On 21 March 1991, French and American troops of the French-led Division Daguet helicoptered behind enemy lines to wash their battle flags in the Euphrates, a traditional ritual of victory in the French Army. This ceremony was movingly described by Dr. James J. Cooke, a U.S. Liaison Officer with the Division Daguet, in his book 100 Miles from Baghdad : With the French in Desert Storm (at 183-185) :

 

« There remained one thing for the French to do before we left Iraq. On 20 March, [French LTCs] Bourgain and Dureau informed me that on the morrow we were going to the Euphrates river, and they asked if I had a large American flag. I didn’t, but I found one among the Americans in camp. What Bourgain described to me was a ceremony whereby the French washed their battle flags in a victory celebration in a river near the field of battle. It was an old ceremony that would not be ignored here in Iraq, even though the Euphrates was behind enemy lines.

 

I decided that it was best that [XVIII Airborne] Corps not be informed about this ; however. Colonel Lesquer just smiled about it and said simply that it was good for soldiers to have a little panache. I agreed with him and made preparation to depart with the French in the morning. But by this time, several American units, the civil affairs and the signals, wanted to take their guidons and join our French allies. I told Bourgain about this, and he just rolled his eyes and said, “Oh, you Americans, you are — you want to be everywhere. But we’ll find room.” We also had our American flag, carried by a young sandy-haired private first class. It was his father’s flag. This banner had been with the soldier’s father in Vietnam, and now it would see, or perhaps touch, the Euphrates river in Iraq in victory.

 

The plan to get there was basically simple. With two companies of helicopter-borne Legion infantry to act as security and an attack helicopter regiment in support, about eight of the large Puma choppers would carry us to the banks of the river just west of Sawammah. It sounded simple indeed. At noon on 21 March the helicopters lifted off for the Euphrates to conduct the ceremony in which both French and Americans would participate. I was in the chopper with Colonel Lesquer and other officers, including a French combat camera crew. The Pumas flew low and fast, and we saw our first few Iraqi troops north of the marine positions near As-Salman. They just watched as the air armada flew over, and some waved at us as we went by. In about 25 minutes we could see the broad blue expanse of the Euphrates river and spotted the small inlet off the river where we would land. The ground was wet, and we were not engulfed in a cloud of dust as our choppers touched down.

 

[ * * * ]

 

Very quickly Bourgain organized us into two ranks facing the river, and buglers from the Legion and [French] marines sounded a call that reverberated across the expanse of blue water. Once the calls were finished, there was a minute of silence while each man reflected on what we had been through and endured to be on that spot of Mesopotamian soil. I looked at the Stars and Stripes and was seized with emotion as I realized that this flag, which had been carried in an American soldier’s kit in Vietnam, would soon be damp with waters of victory. At Bourgain’s command the first rank containing the guidons and fanions of the regiments, many pinned with the Croix de Guerre several times over, and the Tricolor and Old Glory went forward and were slowly dipped into them river. The first lines finished, and then the second line, containing a number of U.S. guidons as well as French regimental colors, came forward, and the process was repeated.

 

[ * * * ]

 

The ceremony was over, and we dashed back to the Pumas, passed two or three contented Iraqi [POWs] soldiers munching on mouton haricot or riz poulet ratatouille [French MREs, much coveted by U.S. soldiers], and flew back to our PC at As-Salman. Once we were back we found out that the order had come for the French and American forces to vacate the town on 22 March and that the Daguet, except for the helicopter regiments, would vacate Iraq on 23 March. »

  

Victory Show 2014

Company H, 4th Iowa Cavalry

A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans, written & compiled by William E. Connelley, 1918

Thomas Newell Robb, father of William E., was born near Elkhart, Indiana, December 29, 1830. The date of his birth fixes the fact that the Robb family were among the very earliest settlers in that part of Northern Indiana. Thomas Newell Robb married Caroline Isabell Carrick, a widow whose maiden name was Stevenson. Her father was Chester Stevenson, and her grandfather had served with the Connecticut troops at Yorktown where Lord Cornwallis surrendered and brought to a close the Revolutionary war. An interesting account of this concluding scene of the Revolution has been preserved in the family annals. The Americans were drawn up in line on one side, with the French under Lafayette on the other, and in the lane or alley between the two lines the British soldiers marched with Lord Cornwallis at their head to the point where they stacked their arms. Chester Stevenson had three brothers who were also soldiers in the War of 1812 and were present at the battle of Niagara where the Americans surrendered to the British and the Indians. The American soldiers were drawn up in line, and were counted off by twos. Thus there were formed two columns. When all were enumerated the English took one column as their share of the prisoners, while the Indians took the other column. The prisoners who fell to the mercy of the Indians were immediately tomahawked and killed. The English paid the Indians $8 for each scalp torn from the head of an American prisoner. As a result of this grim lottery two of the three brothers of Chester Stevenson met death as being in the line of prisoners turned over to the Indians. Chester Stevenson had four sons and five daughters: David, William, Simon, Lewis, Caroline, Mary, Lucy, Maria, and Almira.

 

When Thomas Newell Robb was six years old, in 1836, his parents, Scott and Lavina Robb, left Northern Indiana and moved to Durand, Winnebago County, Illinois. They went around the southern bend of Lake Michigan and passed through what was then the small Village of Chicago. At Rockford, Illinois, they crossed the Rock River. They experienced considerable trouble in getting their stock over the stream at the ford, and one hog was drowned in crossing, though they finally got the rest of the cattle and hogs over safely. Thomas N. Robb lived at Durand, Illinois, with his father, Scott Robb, until the latter's death on November 13, 1846. Thomas N. was then sixteen years of age. In 1852 he left Durand and went west for the purpose of locating a land warrant owned by his mother and granted because of Scott Robb's services in the War of 1812. With this warrant he proceeded to Chickasaw County, Iowa, and in Deerfield Township laid claim to 160 acres of land. His military land warrant was numbered 6215, and the title to the land was given in the name of Lavina Robb, his mother. This land was the southeast quarter of section 5 in township 96 north, range 14 west. The land office was at Dubuque, Iowa. He reached the land office October 22, 1852. On the morning of that day when he entered the office he found men lined up waiting their turn, and when the office was opened for business one of the number stepped forward and said he would take all the vacant land left in Howard and Chickasaw counties. This statement produced consternation, and for a time, it looked as if the other men seeking claims would have all their trouble for nothing. Then ensued considerable talk among the men and the land officials, and it was finally decided to allow each man to settle on the claim he had picked out for a home. Thus Thomas N. Robb became the possessor of 160 acres. After getting title to the land he returned to Durand, Illinois, and the next summer, on July 3, 1853, he married Caroline Isabell Carrick. In the spring of 1855 they moved to Chickasaw County, Iowa, to the new home where he put up a log house about 18 by 22 feet. The land was covered by timber and hazel brush, and the family occupied the old log house about twelve years until it was replaced with a frame dwelling.

 

To the marriage of Thomas N. Robb and Caroline Isabell Carrick were born five children, three sons and two daughters. The oldest of these is William Eugene Robb, reference to whose career may be reserved for a later paragraph. The second was a daughter, Calistia Lavina Robb, who was born January 18, 1856, at Deerfield, Iowa. She was well educated, taught two terms of school in Iowa, and at the age of fourteen returned to Illinois to live with her grandmother, Lavina Robb, and her aunt, Calistia Harris. He was married December 23, 1875, to John Jay Cleveland, who died in 1905. She died in 1906.

 

The third of the children was a daughter, Rosalia Melissa Robb, who was born June 13, 1857, at Deerfield in Chickasaw County, Iowa. She lived there and taught several terms of school until the fall of 1875, when she came with her parents to Neal, Greenwood County, Kansas. She taught several years in Kansas, and on February 21, 1883, married Nelson Elhanen Turney. They lived at or near Neal until the Cherokee strip was opened in the fall of 1893. Mr. Turney made the run and secured 160 acres near Enid, Oklahoma, about five miles from Hunter. He still owns that land, but he and his wife now live in their home at Wichita, Kansas.

 

The next child of the family was a son, Walter Montville Robb, born May 3, 1861, at Chickasaw, Iowa. He lived in that locality until the fall of 1875, when he came with his parents to Greenwood County, Kansas, and helped in the work of the home until 1891. In that year he entered the Northwestern College at Des Moines, Iowa, spending two years there and also attended Oldbergs University at Chicago in 1894. After graduating he was given a druggist's diploma. April 17, 1895, he married Lilly Almira Christian of Plymouth, Worth County, Iowa. He now lives on his farm three-quarters of a mile east of Neal, in Greenwood County.

 

The next child, also a son, was Harry Elmer Robb, born at Deerfield, Iowa, January 1, 1867. He was eight years of age when he came to Kansas with his parents in October, 1875, and lived at home in Greenwood County until 1888. In that year he entered the State Agricultural College at Manhattan, spending four years, and graduating. After his return home he was elected county surveyor in 1892 for the four-year term. August 5, 1896, he married Olive Robbins of Eureka, Kansas. They now live at Millertown, Oklahoma, where he owns property and in the county has eight log and lumber yards.

 

The family had many interesting experiences in their pioneer life in Chickasaw County, Iowa. The first winter Thomas Newell Robb moved to Iowa the snow was deep, the winter was a hard and cold one, and during the winter he killed twenty-five deer. Deer were very numerous through the woods, and on some mornings when the family would get up and throw hay to the cattle, the deer would come out of the woods and eat along with the domestic animals. But immediately the door of the house was opened the deer would be gone. The following spring the snow began melting about March 20th, and then for six weeks there was almost continuous mud and slush before the weather settled down to agreeable conditions. Near the Robb home was the Wapsiepinicon River. Great quantities of fish would come up the stream every spring. Fish traps or dams were made, and by these means it was possible to secure tubfuls of suckers, redhorse, bass and pickerel. At times the family would see a wagonload of fish, caught in the lakes north and west, going by the house. The minnows were the chub and shiner, horned ace, punkin seeds and bull trout, as they called them. The pickerel and bass were the game fish, were caught with a hook, and made a great deal of sport. Then there were prairie chickens, partridges or pheasants, which would drum on the logs and make sounds like distant thunder, quails and wild pigeons. The wild pigeons roosted in the woods and built their nests in great numbers. When the young squabs reached considerable size the limbs would often bend under the weight and break and the young ones would fall to the ground. William E. Robb says he has seen flocks of wild pigeons in the spring flying north in an unbroken stream reaching from horizon to horizon and requiring thirty minutes to pass overhead. There were countless thousands in such flocks. The wild geese and ducks, brants and sandhill cranes would fly north in the spring and south in the fall, and they also seemed to number millions. Hundreds of them would light on the ponds and the Wapsiepinicon River. Squirrels, both gray and red, were also plentiful. Along the Wapsiepinicon grew large patches of wild plums, both red and yellow, wild crab apples, red haws and black haws, and thornapples. More wild fruit would ripen than all the neighbors could gather and use, and much of it would rot or spoil on the ground. The Wapsiepinicon made a bend to the east about a quarter of a mile from the northeast corner of the Robb farm, circled around and came west again about three-quarters of a mile south. At the latter point was built a bridge. Leading up to the bridge was a long turnpike with nine sluices or culverts. This was known over all the country around as the Wapsie bridge, and was one of the first bridges put up in that section of Iowa. North of the bridge was a low smooth piece of land called bottoms or sloughs. Grass grew on it very tall, and was burned off every fall. In 1850, two or three years before the Robb family located there, a battle had occurred on this flat land between two bands of Indians, the Sioux and the Winnebagos. The bodies of the slain were left lying on the battlefield, and afterwards the Robb children and many older people would go over the ground after it had been burned off and would gather up the beads, tomahawks, arrow points and sometimes a gun barrel was found. The Sioux Indians had been up to Fort Atkinson to draw their blankets and supplies, and on coming back had met the Winnebagos. The latter did not want the Sioux Indians to pass their camp, where they had left their old men, squaws and papooses. They bargained with the Sioux, giving them some blankets and ponies, if the Sioux would agree not to pass the camp. The Sioux proved traitorous to their agreement, and going to the camp along the Wapsiepinicon they killed most of the Indians found there. The Winnebago warriors returned too late, but followed the Sioux west and had a running fight with them. The Robb children would find bones and skulls near hazelbrush patches at intervals all the way across the country to the Little Cedar River, six miles west of the camp on the Wapsiepinicon. At the north end the battleground was a ford with a narrow trail called the cattle ford, and about midway was the old ford. At the south end was the bridge. Each place had a road, and these roads were known as the Cattle Ford Road, the Old Ford Road, the Bridge Road, the Culvert Road and the Wood Road. A fringe of timber grow along the banks of the Wapsiepinicon of soft maple, ash, willow and basswood. One of the early improvements in the community was the erection of a schoolhouse on the Thomas N. Robb land in 1858. The children of the family attended school there.

 

In July, 1861, Thomas N. Robb enrolled in Company H of the Fourth Iowa Cavalry. On October 25 he was mustered into the United States service, and about November 1, 1861, was made a corporal. He was ward master through almost the entire period of his service with the regiment, and also hospital steward and nurse part of the time. His captain was Dewitt C. Crawford and his first lieutenant was Edwin A. Haskell. On December 21, 1863, he was discharge and veteranized on December 25, 1863, Christmas day. The regiment was mustered in as a veteran regiment and enlisted for three years more or during the war. The captain then was Samuel S. Troy. The engagements and skirmishes in which Thomas N. Robb had a part were: Little Red River or Brown's Ford June 3, 1862; Jones Lane or Lick Creek, October 11, 1862; Marianna, November 8, 1862; the campaign against Vicksburg, May 1 to July 4, 1863; Grenada raid August 10 to 25, 1863; from Vicksburg to Memphis; Baker's raid February 4, 1864, to June 11, Price's raid, including the battle of Independence October 22, 1864, the Big Blue October 23, 1864, Big Blue Prairie October 23, 1864, the Trading Post, October 25, 1864, Marias des Cygnes or Osage and Mine Creek, October 25, 1864; Charlotte Prairie, also called Marmaton, October 25, 1864. The last campaign of the war was Jackson, Canton, Tuscaloosa, Champion Hill, Helena, Selma and Pike's Ferry, April 8, 1865; Columbus, April 16, 1865; and Macon, Georgia. Thomas Robb was discharged at Atlanta, Georgia, August 8, 1865, and mustered out August 24, 1865, at Davenport, Iowa.

 

After the war he returned to his home and resumed farming. In the meantime the country had been much improved. It was nearly all fenced and divided up into farms, and no Indians were seen in that part of Iowa after 1865. However, the cold winters were a great objection to residence there, and every such season Thomas N. Robb suffered more or less with pneumonia, or diphtheria. Having spent about four years in the warmer climates of the South while he was a soldier he thought that a more southerly residence would be greatly beneficial to his health, He then decided to try Kansas. In November, 1874, Thomas N. Robb came to Greenwood County, near where Neal now stands, and spent the winter. He liked the country so well that after considerable prospecting and investigation he bought 160 acres in section 33, township 25, range 12 east. In the summer of 1875 he returned to Iowa, sold his farm, and in October had a sale of his personal property. He then immediately started for Kansas with his family, consisting of wife, three sons and one daughter. He brought three teams and three covered wagons, and two loose colts. The family arrived in Greenwood County about the end of October. The land he had bought was unimproved, and it was impossible to rent a house in which to spend the winter. Under those conditions the two women in the family lived with W. E. Harris, who had a small rock house, while Mr. Robb and the boys lived in a wagon backed up against a hay stack. In that way they got along through November, and about the first of December they had finished the frame house 16 by 24 feet and 12 feet high. The frame had been hewed out of logs with a broadax, and William Hurd was employed to do the carpenter work.

 

Thomas N. Robb afterwards built a stone house at a cost of $1,000. He kept two teams busy hauling stone for two years. For two weeks after coming to Kansas he looked around for a milch cow, but found none. Finally he had a chance to trade a team of horses and a wagon and harness to Kye Hobbs for fifteen cows and heifers. Mr. Hobbs was selling in order to move back to Indiana. These cows and heifers gave Mr. Robb his start as a cattle man. By keeping the increase he soon had 100 head of cattle, and in those years there was almost an unlimited supply of grass for hay and pasture. The winter after the family arrived they cut and hauled forty cords of four-foot wood to Eureka, selling it at $4 a cord. Money was extremely scarce and there was no opportunity to secure work. A. Kerr was hiring hands at $16 a month, but at the time he had all the help he needed. Thus Mr. Robb and the boys turned their labor to the task of making rails, and during the first winter they made enough to fence the 160 acres and they also built some stone wall. In the spring of 1876 they broke forty acres of land and planted twenty acres to sod corn. The planting was done by chopping a hole in each sod with an axe, and from this plnating they secured a crop of 400 bushels of big yellow ears. After the corn had grown up and practically matured the grasshoppers came in great numbers about the first of September, ate off all the leaves and husks, but left exposed the yellow ears, and these golden ears of corn could be seen at a considerable distance away.

 

In the early days of the family's settlement in Greenwood County, the Indians, the Sac and Fox and the Caws would go North in the spring and South in the fall, sometimes camping for a week at a time. After the Missouri Pacific Railroad was built through in 1882, crossing the county from east to west, the country was rapidly developed and fenced and the Indians no longer passed this way.

 

When the railroad was surveyed the county was thrown into a fever of excitement. The original survey was through Yates Center, Greenwood City and to Eureka. The original name of the railroad was the Fort Scott, Wichita & Western. The company wanted $10,000 in bonds in return for putting the road through from Yates Center through Greenwood City to Eureka. An election was called, but the bond proposition failed to carry in the Township of Pleasant Grove. Col. John Foley then proposed to divide the township, calling the north part Quincy and the south part Pleasant Grove Township. This was done, but it did not help the situation, since at the second election the bond issue again failed to carry. About that time the Town of Toronto agreed to give the railway company $28,000 in bonds if the road would be built five miles south and through Toronto. The railway accepted these terms, the road was built through Toronto, and Greenwood City, being left isolated, soon ceased to be a village. Not long afterward a railroad was built north and south along the Verdigris River, crossing the first road at Toronto. These two roads made a good-sized town there.

 

Thomas Newell Robb kept his residence on the old farm until his wife died on May 15, 1889. In a couple of years he rented the farm and then made three trips to Seattle, Washington, and one to Southern Oklahoma to visit his son, Harry, also to Mena, Arkansas, and another trip to Hot Springs, Arkansas. When he was a young man he spent two winters in the pineries of Wisconsin and Michigan, and one summer fishing on a vessel in Lake Michigan. He made trips from Green Bay to Grand Traverse Bay, the Manitou Islands, Sturgeon Bay and made a trip to Duluth, visiting the pictured rocks along the shores of Lake Superior. He had been in thirty-one states of the Union. During the War of 1861 he was with Sherman on the famous march to the sea and went to Pensacola, Florida. On going out to Seattle, Washington, he made the trip one time along the Santa Fe to Southern California, and came back through Vancouver, British Columbia, then to Winnipeg, and south to Kansas. He used to say that he had been across the United States north and south and would like to go across it east and west. While in Washington he bought forty acres of land and tried farming, but soon gave it up and returned to Neal, Kansas, where he lived until his death, which occurred September 15, 1907. He was a republican in politics, served on the local school board, and was long an active member of the Grand Army of the Republic.

  

A soldier cooks lunch for troops of the 2nd Brigade, 215th Corps. One of the Afghan army's largest challenges will be feeding and supplying its force independent of NATO and US support. While the 2nd Brigade has been complemented for its abilities, it continues to struggle with funding and supply issues.

Chesters Roman Fort, also known as Cilurnum, is a historic site located in Northumberland, England. It holds great significance as one of the best-preserved Roman cavalry forts in Britain. In this history of Chesters Roman Fort, we will explore its origins, its role in Roman Britain, and its legacy that still stands today.

 

Origins:

Chesters Roman Fort was built around AD 123 during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. It was constructed as part of Hadrian's Wall, a monumental defensive fortification that stretched across the width of northern Britain. The fort was strategically positioned near the River North Tyne, serving as a crucial military base to guard the eastern end of the wall. The name "Cilurnum" is believed to have Celtic origins, possibly referring to the nearby rocky hillside.

 

Military Significance:

The fort played a significant role in the Roman Empire's efforts to maintain control over the northern frontier. It housed a cohort of approximately 500 cavalry soldiers from the Second Asturian, a Spanish unit, known for their equestrian skills. These troops were responsible for patrolling the surrounding area, conducting reconnaissance missions, and providing support to other Roman forts along Hadrian's Wall.

 

Layout and Architecture:

Chesters Roman Fort was designed in a rectangular shape, covering an area of around 5 acres (2 hectares). The fort was enclosed by stone walls, fortified with defensive towers at regular intervals. It featured four main gates, one on each side, providing access to the interior. The fort's layout followed the standard Roman military design, with various buildings and facilities arranged around a central courtyard known as the principia. These included barracks, stables, granaries, a hospital, a commander's house (praetorium), and a headquarters building (principia).

 

Daily Life at the Fort:

The soldiers stationed at Chesters Roman Fort led a disciplined and structured life. Their daily routines involved training exercises, maintenance of weapons and equipment, and regular patrols. The fort had a well-organized system for supplies, with granaries providing food storage and a nearby river facilitating the transportation of goods. Soldiers would also engage in activities like cooking, crafting, and socializing during their downtime.

 

Interaction with the Local Community:

While Chesters Roman Fort primarily served as a military establishment, there was interaction between the Roman soldiers and the local communities. The fort's location near the river allowed for trade with nearby settlements, fostering economic ties. The soldiers would have also engaged in diplomatic efforts with local tribes and possibly recruited auxiliary troops from the native population.

 

Decline and Abandonment:

By the late 4th century, the Roman Empire faced numerous challenges, including barbarian invasions and internal struggles. The fort at Chesters, along with other Roman sites in Britain, began to decline in importance. The fort was likely abandoned by the early 5th century as the Roman legions were gradually withdrawn from Britain. With the collapse of Roman rule, the fort fell into disrepair and was eventually reclaimed by nature.

 

Rediscovery and Preservation:

The rediscovery of Chesters Roman Fort began in the 18th century when landowner John Clayton excavated the site. Clayton's work revealed the impressive remains of the fort, including well-preserved sections of the walls, gateways, and buildings. Recognizing the historical significance of the site, Clayton took steps to preserve it, purchasing the land and undertaking further excavations. He built a museum to house the artifacts and opened the site to the public in 1903.

 

Legacy and Tourism:

Today, Chesters Roman Fort stands as a testament to the engineering and military prowess of the Roman Empire. Visitors can explore the well-preserved remains of the fort, including the commanding officer's house, granaries, and the central courtyard. The site offers insights into the daily lives of Roman soldiers and provides a glimpse into the complex network of forts and walls that constituted Hadrian's Wall.

 

Chesters Roman Fort, or Cilurnum, remains an important historical and cultural site in Northumberland, England. It serves as a valuable link to the Roman occupation of Britain and offers visitors a unique opportunity to step back in time and immerse themselves in the ancient world of the Roman Empire.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

Does this look too much like Lord Danes faction?

KCS 4006 trails on 65K this morning as it passes through central PA

Jagdkommando (hunting force) troops of the Waffen-SS enter a small village near Kursk.

 

Jagdkommando units were small, lightly armed units who were tasked with mopping up the last remnants of partisan resistance and individual insurgents, saboteurs, and those that harbored them after major sweeps by other Axis forces.

 

Near Kursk, Kursk Oblast, Russia, Soviet Union. January 1943.

The New Zealand Provincial Reconstruction Team participates in a Tug-a-War challenge between teams from the various villages around the Bamian province, March 21. The Kiwis entered a team consisting of 15 volunteers, to compete against the strongest and toughest locals from Bamyan. The spectators cheered on as both teams entered the arena where the battle for bragging rights would take place. (State Department Photo/Eric Mehler)

Combined Joint Task Force - 82 PAO

Date: 03.21.2010

Location: Bamian, AF

Related News and Photos: dvidshub.net/r/8wgphx

 

Column of British troops on road close to hillside. Troops do not appear to be armed and may be prisoners of Turkish forces.

 

GB124.DPA/1991/372

Czech soldier and an afgan children.

A very good image.

On 25th of December, 2884 the SDR ground forces started their massive offensive campaign on Torifujiograd, one of few and controlled towns held by mercenary's forces. This massive battle should remain among other things in recollection, because it should come to the first contact between the unmanned Nutcracker tank of the SDR forces and SAFS unit of the mercenarys' army.

 

The fights at thr fringes and later in the snow-packed port area were violent and protracted. The outer districts had already been bombed during two weeks before over and over again by artillery fire and from the air - indeed, with only little military success. On the 25th of December a big ground offensive started, to finally penetrate to the harbour and the mercenary forces' command bases entrenched there.

 

The PzKGr. 45 took part in this campaign with a dozen light vehicles under the code name „Dead Snow“. The small group's prime task was to conquer the long distance communcation centres in Torifujiograds outer districts, or at least their elimination to further weaken the defence of the town.

This command enterprise was taken seriously by the army SDR and only the most modern material was used. While on the one hand the PKH 103 Nutcracker was used for the first time in the city centre to storm the strongly defended harbour areas, the new P.K.A Ausf M was used by commando troops like the PzKGr. 45. Additionally, light, mobile support vehicles like the HX-39 "Krampus" walking tanks, which were optimised for urban use, saw front line service. However, with strong losses only a partial success could be achieved after two days of violent street fights, before the PzKGr. 45 was de facto chafed - only achieving the destruction of Torifujiograd's telecommunication tower.

 

Remark:

The story is completely fictive, however, the events stick to the semi-official timeline of the Ma. K. universe and indicate the circumstances of the diorama's scenery.

  

Inspiration:

This diorama originated after long brooding for the "Dead Snow" competition in 2010/11, initiated by a local web forum similar to starshipmodelers.com. That it finally became a Ma.K. subject has several reasons. For once, my basic interest in the Ma. K. universe and Kow Yokoyamas designs. However, so far I had never had built something in this genre. But then the competition was a good occasion to connect this latent fascination with the basic subject of winter and violence. It was also helpful that I had recently acquired a box with Hobby Base Ma.K. collectible figures in 1:35 scale. These 'Melusine' combat suits in winter camouflage were basically the starting point around which I designed this diorama scene.

  

The draught:

All in all I had eight figures at disposal, partly even with open bonnets (but unfortunately, without inner life), and I wanted to use this pure mass for the diorama. Basic idea was an advance scene of Melusine suits in the snow. While rummaging in the literature I came across the SDR raid on Torifujiograd as a „historical event“. Consequently, the idea of a wintry street scene with house walls/ruins hardened.

 

The base plate should not be greater than 30x20cm – a personal standard measure for my glass cabinets at home. With first arrangement tests it became quickly clear fast that an exclusive display of Melusine suits would not "work". An additional focus object was needed, as a visual and thematic counterpart. The problem: in 1:35 there is hardly anything suitable "from the rack". Even though Hasegawa's brand new Nutcracker kit would have been an option, it was too large too expensive, too dominant, and its date of delivery to Germany would have been too uncertain... So only manual labour remained, and the idea of a self-built, small retro walking tank in the style of MiG Production's KV-2X took life.

  

A walking tank as an extra:

Concerning the HX-39, see also the more detailed separate pictures and comments on that kit. The model was vaguely inspired by the Ma.K. "Gladiator" from the mercenary's troops: a four-legged vehicle of compact size. Because time was scarce, however I decided not to build completely from scratch but rather use 'material from the shelve', combining primarily two models with each other. What sounds simple, however, took quite a lot of search time in order to find suitable donation kits which would match stylistically. The result has become quite consistent in my opinion and from the lines at least not unplausible for the Ma.K. universe: the HX-39 "Krampus".

 

The body of this small walking tank comes from a Hotchkiss H-39, a light French artillery tank from the early 2nd world war period. The polystyrene model in 1:35 comes from TRUMPETER. The legs and their complete suspension come from a resin kit, a recast of a small SF walking tank from the Japanese 'Junk tank rock '-model series, a TACO-34M 'Beetle'.

Some spare parts from this kit like the commander's cupola or the laser weapon found their way on the new small tank in services of the SDR army. Numerous other individual parts also found their way into the model, among other things generic parts of a 'Roof Details'-set in HO scale from Coernerstone Modulars. From these elements, e.g., the machine block was built.

 

Reference for the painting of the "Krampus" were the Melusine figures. They carry a winter camouflage which reminds of airplanes of the German air force during the second world war at the eastern front: White/light grey tempera colour on dark green, with yellow marking stripes. The Krampus should just become a minor element in the diorama, however, and, therefore not stick out with exotic extras or flashy colours. Though the model was a piece of work of its own, however, it is only to be seen as an accessory in the bigger diorama ensemble.

  

The Melusine figures are reworked:

The Hobby Base figures are unexpectedly well printed and hardly leave open wishes. Basically there are three bodies/poses, three weapons/arms and three painting variations available. The suits are even marked with individual numbers!

However, one major disadvantage is that the figures are made out of soft vinyl and show now and then downpour burrs which are hardly to be mended on account of the soft, tough material. Arms and legs are simply connected to the figures' body, so they can be modified and exchanged with little effort – what I have partly used to simulate running figures or to change an arm for a better pose in the scenery.

 

Only little was changed concerning the figures' paint finish. Merely some of the numbers have been painted by hand to avoid doubles, assigning individual numbers to every figure. Furthermore, the interior of the open suits has been refined – among other things, pilots figure busts were "implanted". For these, some rummaging was necessary, too, but I made a find, finally, with a modern Israeli tank crew from ACADEMY.

 

In order to make the troops not to look too uniformly, the camouflage of two suits was changed: One Melusine (number 7) received a grey pattern, another (number 8, with open bonnet) a mottled pattern in green grey.

 

Moreover, almost all figures received personal markings with decals from the scrap box, e.g., nose art like comic eyes, mascots, even a Coraya heart, "kill marks" even a "Kölle Alaaf" banner for the commander with the number 1. Everything only little things, but these details make the diorama look much more lively.

 

From the total pool of eight figures I chose seven for the diorama which were arranged in three thematic scenes, together with the walking tank:

 

Commander of the troop (number 1) with two subordinates in direct conversation, partly with open hatches.

 

Two Melusine with hand weapons marching past in front of the HX-39 at a trot, to the frontline of the battle which is not shown in the diorama but ideally to the left „beyond the picture“.

 

A Melusine stands with the back to the viewer and instructs the HX-39 driver to wait, until the foot troop has explored and secured the next corner. Another Melusine stands beside HX-39 – he has no active function in the scene, fills primarily the emptiness under the bay window.

  

Building the diorama:

The base is formed by a 10mm MDF board. On it a 10mm-layer of styrofoam was glued – the soft subsoil would later permit "blows" to the street, creating an uneven surface. Around this base skirt from 2mm balsa wood was glued and later painted black.

 

Themantically, a street scenery with fight tracks should be shown, after light snowfall in winter. A house ruin which should overlook a street corner came to the left, rear corner. This outer wall is a prepainted plaster kit which was adapted, however, to the circumstances and refined, e.g., with nailed up windows in the ground floor (with the low depth behind the windows I found the "installation" of rubble impractical) and the rubble in the 1st floor bay window. Additionally I applied a new/better painting and ageing with easy watercolors and brick-drilling dust. The smoke traces are real!

 

In front of and around the building came an approx. 5 cm wide sidewalk which was brought on higher level to the street with 3mm balsa wood. For the surface finish I simply used pre-printed cardboards from Busch - actually for HO scale, but these looked very realistic and "non-uniform" that I ventured the application here instead of a complete do-it-yourself construction with plaster and paint. Most of it would disappear layter under rubble and snow, anyway.

 

The bay window of the house defined the position for the planned street lights on the sidewalks, on the left and on the right in the streets. The lamps are scratch constructions from brass and polystyrene pipes, the luminous bodies at the top are protective bonnets for syringes...

 

In order to hold figures and lamps, vertical drillings were put through the MDF base plate into which soft iron wires were glued as holders. Especially the running Melusine figures needed this extra hold. The Krampus stands on own legs, the kit is simply removable.

 

The HX-39 stands on the street on the right side and forms a counterpole to the building to the left. It serves at the same time as optical divider between the three Melusine scenes.

Small stone and rubble heaps as well as snowy heaps on the street from broken plaster leftovers, sand, shell shards as well as a few resin bricks also support the visual structure of the diorama. Spanish riders (Italieri) and barbed wire barricades (specialised trade) on the street provide offer additional details and enhance spatial separation. Fine sand and drilling dust bring mess on the street (and cover the good-looking paving, unfortunately, almost completely...), some longer grass from paintbrush bristle on the house wall and dry moss which forms ivy tendrils "animates" the hopeless scenario and fills some empty places beside the figures. I tried to fill almost and spot with a minor detail in order to enhance the impression of density and hurry. Consequently, the figures have been consciously distributed rather evenly across the area, so that the viewer cannot grasp the whole scenery at once – it should "resonate" with the whole arrangement a sort of hectic rush in the front section.

  

The snow comes to the country:

After basic work was done, everything was to be sealed under a thin layer of snow. To enhance the winter impression, even self-made icicles from white glue were used for decoration.

For the "snowfall process" everything was made wet with relaxed water and was sprinkled carefully, in many thin layers, with white joint mortar, resulting in a fluffy, thin snowy cover. A clinical-kitschy snow cover was to be avoided, though. I rather wanted to create the impression as if something had already happened there – thus as if already the first fight troop had passed through, and now the special command moves up to the front line.

 

Mush was formed by partial mixes of joint mortar with toned water. The puddles in the depressions in the road pavement have been poured out, finally, with brown coloured white glue what has a good, sculptural effect and light shine (like frozen water).

 

After drying everything was fixed with a water/white glue mixture as well as hair spray. Afterwards, the base of the diorama and its balsa skirt was painted, and as a final step a layer of acrylic matte varnish sealed everything.

Title: Views from Columbus.

 

Creator: Unknown

 

Date: ca. 1911-1917

 

Part Of: American border troops and the Mexican Revolution

 

Place: Columbus, Luna County, New Mexico

 

Physical Description: 1 photographic print (postcard): gelatin silver; 9 x 14 cm

 

File: ag1982_0015_136c_guns.jpg

 

Rights: Please cite DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University when using this file. A high-resolution version of this file may be obtained for a fee. For details see the sites.smu.edu/cul/degolyer/research/permissions/ web page. For other information, contact degolyer@smu.edu.

 

For more information and to view the image in high resolution, see: digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/mex/id/2587

 

View the Mexico: Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints Collection

Marilyn & the Diamond Bellas sing and dance their way into the hearts of all the men (and probably some of the women) lining the streets outside of Macy's in Universal Studios Orlando. This is a fun show where the Marilyn Monroe look-alike performs many of the songs that the famous blonde bombshell is known for.

First World War leather bound album comprising images of United States troops at home and on service in England, with additional photographs of nurses, families and children etc.

 

GB124.DPA/D214/18/16

Radiotelephoto

New York Bureau

Liberator Pauses for Prayer

France - An American soldier pauses in the battle for the liberation of the people of France and the whole of Nazi-enslaved Europe for a brief moment of meditation at a way-side shrine set deep in a wooded grove. Just a moment’s pause and then this soldier will once more move on with the advancing Allied troops cracking Hitler’s Fortress wide open.

Credit: Signal Corps Radiotelephoto from ACME

Un soldat américain accoudé à la grille d'un calvaire à Sainte-Marie-du-Mont.

Même vue p011579:

www.flickr.com/search/?w=58897785@N00&q=p011579

Il porte dans le dos sa carabine M1, voir ici:

www.flickr.com/photos/mlq/4375578813/

Localisation du calvaire de "la Gallie"

www.flickr.com/photos/mlq/4658994559/

Au début de ce film:

www.criticalpast.com/video/65675038182_American-troops_mo...

Photo parue dans:

"Spokane Daily Chronicle" du 14 juin 1944, page 13 du scan

news.google.com/newspapers?nid=ddB7do2jUx8C&dat=19440...; St. Joseph Gazette " du 15 juin 1944, page 2

news.google.com/newspapers?nid=VJOaslTFpLQC&dat=19440...

"The Tuscaloosa News" du 15 juin 1944:

news.google.com/newspapers?nid=XUmZziu-z7kC&dat=19440...

For the War of the Brothers on Eurobricks.

Five soldiers silhouetted against the sky. Rays of sun burst through dark clouds to create a dramatic and atmospheric shot. They are all wearing steel helmets, and three of them are clearly carrying rifles and backpacks.

 

The Battle of Broodseinde (October 1917) was part of a larger offensive - the third Battle of Ypres - engineered by Sir Douglas Haig to capture the Passchendaele Ridge.

 

[Original reads: 'BATTLE OF BROODSEYNDE [sic] RIDGE. - TROOPS MOVING UP AT EVENTIDE. MEN OF A YORKSHIRE REGIMENT ON THE MARCH.']

 

digital.nls.uk/74546492

Of the thousands of American aircraft shot down during the Vietnam War, well over half were lost to antiaircraft fire—most in the close air support role for troops in contact on the ground. In the latter half of the war, when the North Vietnamese Army switched to a more conventional style of attack using tanks, both the US Air Force and the US Army found that they lacked a decent antitank aircraft. This deeply concerned both services: if a conventional war should erupt in Central Europe with the Warsaw Pact, Soviet forces would employ mass tank attacks, which the Army would be hard-pressed to stop alone, and might require use of tactical nuclear weapons.

 

With these factors in mind, the USAF commissioned the A-X study in 1967, issuing a requirement for a dedicated ground attack fighter with special emphasis on antitank weaponry and survivability—A-X study groups of the responding companies were asked to review specialized World War II-era antitank aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik and the Henschel Hs 129, both of which employed heavy cannon armament and armor protection. World War II’s top aerial tank killer, German pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel, was brought in as a consultant.

 

By 1972, the USAF had narrowed down its prospects to the Northrop A-9 and Fairchild-Republic A-10, both of which had first flown in May 1972. Based on its maneuverability, survivability, and Republic’s reputation for building hardy aircraft (including the P-47 Thunderbolt and F-105 Thunderchief), the A-10 was chosen as the A-X in 1973 and went into full production as the A-10A Thunderbolt II in 1976.

 

When it entered service a year later, it immediately turned heads. Unlike the sleek “teen fighters” such as the F-15 and F-16 entering USAF service at the same time, the A-10 seemed almost dumpy in comparison, and its slow speed and hideous appearance quickly earned it the moniker of “Warthog,” a name that stuck far more than Thunderbolt II. However, the throwback straight wing and airliner engines hid a superb combat aircraft. The A-10 was built literally around a titanic GAU-8 Avenger 30mm gatling cannon, the largest such weapon ever built in the West, capable of firing 4000 rounds a minute—with each soda-bottle sized round made of hyperdense depleted uranium capable of slicing through tank armor. Firing the GAU-8 put such forces on the aircraft that it would immediately lower the speed, to the point that pilots reported being thrown forward in their straps, while the gun gases were capable of causing compressor stalls. If that was not enough, the A-10 was provided with a dozen underwing hardpoints capable of carrying every bomb in the USAF’s inventory, along with TV-guided AGM-65 Maverick missiles. Laser guided bombs could also be carried thanks to a Pave Penny designator attached to the right side of the fuselage.

 

Survivability was paramount in the A-10’s design. The cockpit was surrounded by a titanium “bathtub” impervious to cannon rounds below 30 millimeter size—an important consideration given the Soviet Union’s employment of the lethal ZSU-23 self-propelled antiaircraft gun that had wreaked havoc among Israeli forces in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The high-bypass turbofan engines were mounted high on the rear fuselage, apart from each other to better resist damage, while their placement behind the wing and forward of the twin tails both masked them from ground fire and reduced their infrared footprint. The fuel tanks are protected by foam and two small tanks are designed to keep a small reserve in the unlikely event all four interior fuel tanks were penetrated. Redundancy and simplicity are meant to keep the aircraft aloft even after heavy damage, while the semi-recessed wheels reduce the damage caused by a belly landing. The A-10 was also designed to operate from austere forward bases and be capable of quick turnarounds in combat. Finally, though the straight wing seemed a throwback to World War II, it had been proven by the A-1 Skyraider in Vietnam that a straight wing, combined with comparatively slow speed, made an aircraft very maneuverable. Pilots reported the A-10 to be easy to fly, though difficult on long missions because of the lack of an autopilot.

 

A-10s were quickly deployed to Central Europe, waiting for the mass Soviet tank attack that would never come. In bad weather common to Europe, it was found that if the A-10 had a weakness, it was its lack of all-weather capability, and given that the aircraft was meant to operate from very low level, this could be a real problem in wartime. There were also concerns that, even with the A-10’s durability, it was still too vulnerable to ground fire and surface-to-air missiles. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact in 1989, the USAF saw no purpose for the A-10 and prepared to retire them from service in favor of more F-16s.

 

The First Gulf War saved the Warthog. Employed in the desert, where weather was less of a problem, the A-10 proved to be devastating to Iraqi tank crews, breaking up attacks on Coalition forces, and inflicting catastrophic damage on the so-called “Highway of Death” north of Kuwait City. Four A-10s were lost during the conflict, none to ground fire. So valuable was the A-10’s long loiter time and massive firepower that US Army commanders informed the USAF that, if the latter service got rid of the A-10, the Army would buy them back. The A-10 would see extensive service in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq (again). Each time, Warthog units posted mission capable rates exceeding 85 percent. The type’s durability was also proven, with one aircraft coming back during the First Gulf War missing most of its left wing and one engine, and another in the Second Gulf War after complete loss of hydraulics.

 

With the realization that the only replacement for the A-10 would be another A-10, the USAF in 2008 began upgrading the A-10As in service to A-10Cs, with new wings, autopilot, GPS, “glass” multifunction cockpit, and true all-weather capability in the form of LANTIRN navigation pods. A number of A-10s are used in the forward air control role, with additional radios, as OA-10As, but functionally do not differ from regular A-10s. The type is now intended to remain in service until 2025.

 

80-0168 first served with the 81st TFW at RAF Bentwaters in Great Britain. When the 81st closed shop at Bentwaters, it was transferred to the 355th TFW at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona, then retired to the AMARG boneyard in 2000. After 9/11 and the beginning of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, 80-0168 was returned to service to the 355th, where it saw service over Iraq. In 2013, it was decided not to convert 80-0168 to A-10C standard and it was retired for good. The aircraft was donated to the 122nd Fighter Wing (Indiana ANG) at Fort Wayne, where it is displayed at their small airpark off the front gate.

 

80-0168 wears the current two shades of gray camouflage used by USAF A-10s, which was found to be far more effective over the desert than the green "Europe One" scheme used earlier. It also carries the 122nd's current "IN" tailcode rather than the earlier "FW," and a "Fort Wayne" tail stripe.

 

As the nickname of the 122nd is the "Blacksnakes," it carries a unique take on the A-10's traditional sharkmouth--a profile of a rattlesnake's head. If it was possible to make the A-10 look any more sinister, the snake's head does it.

 

I took this photo on a cloudy morning at Fort Wayne in May 2017.

Airborne Troops. Photo by O.Shepelev

Djiboutian troops serving under the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) hoist the Djiboutian flag at a medal award ceremony in Beletweyne, Somalia, on 15 February 2022.

 

AMISOM Photo

First World War leather bound album comprising images of United States troops at home and on service in England, with additional photographs of nurses, families and children etc.

 

GB124.DPA/D214/18/4

Title: Camp of U.S. Troops, Veracruz, Mex. Part of 4th U.S. Inf. Camp

 

Creator: Unknown

 

Date: ca. 1914

 

Part Of: American border troops and the Mexican Revolution

 

Place: Veracruz, Veracruz-Llave, Mexico

 

Physical Description: 1 photographic print (postcard): gelatin silver

 

File: ag1982_0015_031r_us_camp_veracruz.jpg

 

Rights: Please cite DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University when using this file. A high-resolution version of this file may be obtained for a fee. For details see the sites.smu.edu/cul/degolyer/research/permissions/ web page. For other information, contact degolyer@smu.edu.

 

For more information and to view the image in high resolution, see: digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/mex/id/315

 

View the Mexico: Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints Collection

This hand coloured glass lantern slide shows three unidentified Australian soldiers: one soldier crouching in shade of bush reading map as other two stand lookout.

 

Find out more about this image, or download a hi-res copy, by checking out our catalogue: handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/43477

President Bush have meal with US Troops Photo by: David Valdez

Victory Show 2013

Légende: Beni, Province du Nord Kivu, RD Congo : le 20 décembre 2018: Le Commandant de la Force de la MONUSCO, le Lieutenant Général Elias Rodrigues Martins Filho, s’est rendu à Beni hier 20 décembre 2018 pour une mission opérationnelle, accompagné de plusieurs officiers de son état-major, pour échanger avec la brigade d’intervention de la Force (FIB). A cette occasion, il a accordé un entretien à l’antenne de Radio Okapi à Beni. Photo MONUSCO / Myriam Asmani

Caption: Beni, North Kivu Province , DR Congo: MONUSCO Force Commander Lt. Gen. Elias Rodrigues Martins Filho visited Beni yesterday 20 December 2018 for an operational mission. He was accompanied by several officers from his staff; the objective of this mission was to interact with the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB). On this occasion, he granted an interview to Radio Okapi Beni. Photo MONUSCO / Myriam Asmani

   

Chesapeake, Virginia is a great place for history buffs. Since the arrival of colonial settlers in 1620, Chesapeake has played a major role in the birth of the United States of America. In fact, Chesapeake is home to the Battle of Great Bridge. This Revolutionary War battle helped solidify the Continental Army's reclaim on Virginia and drive the British Government from the colony.

 

Early morning on December 9, 1775, British troops advanced over the Great Bridge toward a waiting militia. Ordered to hold fire by Captain Travis, patriot troops waited as the British troops drew nearer. Seeing the militia's inactivity, British captain Fordyce believed that they had abandoned their redoubt and proclaimed, "The day is our own!" It was at this point that the patriot troops sprung to action and dolled a devastating blow to British troops, forcing them to turn back.

 

To honor our heritage, Chesapeake hosts an annual reenactment event each December to retell the story of the battle to new generations. Join Chesapeake each year for this two-day event, and step back in time to revisit two important Revolutionary War Battles - the Battle at Kemps Landing and the Battle of Great Bridge. The event includes war encampments, demonstrations, character portrayals, children's activities and more. Come take part in history with Chesapeake's very own reenactment of this celebrated battle while Red Weasel Media RWM captures this action packed event.

_SA91148

troops

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

 

Some background:

Following World War II the Allies dissolved the Wehrmacht with all its branches on 20 August 1946. However, already one year after the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany in May 1949 and because of its increasing links with the West, the Consultative Assembly of Europe began to consider the formation of a European Defence Community with German participation on 11 August 1950.

 

By March 1954, plans for a new German army had become concrete and foresaw the formation of six infantry, four armored, and two mechanized infantry divisions, as the German contribution to the defense of Western Europe in the framework of a European Defence Community. Following a decision at the London Nine Power Conference of 28 September to 3 October 1954, Germany's entry into NATO effective from 9 May 1955 was accepted as a replacement for the failed European Defence Community plan.

 

The official founding date of the German army was 12 November 1955 when the first soldiers began their service in Andernach, even though preparations began earlier. In 1956, the first troops set up seven training companies in Andernach and began the formation of schools and training centers. On 1 April 1957, the first conscripts arrived for service in the army. The first military organisations created were instructional battalions, officer schools, and the Army Academy, the forerunner to the Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr in Hamburg. In total twelve armored and infantry divisions were to be established by 1959, as planned in Army Structure I. To achieve this goal, existing units were split approximately every six months. However, the creation of all twelve divisions did not take place until 1965. At the end of 1958 the strength of the army was about 100,000 men.

 

Concerning vehicles, the German army was equipped at first with American material, such as the M47 Patton main battle tank or M7 Priest SPGs. Lighter vehicles, like the “Schützenpanzer Kurz 11-2” family or the “Schützenpanzer Lang HS-30” AFV, were developed and/or produced with foreign support. Additionally, also as a measure to bring the German industry back into business and to fill equipment gaps, some leftover vehicles from WWII were modernized and put back into service. One of these vehicles was the so-called “Spähpanzer Puma (Neu)”, an update of the highly successful SdKfz. 234/2 8x8 heavy reconnaissance vehicle, one of the best armored scout vehicles during WWII.

 

Germany had a long and successful history of heavy 8x8 scout cars, starting with the SdKfz. 231 in the Thirties. The Sd.Kfz. 234 was the final development of this vehicle family that actually made it into service. For its time, the Sd.Kfz. 234 incorporated several innovative features, including a monocoque chassis (instead of a classic frame with a hull mounted on top), an independent suspension on each wheel and an air-cooled Tatra 103 diesel engine (at the time of the vehicle’s design all German armored vehicles were powered by gasoline engines) with a net power of 220 hp@2,250 rpm and a very good power-to-weight ratio of 21 hp/ton. This engine gave also the vehicle an extraordinary range of more than 600 miles (1.000 km). The reason behind this was that the SdKfz. 234 was originally intended for use in North Africa, but it came into service in late 1942 and was therefore too late for this theatre of operations. Furthermore, the vehicle featured eight-wheel steering and drive and was able to change direction quickly thanks to a second, rear-facing, driver's seat. Despite its late service introduction, the SdKfz. 234 nevertheless proved useful on the Eastern and Western Fronts. It was quite formidable, commonly used in pairs, one equipped with a long-range radio communications kit while the other possessed only a short-range radio.

 

A small number of SdKfz. 234s survived the wartime on German soil and had been stashed away as a reserve. Their reactivation for the nascent Bundeswehr in the Fifties covered the replacement of the outdated Tatra engine, for which no spare parts were available anymore, with an air-cooled, supercharged Magirus-Deutz V8 Diesel engine. It had less power (125 kW/180 hp) than the former Tatra V12, but was more reliable and offered more torque and an even better mileage. Furthermore, this was basically a standard engine that was widely used in civil lorries and many other military vehicles of the time, including those operated by the West-German Bundesheer, too. Thanks to the smaller size of the new engine, sound-damping materials could be added and the exhaust system was optimized, so that the vehicle’s noise level was considerably reduced. The additional internal space was also used for two communication kits: a short-range radio was installed in the new turret (see below), while a long-range radio kit was placed into the hull, next to the rear driver.

The suspension was modernized and beefed up, too, with heavy duty shock absorbers, wider wheels and a pressure control system, so that ground pressure could be reduced by the crew from the inside of the vehicle for an adaptable, improved on- and off-road performance. The SdKfz. 234’s crew of four in its former positions was retained, including the second, backwards-facing steering wheel for the radio operator.

 

Since the West German SdKfz. 234 survivor fleet consisted of different body variants (mostly with open hulls and just two former SdKfz. 234/2s with a closed turret) and vehicles in various states of completion, hull and the armament were unified for the Puma (Neu): all revamped vehicles received a newly developed, welded two-man turret with a low profile. The commander on the left side did not have a cupola, but his position was slightly raised and no less than seven mirrors plus a forward-facing infrared sight for night operations allowed a very good field of view. Both crewmen in the hull also received additional three mirrors above their workstations for a better field of view while driving.

 

Main weapon of the Puma (Neu) became a 20 mm Rheinmetall MK 20 Rh202 autocannon, a license-built Hispano-Suiza 820 L/85, together with a co-axial 7.62 mm MG42/57 light machine gun. The MK 20 was a common anti-aircraft weapon at the time and mounted to other Bundeswehr vehicles like the HS-30 AFV, too. It could fire HE and AP rounds at 800–1000 RPM, making it efficient against lightly armored vehicles (25-30 mm of armor) at up to 1,500 m range, with a maximum range of 2,000 m. 750 rounds of 20 mm ammunition were carried, even though ammunition feed had to be changed manually. The weapons were not stabilized, but they had a 15x15 periscopic sight and could be elevated between -5° and + 75°, so that it could be aimed at both ground and air targets. Three additional smoke grenade launchers per turret side were provided for tactical and emergency concealment.

 

Only a small number (40 plus two prototypes) of Spähpanzer Puma (Neu) were eventually converted or re-build from spares, but they became in 1957 the launch equipment of the Bundeswehr’s armored reconnaissance brigades, together with M8 Greyhound scout cars donated by the USA, even though the latter were soon complemented and replaced by tracked vehicles, based on the Schützenpanzer Kurz. However, due to their high road speed and excellent range, the Puma (Neu) scout cars were popular and remained in service until the late Seventies, when a new generation of 8x8 reconnaissance vehicles in the form of the amphibious Spähpanzer Luchs was introduced and replaced all 1st generation Bundeswehr vehicles.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Four (commander, gunner, driver, radio operator/2nd driver)

Weight: 10.500 kg (23,148 lbs)

Length: 6.02 m (19 ft 9 in)

Width: 2.36 m (7 ft 9 in)

Height: 2.84 metres (9 ft 4 in)

Suspension: Independent on each wheel, with leaf springs

Track width: 1.95 m (6 ft 4 1/2 in)

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 2m (6 ft 6 1/2 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 240 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) steel armor

 

Performance:

Maximum road speed: 80 km/h (49 mph)

Operational range: 800 km (500 mi)

Fuel consumption: 30 l/100 km on roads, 45 l/100 km off-road

Power/weight: 17 PS/t

 

Engine:

Air-cooled, supercharged 10,622 cc (648³ in) Magirus-Deutz F8L 614K V8 diesel engine,

with 132 kW (180 hp) output at 2.500 RPM

 

Transmission:

Büssing-NAG "GS" with 6 forward and reverse gears, eight-wheel drive

 

Armament:

1× 20 mm (0.79 in) Rheinmetall (Hispano-Suiza) MK 20 Rh202 autocannon with 750 rounds

1× co-axial 7.62 mm MG42/57 light machine gun 2.000 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This German 8x8 vehicle is a contribution to the “Back into service” Group Build at whatifmodelers.com in late 2019. Beyond aircraft I also thought about (armored) vehicles that could fit into this theme, and the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma” (even though this popular name was never official!) came to my mind, because it was a very effective vehicle with many modern features for its time. So, what could a modernized Puma for the young Bundeswehr look like…?

 

The starting point became the very nice Hasegawa SdKfz. 234/2 kit, which did not – except for some PSR between the hull halves – pose any complications. I did not want to change too much for the Bundeswehr update, but new/wider wheels and a new, more modern turret with a light post-war weapon appeared sensible.

 

The wheels come from a ModelTrans aftermarket resin set for the LAV-25 – they are quite modern, but they do not look out of place. Their different, more solid style as well as the slightly bigger diameter and the wider tires change the Puma’s look considerably. In order to mount them, I modified the suspension and cut away the former attachment point on the four axles, replacing them with thin, die-punched styrene discs. This reduced the track width far enough so that the new, wider wheels would fit under the original mudguards. It’s a tight arrangement, but does not look implausible. The spare wheel, normally mounted to the vehicle’s rear, was omitted.

 

The turret was taken from a Revell “Luchs” Spähpanzer kit, but simplified so that it would have a more vintage look. For instance, the machine gun ring mount above the commander’s hatch was omitted, as well as the rotating warning light and the modern smoke grenade dischargers. The latter were replaced by the WWII triple dischargers from the Hasegawa kit, for a more vintage look.

To my astonishment, the Luchs turret was easy to mate with the Puma chassis: its attachment ring diameter was almost identical! The new part could be attached almost without a problem or modification. I just added some reinforcements to the hull’s flanks, since the Luchs turret is slightly wider than the SdKfz. 234/2’s horseshoe-shaped turret. Beyond that, only small, cosmetic things were added, like mirror fairings for both drivers above their workstations, license plates at the front and the rear and antennae.

  

Painting and markings:

Creating an early Bundeswehr vehicle is a simple task, because there is only one potential color option until the Eighties: a uniform livery in Gelboliv (RAL 6014). Due to the livery’s simplicity, I used a rattle can to paint hull, turret and wheels separately.

 

After some detail painting, a very dark brown wash with acrylic paint and some post shading with Revell 42 (also Gelboliv, but a rather greenish and bright interpretation of the tone) as well as dry-brushing with Revell 46 and 45 along the many edges were used to weather the model and emphasize details. After decals had been applied (mostly from a Peddinghaus sheet for early Bundeswehr vehicles, plus some tactical markings from the Revell Luchs), the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish.

 

Once dry and completed, some artist pigments were added around the wheels and lower hull in order to simulate dust and dirt. On the lower chassis, some pigments were also "cluttered" onto small patches of the acrylic varnish, so that the stuff soaks it up, builds volume and becomes solid - the perfect simulation of dry mud crusts. I found the uniform livery to look quite dull, so I added some branches (real moss, spray-painted with dark green acrylic paint from a rattle can) to the hull – a frequent field practice.

  

This was a very quick project – in fact, the model was completed in the course of just one evening, and painting it was a quick affair, too, lasting only another day. However, I like the result. The SdKfz. 234/2 already had a quite modern look in its original guise, but the new wheels and the Luchs turret change its look considerably, it really has an even more modern feel that fits well into the early Bundeswehr era.

 

The Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Canadian Regiment, Prince Philip, dropped into Toronto to present the 3rd Battalion with their Regimental Colours. A ceremonial flag that carries the battle honours of the Regiment. The old Colours had simply become too worn and damaged and needed replacement. Before the parade/ceremony the Prince arrived at Queens Park to witness a number of soldiering demonstrations, snipers, weapons, soldiers rapelling down buildings and a parachute jump were all part of the show - and that was before the ceremony. The 91-year Prince seemed to try and engage with as many of the soldiers as possible, easily switching between seriousness to a quick laugh/smile with the troops. In this capture he's noticed the unusual sights/scope on the carbine.

www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/story/2013/04/27/prince-ph...

 

Some of my US troops. Showing off the uniform jackets and equipment I fixed up, as all had been quite terribly sunbleached.

A little light entertainment when the march came to a temporary standstill on Cambie Bridge, there were too many of us..

 

An estimated 5,000 people turned out for the march to protest the Kinder Morgan pipeline, which will bring crude oil and refined petroleum from the oil sands in Alberta to Vancouver, British Columbia, presumably to be shipped to China. This will increase tanker traffic in and is a danger to our already threatened marine life in the Inside Passage, where two recent spills in two months have already occurred this year. An estimated 5,000 protesters joined the march, from the City Hall to the downtown library.

 

Vancouver, BC

On the left is my Urag Brute.

 

On the right is my USDF Staff-Man (unmasked).

 

&^D

07-07-2019 - Yorkshire War Experiance 2019

Troops march past

After troops were honored for their service, Washington Redskins cheerleaders dance during the Washington Redskins and Dallas Cowboys game at FedEx Field in Landover, Md., Dec. 30, 2012. The troops were honored at the game by USAA in front of more than 82,000 fans. The Redskins won 28-18 to advance into the playoffs. (U.S. Army photo by Sgt. 1st Class Mark Burrell, Joint Public Affairs Support Element)

Washington, D.C., USA

Photos by Sgt. 1st Class Marco Ortizshaemaker

 

www.usaraf.army.mil

 

D-Day Ride: Normandy bike trek motivates Vicenza’s WTU troops

 

By Rick Scavetta, U.S. Army Africa

 

VICENZA, Italy – Two Soldiers from Caserma Ederle’s Warrior Transition Unit pedaled through a 400-kilometer bike ride recently in Normandy – a feat they said has marked progress toward personal recovery.

 

Spc. Joshua Grant and Spc. Joshua Doyle were among the hundreds of bicyclists on the “Liberty Trail” ride – a three-day tour across the Cotentin Peninsula where U.S. troops fought in June 1944, during World War II.

 

Cyclists from several U.S. military communities in Europe participated in the ride, that coincided with June 6 memorial observances of D-Day – the Allied landings along the Norman coast. Although the ride was recreational – meaning non-competitive – it was nonetheless challenging for participants.

 

“I found something out about myself along the way,” said Doyle, 27 of Syracuse, NY. “There were times when I wanted to quit, but I didn’t. I either dug deep or found encouragement from other riders.”

 

Following church services in Périers, the ride began. Along the way, riders paid homage to Soldiers who fought and died among the hamlets and hedgerows. Cheering crowds lined roads near Sainte-Mère-Église and other towns along the route. The group stopped for ceremonies at war memorials.

 

At Utah Beach, where the 4th Infantry made its landing, cyclists carried flags of allied forces during a memorial service. Grant was asked to carry a European Union flag.

 

“It was humbling, standing there on the beach, thinking those guys had to cross more than 200 meters of sand to the enemy gun positions,” Grant said.

 

Grant, 27 of Raleigh, NC, served with the 1st Battalion, 503rd Infantry in Afghanistan in 2007. Grant has cycled for years. In fact, he is often pumping his way around Vicenza’s hills, logging up to 100 kilometers a ride, up to four times a week.

 

Still, since Afghanistan, Grant often felt he was unable to do things like this before, he said. Long rides through the same countryside where U.S. Soldiers battled German troops, gave Grant something to focus upon and in turn, motivated him to continue toward his goal of racing in triathlons. The challenge was both mental and physical, Grant said.

 

“It was a perfect opportunity to increase my time on the bike,” Grant said. “I proved to myself that I’m not just a guy who can’t do anything. I definitely know now that I can pursue whatever I want and finish it.”

 

Maj. Dan. Kolva, a U.S. Army Africa officer who also went on the ride, found himself inspired by the WTU Soldiers.

 

“Both Grant and Doyle did really well,” said Kolva, who has been cycling for several years. “It was inspiring to see these guys take this on.”

 

The Army began creating WTUs in 2007, to support Soldiers requiring focused care to heal from wounds – both physical and mental – sustained while serving in uniform. While assigned to the WTU, Soldiers have one mission – to heal.

 

Sgt. 1st Class Marco Ortizshaemaker, 44, never rode such a long way. But the WTU squad leader went to support his Soldiers, he said.

 

“I had no riding experience. It seemed like a challenging thing to do,” Ortizshaemaker said. “It was!”

 

More than 30 people from U.S. military communities in Europe took part. Each day’s route was roughly 130 kilometers, broken up into four legs. They would stop for a snack or lunch along the way.

 

At times, the route pushed Doyle to his limit, he said. Doyle served with the 25th Infantry Division in Afghanistan and Iraq. He was assigned to the WTU eight months ago. One day at Caserma Ederle’s post office, Doyle saw the ride advertised in the Outlook, the weekly garrison newspaper. What first seemed like a good reason to visit France, turned into a personal challenge.

 

By the time he sent in his ride application, reality hit Doyle. He had no riding experience. He borrowed a WTU loaner bike and hit the pavement. At Caserma Ederle’s fitness center, Doyle would log from 30 to 90 kilometers on the stationary bike daily.

 

After serving downrange, Doyle said he felt he’d lost some self esteem. Being part of the WTU has helped, especially the support from the staff, he said. The ride in Normandy has solidified his resolve.

 

“This ride gave me back some confidence in myself, that I can do this sort of thing again,” Doyle said.

 

www.usaraf.army.mil

 

'Blasts from the past' - Broadlands Estate, UK. Aug 6th 2011.

View of Pakistan army troops standing over the body of a dead Indian soldier during fighting in the Jessore district of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in December 1971. Pakistan Army troops are currently fighting Bangladesh and Indian Army forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War. (Photo by Rolls Press/Popperfoto/Getty Images)

 

December 01, 1971