates los viste

por tu amor palpitando sus senos,

arrostrar la metralla serenos,

y la muerte o la gloria buscar.

 

Si el recuerdo de antiguas hazañas,

de tus hijos inflama la mente.

Los laureles del triunfo tu frente

volverán inmortales a ornar.

 

Como al golpe del rayo la encina

se derrumba hasta el hondo torrente

la discordia vencida, impotente

a los pies del arcángel cayó.

 

Ya no más de tus hijos la sangre

se derrumbé en contienda de hermanos,

solo encuentre el acero en sus manos

quien tu nombre sagrado insultó.

 

Del guerrero inmortal de Zempoala

te defiende la espada terrible

y sostiene su brazo invencible

tu sagrado pendón tricolor.

 

El será feliz mexicano

en la paz y en la guerra el caudillo,

porque el supo sus armas de brillo

circundar en los campos de honor.

 

¡Guerra, guerra sin tregua al que intente

de la patria manchar los blasones!

¡Guerra, guerra! los patrios pendones

en las olas de sangre empapad.

 

¡Guerra, guerra! en el monte, en el valle

los cañones horrísonos truenen,

y los ecos sonoros resuenen

con las voces de ¡Unión! ¡Libertad!

 

Antes, patria, que inermes tus hijos

bajo el yugo su cuello dobleguen,

tus campiñas con sangre se rieguen,

sobre sangre se estampe su pie.

 

Y tus templos, palacios y torres

se derrumben con hórrido estruendo

y sus ruinas existan diciendo:

de mil héroes la patria aquí fue.

 

Si a la lid contra hueste enemiga

nos convoca la trompa guerrera

de Iturbide la sacra bandera

¡mexicanos! valientes seguid.

 

Y a los fieros bridones les sirvan

las vencidas enseñas de alfombra

los laureles del triunfo den sombra

a la frente del bravo adalid.

 

Vuelva altivo a los patrios hogares

el guerrero a contar su victoria,

ostentando las palmas de gloria

que supiera en la lid conquistar.

 

Tornaránse sus lauros sangrientos

en guirnaldas de mirtos y rosas,

que el amor de las hijas y esposas

también sabe a los bravos premiar.

 

Y el que al golpe de ardiente metralla

de la Patria en las aras sucumba,

obtendrá en recompensa una tumba

donde brille de gloria la luz.

 

Y de Iguala la enseña querida,

a su espada sangrienta enlazada,

de laurel inmortal coronada

formará de su fosa la cruz.

 

¡Patria! ¡Patria! tus hijos te juran

exhalar en tus aras su aliento

sí el clarín con su bélico acento

los convoca a lidiar con valor.

 

¡Para ti las guirnaldas de oliva!

¡Un recuerdo para ellos de gloria!

¡Un laurel para ti de victoria!

¡Un sepulcro para ellos de honor!

 

English

 

Mexicans, at the cry of war,

make ready the steel and the steed,

and may the earth tremble its centers

at the resounding roar of the cannon.

And may the earth tremble its centers

at the resounding roar of the cannon

 

First Stanza:

Let gird, oh country, your brow with olive

by the divine archangel of peace,

for in heaven your eternal destiny

was written by the finger of God.

But if some enemy outlander should dare

to profane your ground with his step,

think, oh beloved country, that heaven

has given you a soldier in every son.

 

Stanza V:

War, war without quarter to any who dare

to tarnish the country's coat of arms!

War, war! Let the national banners

be soaked in waves of blood.

War, war! In the mountain, in the valley,

let the cannons thunder in horrid unison

and may the sonorous echoes resound

with cries of Union! Liberty!

 

Stanza VI:

Oh country, ere your children, defenseless

bend their neck beneath the yoke,

may your fields be watered with blood,

may they leave their footprints in blood.

And may your temples, palaces and towers

collapse with horrid clamor,

and their ruins continue on, saying:

Of a thousand heroes, this country was.

 

Stanza X:

Oh, country, country, your children swear to you

to breathe their last for your sake,

if the bugle with its warlike accent

should call them to fight with courage.

For you the olive wreathes!

A memory for them of glory!

For you a laurel of victory!

A tomb for them of honor!

 

Internet Page: www.presidencia.gob.mx

www.gob.mx

www.esmexico.com

www.mexonline.com

www.mexperience.com

www.visitmexico.com

www.mexico-travel.com

www.yucatantoday.com

 

Mexico in diferent languages

 

eng | dan | hau | ina | lim | nld | nor | roh | rup: Mexico

afr | cor | epo | fao | fin | fry | hrv | ibo | jav | sme | som | swa | tpi: Meksiko

ces | dsb | eus | hsb | lin | slk | swe: Mexiko

lav | lit | mlg | sqi | tur | zza: Meksika

aze | crh | kaa | tuk | uzb: Meksika / Мексика

ast | glg | por: México

deu | ltz | nds: Mexiko / Mexiko

fra | frp | jnf: Mexique

bos | slo: Meksiko / Мексико

hat | wol: Meksik

kin | run: Megiziko

oci | ron: Mexic

pol | szl: Meksyk

scn | srd: Mèssicu

too | tzz: Mejiko

arg: Mexico; México; Méjico

bam: Mɛkisiki

bre: Mec’hiko

cat: Mèxic

cos: Messicu

cym: Mecsico

est: Mehhiko

fur: Messic

gla: Meigseago; Meagsago

gle: Meicsiceo / Meicsiceo

glv: Meksico

haw: Mekiko

hch: Mekiku

hun: Mexikó

ind: Meksiko / ميكسيكو

isl: Mexíkó

ita: Messico

kmr: Meksîka / Мәксика / مەکسیکا; Mêksîk / Мексик / مێکسیک

kur: Meksîka / مەکسیکا

lat: Mexicum; Mexica

lld: Messich

mfe: Lameksik

mlt: Messiku

mol: Mexic / Мексик

mri: Mēhiko

msa: Mexico / ميكسيكو

nah: Anawak; Mexihko

nrm: Messique

orm: Maksiiko; Meeksikoo

oto: M’onda

pap: Mèksiko

pua: Mejiku

que: Mishiku; Mihiku

rmy: Mexiko / मेख़िको

sag: Mekisîka

slv: Mehika

smg: Meksėka

smo: Mekisiko

sot: Meksikho

spa: México; Méjico

tet: Méxiku

tgl: Meksiko; Mehiko

ton: Mekisikou

vie: Mễ Tây Cơ; Mê-hi-cô

vol: Mäxikän

vor: Mehhigo

wln: Mecsike

yor: Mesiko

yua: Meejiko

zap: Méxicu

zul: iMekisiko

abq | alt | che | chm | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Мексика (Meksika)

bak | tat: Мексика / Meksika

bul | mkd: Мексико (Meksiko)

bel: Мексіка / Mieksika; Мэксыка / Meksyka

chv: Мексикӑ (Meksikă)

kaz: Мексика / Meksïka / مەكسيكا

kbd: Мексикэ (Meksikă)

mon: Мексик (Meksik)

oss: Мексикӕ (Meksikä)

srp: Мексико / Meksiko

tgk: Мексика / مکسیکه / Meksika

ukr: Мексика (Meksyka)

ara: المكسيك (al-Maksīk)

fas: مکزیک / Mekzik

prs: مکزیک (Mekzīk); مکسیکو (Meksīkō)

pus: مکزيک (Makzīk); مېکزيک (Mekzīk); مکسيکو (Maksīko)

uig: مېكسىكا / Méksika / Мексика

urd: میکسیکو (Mæksīko)

div: މެކްސިކޯ (Meksikō)

syr: ܡܩܣܝܩܘ (Meqsīqō)

heb: מקסיקו (Meqsîqô); מכסיקו (Meksîqô)

lad: מיכיקו / Mexiko

yid: מעקסיקע (Meksike)

tzm: ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ / Miksiku

amh: ሜክሲኮ (Meksiko)

ell-dhi: Μεξικό (Mexikó)

ell-kat: Μεξικόν (Mexikón)

hye: Մեքսիկա (Meḳsika)

kat: მექსიკა (Meḳsika)

mar | nep | san: मेक्सिको (Meksiko)

hin: मेक्सिको (Meksiko); मैक्सिको (Mæksiko)

asm: মেক্সিকো (Meksiko)

ben: মেক্সিকো (Meksiko)

guj: મેક્સિકો (Meksiko)

mni: meCsiko (Meksiko)

pan: ਮੈਕਸਿਕੋ (Mæksiko); ਮੈਕਸੀਕੋ (Mæksīko)

sin: මෙක්සිකෝ (Meksikō)

kan: ಮೆಕ್ಸಕೊ (Meksiko); ಮೆಕ್ಸಿಕೋ (Meksikō)

mal: മെക്സിക്കോ (Meksikkō); മേക്സിക്കോ (Mēksikkō)

tam: மெக்சிகோ (Mekčikō)

tel: మెక్సికో (Meksikō)

zho: 墨西哥 (Mòxīgē)

yue: 墨西哥 (Mahksāigō)

jpn: メキシコ (Mekishiko)

kor: 멕시코 (Maeksiko)

bod: མེག་སི་ཀོ་ (Meg.si.ko.); མེག་སི་ཁོ་ (Meg.si.kʰo.)

dzo: མེཀསི་ཀོ་ (Meksi.ko.)

mya: မက္ကဆီကုိ (Meʿksʰiko)

tha: เม็กซิโก (Meksikō)

lao: ເມັດຊີໂກ (Metsīkō)

khm: ម៉ិចស៊ិក (Mičsik); ម៉ិចស្សឹក (Mičssʉk); ម៉ិកស៊ិកូ (Miksikū)

chr: ᎠᏂᏍᏊᏩᏂᏱ / Anisquuwaniyi

cre: ᒣᐠᓯᑯ (Mèsiko)

iku: ᒪᒃᓯᑯ / Maksiku

 

Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent (the world's smallest), the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.N4 Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east, and New Zealand to the southeast.

For some 40,000 years before European settlement commenced in the late 18th century, the Australian mainland and Tasmania were inhabited by around 250 individual nations of indigenous Australians. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the immediate north, and European discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, the eastern half of Australia was claimed by the British in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales, founded on 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in the following years; the continent was explored, and during the 19th century another five largely self-governing Crown Colonies were established.

On 1 January 1901 the six colonies became a federation and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since Federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system and remains a Commonwealth realm. The population is 22 million, with approximately 60% concentrated in and around the mainland state capitals of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. The nation's capital city is Canberra, located in the Australian Capital Territory.

Australia is a prosperous developed country, with a multicultural society. It ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance such as human development, quality of life, health care, life expectancy, public education, economic freedom and the protection of civil liberties and political rights. Australian cities rank among the world's highest in terms of cultural offerings and quality of life. It is a member of the United Nations, G20, Commonwealth of Nations, OECD, ANZUS, APEC, South Pacific Forum and the World Trade Organization.

 

Etymology

 

The name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning "southern". Legends of an "unknown land of the south" (terra australis incognita) date back to Roman times and were commonplace in medieval geography but were not based on any documented knowledge of the continent.

The first recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in "A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Master Hakluyt" and published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus. The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used by Dutch East India Company officials in Batavia to refer to the newly discovered land to the south in 1638. Australia was used in a 1693 translation of Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe, a 1676 French novel by Gabriel de Foigny under the pen-name Jacques Sadeur. Alexander Dalrymple then used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean (1771), to refer to the entire South Pacific region. In 1793, George Shaw and Sir James Smith published Zoology and Botany of New Holland, in which they wrote of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland". It also appeared on a 1799 chart by James Wilson.

The name Australia was popularised by Matthew Flinders who, as early as 1804, pushed for the name to be formally adopted. When preparing his manuscript and charts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis he was persuaded by his patron, Sir Joseph Banks, to use the term Terra Australis as this was the name most familiar to the public. Flinders did so, but allowed himself the footnote:

"Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."

This is the only occurrence of the word Australia in that text; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown's General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown makes use of the adjectival form Australian throughout, this being the first known use of that form. Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name: the name came gradually to be accepted over the following ten years. Lachlan Macquarie, a Governor of New South Wales, subsequently used the word in his dispatches to England, and on 12 December 1817 recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. Since early in the 20th century, the country has been sometimes referred to locally and internationally as Oz.N5 Aussie is common colloquially as an adjective and also as a noun referring to an Australian.

 

History

Human habitation of Australia is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. These first Australians may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. At the time of European settlement in the 18th century, most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers.

The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent both belong to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula on an unknown date in early 1606. On 26 February 1606, he made landfall at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York, near the modern town of Weipa. During the 17th century the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called New Holland but made no attempt at settlement. In 1770 James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. Cook's discoveries prepared the way for establishment of a new penal colony. The British Crown Colony of New South Wales began a settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip on 26 January 1788. This date was later to become Australia's national day, Australia Day. Van Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829.

Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia. South Australia was founded as a "free province"—that is, it was never a penal colony. Victoria and Western Australia were also founded "free" but later accepted transported convicts. The transportation of convicts to the colony of New South Wales ceased in 1848 after a campaign by the settlers.

The Indigenous Australian population, estimated at 350,000 at the time of European settlement, declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly because of infectious disease. The "Stolen Generations" (removal of Aboriginal children from their families), which historians such as Henry Reynolds have argued could be considered genocide by some definitions, may have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population. Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some conservative commentators, such as former Prime Minister Howard, as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons. This debate is known within Australia as the History Wars. Following the 1967 referendum, the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land—native title—was not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius (literally "no one's land") at the time of European occupation.

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the Eureka Stockade rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence, and international shipping. On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting. The Commonwealth of Australia was born and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed from a part of New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra. (Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed.) The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. In 1914 Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Liberal Party and the incoming Labor Party. The Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front. Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action. The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942, but backdated it to the beginning of World War II to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during the war. The shock of the UK's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self-image have been transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council. At the 1999 referendum, 54% of Australian voters rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by two-thirds vote of both houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the expansion of ties with other Pacific Rim nations while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies and trading partners.

 

States and territories

Australia has six states—New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia—and two major mainland territories—the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In most respects these two territories function as states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation only overrides state legislation in certain areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including powers over education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport, and local government as these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51.

Each state and major mainland territory has its own legislature or parliament: unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT, and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states. The states are sovereign, though subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower house is known as the Legislative Assembly (House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania) and the upper house is known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier, and in each territory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; an Administrator in the Northern Territory, and the Australian Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles.[citation needed]

 

The federal government directly administers the following territories:

 

Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales

Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Ashmore and Cartier Islands

Coral Sea Islands

Heard Island and McDonald Islands

Australian Antarctic Territory

Norfolk Island is also technically an external territory; however, under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 it has been granted more autonomy and is governed locally by its own legislative assembly. The Queen is represented by an Administrator, currently Owen Walsh.

 

Geography

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi) is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the IndianN4 and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas. The world's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area, Australia – owing to its size and isolation – is often dubbed the 'island continent and variably considered the world's largest island. Australia has 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands) and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006 ft).

By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback. Australia is the flattest continent, with the oldest and least fertile soils, and is the driest inhabited continent. Only the south-east and south-west corners of the continent have a temperate climate. The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world, although a great proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline.

The landscapes of the northern part of the country, with a tropical climate, consist of rainforest, woodland, grassland, mangrove swamps, and desert. The climate is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.

 

Oficial name:

Commonwealth of Australia

 

Independence:

Constitution 1 January 1901

- Statute of Westminster 11 December 1931 (adopted 9 September 1939)

- Australia Act 3 March 1986

 

Area:

7.703.429 km2

 

Inhabitants:

21.670.000

 

Languages and nearly extincts dialects:

Adynyamathanha ,Alawa ,Alngith ,Alyawarr ,Amarag, Ami ,Andegerebinha ,Angloromani ,Anindilyakwa ,Anmatyerre ,Antakarinya ,Arabana ,Areba ,Arrarnta, Arrernte, Atampaya ,Australian Aborigines Sign Language ,Australian Sign Language ,Ayabadhu ,Badimaya ,Bandjalang ,Bandjigali ,Bardi ,Barrow Point ,Bayungu ,Bidyara ,Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin ,Bunaba ,Burarra ,Burduna ,Darling ,Dayi ,Dhalandji ,Dhangu ,Dhargari ,Dhuwal ,Dirari ,Djambarrpuyngu ,Djamindjung ,Djangun ,Djauan ,Djawi ,Djeebbana ,Djinang ,Djinba ,Djingili ,Djiwarli ,Dyaabugay ,Dyaberdyaber ,Dyangadi ,Dyirbal ,Dyugun,English ,Erre ,Flinders Island ,Gadjerawang ,Gagadu ,Gambera ,Gamilaraay ,Ganggalida ,Garawa ,Garig-Ilgar ,Giyug ,Gooniyandi ,Gudanji ,Gugadj ,Gugu Badhun ,Gugubera ,Guguyimidjir ,Gumatj ,Gungabula ,Gunwinggu ,Gunya ,Gupapuyngu ,Guragone ,Guwamu ,Iwaidja ,Jarnango ,Jaru ,Kala Lagaw Ya ,Kamu ,Kanju ,Karadjeri ,Kayardild ,Kaytetye ,Kitja Kokata

Kriol ,Kukatja ,Kuku-Mangk ,Kuku-Mu'inh ,Kuku-Muminh ,Kuku-Ugbanh ,Kuku-Uwanh ,Kuku-Yalanji ,Kumbainggar ,Kunbarlang ,Kunggara ,Kunggari ,Kunjen ,Kurrama ,Kuthant ,Kuuku-Ya'u ,Kwini ,Lamu-Lamu Laragia ,Lardil ,Limilngan ,Madngele ,Malay,Manda ,Mangarayi ,Mangerr ,Mara ,Maranunggu ,Margany ,Margu ,Maridan ,Maridjabin ,Marimanindji ,Maringarr ,Marithiel ,Mariyedi ,Marti Ke ,Martu Wangka ,Martuyhunira ,Maung ,Mayaguduna ,Mbabaram ,Mbariman-Gudhinma ,Meriam ,Miriwung ,Miwa ,Mudbura ,Mullukmulluk ,Muluridyi ,Murrinh-Patha ,Muruwari ,Nakara ,Nangikurrunggurr ,Ngaanyatjarra ,Ngadjunmaya ,Ngalakan ,Ngalkbun ,Ngamini ,Ngarinman ,Ngarinyin ,Ngarla ,Ngarluma ,Ngawun ,Ngura ,Ngurmbur ,Nhuwala ,Nijadali ,Nimanbur ,Nungali ,Nunggubuyu ,Nyamal ,Nyangga ,Nyangumarta ,Nyawaygi ,Nyigina Nyulnyul ,Pakanha ,Panytyima ,Pini ,Pinigura ,Pintiini ,Pintupi-Luritja ,Pitcairn-Norfolk ,Pitjantjatjara ,Pitta Pitta ,Rembarunga ,Ritarungo ,Thayore ,Thaypan ,Tiwi ,Torres Strait Creole ,Tyaraity ,Umbindhamu ,Umbugarla ,Umbuygamu ,Umpila ,Uradhi ,Urningangg ,Wadjiginy ,Wadjigu ,Wagaya ,Wageman ,Wajarri ,Wakawaka ,Walmajarri ,Wambaya ,Wamin ,Wangaaybuwan-Ngiyambaa ,Wanggamala ,Wangganguru ,Wanman ,Waray ,Wardaman ,Warlmanpa ,Warlpiri ,Warluwara ,Warrgamay ,Warrwa ,Warumungu ,Warungu ,Wikalkan ,Wik-Epa ,Wik-Iiyanh ,Wik-Keyangan ,Wik-Me'anha Wik-Mungkan ,Wik-Ngathana ,Wikngenchera ,Wilawila ,Wiradhuri ,Wirangu ,Worora ,Wulna ,Wunambal ,Yandruwandha ,Yankunytjatjara ,Yanyuwa ,Yawarawarga ,Yawuru ,Yidiny ,Yindjibarndi ,Yindjilandji ,Yinggarda ,Yir Yoront , Yir Yiront, Jir Joront, Gwandera, Kokomindjen, Mandjoen, Millera, Mind'jana, Mundjun, Myunduno. Dialects: Dangedl (Dhanu'un, Djudjan, Dudjym), Gorminang, Jir'jorond (Jirmel Mel-Jir, Ngamba'wandh, Yirmel, Yirtangettle, Yir Thangedl, Yirtutiym).

 

Capital city:

Canberra

 

Meaning of the country name:

Originally from Latin terra australis incognita - "unknown southern land". Early European explorers, sensing that the Australian landmass far exceeded in size what they had already mapped, gave the area a generic descriptive name. The explorer Matthew Flinders (1774 – 1814), the first to sail around and chart the Australian coast, used the term "Australia" in his 1814 publication A Voyage to Terra Australis. Previous Dutch explorers had referred to the continent as Australisch and as "Hollandia Nova" (New Holland). From the introduction in Flinders' book:

"There is no probability, that any other detached body of land, of nearly equal extent, will ever be found in a more southern latitude; the name Terra Australis will, therefore, remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country, and of its situation on the globe: it has antiquity to recommend it; and, having no reference to either of the two claiming nations, appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected."

...with the accompanying note at the bottom of the page:

"* Had I permitted myself any innovation upon the original term, it would have been to convert it into AUSTRALIA; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."

  

Description Flag:

The Australian flag uses three prominent symbols, the Union Flag (also known as the Union Jack), the Commonwealth Star and the Southern Cross. The Union Flag is commonly thought to reflect Australia's history as a collection of British colonies, although a more historic view sees its inclusion in the design as demonstrating loyalty to the British Empire. The five white stars of the fly of the flag represent the Southern Cross. The Southern Cross (or Crux) is the brightest constellation visible in the Southern Hemisphere and has been used to represent Australia and New Zealand since the early days of British settlement. Each of these stars has seven points except for the smallest star, which has only five. Ivor Evans, one of the flag's designers, intended the Southern Cross to refer also to the four moral virtues ascribed to the four main stars by Dante: justice, prudence, temperance and fortitude. The large seven-pointed star below the Union Flag is the Commonwealth or Federation Star, which represents the federation of the colonies of Australia on 1 January 1901. There is one point for each of the six original states and one to symbolise the Commonwealth's internal and external territories. The Commonwealth Star does not have any relation to Beta Centauri, despite that star's coincidental location in the sky and its brightness.

The blue colour has been described as representing Australia as an island continent, as a symbol of the journey humans had to make to reach Australia, as the blue sky, and as a remnant of the Eureka Flag, which also had a blue background.

 

Coat of arms:

The shield is the focal point of the coat of arms, contained within is the badge of each Australian state. In the top half, from left to right, the states represented are: New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. In the bottom half, from left to right: South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. Above the shield is the seven-pointed 'Commonwealth Star' or 'Star of Federation' above a blue and gold wreath, forming the crest. Six of the points on the star represent the original six states, while the seventh point represents the combined territories and any future states of Australia. In its entirety the shield represents the federation of Australia.

The Red Kangaroo and Emu that support the shield are the unofficial animal emblems of the nation. They owe this recognition to the fact that they are native to Australia, and are found only on that continent; in addition, as neither animal can walk backwards, they have come to represent progress and an unwillingness to back down. In the background is wreath of Golden Wattle, the official national floral emblem, though the representation of the species is not botanically accurate. At the bottom of the coat of arms is a scroll that contains the name of the nation. Neither the wreath of wattle nor the scroll are technically part of the official design described on the Royal Warrant that grants the armorial design.

 

Motto:

"Advance Australia"

 

National Anthem: Advance Australia Fair

 

Australians all let us rejoice,

For we are young and free;

With golden soil and wealth for toil,

Our home is girt by sea;

Our land abounds in Nature's gifts

Of beauty rich and rare;

In history's page, let every stage

Advance Australia fair!

In joyful strains then let us sing,

"Advance Australia fair!"

Beneath our radiant southern Cross,

We'll toil with hearts and hands;

To make this Commonwealth of ours

Renowned of all the lands;

For those who've come across the seas

We've boundless plains to share;

With courage let us all combine

To advance Australia fair.

In joyful strains then let us sing

"Advance Australia fair!"

 

Internet Page: www.australia.gov.au

www.gov.au

www.australia.com

www.tourism.australia.com

 

Australia in diferent languages

 

eng | arg | ast | cos | eus | fin | glg | ina | ita | jav | lat | lin | lld | nor | pol | roh | ron | rup | scn | spa | sqi | swa: Australia

por | slk | sme | tet: Austrália

cat | oci | srd: Austràlia

cor | hat | mfe: Ostrali

crh | kaa | uzb: Avstraliya / Австралия

deu | ltz | nds: Australien / Auſtralien

fra | fur | jnf: Australie

afr | nld: Australië

bis | tpi: Ostrelia

bre | mlg: Aostralia

dan | swe: Australien

dsb | hsb: Awstralska

est | vor: Austraalia

hrv | lit: Australija

ind | msa: Australia / اوستراليا

kin | run: Ostraliya

aze: Avstraliya / Австралија

bam: Ositirali; Ɔsitirali

bos: Australija / Аустралија

ces: Austrálie

csb: Aùstralëjô

cym: Awstralia

epo: Aŭstralujo; Aŭstralio

fao: Avstralia

fij: Ositerelia

frp: Ôstralie

fry: Austraalje

gla: Astràilia

gle: An Astráil / An Astráil

glv: Yn Austrail

hau: Australiya

haw: ʻAukekulelia

hun: Ausztrália

ibo: Ọstrelia

isl: Ástralía

kmr: Avstralî / Австрали / ئاڤسترالی

kur: Ewistralya / ئەوسترالیا; Awistralya / ئاوسترالیا; Ustiralya / ئوسترالیا

lav: Austrālija

lim: Australië; Ostralië

mlt: Awstralja

mol: Australia / Аустралия

mri: Ahitereiria

nrm: Âostralie

pap: Oustralia

que: Awstralya

rmy: Australiya / आउस्त्रालिया

slo: Australia / Аустралиа; Australzem / Аустралзем

slv: Avstralija

smg: Australėjė

smo: Ausetalia

som: Awstraaliya; Ustaraaliya

szl: Australijo

tah: ʻAutarāria

tgl: Australya

tkl: Auhetalia

ton: ʻAositelelia

tuk: Awstraliýa / Австралия

tur: Avustralya

vie: Úc Đại Lợi; Úc; Ô-xtơ-rây-li-a

vol: Laustralän

wln: Ostraleye

wol: Óstraali

zul: i-Ostreliya

zza: Awıstralya

alt | bul | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Австралия (Avstralija)

che | chv | mon | oss: Австрали (Avstrali)

abq: Австралия (Avstrałija)

bak: Австралия / Avstraliya

bel: Аўстралія / Aŭstralija

chm: Австралий (Avstralij)

kaz: Австралия / Avstralïya / اۆستراليا; Аустралия / Awstralïya / اۋستراليا

kbd: Австралие (Avstralie)

mkd: Австралија (Avstralija)

srp: Аустралија / Australija

tat: Австралия / Avstraliä, Awstraliä

tgk: Австралия / اوسترلیه / Avstralija

ukr: Австралія (Avstralija)

ara: أستراليا (Usturāliyā); أوستراليا (Ūsturāliyā)

ckb: ئاوسترالیا / Awstralya

fas: استرالیا (Ostrāliyā)

prs: استرالیا (Astrāliyā); آسترالیا (Āstrāliyā)

pus: استراليا (Astrāliyā); استرليا (Astraliyā)

uig: ئاۋستىرالىيە / Awstiraliye / Австралия

urd: آسٹریلیا (Āsṫreliyā)

div: އޮސްޓްރޭލިއާ (Osṫrēli'ā); އޮސްޓަރުލިޔާ (Osṫaruliyā)

syr: ܐܘܣܛܪܠܝܐ (Ōsṭraliyā)

heb: אוסטרליה (Ôsṭralyah); אוסטראליה (Ôsṭrâlyah)

lad: אוסטראליה / Australia

yid: אױסטראַליע (Oystralye)

amh: አውስትራሊያ (Ăwstraliya); አውስትራልያ (Ăwstralya)

tir: ኦስትራሊያ (Ostraliya)

cop-boh: Ⲟⲥⲧⲣⲁⲗⲓⲁ (Ostralia)

ell-dhi: Αυστραλία (Aystralía)

ell-kat: Αὐστραλία (Aystralía)

hye: Ավստրալիա (Avstralia); Աւստրալիա (Australia)

kat: ავსტრალია (Avstralia)

hin: आस्ट्रेलिया (Āsṭreliyā); ऑस्ट्रेलिया (Ŏsṭreliyā); ओस्ट्रेलिया (Osṭreliyā)

mar: ऑस्ट्रेलिया (Ŏsṭreliyā); ओस्ट्रेलिया (Osṭreliyā)

nep: अस्ट्रेलिया (Asṭreliyā)

ben: অস্ট্রেলিয়া (Ôsṭreliyā)

guj: ઓસ્ટ્રેલિયા (Osṭreliyā)

pan: ਆਸਟਰੇਲੀਆ (Āsṭrelīā)

kan: ಆಸ್ಟ್ರೇಲಿಯ (Āsṭreliya); ಆಸ್ಟ್ರೇಲಿಯ (Āsṭrēliya)

mal: ഓസ്ട്രേലിയ (Ōsṭrēliya)

tam: ஆஸ்திரேலியா (Āstirēliyā); அவுஸ்திரேலியா (Avustirēliyā)

tel: ఆస్ట్రేలియా (Āsṭrēliyā)

zho: 澳大利亞/澳大利亚 (Àodàlìyà)

yue: 澳大利亞/澳大利亚 (Oudaaihleih)

jpn: オーストラリア (Ōsutoraria)

kor: 오스트레일리아 (Oseuteuraeillia)

bod: ཨོ་ཏ་ལི་ཡ་ (O.ta.li.ya.); ཨོ་སེ་ཐེ་ལི་ཡ་ (O.se.tʰe.li.ya.)

dzo: ཨས་ཊེཡེ་ལི་ཡ་ (As.ṭeye.li.ya.)

mya: ဩစတ္ရေးလ္ယား (Ɔ̀sátẏèlyà)

tha: ออสเตรเลีย (Ɔ̄ttrēliya)

lao: ອົດສະຕາລີ (Ôtsatālī)

khm: អូស្ត្រាលី (Ūstrālī)

 

Officially the Republic of Burundi, is a small landlocked country in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and south, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Its size is just under 28,000 km² with an estimated population of almost 8,700,000. Its capital is Bujumbura. Although the country is landlocked, much of the southwestern border is adjacent to Lake Tanganyika.

The Twa, Tutsi, and Hutu peoples have occupied Burundi since the country's formation five centuries ago. Burundi was ruled as a kingdom by the Tutsi for over two hundred years. However, at the beginning of the twentieth century, Germany and Belgium occupied the region, and Burundi and Rwanda became a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi.

Political unrest occurred throughout the region because of social differences between the Tutsi and Hutu, provoking civil war in Burundi throughout the middle twentieth century. Presently, Burundi is governed as a presidential representative democratic republic. Sixty-two percent of Burundians are Roman Catholic, eight to ten percent are Muslims and the rest follow indigenous beliefs and other Christian denominations.

Burundi is one of the ten poorest countries in the world. It has the lowest per capita GDP of any nation in the world. Burundi has a low gross domestic product largely due to civil wars, corruption, poor access to education, and the effects of HIV/AIDS. Burundi is densely populated, with substantial emigration. Cobalt and copper are among Burundi's natural resources. Some of Burundi's main exports include coffee and sugar.

 

History

Kingdom of Burundi

The origins of Burundi are known from a mix of oral history and archaeology. There are two main founding legends for Burundi. Both suggest that the nation was founded by a man named Cambarantama. The legend most promoted today states that he was Rwandan. The other version, more common in pre-colonial Burundi, says that Cambarantama came from the southern state of Buha.

The first evidence of the Burundian state is from 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours and competing with Rwanda. Its greatest growth occurred under Ntare Rugamba, who ruled the nation from about 1796 to 1850 and saw the kingdom double in size.

The Kingdom of Burundi was characterized by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange. The king, known as the mwami headed a princely aristocracy (ganwa) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers and herders. In the mid-18th century, this Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire—a patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure.

Although European explorers and missionaries made brief visits to the area as early as 1856, it was not until 1899 that Burundi became a part of German East Africa. Unlike the Rwandan monarchy, which decided to accept the German advances, the Burundian king Mwezi Gisabo opposed all European influence, refusing to wear European clothing and resisting the advance of European missionaries or administrators. The Germans used armed force and succeeded in doing great damage, but did not destroy the king’s power. Eventually they backed one of the king's sons-in-law Maconco in a revolt against Gisabo. Gisabo was eventually forced to concede and agreed to German suzerainty. The Germans then helped him suppress Maconco's revolt. The smaller kingdoms along the western shore of Lake Victoria were also attached to Burundi.

 

Colonial rule

Even after this the foreign presence was minimal and the kings continued to rule much as before. The Europeans did, however, bring devastating diseases affecting both people and animals. Affecting the entire region, Burundi was especially hard hit. A great famine hit in 1905, with others striking the entire Great Lakes region in 1914, 1923, and 1944. Between 1905 and 1914 half the population of the western plains region died .

In 1916 Belgian troops conquered the area during the First World War. In 1923, the League of Nations mandated to Belgium the territory of Ruanda-Urundi, encompassing modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, but stripping the western kingdoms and giving them to British administered Tanganyika. The Belgians administered the territory through indirect rule, building on the Tutsi-dominated aristocratic hierarchy.

Following World War II, Ruanda-Urundi became a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority. After 1948, Belgium permitted the emergence of competing political parties. Two political parties emerged: the Union for National Progress (UPRONA), a multi-ethnic party led by Tutsi Prince Louis Rwagasore and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) supported by Belgium. In 1961, Prince Rwagasore was assassinated following an UPRONA victory in legislative elections.

 

Independence

Full independence was achieved on July 1, 1962. In the context of weak democratic institutions at independence, Tutsi King Mwambutsa IV established a constitutional monarchy comprising equal numbers of Hutus and Tutsis. The 1965 assassination of the Hutu prime minister set in motion a series of destabilizing Hutu revolts and subsequent governmental repression. These were in part in reaction to Rwanda's "Social Revolution" of 1959-1961, where Rwandan Tutsi were subject to mass murder by the new government of Hutu Grégoire Kayibanda. In Burundi the Tutsi became committed to ensuring they would not meet the same fate and much of the country's military and police forces became controlled by Tutsis. Unlike Rwanda, which allied itself with the United States in the Cold War, Burundi after independence became affiliated with China.

The monarchy refused to recognize gains by Hutu candidates in the legislative elections held in May 1965. In response, a group of Hutu carried out a failed coup attempt against the monarchy, which in turn prompted the killing of scores of Hutu politicians and intellectuals. In 1966, King Mwambutsa IV was deposed by his son, Prince Ntare V, who himself was deposed by his prime minister Capt. Michel Micombero in the same year. He abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. A de facto military regime emerged and civil unrest continued throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s.Micombero headed a clique of ruling Hima, the Tutsi subgroup located in southern Burundi. Similar to 1965, rumors of an impending Hutu coup in 1969 prompted the arrest and execution of scores of prominent political and military figures.

In June 1971, a group of Banyaruguru, the socially "higher up" subgroup of Tutsi located in the north of the country, were accused of conspiracy by the ruling Hima clique. On 14 January 1972, a military tribunal sentenced four Banyaruguru officers and five civilians to death, and seven to life imprisonment. To the Hima concerns about a Hutu uprising or Banyaruguru-led coup was added the return of Ntare V from exile, a potential rallying point for the Hutu majority.

 

2006 to Present

Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re-focused on helping with reconstruction. Toward achieving economic reconstruction, Rwanda, D.R.Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional economic bloc: The Great Lakes Countries Economic Community. In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the East African Community in 2007.

However, the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group, the FLN (Forces for National Liberation, also called NLF or FROLINA), were not totally implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team, claiming that their security was threatened. In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing. Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country.The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners. In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where former combatants now live, in search of peace. The homes of rural residents were also pillaged.

The 2007 report of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement is required. Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN. The latter also recruits child soldiers. The rate of violence against women is high. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system. Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity remain unpunished. The establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission and a Special Tribunal for investigation and prosecution has not yet been implemented. The freedom of expression is limited, journalists are frequently arrested for carrying out legitimate professional activities. A total of 38,087 Burundian refugees have been repatriated between January and November 2007.

In late March 2008, the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them ‘provisional immunity’ from arrest. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity . Even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN is unable to obtain the provisional immunity.

On April 17, 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on May 26, 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa, with the mediation of Charles Nqakula, South Africa’s Minister for Safety and Security. This was the first direct meeting since June 2007. Both agree to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations.

Refugee camps are now closing down, and 450,000 refugees have returned. The economy of the country is shattered – Burundi has the lowest per capita gross income in the world. With the return of refugees, amongst others, property conflicts have started.

 

Geography

Burundi occupies an area equal to 27,830 square kilometres in size, of which 25,650 km² is land. The country has 974 kilometres of land border: 233 km of which is shared with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 290 km with Rwanda and 451 km with Tanzania. As a landlocked country, Burundi possesses no coastline, although it straddles the crest of the Nile-Congo River watershed

The terrain of Burundi is hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in the east. The southern and eastern plains have been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands ecoregion.

The lowest point in the country is at Lake Tanganyika, at 772 m, with the highest point being on Mount Heha, at 2,684 m. Natural hazards are posed in Burundi by flooding and landslides

 

Other infos

 

Oficial Name:

Republika y'u Burundi

République du Burundi

 

Independence:

July 1, 1962

 

Area:

27.830km2

 

Capital

Bujumbura

 

Inhabitants:

7.054.714

 

Languages:

French [fra] 2,200 in Burundi (2004). Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Gallo-Romance, Gallo-Rhaetian, Oïl, French

 

Rundi [run] 4,600,000 in Burundi (1986). Population total all countries: 4,850,903. Also spoken in Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda. Alternate names: Kirundi, Urundi. Dialects: Dialects of the Hutu and Tutsi are similar. Twa is distinct but all are inherently intelligible, and also intelligible with Kinyarwanda (Rwanda). Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, J, Rwanda-Rundi (J.60)

 

Swahili [swh] 6,356 in Burundi (2000 WCD). Widely spoken in the capital. Spoken as first language in Buyenzi, Quartier asiatique, Muslim neighborhoods, and Congolese neighborhoods (probably Congo Swahili). Spoken by Muslims in other cities like Gitega. Classification: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, G, Swahili (G.40)

 

Meaning of th country name:

From a local name meaning "land of the Kirundi-speakers."

 

Description Flag:

The national flag of Burundi was adopted on March 28, 1967. The green colour symbolizes hope, the white symbolises purity, and red the struggle for independence. The flag has a basic white saltire that divides the field into four areas, two green, and two red. In the centre is a circle that contains three stars which stand for the three major ethnic groups of Burundi: the Hutu, the Twa and the Tutsi. The three stars also stand for the three elements of the national motto: unity, work and progress.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of Arms of Burundi, adopted in 1966, consists of a shield surrounded by three spears. On the shield is the motto of the nation, as well as the head of a lion. Behind the shield there are three crossed traditional African spears. Under the shield the national motto of Burundi appears on a scroll: Unité, Travail, Progrès (French, "Unity, Work, Progress").

 

Motto:

"Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Iterambere" " Unity,work and progress "

 

National Anthem: Burundi Bwacu

 

Kyrundi

 

Burundi bwacu, Burundi buhire,

Shinga icumu mu mashinga,

Gaba intahe y'ubugabo ku bugingo.

Warapfunywe ntiwapfuye,

Warahabishijwe ntiwahababuka,

Uhagurukana, uhagurukana, uhagurukana, ubugabo urikukira.

Komerwamashyi n'amakungu,

Habwa impundu nabawe,

Isamirane mu mashinga, isamirane mu mashinga,

 

Burundi bwacu, ragi ry'abasokuru,

Ramutswa intahe n'ibihugu,

Ufatanije ishyaka n'ubu hizi;

Vuza impundu wiganzuye uwakuganza uwakuganza.

 

Burundi bwacu, nkoramutima kuri twese,

Tugutuye amaboko, umitima n'ubuzima,

Imana yakuduhaye ikudutungire.

Horana umwami n'abagabo n'itekane.

Sagwa n'urweze, sagwa n'amahoro meza.

  

French

Cher Burundi, ô doux pays,

Prends place dans le concert des nations.

En tout bien, tout honneur, accédé à l'indépendance.

Mutilé et meutri, tu es demeuré maître de toi-même.

L'heure venue, t'es levé

Et fièrement tu t'es hissé au rang des peuples libres.

Reçois donc le compliment des nations,

Agrée l'hommage de tes enfants.

Qu'à travers l'univers retentisse ton nom.

 

Cher Burundi, héritage sacré de nos aïeux,

Reconnu digne de te gouverner

Au courage tu allies le sentiment de l'honneur.

Chante la gloire de ta liberté reconquise.

 

Cher Burundi, digne objet de notre plus tendre armour,

A ton noble service nous vouons nos bras, nos cœurs et nos vies.

Veuille Dieu, qui nous a fait don de toi, te conserver à notre vénération.

Sous l'egide de l'Unité,

Dans la paix, la joie et la prospérité.

  

English

Our Burundi, gentle country,

Take your place in the concert of nations,

Acceding to independence with honourable intentions.

Wounded and bruised, you have remained master of yourself.

 

When the hour came, you arose,

Lifting yourself proudly into the ranks of free peoples.

Receive, then, the congratulations of the nations

And the homage of your sons.

May your name ring out through the universe.

 

Our Burundi, sacred heritage from our forefathers,

Recognized as worthy of self-government,

With your courage you also have a sense of honour.

Sing the glory of liberty conquered again.

 

Our Burundi, worthy of our tenderest love,

We vow to your noble service our hands and hearts and lives.

May God, who gave you to us, keep you for us to venerate,

Under the shield of unity,

In peace, joy and prosperity.

 

Internet Page: www.burundi-gov.bi

 

Burundi in diferent languages

 

eng | afr | arg | ast | bam | bre | cat | ces | cor | cym | dan | dsb | est | eus | fao | fin | fra | frp | fur | glg | hrv | hsb | hun | ibo | ina | ita | jav | jnf | lav | lin | lld | mlt | nld | nor | oci | pol | por | que | roh | ron | rup | scn | slk | slv | sme | som | sot | spa | sqi | srd | swa | swe | tur | vor | zza: Burundi

aze | bos | crh | kaa | mol | tuk | uzb: Burundi / Бурунди

deu | ltz | nds: Burundi / Burundi

hat | wln: Bouroundi

ind | msa: Burundi / بوروندي

kin | run: Uburundi

lit | smg: Burundis

epo: Burundo

fry: Bûrûndy

gla: Burundaidh

gle: An Bhurúin / An Ḃurúin

glv: Burundee

isl: Búrúndí

kmr: Bûrûndî / Бурунди / بوورووندی

kur: Bûrûndî / بوورووندی

lat: Burundia

lim: Boeroendi

mlg: Borondia

nrm: Bouroundie

rmy: Burundi / बुरुन्दी

slo: Burundia / Бурундиа

smo: Paruneti

tet: Burundí

vie: Bu-run-đi

vol: Rundiyän

wol: Buruundi

abq | alt | bul | che | chm | chv | kbd | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | mkd | mon | oss | rus | tyv | udm: Бурунди (Burundi)

bak | srp | tat: Бурунди / Burundi

bel: Бурунды / Burundy; Бурундзі / Burundzi

kaz: Бурунди / Bwrwndï / بۋرۋندي

tgk: Бурунди / بوروندی / Burundi

ukr: Бурунді (Burundi)

ara: بوروندي (Būrūndī); بورندي (Būrundī); بروندي (Burūndī); البوروندي (al-Būrūndī); البورندي (al-Būrundī); البروندي (al-Burūndī)

fas: بوروندی (Būrūndī)

prs: بورندی (Būrondī)

pus: برونډي (Burūnḋī); بورندي (Būrundī); بوروندي (Būrūndī)

uig: بۇرۇندى / Burundi / Бурунди

urd: بورونڈی (Būrūnḋī); برونڈی (Burūnḋī)

div: ބުރުންޑީ (Burunḋī)

heb: בורונדי (Bûrûndî)

lad: בורונדי / Burundi

yid: בורונדי (Burundi)

amh: ቡሩንዲ (Burundi)

ell: Μπουρούντι (Mpoyroýnti)

hye: Բուրունդի (Bouroundi)

kat: ბურუნდი (Burundi)

hin: बुरुंडी (Buruṁḍī); बुरुन्डी (Burunḍī)

ben: বুরুন্ডি (Burunḍi)

pan: ਬੂਰੂਂਡੀ (Būrū̃ḍī)

kan: ಬುರುಂಡಿ (Buruṁḍi)

mal: ബുറുണ്ടി (Buṟuṇṭi); ബറുണ്ടി (Baṟuṇṭi)

tam: புருண்டி (Puruṇṭi)

tel: బురుండి (Buruṁḍi)

zho: 布隆迪 (Bùlōngdí)

jpn: ブルンジ (Burunji)

kor: 부룬디 (Burundi)

mya: ဘူရ္ဝန္ဒီ (Bʰuẏũdi)

tha: บุรุนดี (Burundī)

khm: ប៊ូរុនឌី (Būrundī)

 

I wanna be forever young

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=UrD_AUXgTCE

is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west.

 

Prior to European colonization, the Bolivian territory was a part of the Inca Empire, which was the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of Spain's South American colonies. After declaring independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on August 6, 1825. Bolivia has struggled through periods of political instability, dictatorships and economic woes.

 

Bolivia is a democratic republic, divided into nine departments. Its geography is varied from the peaks of the Andes in the west, to the eastern lowlands, situated within the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country, with a medium Human Development Index score, and a poverty level around 60%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, and fishing, mining and manufacturing goods such as textiles, clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals especially tin.

 

The Bolivian population, estimated at 9 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The main language spoken is Spanish, although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. The large number of different cultures within Bolivia has contributed greatly to a wide diversity in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music

 

Etymology

The word Bolivia is derived from Bolívar, the last name of the famous American Libertador Simón Bolívar. The name came about when Antonio Jose de Sucre was given the option by Bolivar to either keep Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) under the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, or to formally declare its independence from the Viceroyalty of Peru that had dominated most of the region. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar.

 

However, the original name given to the newly formed country was Republic of Bolívar. The name would not change to Bolivia until some days later when congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rómulo Roma, de Bolívar Bolivia). The name stuck and was approved by the republic on October 3, 1825.

 

History

The region that is now known as Bolivia has been constantly occupied for over 2000 years, when the Aymara arrived in the region. Present-day Aymara associate themselves with an advanced civilization situated at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates as early as 1500 BC as a small agriculturally based village.

 

The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates, at its maximum extent, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometres, and had between 15,000 – 30,000 inhabitants. However, satellite imaging was used recently to map the extent of fossilized suka kollus across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.

 

Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. However, Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many aspects. In order to expand its reach Tiwanaku became very political creating colonies, trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependant), and state cults.

 

The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states that "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population." Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists have seen a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics in the cultures who became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku gained its power through the trade it implemented between all of the cities within its empire.

 

The elites gained their status by the surplus of food they gained from all of the regions and then by having the ability to redistribute the food among all the people. This is where the control of llama herds became very significant to Tiwanaku. The llama herds were essential for carrying goods back and forth between the centre and the periphery as well as symbolizing the distance between the commoners and the elites. Their power continued to grow in this manner of a surplus of resources until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred.

 

At this point in time there was a significant drop in precipitation for the Titicaca Basin. Some archaeologists even venture to say that a great drought occurred. As the rain became less and less many of the cities further away from Lake Titicaca began to produce fewer crops to give to the elites. As the surplus of food ran out for the elites their power began to fall. The capital city became the last place of production, due to the resiliency of the raised fields, but in the end even the intelligent design of the fields was no match for the weather. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, their main source of power, dried up. The land was not inhabited for many years after that.

Between 1438 and 1527, the Incan empire, on a mass expansion, acquired much of what is now western Bolivia. The Incans wouldn't maintain control of the region for long however, as the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak. As such, the Spanish conquest would be remarkably easy.

 

Colonial Period

The Spanish conquest began in 1524 and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was then known as "Upper Peru" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000 people.

 

By the late 16th century Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire. A steady stream of natives served as labor force (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita). Upper Peru was bounded to Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March of 1781, during which 20,000 people died. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew.

 

Independence and subsequent wars

The struggle for independence started in 1809, and after 16 years of war the republic was proclaimed on August 6, 1825, named for Simón Bolívar.

 

In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on December 28, 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war on the Confederation on May 9, 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentinian expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa.

 

On the same field the Paucarpata Treaty was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army. The treaty stipulated that Chile withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. Public outrage over the treaty forced the government to reject it. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.

 

Following the independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingavi on November 20, 1841, where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive managing to capture the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace treaty, the Declaration of Independence of Bolivia, in 1842, putting a final end to the war.

 

Geography of Bolivia

The geography of Bolivia is unique among the nations of South America. Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries on the continent, and also has the highest average altitude. The main features of Bolivia's geography include the Altiplano, a highland plateau of the Andes, and Lake Titicaca (Lago Titicaca), the largest lake in South America and the highest commercially navigable lake on Earth (which it shares with Peru.

The most prominent feature of the Altiplano is the large lake at its northern end, Lake Titicaca. At 3,810 m (12,500 ft) above sea level, it is the highest commercially navigable body of water in the world. With a surface area of 9,064 km2 (3,500 sq mi), it is larger than Puerto Rico and is South America's largest lake. Lake Titicaca is also deep, about 370 m (1,214 ft) at its deepest, but with an average depth of 215 m (705 ft); its volume of water is large enough to maintain a constant temperature of 10 °C (50 °F). The lake actually moderates the climate for a considerable distance around it, making crops of maize and wheat possible in sheltered areas.

 

Lake Titicaca drains southward through the slow-moving, reed-filled Desaguadero River to Lake Poopó. In contrast to the freshwater Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopó is salty and shallow, with depths seldom more than four meters. Because it is totally dependent on seasonal rainfall and the overflow from Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopó's size varies considerably. Several times in the twentieth century, it nearly dried up when rainfall was low or the Desaguadero River silted. In years of heavy rainfall, however, Lake Poopó has overflowed to the west, filling the Coipasa Saltpan with shallow water.

The Cordillera Occidental is a chain of dormant volcanoes and solfataras, volcanic vents emitting sulfurous gases. Bolivia's highest peak, the snowcapped Nevado Sajama (6,542 m), is located here. The entire cordillera is of volcanic origin and an extension of the volcanic region found in southern Peru. Most of the northern part of this range has an elevation of about 4,000 meters; the southern part is somewhat lower. Rainfall, although scanty everywhere, is greater in the northern half, where the land is covered with scrub vegetation. The southern area receives almost no precipitation, and the landscape consists mostly of barren rocks. All of the Cordillera Occidental region is sparsely populated, and the south is virtually uninhabited, except for the Body Clack.

 

The Altiplano, the high plateau between the two cordilleras, comprises four major basins formed by mountainous spurs that jut eastward from the Cordillera Occidental about halfway to the Cordillera Oriental. Along the Altiplano's eastern side is a continuous flat area, which has served as Bolivia's principal north-south transportation corridor since colonial times. The entire Altiplano was originally a deep rift between the cordilleras that gradually filled with highly porous sedimentary debris washed down from the peaks. This sedimentary origin explains its gradual slope from north to south; greater rainfall in the north has washed a larger quantity of debris onto the platform floor.

 

Rainfall in the Altiplano decreases toward the south, and the scrub vegetation grows more sparse, eventually giving way to barren rocks and dry red clay. The land contains several salt flats, the dried remnants of ancient lakes. The largest of these - and the world's largest salt concentration - is the Uyuni Saltpan, which covers over 9,000 square kilometers. The salt is more than five meters deep in the center of this flat. In the dry season, the lake bed can be traversed by heavy trucks. Near the Argentine border, the floor of the Altiplano rises again, creating hills and volcanoes that span the gap between the eastern and western cordilleras of the Andes.

 

The much older Cordillera Oriental enters Bolivia on the north side of Lake Titicaca, extends southeastward to approximately 17 south latitude, then broadens and stretches south to the Argentine border. The northernmost part of the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera Real, is an impressive snow-capped series of granite mountains. Some of these peaks exceed 6,000 meters, and two - Illimani (6,462 m), which overlooks the city of La Paz, and Illampu (6,424 m)- have large glaciers on their upper slopes. South of 17 south latitude, the range changes character. Called the Cordillera Central here, the land is actually a large block of the earth's crust that has been lifted and tilted eastward. The western edge of this block rises in a series of steep cliffs from the Altiplano. The backbone of the cordillera is a high, rolling plain, with elevations from 4,200 to 4,400 meters, interspersed with irregularly spaced high peaks. Too high to be exploited for large-scale commercial grazing, this area takes its name from the predominant vegetation type, the puna.

The northeastern flank of the Cordillera Real is known as the Yungas, from the Aymara word meaning "warm valleys." The steep, almost inaccessible slopes and peaks of this mainly semitropical valley area northeast of La Paz offer some of the most spectacular scenery in Bolivia. Rainfall is heavy, and lush vegetation clings to the sides of narrow river valleys. The land is among the most fertile in Bolivia, but poor transportation has hindered its agricultural development. The government attempted to build a railroad through the Yungas in 1917 to connect La Paz with the eastern lowlands. The railroad was abandoned, however, after completion of only 150 kilometers.

 

The eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central descend gradually in a series of complex north-south ranges and hills. Rivers, draining to the east, have cut long narrow valleys; these valleys and the basins between the ranges are favorable areas for crops and settlement. Rich alluvial soils fill the low areas, but erosion has followed the removal of vegetation in some places. The valley floors range from 2,000 to 3,000 meters above sea level, and this lower elevation means milder temperatures than those of the Altiplano. Two of Bolivia's most important cities, Sucre and Cochabamba, are located in basins in this vast region.

The eastern lowlands include all of Bolivia north and east of the Andes. Although comprising over two-thirds of the national territory, the region is sparsely populated and, until recently, has played a minor role in the economy.

 

Differences in topography and climate separate the lowlands into three areas. The flat northern area, made up of Beni and Pando Departments and the northern part of Cochabamba Department, consists of rainforest. Because much of the topsoil is underlain by claypan, drainage is poor, and heavy rainfall periodically converts vast parts of the region to swamp. The central area, comprising the northern half of Santa Cruz Department, has gently rolling hills and a drier climate than the north. Forests alternate with savanna, and much of the land has been cleared for cultivation. Santa Cruz, the largest city in the lowlands, is located here, as are most of Bolivia's petroleum and natural gas reserves. The southeastern part of the lowlands is part of the Gran Chaco. Virtually rainless for nine months of the year, this area becomes flooded for the three months of heavy rains. The extreme variation in rainfall supports only thorny scrub vegetation and cattle grazing, although recent discoveries of natural gas and petroleum near the foothills of the Andes have attracted some settlers to the region.

 

Most of Bolivia's important rivers are found in the water-rich northern parts of the lowlands, particularly in the Alto Beni (Upper Beni), where the land is suitable for crops such as coffee and cacao. The northern lowlands are drained by wide, slow-moving rivers, the three largest of which—the Mamoré, Beni, and Madre de Dios—all flow northward into the Madeira River in Brazil and eventually into the Amazon. Riverboats along the Beni and the Mamoré carry both passenger and freight traffic; rapids on the Madeira provide river traffic farther into Brazil. Near the Paraguayan border, shallow sandy streams carry the seasonal runoff into the Pilcomayo or Paraguay rivers.

 

Other Info

 

Oficial name:

República de Bolivia

Bulibya Mamallaqta

Wuliwya Suyu

Tetã Volívia

 

Independence:

August 6, 1825

 

Area:

1.098.581km2

 

Inhabitants:

9.500.000

 

Capital city:

La Paz and Sucre

 

Languages:

Araona Aymara, Ayoreo ,Baure ,Bolivian Sign Language ,Callawalla, Cavineña ,Chácobo ,Chipaya ,Chiquitano ,Chorote, Ese ,Ejja ,Guaraní, Guarayu ,Ignaciano ,Itonama ,Leco ,Movima ,Pacahuara ,Plautdietsch,Quechua,Reyesano ,Sirionó ,Spanish ,Tacana ,Tapieté ,Toba ,Toromono, Trinitario ,Tsimané ,Uru ,Wichí Lhamtés Nocten, Yaminahua ,Yuqui ,Yuracare

 

Meaning of the country name:

Named after Simón Bolívar (1783-1830), an anti-Spanish militant and first president of Bolivia the country after gained its independence in 1825. His surname comes from La Puebla de Bolibar, a village in Biscay, Spain. The etymology of Bolibar may be bolu- (mill) + -ibar (river). Thus, it ultimately may mean a mill on a river.

 

Description Flag:

The current flag of Bolivia was originally adopted by Bolivia in 1851. The state flag and ensign (and war flag) is a horizontal tricolor of red, yellow, and green with the Bolivian coat of arms in the center. The civil flag and ensign of Bolivia omits the coat of arms.

According to one source, the red stands for Bolivia's animals and its liberating army, while the green symbolizes fertility and yellow the nation's mineral deposits.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of Arms of Bolivia has a central crest surrounded by Bolivian flags, muskets, laurel branches, and has an Andean condor on top.

The central crest has a border with ten stars in the bottom, which symbolize the nine Departamentos and the former province Cobija that was taken over by Chile in 1879, and the name of Bolivia in the top section. Within the border the silver mountain Potosí — recognized by a mine entrance — is depicted, with a sun rising above it, and with an alpaca standing next to a tree and some wheat. The alpaca stands on a plain that contrasts with the mountain. The mountain and its contrast with the plains are indicative of the geography of Bolivia. The alpaca is the national animal, and the items next to it are symbolic of the resources of the nation.

Around the shield there are three Bolivian flags on each side. Behind these are two pairs of crossed muskets that symbolize the struggle for independence. Next to the muskets there are an axe and a red Phrygian hood, which is the symbol of liberty or freedom. The laurel branches are symbolic of peace, and the condor perched upon the shield is symbolic of a willingness to defend the nation and its liberty.

In some depictions of these coat of arms, the two pairs of muskets are replaced by two cannons. Other depictions also have more realistic symbols in the shield.

  

Motto: "Unity is strength!"

 

National Anthem: Himno Nacional de Bolivia, Bolivianos, el Hado Propicio

 

Bolivianos: el hado propicio

coronó nuestros votos y anhelos.

Es ya libre, ya libre este suelo,

ya cesó su servil condición.

Al estruendo marcial que ayer fuera

y al clamor de la guerra horroroso,

siguen hoy, en contraste armonioso,

dulces himnos de paz y de unión.

Siguen hoy, en contraste armonioso,

dulces himnos de paz y de unión.

 

De la Patria, el alto nombre,

en glorioso esplendor conservemos.

Y en sus aras de nuevo juremos:

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

 

Loor eterno a los bravos guerreros,

cuyo heroico valor y firmeza,

conquistaron las glorias que empieza

hoy Bolivia feliz a gozar.

Que sus nombres, en mármol y en bronce,

a remotas edades transmitan,

y en sonoros cantares repitan:

¡Libertad, Libertad, Libertad!

Y en sonoros cantares repitan:

¡Libertad, Libertad, Libertad!

 

De la Patria, el alto nombre,

en glorioso esplendor conservemos.

Y en sus aras de nuevo juremos:

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

 

Aquí alzó la justicia su trono

que la vil opresión desconoce,

y en su timbre glorioso legose

libertad, libertad, libertad.

Esta tierra inocente y hermosa

que ha debido a Bolívar su nombre

es la patria feliz donde el hombre

goza el bien de la dicha y la paz.

Es la patria feliz donde el hombre

goza el bien de la dicha y la paz.

 

De la Patria, el alto nombre,

en glorioso esplendor conservemos.

Y en sus aras de nuevo juremos:

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

 

Si extranjero poder alqún día

sojuzgar a Bolivia intentare,

al destino fatal se prepare

que amenaza a soberbio invasor.

Que los hijos del grande Bolívar

hayan mil y mil veces jurado:

morir antes que ver humillado

de la Patria el augusto pendón.

Morir antes que ver humillado

de la Patria el augusto pendón.

 

De la Patria, el alto nombre,

en glorioso esplendor conservemos.

Y en sus aras de nuevo juremos:

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!

 

English

 

Bolivians, a most favorable destiny

has at long last crowned our vows and longings;

This land is free, free at last.

Its servile state has now finally ceased.

The martial turmoil of yesterday,

and the horrible clamor of war,

are followed today, in harmonious contrast,

by sweet hymns of peace and unity.

Are followed today, in harmonious contrast,

by sweet hymns of peace and unity.

 

Let us keep the lofty name of our country

in glorious splendor.

And, on its altars, once more we must swear:

to die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

 

Eternal praise to the brave warriors

whose heroic valor and firmness

conquered the freedom and glories that now

a happy Bolivia justly begins to enjoy!

Let their names, preserved forever in marble and bronze,

transmit their glory to remote future ages.

And in resounding song let them repeat their simple call:

Freedom! Freedom! Freedom!

And in resounding song let them repeat their simple call:

Freedom! Freedom! Freedom!

 

Let us keep the lofty name of our country

in glorious splendor.

And, on its altars, once more we must swear:

to die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

 

Here has Justice erected its Throne

which vile oppression ignores

and, on its glorious stamp let us rejoice

Freedom, freedom, freedom

This innocent and beautiful land,

which owes its name to Bolívar,

is the happy homeland where mankind

enjoys the benefits of good fortune and peace.

Is the happy homeland where mankind

enjoys the benefits of good fortune and peace.

 

Let us keep the lofty name of our country

in glorious splendor.

And, on its altars, once more we must swear:

to die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

 

If a foreigner may, any given day

even attempt to subjugate Bolivia,

let him prepare for a fatal destiny,

which menaces such brave aggressor.

For the sons of the mighty Bolívar

have sworn, thousands upon thousands of times,

to die rather than see the country's

majestic banner humiliated.

To die rather than see the country's

majestic banner humiliated.

 

Let us keep the lofty name of our country

in glorious splendor.

And, on its altars, once more we must swear:

to die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

To die before we would live as slaves.

 

Internet Page: www.bolivia.com

 

Bolivia in diferent languages

 

eng | ast | bre | cos | dan | fao | fin | fry | glg | ina | ita | jav | lat | lim | lin | lld | mlg | nld | nor | roh | ron | rup | scn | sme | spa | sqi | swa | swe:

Bolivia

cat | hun | oci | por | slk | tet: Bolívia

fra | frp | fur | jnf | nrm: Bolivie

crh | kaa | uzb: Boliviya / Боливия

deu | ltz | nds: Bolivien / Bolivien

hau | kin | run: Boliviya

hrv | lit | slv: Bolivija

arg | eus: Bolibia

cor | hat: Bolivi

dsb | hsb: Boliwiska

est | vor: Boliivia

ind | msa: Bolivia / بوليۏيا

smo | ton: Polivia

tur | zza: Bolivya

afr: Bolivië; Bolivia

aym: Wuliwya

aze: Boliviya / Боливија

bam: Bɔliwi

bos: Bolivija / Боливија

ces: Bolívie

cym: Bolifia

epo: Bolivio

gla: Boilibhia; Bolibhia

gle: An Bholaiv / An Ḃolaiv; An Bhoilibhe / An Ḃoiliḃe

glv: Yn Volivia

grn: Volívia

ibo: Bọlivia

isl: Bólivía

kmr: Bolîvî / Боливи / بۆلیڤی

kur: Bolîvya / بۆلیڤیا

lav: Bolīvija

mlt: Bolivja

mol: Bolivia / Боливия

nah: Bolivtlān

pol: Boliwia

que: Bulibya

rmy: Boliviya / बोलिविया

slo: Bolivia / Боливиа

smg: Bolivėjė

som: Boliifiya

srd: Bolìvia

szl: Boliwja

tgl: Bulibya; Bolibya

tuk: Boliwiýa / Боливия

vie: Bô-li-vi-a

vol: Bolivän

wln: Boliveye

wol: Boliibi

alt | bul | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Боливия (Bolivija)

che | chv | mon | oss: Боливи (Bolivi)

abq: Боливия (Bołivija)

bak: Боливия / Boliviya

bel: Балівія / Balivija

chm: Боливий (Bolivij)

kaz: Боливия / Bolïvïya / بوليۆيا

kbd: Боливие (Bolivie)

mkd: Боливија (Bolivija)

srp: Боливија / Bolivija

tat: Боливия / Boliviä

tgk: Боливия / بالیویه / Bolivija

ukr: Болівія (Bolivija)

ara: بوليفيا (Būlīfiyā)

fas: بولیوی (Bolīvī); بولیویا (Bolīviyā)

prs: بولیویا (Bōlīviyā)

pus: بوليويا (Bolīwiyā)

uig: بولىۋىيە / Boliwiye / Боливия

urd: بولیویا (Bolīviyā)

div: ބޮލީވިއާ (Bolīvi'ā)

heb: בוליויה / בוליוויה (Bôlîvyah); בוליביה (Bôlîṿyah)

lad: בוליב'יה / Bolivia

yid: באָליװיע (Bolivye)

amh: ቦሊቪያ (Boliviya); ቦሊቭያ (Bolivya)

ell: Βολιβία (Volivía)

hye: Բոլիվիա (Bolivia)

kat: ბოლივია (Bolivia)

hin: बोलीविया (Bolīviyā); बोलिविया (Boliviyā)

mar: बोलिविया (Boliviyā)

ben: বলিভিয়া (Bôlibʰiyā); বোলিভিয়া (Bolibʰiyā)

guj: બોલિવિયા (Boliviyā)

pan: ਬੋਲੀਵੀਆ (Bolīvīā)

kan: ಬೊಲಿವಿಯ (Boliviya)

mal: ബൊളീവിയ (Boḷīviya)

tam: பொலீவியா (Polīviyā); பொலிவியா (Poliviyā)

tel: బొలీవియా (Bolīviyā)

zho: 玻利維亞/玻利维亚 (Bōlìwéiyà)

jpn: ボリヴィア (Borivia); ボリビア (Boribia)

kor: 볼리비아 (Bollibia)

mya: ဘုိလစ္ဗီးယား (Bʰoliʿbìyà)

tha: โบลิเวีย (Bōliwiya)

lao: ໂບລີວີ (Bōlīvī)

khm: បូលីវី (Būlīvī)

 

Situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is a West Indian continental island-nation in the western Atlantic Ocean. After a brief claim by Spain in 1492 and later Portugal, Barbados became a colony and protectorate of the United Kingdom for over three centuries. The country currently maintains Queen Elizabeth II as head of state. Located at roughly 13° North of the equator and 59° West of the prime meridian, it is considered a part of the Lesser Antilles. Its closest island neighbours are Martinique, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent & the Grenadines to the west. To the south lies Trinidad and Tobago—with which Barbados now shares a fixed official maritime boundary—and also the South American mainland. Barbados's total land area is about 430 square kilometres (166 square miles), and is primarily low-lying, with some higher in the country's interior. The highest point in Barbados is Mount Hillaby in the parish of Saint Andrew.

The geological composition of Barbados is of non-volcanic origin, predominantly limestone-coral. After the break of South America from Africa in the Mesozoic, a reef formed. During the Cenozoic, as both the Caribbean and South American plates moved westward, the two plates impacted and pressed this reef upward. Barbados is part of a North Atlantic Ocean submarine mountain range located to the east of the Windward Islands. This range stretches from its close proximity of Puerto Rico in the north, to a south-easterly direction toward Venezuela. The island of Barbados forms the only part of this mountain range that rises above sea level.

The island's climate is tropical, with constant trade winds off the Atlantic Ocean serving to keep temperatures mild. Some less developed areas of the country contain tropical woodland and mangroves. Other parts of the interior which contribute to the agriculture industry are dotted with large sugarcane estates and wide, gently sloping pastures, with panoramic views down to the coast also.

Barbados's Human Development Index ranking is consistently among the top 75 countries in the world. In report published on October 5, 2009, it was ranked 37th in the world, and third in the Americas, behind Canada and the United States. Although Barbados' history is heavily influenced by its mainstay of sugar production, the economy is now dominated by services and tourism. The country is one of the largest global domiciles of captive insurance, and a growing number of companies have been expanding call centres to Barbados.

 

History

New archaeological discoveries suggest that Barbados may have been inhabited as early as some time in the 1600s BC. Better known is the migration of the Amerindians, who traveled across this part of the Atlantic Ocean by canoe from the Orinoco River region of Venezuela.

This was followed by the Arawak Indians who first arrived in the island around 350–400 BC. A few historical remains of their settlement have been found in areas of Silver Sands, Stroud Point, Chancery Lane, Pie Corner, Saint Luke's Gully, and Mapp's Cave. They were then conquered by the Caribs, as evidenced by a dramatic decline in their population around 1200 AD. The Caribs later disappeared from the island. While no direct cause has been determined, a possible combination of famine, disease, abduction, and enslavement in larger islands by the Spanish or Portuguese have all been suggested as probable causes.

Of especial note are the Portuguese, who visited the island briefly while en route to Brazil, that are responsible for leaving behind the wild boars that would greet the first British settlers.

 

Early British colonization

The British found an island uninhabited when they first arrived in 1625 and claimed it in the name of King James I of England. This first ship, which arrived on 14 May, was captained by John Powell. The first settlement landed some time later on 17 February 1627, near what is now Holetown (formerly Jamestown). The group was led by Captain John Powel, who arrived with 80 settlers and 10 slaves--these first ten slaves were among the sometimes kidnapped and other times runaway english or Irish youth--Black slaves came later. This settlement was funded by Sir William Courteen, a London merchant who owned the title to Barbados and several other unclaimed islands. Thus, the first colonists were actually tenants and the profits of their labour returned to Courteen and his company.

 

Courteen would later lose this title to James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle in what was called the "Great Barbados Robbery." Carlisle then chose as governor Henry Hawley. It was he who established the House of Assembly in 1639, in an effort to appease the planters who might otherwise oppose his controversial appointment.

 

In the very early years, the majority of the population was white and male, with African slaves providing little of the workforce. Cultivation of tobacco, cotton, ginger and indigo was handled primarily by European indentured labour until the start of the sugar cane industry.

 

Sugar cane and Slavery

Sugar cane cultivation began in the 1640s, after its introduction in 1637 by Pieter Blower. Initially, rum was produced but by 1642, sugar was the focus of the industry. As it developed into the main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates which replaced the small holdings of the early British settlers as the wealthy planters pushed out the poorer. Some of the displaced farmers relocated to British colonies in North America, most notably South Carolina. To work the plantations, tribal peoples of Africa were imported as slaves in such numbers that there were three for every one planter. The slave trade ceased in 1807 and slaves were emancipated in 1834. Persecuted Catholics from Ireland also worked the plantations. Life expectancy of slaves was short, and replacements were purchased annually.

Sugar cane dominated Barbados' economic growth, and the island's cash crop was at the top of the sugar industry until 1720.

Increasingly after 1750 the plantations were owned by absentee landlords living in Britain and operated by hired managers.

Roberts (2006) shows that slaves did not spend the majority of time in restricted roles cultivating, harvesting, and processing sugarcane, the island's most important cash crop. Rather, slaves involved in various activities and in multiple roles: raising livestock, fertilizing soil, growing provisional crops, maintaining plantation infrastructure, caregiving, and other tasks. One notable soil management technique was intercropping, planting subsistence crops between the rows of cash crops - which demanded of the slaves skilled and experienced observations of growing conditions for efficient land use.

 

Etymology

According to accounts by descendants of the aboriginal Arawak tribes on other local islands, the original name for Barbados is Ichirouganaim.

The reason for the name "Barbados" is controversial. The Portuguese, en route to Brazil or the Spanish were the first Europeans to discover and name the island. The word Barbados means "bearded", but it is a matter of conjecture whether "bearded" refers to the long, hanging roots of the bearded fig-tree (Ficus citrifolia), indigenous to the island; to the bearded Caribs once inhabiting the island as supported by Dr. Richard Allsopp, a Caribbean linguist; or to the foam spraying over the outlying reefs giving the impression of a beard. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position.

Another name associated with Barbados or her people is "Bim","Bimshire" and De rock. The origin is uncertain but several theories abound, the National Cultural Foundation of Barbados follows the Dr. Richard Allsopp theory, which is that "Bim" was a word commonly used by slaves and that it derives from the phrase "bi mu" or either ("bem", "Ndi bem", "Nwanyi ibem" or "Nwoke ibem") from an Igbo phrase, meaning "my people." In colloquial or literary contexts, "Bim" can also take a more deific tone, referring to the "goddess" Barbados.

The word Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary and the Chamber's Twentieth Century Dictionaries. Another possible source for "Bim" is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, The Rev. N Greenidge (father of one of the island's most famous scholars, Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge) suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were "Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire, and Bimshire". Lastly in the Daily Argosy (of Demerara i.e. Guyana) of 1652 it referred to Bim as a possible corruption of the word "Byam", who was a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims and became a word for all Barbadians.

 

Geography

Barbados is the easternmost island in the Lesser Antilles. It is flat in comparison to its island neighbours to the west, the Windward Islands. The island rises gently to the central highland region, with the highpoint of the country being Mount Hillaby, in the Scotland District. [340 metres (1,100 ft) above sea level]. The island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the other West Indies isles.

Geologically composed of coral (90 m/300 ft thick). The land falls in a series of "terraces" in the west and goes into an incline in the east. Much of the country is circled by coral reefs.

In the parish of Saint Michael lies Barbados' capital and main city, Bridgetown. Other major towns scattered across the island include Holetown, in the parish of Saint James; Oistins, in the parish of Christ Church; and Speightstown, in the parish of Saint Peter.

The climate is moderate tropical, with a wet season (June–November) and a more dry season (December–May). The annual precipitation ranges between 40 inches (1,000 mm) and 90 inches (2,300 mm).

Barbados is often spared the worst effects of the region's tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season as its far eastern location in the Atlantic Ocean puts it just outside the principal hurricane strike zone. On average a hurricane may strike about once every 26 years. The last significant hit from a hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados was Hurricane Janet in 1955

 

Other Info

Nome oficial:

Barbados

 

Independencia:

30 November 1966

 

Área:

431 km2

 

População:

273.000

 

Idiomas e dialectos:

Bajan [bjs] 259,000 (1995). Alternate names: Barbadian Creole English. Dialects: There is a basilectal variety spoken in a fishing village (Roy 1986). The speech of the poor and less educated is similar to the mesolect in nearby countries. Increasingly influenced by USA rather than United Kingdom English (Todd and Hancock 1986). Fewer than 20 lexical items are traceable to African origin (Niles 1980:148). Shares lexical features with Caribbean creoles. Classification: Creole, English based, Atlantic, Eastern, Southern

 

English [eng] 13,000 in Barbados (1995). Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, English

 

Capital:

Bridgetown

 

Meaning of the country name:

Named by the Portuguese explorer Pedro A. Campos "Os Barbados" ("The Bearded Ones") in 1536 after the appearance of the island's fig trees, whose long roots resemble beards.

 

Description Flag:

The flag of Barbados was officially adopted on November 30, 1966.

The blue color represents the sea, and gold symbolizes the golden sands of the island. The broken trident centered represents the break from its colonial past.

The trident centred within the flag is a representation of the mythological Neptune, god of the sea. The trident in its original unbroken form was taken from the former colonial seal, which itself was replaced by the current coat of arms. Used within the national flag, the left and right shafts of the trident were then designed as 'broken' representing the nation of Barbados breaking away from its historical and constitutional ties as a former colony.

 

The three points of the trident represent in Barbados the three principles of democracy – "government of, for and by the people." The broken trident is set in a centred vertical band of gold representing the sands of Barbados' beaches. The gold band itself is surrounded on both sides by vertical bands of ultramarine (blue) representing the sea and sky of Barbados.

 

The design for the flag was created by Grantley W. Prescod and was chosen from an open competition arranged by the Barbados government. Over a thousand entries were received.

  

Coat of arms:

The Coat of Arms of Barbados was adopted upon independence in 1966 by decree of Queen Elizabeth. Like other former British possessions in the Caribbean, the coat of arms has a helmet with a national symbol on top, and a shield beneath that is supported by two animals.

The national symbol found on top of the helmet for Barbados is the fist of a Barbadian holding two sugar canes that are crossed to resemble St. Andrew's Cross. This is representative of the importance of the sugar industry as well as Barbados celebrating its independence day on St. Andrew's day.

The shield is gold in color. Upon it are a pair of the national flower, known as the Pride of Barbados, and a single bearded fig tree (Ficus citrifolia). The shield is supported by a pelican and a dolphin fish. They stand for the Pelican Island, and fishing, respectively.

At the bottom is Barbados' national motto on a scroll.

 

Motto:

"Pride and Industry"

 

National Anthem: In Plenty and In Time of Need

 

In plenty and in time of need

When this fair land was young

Our brave forefathers sowed the seed

From which our pride was sprung

A pride that makes no wanton boast

Of what it has withstood

That binds our hearts from coast to coast

The pride of nationhood

 

Chorus:

We loyal sons and daughters all

Do hereby make it known

These fields and hills beyond recall

Are now our very own

We write our names on history's page

With expectations great

Strict guardians of our heritage

Firm craftsmen of our fate

 

The Lord has been the people's guide

For past three hundred years.

With Him still on the people's side

We have no doubts or fears.

Upward and onward we shall go,

Inspired, exalting, free,

And greater will our nation grow

In strength and unity.

 

Chorus

 

Internet Page:

www.barbados.org

www.barbadostourism.com

 

Barbados in diferent languages

 

eng | afr | arg | ast | bre | cat | ces | cor | cym | dan | dsb | est | eus | fao | fin | fry | fur | gla | glg | glv | hrv | hsb | hun | ina | isl | ita | jav | jnf | lim | lin | lld | mlt | nld | nor | pol | por | roh | ron | rup | scn | slk | slv | sme | spa | srd | swa | swe | tur | vor | wol | zza: Barbados

aze | bos | crh | kaa | mol | slo | tuk | uzb: Barbados / Барбадос

deu | ltz | nds: Barbados / Barbados

kin | run | sqi: Barbadosi

fra | nrm: Barbade

ind | msa: Barbados / باربادوس

lav | mlg: Barbadosa

bam: Barabadi

epo: Barbado

frp: Barbâda

gle: Barbadós / Barbadós

hat: Lababad

ibo: Babedos

kmr: Barbados / Барбадос / باربادۆس

kur: Barbados / باربادۆس

lat: Insulae Barbatianae; Barbata; Barabata

lit: Barbadosas

oci: Barbada; Barbados

que: Barbatus

rmy: Barbados / बार्बादोस

smg: Barbaduosos

smo: Papeto

som: Baarbadoos

tet: Barbadus

vie: Bác-ba-đốt

vol: Barbadeän

wln: Barbåde

abq | alt | bul | che | chm | chv | kbd | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | mkd | mon | oss | rus | tyv | udm | ukr: Барбадос (Barbados)

bak | srp | tat: Барбадос / Barbados

bel: Барбадас / Barbadas

kaz: Барбадос / Barbados / باربادوس

tgk: Барбадос / بربداس / Barbados

ara: بربادوس (Barbādūs); باربادوس (Bārbādūs)

fas: باربادوس (Bārbādos)

prs: باربادوس (Bārbādōs)

pus: باربادوس (Bārbādos)

uig: باربادوس / Barbados / Барбадос

urd: بارباڈوس (Bārbāḋos); باربیڈوس (Bārbeḋos)

div: ބާބަޑޮސް (Bābaḋos)

heb: ברבידוס (Barbêdôs); בארבידוס (Bârbêdôs); ברבדוס (Barbadôs); בארבאדוס (Bârbâdôs)

lad: בארבאדוס / Barbados

yid: באַרבאַדאָס (Barbados)

amh: ባርቤዶስ (Barbedos)

ell-dhi: Μπαρμπάντος (Mparmpántos); Μπαρπάντος (Mparpántos)

ell-kat: Μπαρμπάντος (Mparmpántos); Βαρβάδος (Varvádos); Μπαρμπέϊντος (Mparmpéïntos)

hye: Բարբադոս (Barbados)

kat: ბარბადოსი (Barbadosi)

hin: बारबाडोस (Bārbāḍos); बारबेडोस (Bārbeḍos)

ben: বার্বাডোস (Bārbāḍos)

pan: ਬਾਰਬਾਡੋਸ (Bārbāḍos)

kan: ಬಾರ್ಬಡೋಸ್ (Bārbaḍōs)

mal: ബാര്ബഡോസ് (Bārbaḍōs)

tam: பார்படோஸ் (Pārpaṭōs)

tel: బార్బడోస్ (Bārbaḍōs); బార్బెడోస్ (Bārbeḍōs)

zho: 巴巴多斯 (Bābāduōsī)

jpn: バルバドス (Barubadosu)

kor: 바베이도스 (Babeidoseu)

mya: ဘာဘေးဒုိ (Bʰabʰèdo)

tha: บาร์เบโดส (Bā[r]bēdōt)

khm: បារបាដូស (Bārbādūs); បាបាដូស (Bābādūs)

 

Is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.

The name Syria formerly comprised the entire region of the Levant, while the modern state encompasses the site of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, was the seat of the Umayyad Empire and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire. Damascus is widely regarded as one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.

Modern Syria was created as a French mandate and attained independence in April 1946, as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was rocky, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949-1970. Syria has been under Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered non-democratic.

The country has been governed by the Baath Party since 1963, although actual power is concentrated to the presidency and a narrow grouping of military and political strongmen. Syria's current president is Bashar al-Assad, who won a referendum on extending his presidency for second term, garnering 97.62 percent of votes in 2007 and is the son of Hafez al-Assad, who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000. Syria has played a major regional role, particularly through its central role in the Arab conflict with Israel, which since 1967 has been in possession of the Golan Heights, and by active involvement in Lebanese and Palestinian affairs.

The population is mainly Sunni Muslim, but with significant Alawite, Shia, Christian and Druze minorities. Since the 1960s, Alawite military officers have tended to dominate the country's politics. Ethnically, some 80% of the population is Arab, and the state is ruled by the Baath Party according to Arab nationalist principles, while approximately 20% belong to the Kurdish, Armenian, Assyrian, Turkmen, and Circassians minorities.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Syria

 

Geography

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Syria

 

Other info

flags

 

Oficial Name:

الجمهوريّة العربيّة السّوريّة

Al-jumhuriyah al-'Arabiyah as-Suriya

 

Independence:

First declaration September 19361

- Second declaration January 1, 1944

- Recognized April 17, 1946

 

Area:

185.180km2

 

Inhabitants:

18.690.000

 

Languages:

Adyghe [ady] 25,000 in Syria. Alternate names: West Circassian, Adygey. Classification: North Caucasian, West Caucasian, Circassian

More information.

 

Arabic, Levantine Bedawi Spoken [avl] 70,000 in Syria. Southwest corner, Hawran Region, from the border to within 20 miles of Damascus. Alternate names: Bedawi. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Mesopotamian Spoken [acm] 1,800,000 in Syria. Eastern Syria. Alternate names: North Syrian Arabic, Furati, Mesopotamian Gelet Arabic. Dialects: Euphrates Cluster. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Najdi Spoken [ars] 500,000 in Syria. Population includes 100,000 North Najdi, 100,000 Central Najdi (1995). Syrian desert. Alternate names: Bedawi. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, North Levantine Spoken [apc] 8,800,000 in Syria (1991). Population includes 6,000,000 in Lebanese-Central Syrian, 1,000,000 in North Syrian. Population total all countries: 14,309,537. Also spoken in Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Belize, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Israel, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mali, Puerto Rico, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey (Asia). Alternate names: Levantine Arabic, North Levantine Arabic, Lebanese-Syrian Arabic, Syro-Lebanese Arabic. Dialects: There is an urban standard dialect based on Damascus speech. Beiruti dialect is well accepted here. Aleppo dialect shows Mesopotamian (North Syrian) influence. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, North Mesopotamian Spoken [ayp] 300,000 in Syria (1992). Far eastern Syria. Alternate names: Moslawi, Syro-Mesopotamian Arabic, Mesopotamian Qeltu Arabic. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Arabic, Standard [arb] Middle East, North Africa. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic

More information.

 

Armenian [hye] 320,000 in Syria (1993). Alternate names: Haieren, Somkhuri, Ermenice, Armjanski. Dialects: Western Armenian. Classification: Indo-European, Armenian

More information.

 

Assyrian Neo-Aramaic [aii] 30,000 in Syria (1995). Ethnic population: 700,000. Over 30 villages on the banks of the Khabur River, northern Syria. Alternate names: Lishana Aturaya, Suret, Sureth, Suryaya Swadaya, Assyrian, Neo-Syriac, Assyriski, Aisorski. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, Aramaic, Eastern, Central, Northeastern

More information.

 

Azerbaijani, South [azb] 30,000 in Syria (1961 census). Homs and Hama. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Southern, Azerbaijani

More information.

 

Domari [rmt] 10,000 in Syria (1961). Turkey to India; Nawar is in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt; Kurbat in Syria and western Iran; Helebi in Egypt and Libya; Karachi in north Turkey, the Caucasus of Russia; and north Iran; Domaki and Wogri-Boli in India; Barake in Syria; Luli and Maznoug in Uzbekistan; other groups in Iran; Churi-Wali in Afghanistan. Alternate names: Middle Eastern Romani, Tsigene, Gypsy, Nawar, Kurbat, Barake. Dialects: Nawar, Kurbati, Beirut, Nablos, Barake. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Dom

More information.

 

Kurdish, Northern [kmr] 938,000 in Syria (1993). Northern Syria: Northern Cizire (Qamishlok), Kurd-Dagh (Ciyayê Kurdî, Afrin), Ain-Arab, Allepo, Damascus. Alternate names: Kurmanji, Kurmancî, Kurdi. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Western, Northwestern, Kurdish

More information.

 

Lomavren [rmi] Alternate names: Armenian Bosha, Arnebuab Bisa, Bosha, Bosa. Classification: Mixed Language, Armenian-Romani

More information.

 

Turoyo [tru] 7,000 in Syria (1994). Ethnic population: 20,000 (1994). Alternate names: Suryoyo, Syryoyo, Turani. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, Aramaic, Eastern, Central, Northwestern

More information.

 

Western Neo-Aramaic [amw] 15,000 (1996 Maalula Home Page, Internet). Population includes 8,000 in Maaloula. Qalamoun Mountains, 30 miles north of Damascus. Villages of Ma`lula, Bakh`a, and Jubb `Adin. Only in Syria. Alternate names: Maalula, Siryon, Loghtha Siryanoytha, Neo-Western Aramaic. Dialects: Ma`lula (Maalula, Maaloula, Ma`lu:la), Bakh`a (Bax`a), Jub-`adin (Jubb `Adi:n). Little dialect variation. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, Aramaic, Western

More information.

  

Extinct languages

Mlahsö [lhs] Extinct. Qamishli town. Originally in Mlahsó and `Ansha villages, Diyarbakir Province, Turkey. Alternate names: Suryoyo. Dialects: Close to Turoyo. Classification: Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, Aramaic, Eastern, Central, Northwestern

 

Capital city:

Damascus

 

Meaning country name:

From the ancient Greek name for the ancient state of Assyria, although the original heartland of ancient Assyria actually lies in modern Iraq. Before the Greeks, the area of the modern state of Syria had the name Aram, after which the Aramaic language, a former lingua franca of the Middle East still spoken in a few villages there today, takes its name.

 

Description Flag:

The current flag of Syria (Arabic: علم سوريا) was re-adopted in 1980. It is also the flag of the former United Arab Republic.

The colors of the flag are traditional Pan-Arab colors, also seen on the flags of Yemen, Egypt, Sudan, and Iraq. The two stars represent Egypt and Syria, the two participating nations in the United Arab Republic. The green is thought to be the color of the Rashidun or Fatimid, white the color of the Umayyads, black the color of Abbasids and red the color of the blood of martyrs, although it is thought that red was the color of the Hashemite dynasty and it was added after Sharif Hussayn of Hijaz agreed to join the Arab revolt of 1916.

 

Coat of arms:

This symbol of the Coat of arms of Syria (Arabic: شعار سوريا) is the Syrian Hawk or hawk of Qureish; it was adopted during the union with Egypt, and before it, there was the Syrian eagle of Saladin.

 

Motto:

"Too stars Republic"

 

National Anthem: Homat el Dyar

 

Arabic

حـماةَ الـديارِ عليكمْ سـلامْ

أبَتْ أنْ تـذِلَّ النفـوسُ الكرامْ

عـرينُ العروبةِ بيتٌ حَـرام

وعرشُ الشّموسِ حِمَىً لا يُضَامْ

ربوعُ الشّـآمِ بـروجُ العَـلا

تُحاكي السّـماءَ بعـالي السَّـنا

فأرضٌ زهتْ بالشّموسِ الوِضَا

سَـماءٌ لَعَمـرُكَ أو كالسَّـما

 

رفيـفُ الأماني وخَفـقُ الفؤادْ

عـلى عَـلَمٍ ضَمَّ شَـمْلَ البلادْ

أما فيهِ منْ كُـلِّ عـينٍ سَـوادْ

ومِـن دمِ كـلِّ شَـهيدٍ مِـدادْ؟

نفـوسٌ أبـاةٌ ومـاضٍ مجيـدْ

وروحُ الأضاحي رقيبٌ عَـتيدْ

فمِـنّا الوليـدُ و مِـنّا الرّشـيدْ

فلـمْ لا نَسُـودُ ولِمْ لا نشـيد؟

 

Latin transliteration

 

Humat al diari aleikum salam

Abat an tazila al nufusu al kiram

Arinu al urubati beyton haram

Wa Aarshu al shumusi himan la yudam

Robughu al shami buruju al Aala

Tohaki al suma'a bia'ali alsana

Fa ardon zahat bilshumusi al widaa'a

Samaon limaroka aw kal sama

Rafifu alamani wakhafku alfuad

Aala aalamen damma shamla al bilad

Ama fihi min kuli ainen sawad

Wa min dami kuli shahiden midad

Noufuson ubaton wa madin magid

Wa rouhu al adahi rakibon atid

Fa minna al walidu wa minna al rashid

Fa lem la nasudu wa lem la nasheed

 

English translation

 

Defenders of our home,

Peace be upon you;

The proud spirits had

refused to subdue.

The lion-abode of Arabism,

A hallowed sanctuary;

The seat of the stars,

An inviolable preserve.

Our hopes and our hearts,

Are entwined with the flag,

Which unites our country..

 

Internet Page: www.mofa.gov.sy

www.syriatourism.org

 

Syria in diferent languages

 

eng | cym | fao | ina | lat | nor | pol | sme: Syria

arg | ast | bre | cos | eus | glg | ibo | ita | lld | mlg | oci | roh | ron | rup | scn | spa | sqi | tsn: Siria

bam | hat | mos: Siri

cat | por | tet: Síria

deu | ltz | nds: Syrien / Syrien

fra | jnf | nrm: Syrie

hrv | lit | slv: Sirija

nbl | xho | zul: iSiriya

dan | swe: Syrien

dje | zza: Suriya

dsb | hsb: Syriska

frp | fur: Sirie

gag | kaa: Siriya / Сирия

kin | run: Siriya

lim | nld: Syrië

afr: Sirië

aze: Suriya / Сурија; Şam / Шам

bos: Sirija / Сирија

ces: Sýrie

cor: Surri

crh: Suriye / Сурие

csb: Syrëjô

epo: Sirio

est: Süüria

fin: Syyria

fry: Syrje

gla: Siria; An t-Siria

gle: An tSiria / An tSiria

glv: Yn Teer

hau: Sham

haw: Suria

hun: Szíria

ind: Suriah / سوريه; Syria / سيريا

isl: Sýrland

jav: Suriah

kab: Surya / ⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰ

kmr: Şam / Шам / شام; Sûrî / Сури / سووری

kur: Sûriya / سووریا; Sûriye / سووریه

lav: Sīrija

lin: Sirí

mlt: Sirja

mol: Siria / Сирия

mri: Hīria

msa: Syria / سيريا; Syams / شامس

que: Sirya

rmy: Siriya / सिरिया

slk: Sýria

slo: Siuria / Сиуриа

smg: Sėrėjė

som: Suuriya; Siiriya

srd: Sìria

swa: Syria; Shamu

szl: Syrja

tgl: Sirya

ton: Sīlia

tuk: Siriýa / Сирия

tur: Suriye

uzb: Suriya / Сурия; Shom / Шом

vie: Xi-ri

vol: Süriyän

vor: Süüriä

wln: Sireye

wol: Siiri

chu: Сѵрія (Sȳrīja); Сѹрія (Surīja)

abq | alt | bul | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Сирия (Sirija)

chv | mon | oss: Сири (Siri)

ady | ava: Шам (Šam)

abk: Шьамтәыла (Š'amtʷəla)

bak: Сирия / Siriya

bel: Сірыя / Siryja; Сырыя / Syryja

che: Сири (Siri); Шема (Šema)

chm: Сирий (Sirij)

kaz: Сирия / Sïrïya / سيريا

kbd: Сирие (Sirie)

lbe: Шамул (Šamul)

mkd: Сирија (Sirija)

srp: Сирија / Sirija

tat: Сүрия / Süriä

tgk: Сурия / سوریه / Surija; Шом / شام / Şom

ukr: Сірія (Sirija)

ara: سورية (Sūrīyâ); سوريا (Sūrīyā); الشأم (aš-Šaʾm); الشام (aš-Šām)

ckb: سووریا / Sûrya

fas: سوریه / Suriye; شام / Šâm

prs: سوریه (Sūrīyâ)

pus: سوريه (Sūriyâ); سوريا (Sūriyā)

uig: سۇرىيە / Suriye / Сурийә; سۈرىيە / Süriye / Сүрийә

urd: سوریا (Sūriyā); سیریا (Sīriyā); شام (Šām)

div: ސީރިއާ (Sīri'ā)

syr: ܣܘܪܝܐ (Sūriyā)

heb: סוריה (Sûryah)

lad: סיריה / Siria

yid: סיריִיע (Siriye)

amh: ሶርያ (Sorya)

cop-sah: Ⲥⲩⲣⲓⲁ (Syria)

cop-boh: Ⲥⲩⲣⲓⲁ̄ (Syrià)

ell: Συρία (Syría)

hye: Սիրիա (Siria)

kat: სირია (Siria)

hin: सीरिया (Sīriyā); सिरिया (Siriyā); सूरिया (Sūriyā); शाम (Šām)

nep: शाम (Šām)

ben: সিরিয়া (Siriyā)

pan: ਸੀਰੀਆ (Sīrīā); ਸ਼ਾਮ (Šām)

kan: ಸಿರಿಯ (Siriya)

mal: സിറിയ (Siṟiya)

tam: சிரியா (Čiriyā)

tel: సిరియా (Siriyā)

zho: 叙利亞/叙利亚 (Xùlìyà)

yue: 叙利亞/叙利亚 (Jeuihleihnga)

jpn: シリア (Shiria)

kor: 시리아 (Siria)

bod: སི་རི་ཡ་ (Si.ri.ya.); ཞུ་ལི་ཡ་ (Žu.li.ya.)

mya: ဆီးရီးယား (Sʰìẏìyà)

tha: ซีเรีย (Sīriya)

lao: ຊີຣີ (Sīlī)

khm: ស៊ីរី (Sīrī); ស៊ីរីយ៉ា (Sīrīyā)

 

Worcester Street, Oxford

10-08-2017 - M74 Larkhall

Is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden on the west, Norway on the north and Russia on the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland. The capital city is Helsinki.

Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern part of the country. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. The native language of nearly all of the population is Finnish, which is part of the Finno-Ugric language family and is most closely related to Estonian. The language is one of only four official EU languages not of Indo-European origin. The second official language of Finland – Swedish – is the native language of 5.5% of the population. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 342 municipalities. A total of about one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area (which includes Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen, and Vantaa), and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other major cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Kuopio, and Lahti.

Finland was historically a part of Sweden and from 1809 an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire. Finland's declaration of independence from Russia in 1917 was followed by a civil war, wars against the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, and a period of official neutrality during the Cold War. Finland joined the United Nations in 1955, the OECD in 1969, the European Union in 1995, and the eurozone since its beginning. Finland has been ranked the second most stable country in the world, in a survey based on social, economic, political, and military indicators.

Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. Thereafter, economic development was rapid, and the country reached the world's top income levels in the 1970s. Between 1970 and 1990, Finland built an extensive welfare state. In the aftermath of the country's severe depression in the early 1990s, successive governments have changed the Finnish economic system through some privatisation, deregulation, and tax cuts.

Finland is well placed in many international comparisons of national performance such as the share of high-technology manufacturing and health care. The country is ranked 1st in the 2009 Legatum Prosperity rating, which is based on economical performance and quality of life.

 

Etymology

The name Suomi (Finnish for "Finland") has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a cognate is the Proto-Baltic word *zeme, meaning "land". In addition to the close relatives of Finnish (the Baltic-Finnic languages), this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian. According to an earlier theory the name was derived from suomaa (fen land) or suoniemi (fen cape).

 

The exonym Finland has resemblance with the Scandinavian placenames Finnmark, Finnveden and hundreds of other toponyms starting with Fin(n) in Sweden and Norway. Some of these names are obviously derived from finnr, a Germanic word for a wanderer/finder and thus supposedly meaning nomadic "hunter-gatherers" or slash and burn agriculturists as opposed to the Germanic sedentary farmers and seafaring traders and pirates. The term "Finn" often refers to Sami people, too. Finn was used to refer to the people of Finland Proper after the 15th century, when the church appointed a bishop — who became one of the most powerful men in the province — over the whole area corresponding roughly to today's Finland. The fact that there was no other ecclesiastical authority of the same level, coupled with the bishop's temporal authority, engendered a sense of "the Finns" belonging to one geographical area over which the name spread from the 15th century onwards to refer to the people of the entire country.

 

Among the first documents to mention "a land of the Finns" are two rune-stones. There is one in Söderby, Sweden, with the inscription finlont (U 582) and one in Gotland, a Swedish island in the Baltic Sea, with the inscription finlandi (G 319), dating from the 11th century.

 

History

Please go to :

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Finland

 

Geography

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Finland

 

Other info

Oficial name:

fin: Suomen tasavalta

swe: Republiken Finland

sme: Suoma republihkka

 

Independence:

Autonomy March 29, 1809

- Declared December 6, 1917

- Recognised January 3, 1918

 

Area:

338.145km2

 

Inhabitants:

6.100.000

 

Languages:

Estonian [est] 6,000 in Finland (1993). Traditionally on the southern coast. Alternate names: Viro, Eesti. Dialects: Tallinn (Reval, Northern Estonian), Tartu (Dorpat, Tatu, Southern Estonian), Setu, Muly (Mulgi), Vyrus (Voru). Classification: Uralic, Finnic

More information.

 

Finnish [fin] 4,700,000 in Finland (1993). Population includes 30,000 speakers of Tornedalen Finnish. Population total all countries: 5,232,728. Also spoken in Canada, Estonia, Norway, Russia (Europe), Sweden, USA. Alternate names: Suomi, Suomea. Dialects: Southwestern Finnish, Häme (Tavast), South Pohjanmaa, Central and North Pohjanmaa, Peräpohja, Savo (Savolax), Southeastern Finnish (Finnish Karjala, Finnish Karelian). Southeastern dialects called 'Karelian' in colloquial Finnish are distinct from true Karelian (T. Salminen). Finnish is closely related to Karelian and Olonetsian. In Russia eastern dialects merge gradually into Karelian. Classification: Uralic, Finnic

More information.

 

Finnish Sign Language [fse] 5,000 (1986 Gallaudet Univ.). Ethnic population: 8,000. Alternate names: Viittomakieli. Dialects: 2 major dialects from the Finnish (17 schools) and Swedish (1 school) communities. Apparent influence from Swedish Sign Language merged with local indigenous varieties. Not intelligible with Danish Sign Language. Classification: Deaf sign language

More information.

 

Finnish, Tornedalen [fit] 30,000 in Finland (1997 Birger Winsa). Classification: Uralic, Finnic

More information.

 

Finnish-Swedish Sign Language [fss] 150 (2001). Classification: Deaf sign language

More information.

 

Karelian [krl] 10,000 in Finland (1994). There are two villages in Oulu Province, close to the Russian border (Northern Karelian), and others scattered around Finland (Southern Karelian). Alternate names: Karely, Karelian Proper. Dialects: Northern Karelian, Southern Karelian, Norgorod, Tver (Kalinin). Classification: Uralic, Finnic

More information.

 

Livvi [olo] 5,172 in Finland (2000 WCD). Ethnic population: 140,000. Scattered around Finland. Alternate names: Olonetsian, Olonets, Livvikovian, Lívõnkél, Aunus. Classification: Uralic, Finnic

More information.

 

Romani, Kalo Finnish [rmf] 5,410 in Finland (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 7,002. Ethnic population: 8,000 Gypsies in Finland (1980). Western and southern. Also spoken in Sweden. Alternate names: Fíntika Rómma, Gypsy. Dialects: Not inherently intelligible with Traveller Swedish, Traveller Norwegian, Traveller Danish, or Angloromani. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Northern

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Saami, Inari [smn] 250 (1995 M. Krauss). 4,700 all Saami in Finland (1995). Ethnic population: 700 (1995 M. Krauss). Lapland, above 68.00N Lat., in an area about 15,400 square miles between Lake Inari and the Norway border. They are in the majority around the border town of Utsjoki. Alternate names: Inari "Lappish", Anar, "Finnish Lapp", "Lapp", Sámi, Samic, Saam, Saame. Classification: Uralic, Sami, Eastern

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Saami, North [sme] 2,000 in Finland (1995 M. Krauss). Ethnic population: 3,500 (1995 M. Krauss). Utsjoki, Enontekio, and Sodankyla. Alternate names: Northern Lapp, Davvin, "Lapp", Saame, Same. Dialects: Ruija, Torne, Sea Lappish. Classification: Uralic, Sami, Western, Northern

More information.

 

Saami, Skolt [sms] 300 in Finland (1995 M. Krauss). Population total all countries: 320. Ethnic population: 500 in Finland (1995 M. Krauss). Northwest of Inari Saami. Also spoken in Russia (Europe). Alternate names: Skolt Lappish, Russian Lapp, "Lapp", Saame, Same, Lopar, Kolta, Koltta. Classification: Uralic, Sami, Eastern

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Swedish [swe] 296,000 in Finland (1997). Coasts of the provinces of Central Österbotten (Ostrobothnia), Vasa (Vaasa), Southwest Finland, Nyland (Uusimaa) (Helsingfors), Åland Islands, Kymenlaakso. Dialects: Standard Swedish, Österbotten (Ostrobothnian), Åland Islands Swedish, Southwest Finland Swedish, Uusimaa Swedish, Nyland Swedish. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, North, East Scandinavian, Danish-Swedish, Swedish

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Extinct languages

Saami, Kemi [sjk] Extinct. Lapland Province, Sodankyla and Kuolajarvi (Salla) counties. Formerly south as far as Kuusamo County. Alternate names: Sámi, Sami, "Lapp". Classification: Uralic, Sami, Eastern

 

Capital city:

Helsinki

 

Meaning country name:

From the Germanic Land of the Finns. Originally, the Germanic term Finn referred to the Sami or Lapps. The word may derive from the Germanic root seen in English fen (a synonym for "swamp") or, alternatively, from a root meaning "nomadic hunter and gatherer", related to the English verb "find". Latin Fennia.

Suomi (Finnish name), Soome (Estonian name), Sum' (Old Russian name): may derive the Baltic root zeme for "land": "zeme" ← "sheme" ← "shäme" → Häme ← "shaame" → Saami ← "Soomi" ← "Suomi"

An Fhionnlainn (Irish name) is derived from Finlandia though by coincidence Fionnlann also means Land of the fair in Irish.

 

Description Flag:

The flag of Finland, also called Siniristilippu (The Blue Cross Flag), dates from the beginning of the 20th century, and is ultimately modelled on the Danish flag, the Dannebrog. It features a blue Nordic cross on a white background. Blue represents lakes and the sky, and white represents snow and the white nights of the Finnish summer. The state flag has a coat of arms in the centre, but is otherwise identical to the civil flag. The swallow-tailed state flag is used by the military. The presidential standard is identical to the swallow-tailed state flag but also has in its upper left corner the Cross of Liberty after the Order of the Cross of Liberty, which has the President of Finland as its Grand Master.

The current blue-crossed design was first used in Finland by Nyländska Jaktklubben, a yacht club founded in Helsinki in 1861. In addition to the blue cross on the white background, the yacht club flag had the crowned arms of the province of Uusimaa within two crossed branches in the upper hoist quarter. Except for the position of the cross, the flag was similar to the flag of the St. Petersburg Yacht Club, founded the previous year. The design can be traced to the Russian Navy ensign, which has a blue cross saltire on a white background.

 

Coat of arms:

The Coat of arms of Finland is a crowned lion on a red field, the right forepaw replaced with an armoured hand brandishing a sword, trampling on a saber with the hindpaws. Official only since 1978, the coat of arms was originally created around the year 1580.

 

Motto:

Maamme (suomi) / Vårt land (svensk)

 

National Anthem: Maamme, Vårt land, Our Land

 

Suomi

 

Oi maamme, Suomi, synnyinmaa,

soi, sana kultainen!

Ei laaksoa, ei kukkulaa,

ei vettä, rantaa rakkaampaa

kuin kotimaa tää pohjoinen,

maa kallis isien.

Sun kukoistukses kuorestaan

kerrankin puhkeaa;

viel' lempemme saa nousemaan

sun toivos, riemus loistossaan,

ja kerran laulus, synnyinmaa

korkeemman kaiun saa.

 

Svenska

 

Vårt land, vårt land, vårt fosterland,

ljud högt, o dyra ord!

Ej lyfts en höjd mot himlens rand,

ej sänks en dal, ej sköljs en strand,

mer älskad än vår bygd i nord,

än våra fäders jord!

Din blomning, sluten än i knopp,

Skall mogna ur sitt tvång;

Se, ur vår kärlek skall gå opp

Ditt ljus, din glans, din fröjd, ditt hopp.

Och högre klinga skall en gång

Vår fosterländska sång.

 

English

 

Our land, our land, our fatherland,

Sound loud, O name of worth!

No mount that meets the heaven's band,

No hidden vale, no wavewashed strand,

Is loved, as is our native North,

Our own forefathers' earth.

Thy blossom, in the bud laid low,

Yet ripened shall upspring.

See! From our love once more shall grow

Thy light, thy joy, thy hope, thy glow!

And clearer yet one day shall ring

The song our land shall sing.

 

Internet Page: www.visitfinland.com

www.virtual.finland.fi

 

Finland in diferent languages

 

eng | afr | bre | dan | hau | ibo | lim | nld | nor | swa | swe: Finland

arg | ast | cos | eus | glg | ina | ita | jav | lld | pol | scn | spa: Finlandia

mlg | roh | ron | rup | sqi | zza: Finlanda

cat | oci | srd: Finlàndia

deu | ltz | nds: Finnland / Finnland

dsb | hrv | slv: Finska

fra | frp | wln: Finlande

crh | gag: Finlândiya / Финляндия

fao | isl: Finnland

kaa | uzb: Finlyandiya / Финляндия

kin | run: Fenlande

mlt | szl: Finlandja

aze: Finlandiya / Финландија

bam: Fɛnlandi

bos: Finska / Финска

ces: Finsko

cor: Pow Finn

csb: Fińskô

cym: Y Ffindir

epo: Finnlando; Suomio

est: Soome

fin: Suomi

fry: Finlân

fur: Finlandie

gla: Suòmaidh; Fionnlainn

gle: An Fhionlainn / An Ḟionlainn; An Fhionnlainn / An Ḟionnlainn

glv: Finnlynn

hat: Fenland

haw: Pinilana

hun: Finnország

ind: Finlandia / فينلنديا

jnf: Fînlande

kal: Finlandi

kmr: Fînland / Финланд / فینلاند; Fîlanda / Филанда / فیلاندا

kur: Fînlanda / فینلاندا; Fînlandiya / فینلاندیا

lat: Finlandia; Finnia; Fennia

lav: Somija

lin: Finilanda

lit: Suomija

liv: Sūomõmō

mol: Finlanda / Финланда

mri: Whinarana

msa: Finland / فينلند

nrm: Finlaunde

por: Finlândia

que: Phinlandya

rmy: Finland / क़िन्लान्द

slk: Fínsko

slo: Finzem / Финзем

sme: Suopma

smg: Soumėjė

smn: Suomâ

smo: Finelani

sms: Lää´ddjânnam

som: Fiinlaand

tet: Finlándia

tgl: Pinlandya; Pinlandiya

ton: Finilani

tuk: Finlýandiýa / Финляндия

tur: Finlandiya

vie: Phần Lan

vol: Suomiyän

vor: Soomõ

wol: Finlaand

chu: Сѹмь (Sumĭ)

alt | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | rus | tyv | udm: Финляндия (Finljandija)

che | chv | oss: Финлянди (Finljandi)

mon | xal: Финлянд (Finljand)

abq: Финляндия (Finłjandija)

bak: Финляндия / Finlyandiya

bel: Фінляндыя / Finlandyja

bul: Финландия (Finlandija)

chm: Финляндий (Finljandij)

kaz: Финляндия / Fïnlyandïya / فينلانديا

kbd: Финляндие (Finljandie)

mkd: Финска (Finska)

srp: Финска / Finska

tat: Финляндия / Finländiä

tgk: Финляндия / فینلندیه / Finljandija

ukr: Фінляндія (Finljandija)

ara: فنلندا (Finlandā); فينلندا (Fīnlandā)

ckb: فینڵاند / Fînḻand

fas: فنلاند (Fanlānd); فینلاند (Fīnlānd)

prs: فنلاند (Fenlānd); فنلند (Fenland)

pus: فنلېنډ (Finlenḋ); فنلېند (Finlend); فنلنډ (Finlənḋ); فنلند (Finlənd); فنلاند (Finlānd)

uig: فىنلاندىيە / Finlandiye / Финляндия

urd: فنلینڈ / فنلینڈ (Finlænḋ)

div: ފިންލަންޑް (Finlanḋ)

syr: ܦܢܠܢܕܐ (Pinlandā)

heb: פינלנד (Fînland); פינלאנד (Fînlând)

lad: פ'ינלאנדיה / Finlandia

yid: פֿינלאַנד (Finland)

amh: ፊንላንድ (Finland)

ell: Φινλανδία (Finlandía); Φιλλανδία (Fillandía)

hye: Ֆինլանդիա (Finlandia)

kat: ფინეთი (Ṗineṭi)

hin: फ़िनलैंड (Finlæṁḍ); फिनलैंड (Pʰinlæṁḍ)

nep: फिनल्याण्ड (Pʰinlæṇḍ)

ben: ফিনল্যাণ্ড (Pʰinlæṇḍ); ফিন্ল্যাণ্ড (Pʰinlæṇḍ); ফিনল্যান্ড (Pʰinlænḍ)

pan: ਫਿਨਲੈਂਡ (Pʰinlæ̃ḍ)

kan: ಫಿನ್ಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್ (Pʰinlæṁḍ)

mal: ഫിന്ലാന്ഡ് (Pʰinlānḍ)

tam: பின்லாந்து (Piṉlāntu)

tel: ఫిన్లాండ్ (Pʰinlāṁḍ)

zho: 芬蘭/芬兰 (Fēnlán)

yue: 芬蘭/芬兰 (Fànlàahn)

jpn: フィンランド (Finrando)

kor: 핀란드 (Pinlandeu)

bod: ཧྥིན་ལན་ (Hpʰin.lan.)

dzo: ཕིན་ལེནཌ་ (Pʰin.lenḍ.)

mya: ဖင္လန္ (Pʰĩlã)

tha: ฟินแลนด์ (Finlǣn[d])

lao: ແຟງລັງ (Fǣṅlâṅ)

khm: ហ្វាំងឡង់ (Hvāṁṅḷăṅ); ហ្វាំងឡង់ដ៏ (Hvāṁṅḷăṅ[d])

 

Regent Road, Great Yarmouth

New pics from an old kit! This is more or less a scratch-built figure, a one-of-a-kind.

In fact, this is throrough conversion of an (original!) SEGA 1:6 Rei Ayanami in a swimsuit - a readily painted resin statue.

 

Since I saw this character in the manga to the "Oh, my goddess" movie I knew I had to build this figure. Morgan is a strong character, and whoever dares to end all times just because of a rejected love deserves some kind of (small) monument.

 

At the time I built the figure, no Morgan Le fey kit was available, and I haven't seen one until today.

I am not a sculptor, so I decided to "abuse" another firgure or kit, and eventually came across the Rei figure. It was the perfect base in posture and proportions for what I wanted to achieve. And I think she radiates this strange aura of aloofness, determination and desperate passion - her gaze, with the yellow eyes and cats' pupils, is piercing. and the figure has become an outstanding piece in the collection. After all, she's unique.

 

Lots of putty and sanding work hides the swimsuit. The hair as well as body details and the feet were made with putty (Tamiya 2C putty, to be exact, wonderful stoff for this task due to its long curing time and fine texture).

 

The figure's body was painted with two very light and cold blue shades from the rattle can. Only little additional shading with a brush was added. The black "trim" was all painted by hand.

 

The dragonfly wings are made of transparent polystyrol, bent in hot water and fitted with "adapters" for easy attachment to the arms and the back. Finally, they were painted with semi-translucent, night-glow paint and received black trim.

DOSA-Pan Cake from South India. Doasa is generally made of Rice and Urd Dall. There are more than 100-150 varieties of Dosa. -http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosa

Try making this at home- I am sure you like it. Any new Dosa recipe please share here -

For more details follow this link en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosa en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosa