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Carambola, or star fruit, is the fruit of Averrhoa carambola, a species of tree native to Indonesia, the Philippines, and throughout Malesia.[1] The fruit is commonly consumed throughout Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, Micronesia, and parts of East Asia. The tree is cultivated throughout tropical areas.
The fruit has distinctive ridges running down its sides (usually five but can occasionally vary); when cut in cross-section, it resembles a star, hence its name.[1] The entire fruit is edible and is usually eaten out of hand. They may also be used in cooking and can be made into relishes, preserves, and juice drinks.
The original range of Averrhoa carambola is believed to be from Sri Lanka or Indonesia,[1] but has been cultivated in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia for hundreds of years. They remain a local favorite in those areas but have also recently gained popularity in parts of East Asiaand Queensland, Australia; as well as in the Pacific Islands, particularly Tahiti, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Hawaii, and Guam. They are cultivated commercially in India, Southeast Asia, southern China, Taiwan, and the southern United States. They are also grown in Central America, Brazil, the Southwestern United States and Florida, and parts of Africa.[1][2] In other areas they are usually grown as ornamentals, rather than for consumption.[2]
The fruit is about 5 to 15 centimetres (2 to 6 inches) in length and is an oval shape. It usually has five prominent longitudinal ridges, but in rare instances it can have as few as four or as many as eight. In cross section, it resembles a star.[1] The skin is thin, smooth, and waxy and turns a light to dark yellow when ripe. The flesh is translucent and light yellow to yellow in color. Each fruit can have 10 to 12 flat light brown seeds about 6 to 13 mm (0.25 to 0.5 in) in width and enclosed in gelatinous aril. Once removed from the fruit, they lose viability within a few days.[3][4][5]
Like the closely related bilimbi, there are two main types of carambola: the small sour (or tart) type and the larger sweet type. The sour varieties have a higher oxalic acid content than the sweet type. A number of cultivars have been developed in recent years. The most common cultivars grown commercially include the sweet types "Arkin" (Florida), "Dah Pon" (Taiwan), "Ma fueng" (Thailand), "Maha" (Malaysia), and "Demak" (Indonesia) and the sour types "Golden Star", "Newcomb", "Star King", and "Thayer" (all from Florida). Some of the sour varieties like "Golden Star" can become sweet if allowed to ripen.[2][3][4]
including the slightly waxy skin. The flesh is crunchy, firm, and extremely juicy.[1] It does not contain fibers and has a texture similar in consistency to that of grapes. Carambolas are best consumed shortly after they ripen, when they are yellow with a light shade of green or just after all traces of green have disappeared. They will also have brown ridges at the edges and feel firm. Fruits picked while still slightly green will turn yellow in storage at room temperature, but will not increase in sugar content. Overripe carambola will be yellow with brown spots and can become blander in taste and soggier in consistency.[4][6]
Ripe sweet type carambolas are sweet without being overwhelming as they rarely have more than 4% sugar content. They have a tart, sour undertone, and an oxalic acid odor. The taste is difficult to match, but it has been compared to a mix of apple, pear, grape, and citrus family fruits. Unripe star fruits are firmer and sour, and taste like green apples.[3][7]
Ripe carambolas may also be used in cooking. In Southeast Asia, they are usually stewed in cloves and sugar, sometimes with apples. In China, they are cooked with fish. In Australia, they may be cooked as a vegetable, pickled, or made into jams. In Jamaica they are sometimes dried.[2]
Unripe and sour type carambolas can be mixed with other chopped spices to make relishes in Australia.[2] In the Philippines, unripe carambolas are eaten dipped in rock salt.[8] In Thailand, they are cooked together with shrimp.[2]
The juice from carambolas is also used in iced drinks, particularly the juice of the sour varieties. In the Philippines they can be used as seasoning. In India, the juice is bottled for drinking.[2]
Carambolas contain caramboxin[9] and oxalic acid.[10] Both substances are harmful to individuals suffering from kidney failure, kidney stones, or those under kidney dialysistreatment.[10] Consumption by those with kidney failure can produce hiccups, vomiting, nausea, mental confusion, and sometimes death.[11][12][13] Caramboxin is a neurotoxin which is structurally similar to phenylalanine, and is a glutamatergic agonist.[9]
Drug interactions
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Like the grapefruit, carambola is considered to be a potent inhibitor of seven cytochrome P450 isoforms.[14][15] These enzymes are significant in the first-pass elimination of many medications, and, thus, the consumption of carambola or its juice in combination with certain prescription medications can significantly increase their effective dosage within the body.
The carambola is a tropical and subtropical fruit which can be grown at elevations up to 1,200 metres (4,000 feet). It prefers full sun exposure, but requires enough humidity and annual rainfall of at least 1,800 mm (70 in). It does not have a soil type preference, but requires good drainage.[citation needed]
Carambola trees are planted at least 6 m (20 ft) from each other and typically are fertilized three times a year. The tree grows rapidly and typically produces fruit at four or five years of age. The large amount of rain during spring actually reduces the amount of fruit, but, in ideal conditions, carambola can produce from 90 to 180 kilograms (200 to 400 pounds) of fruit a year. The carambola tree flowers throughout the year, with main fruiting seasons from April to June and October to December in Malaysia,[16]for example, but fruiting also occurs at other times in some other locales, such as South Florida.[4]
Growth and leaf responses of container-grown `Arkin' carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) trees to long-term exposure of 25%, 50%, or 100% sunlight showed that shading increased rachis length and leaflet area, decreased leaflet thickness, and produced more horizontal branch orientation.[17]
Major pests are fruit flies, fruit moths, ants, and birds.[3][16] Crops are also susceptible to frost.[3]
Top producers of carambola in the world market include Australia, Guyana, India, Israel, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the United States.[4] Malaysia is a global leader in star fruit production by volume and ships the product widely to Asia and Europe.[16] Due to concerns over pests and pathogens, however, whole star fruits cannot yet be imported to the US from Malaysia under current United States Department of Agriculture regulations. In the United States, carambolas are grown in tropical and semitropical areas, including Texas, South Carolina, Louisiana, California, Virginia, Florida and Hawaii.[2][18]
In the United States, commercial cultivation and broad consumer acceptance of the fruit only dates to the 1970s, attributable to Morris Arkin, a backyard horticulturalist, in Coral Gables, Florida. The 'Arkin' variety represented 98% of the acreage in South Florida in the early 21st century.[19]
The trees are also grown as ornamentals for their abundant brightly colored and unusually shaped fruits, as well as for their attractive dark green leaves and their lavender to pink flowers.[4]
Like the bilimbi, the juice of the more acidic sour types can be used to clean rusty or tarnished metal (especially brass) as well as bleach rust stains from cloth. They may also be used as a mordant in dyeing.[2]
Etymology and vernacular names
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The Portuguese word carambola, first known use 1598, was taken from Marathi karambalderived from Sanskrit karmaphala.[20] In Spanish, it is known as carambola. The carambola is called "star fruit" in English.
References
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^ a b c d e f "Averrhoa carambola (carambola)". CABI. 27 September 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
^ a b c d e f g h i Julia F. Morton (1987). "Carambola". In Julia F. Morton. Fruits of warm climates. pp. 125–128.
^ a b c d e "Averrhoa carambola L." California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
^ a b c d e f Jonathan H. Crane (1994). The Carambola (Star Fruit) (PDF). Fact Sheet HS-12. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-11-19. Retrieved 2012-08-08.
^ "Star Fruit". Fruitsinfo. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
^ "How to Eat Star Fruit". Buzzle. Retrieved August 5, 2012.
^ "Carambola or Star Fruit". FloridaGardener.com. Archived from the original on July 27, 2012. Retrieved August 5, 2012.
^ "Balimbing / Carambola / Star Fruit". Market Manila. Retrieved August 5, 2012.
^ a b Garcia-Cairasco, N.; Moyses-Neto, M.; Del Vecchio, F.; Oliveira, J. A. C.; Dos Santos, F. L.; Castro, O. W.; Arisi, G. M.; Dantas, M. R.; Carolino, R. O. G.; Coutinho-Netto, J.; Dagostin, A. L. A.; Rodrigues, M. C. A.; Leão, R. M.; Quintiliano, S. A. P.; Silva, L. F.; Gobbo-Neto, L.; Lopes, N. P. (2013). "Elucidating the Neurotoxicity of the Star Fruit". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 52 (49): 13067–70. doi:10.1002/anie.201305382. PMID 24281890.
^ a b Muthu, N.; Lee, S. Y.; Phua, K. K.; Bhore, S. J. (2016). "Nutritional, Medicinal and Toxicological Attributes of Star-Fruits (Averrhoa carambola L.): A Review". Bioinformation. 12 (12): 420–424. doi:10.6026/97320630012420. PMC 5357571. PMID 28405126.
^ Chang CT, Chen YC, Fang JT, Huang CC (2002). "Star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) intoxication: an important cause of consciousness disturbance in patients with renal failure". Ren Fail. 24 (3): 379–82. doi:10.1081/JDI-120005373. PMID 12166706.
^ Neto MM, da Costa JA, Garcia-Cairasco N, Netto JC, Nakagawa B, Dantas M (2003). "Intoxication by star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) in 32 uraemic patients: treatment and outcome". Nephrol Dial Transplant. 18 (1): 120–5. doi:10.1093/ndt/18.1.120. PMID 12480969.
^ Titchenal A & Dobbs J (2003-04-28). "Kidney patients should avoid star fruit". Nutrition ATC. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
^ "Abstracts: Metabolism and metabolic enzymes studies for the 8th National Congress on Drug and Xenobiotic Metabolism in China". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-04-23.
^ Potential Drug-Food Interactions with Pomegranate Juice Archived March 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^ a b c Crop Protection & Plant Quarantine Services Division (2004). Technical Document for Market Access on Star Fruit (Carambola) (PDF). The Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry, Malaysia.[permanent dead link]
^ Marler, Thomas E.; Schaffer, Bruce; Crane, Jonathan H. (1994-07-01). "Developmental Light Level Affects Growth, Morphology, and Leaf Physiology of Young Carambola Trees". Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 119 (4): 711–718. ISSN 0003-1062.
^ Hein Bijlmakers. "Star Fruit". Tropical Fruits. Archived from the original on 2012-06-26. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
^ Robert J. Knight; Jonathan H. Crane (2002). "The 'Arkin' Carambola in Florida" (PDF). Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 115: 92–93.[permanent dead link]
Carambola - Definition of carambola by Merriam-Webster". merriam-webster.com.
Natural light plays a major part in the design of Taliesin West. In the drafting room, Wright used translucent canvas to act as a roof (later replaced by plastic because of the intense wear from the Arizona sun). In the south-facing dining room, Wright designed the roof to hang past the walls, preventing unwanted sun rays from penetrating but allowing for horizontal light to pass through the room. Wright believed natural light aided the work environment.
Nice little spider, waiting for a meal. No idea what type of spider, but I love the translucent stripes.
This one-legged gull was playing in the updrafts created by a ferry on Sydney Harbour. I love the way that its wings and tail are translucent and that you can see the golden glow of the late afternoon sun is reflected on its belly. Note the other gull bottom-right corner :-)
The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/, more often /ˈtɑːʒ/; from Persian and Arabic, "crown of palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]) is a white marble mausoleum located on the southern bank of Yamuna River in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) to house the tomb of his favorite wife of three, Mumtaz Mahal.
Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for an additional ten years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million Indian rupees, which in 2015 would be valued at around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US). The construction project employed around 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The domed marble tomb is part of an integrated complex consisting of gardens and two red-sandstone buildings surrounded by a crenellated wall on three sides.
The Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India". It is one of the world’s most celebrated structures and a symbol of India’s rich history. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, the Taj Mahal attracts some 3 million visitors a year.
INSPIRATION
In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his favorite of three wives and beloved companion, Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished about five years later.
ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.
TOMB
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly 35 metres high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical "drum" it sits on which is approximately 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.
The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.
The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets - a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.
EXTERIOR DECORATIONS
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.
The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi." Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting color which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.
INTERIOR DECORATION
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in miniature detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.
The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."
GARDEN
The complex is set around a large 300-metre square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the center of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.
Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India, and assumed management of the Taj Mahal. They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.
OUTLYING BUILDINGS
The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant.
The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.
At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.
CONSTRUCTION
The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.
According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643 while work continued on the outlying buildings. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Indian rupees, which is around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.
LATER DAYS
Abdul Hamid Lahauri in his book Badshahnama refers to Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara, meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, along with the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 15-foot high finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
THREATS
In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.
More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. In 2011 it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within 5 years.
TOURISM
The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, which increased to about 3 million in 2015. A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center.
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.
The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons only five items - water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses - are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.
MYTHS
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.
No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.
Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.
In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.
WIKIPEDIA
I use to think that Autumn was the only time for fungi, but finding this tiny one growing from a crack in a bit of dark, sure does brighten a winter day.
I just had to have her, as soon as I saw her. Translucent, tan, silver hair - she is perfect. I might change a few things, but not in the near future.
Oh god, I put everything I want to say in the Transparent photo. Sooo this is just for the description to not look empty lol
Bee xoxo
Translucent vibrant sunset colours. Has sparkling Swarovski crystals to match.
Avail in my Zibbet shop.
What an unusual animal. Very hard to spot in the field.
Thanks to the Department of Tourism of the Philippines for setting up the Critter Spotter Workshop where I shot these images.
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This thinly cut marble was a window decoration at a new hospital I was visiting.
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Keywords: marble, stone, metamorphic rock, abstract, art,
Invisible man may enter to stage after this one and next on the line is 6 million dollar man :)
Vermeer 8x10 pinholecamera, T-mat G/RA x-ray film@Rodinal 1+100, scan from a contact print
Length 43 mm. Menai Strait, Wales. February 2014.
Ample yellow mantle covers whole body. Large, translucent, pale, unpigmented, bipinnate and tripinnate gills surround a contrasting brown anal papilla.
Lateral rows of brown blotches; 3 on left, 5 on right of animal.
White-capped caryophyllidia around bases of rhinophores and in several white spots scattered across the mantle.
Full SPECIES DESCRIPTION BELOW
Key id. features at flic.kr/p/EjpcXr
PDF available at www.researchgate.net/publication/356760098_Jorunna_toment...
Sets of OTHER SPECIES: www.flickr.com/photos/56388191@N08/collections/
Jorunna tomentosa (Cuvier, 1804)
Current taxonomy: World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS)
www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=140166
Synonyms: Doris tomentosa Cuvier, 1804; Doris johnstoni Alder & Hancock, 1845.
Meaning of name:
Jorunna = possibly named after Jórunn,a woman in the Icelandic Laxdaela Saga.
tomentosa (Latin) = like cushion stuffing. i.e. soft and yielding.
Vernacular: Schwamm-Sternschnecke (German); satijnslak (Dutch);
GLOSSARY below.
Description
Up to 60 mm long. The ample mantle covers the whole body. It is sandy-brown 1Jt flic.kr/p/EjpcXr , grey, grey-cream, yellow 2Jt flic.kr/p/K2ALfV , yellow cream 3Jt flic.kr/p/EjpceH , buff-orange or white 4Jt flic.kr/p/K2AJ14 . It often has faint freckles, and a few dark blotches in two or three longitudinal rows 5Jt flic.kr/p/EjpbfP . The periphery of the mantle has small, opaque, white glands 3Jt flic.kr/p/EjpceH , but they are obscure on some. The mantle surface has crowded, small, match-like caryophyllidia (retractile tubercles) 8Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFXB with a ring of sharp projecting spicules surrounding the rounded apex of each. The underside of the mantle often looks slightly granular 6Jt flic.kr/p/K2AGXH . The slug’s general appearance is velvety, and it is soft and yielding to touch. Its profile is convex, but it varies with degree of extension. The anterior half is often lower than the posterior when extended fully 7Jt flic.kr/p/22B7pn2 & 1Jt flic.kr/p/EjpcXr . The mantle is slightly raised into a rim bearing caryophyllidia around the rhinophore base 8Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFXB ,and into a distinct collar-like sheath around the gill pocket 9Jt flic.kr/p/22B7oGe .
The short, stout rhinophores have a translucent whitish, or slightly tinted, basal stem, and a conical, lamellated, yellow-cream to grey, distal part bearing red to brown pigment dots/marks 8Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFXB . There are about ten to fifteen close set lamellae 8Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFXB and a short nipple like apex. Left and right lamellae meet at an anterior groove.
On adults there are 14 to 17 large, translucent, pale, unpigmented, bipinnate and tripinnate gills around a contrasting brown anal papilla 2Jt flic.kr/p/K2ALfV , 4Jt flic.kr/p/K2AJ14 & 17Jt flic.kr/p/K2ADhB . The main stem of each plume is broad and flattened. The gills can be held in a variety of positions 9Jt flic.kr/p/22B7oGe ; when fully expanded they are 'elegant, beautiful and blossom-like' (Alder & Hancock, 1845) 10Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFB6 & 11Jt flic.kr/p/22B75ok . They stand in a pit surrounded by a distinctly raised collar which folds in over them when they are retracted into the pit 12Jt flic.kr/p/22B7nRM .
The head is pale and slightly translucent. The mouth projects as a short tube 13Jt flic.kr/p/K2AEvi which can be expanded 14Jt flic.kr/p/22B7mUr . On either side of the mouth there is a long, slender tapering oral tentacle 15Jt flic.kr/p/K2AEjX , often with a few small brownish spots.
The elongate foot has a slightly translucent white or yellowish sole which faintly reveals the viscera 16Jt flic.kr/p/22B7kkV , and the upper surface has pale yellowish brown freckling 17Jt flic.kr/p/K2ADhB . The rounded anterior is bilaminate with the upper layer extending well beyond the lower layer 15Jt flic.kr/p/K2AEjX & 18Jt flic.kr/p/22B7j8e . The upper layer has a large cleft. The bluntly tapered posterior protrudes beyond the mantle when in motion 19Jt flic.kr/p/22B7iPD . Locomotion is by monotaxic retrograde waves on the sole. The hermaphrodite genital opening is on a protrusion on the right of the body about a quarter of its length from the anterior 17Jt flic.kr/p/K2ADhB . When mating, a large penis and wide-open female accessory gland are extended 14Jt flic.kr/p/22B7mUr .
Key identification features
Sequencing of DNA segregated a previously unrecognised species, Jorunna artsdatabankia (Neuhaus et al, 2021) from a complex previously regarded as J. tomentosa. Other species of Jorunna occur in Iberia and the Mediterranean.
Jorunna tomentosa
1: Length up to 30 mm (Neuhaus et al, 2021), 55 mm (Thompson and Brown, 1984), often a similar size to Doris pseudoargus.
2: Dorsally, sandy-brown 1Jt flic.kr/p/EjpcXr , reddish brown, grey-white, grey-cream, yellow 2Jt flic.kr/p/K2ALfV , yellow cream 3Jt flic.kr/p/EjpceH , buff-orange, or white 4Jt flic.kr/p/K2AJ14. Small opaque white glands are near the periphery of the mantle 3Jt flic.kr/p/EjpceH but sometimes they are not discernible 1Jt flic.kr/p/EjpcXr . Usually, there are scattered small dark spots, and a few dark blotches in a longitudinal row on each side 5Jt flic.kr/p/EjpbfP ; sometimes the blotches are absent, or few and small 11Jt flic.kr/p/22B75ok and occasionally the small spots are absent.
3: Mantle has crowded, small, match-like caryophyllidia (retractile tubercles) 8Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFXB with a ring of sharp projecting spicules surrounding the rounded apex. The body has a velvety appearance and soft feel.
4: Large yellow-cream to grey gills surround the brown anal papilla 2Jt flic.kr/p/K2ALfV & 4Jt flic.kr/p/K2AJ14 . Gills are often paler than the mantle and sometimes have dark dots.
5: The base of extended gills is surrounded by a distinct collar-like sheath 9Jt flic.kr/p/22B7oGe which closes over the gills when they are retracted into a pit 12Jt flic.kr/p/22B7nRM.
6: Slender tapered oral tentacles 15Jt flic.kr/p/K2AEjX .
7: Convex body with raised profile 7Jt flic.kr/p/22B7pn2 .
8: Short, stout rhinophores have a translucent whitish, or slightly tinted, basal stem and a conical, lamellated, yellow-cream to grey, distal part bearing red to brown pigment dots/marks 8Jt flic.kr/p/K2AFXB .
9: Posterior of foot protrudes when in motion 19Jt flic.kr/p/22B7iPD .
Similar species
Jorunna artsdatabankia Neuhaus, Rauch, Bakken, Picton, Pola & Malaquias, 2021. [Early records from Norway, North Sea (offshore), Scotland and Ireland] 20.1Jt flic.kr/p/2mLYTR7 , 20.2Jt flic.kr/p/2mM3Y6a & 20.3Jt flic.kr/p/2mPKA3e .
1: Up to 40 mm long (Neuhaus et al, 2021).
2: Dorsally, plain yellow to white with sparse, irregularly scattered, small brown spots. Opaque white glands on periphery of mantle, but may not be discernible.
3: Mantle has crowded, small, match-like, retractile tubercles (caryophyllidia) with a ring of sharp projecting spicules surrounding the rounded apex. They are longer than on J. tomentosa, so may look more plush in close view.
4: Gills are concolorous with the mantle. They lack any dark dots.
5: Base of extended gills surrounded by a raised rim which closes over the gills when they are retracted into a pit.
6: Slender tapered oral tentacles.
7: Convex body with raised profile.
8: Rhinophores yellow-cream to white without any dark dots on the lamellae (Neuhaus et al., 2021).
9: Posterior of foot protrudes at the posterior slightly, or not at all, when in motion.
Rostanga rubra (Risso, 1818)
1: Up to 15 mm long (20 mm in Mediterranean).
2: Mantle bright scarlet 21Jt flic.kr/p/FQykVf to orange 22Jt flic.kr/p/22B7gLv , with sparse scattered black or reddish-brown spots. Characteristic white or pale yellow patch around bases of, and between, rhinophores looks like spectacles 21Jt flic.kr/p/FQykVf , sometimes indistinct 22Jt flic.kr/p/22B7gLv . Many opaque white glands on periphery of mantle.
3: Mantle covered with densely packed caryophyllidia which are thicker than those on J. tomentosa with shorter projecting spicules 23Jt flic.kr/p/FQykoo
4: Translucent unipinnate gills, tinted as mantle, usually held erect to form cylinder around brown tubular anus 24Jt flic.kr/p/22B7gmH .
5: Base of extended gills surrounded by slightly raised rim bearing caryophyllidia, not a distinct collar-like sheath 24Jt flic.kr/p/22B7gmH .
6: Slender tapered oral tentacles 25Jt flic.kr/p/FQykhm .
7: Convex body with raised profile 22Jt flic.kr/p/22B7gLv .
8: Rhinophores translucent white or yellowish with opaque white and brown spots on the lamellae which are deeply cleft and widely separated at the anterior 23Jt flic.kr/p/FQykoo .
9: Posterior of foot protrudes a little at the posterior when in motion.
Doris pseudoargus Rapp, 1827.
1: Up to 120 mm long, but often similar size to Jorunna tomentosa.
2: Usually lemon yellow to red, frequently variegated with large blotches of colours such as purple, pink, red, brown, green and white. Plain yellow specimens superficially resemble J. tomentosa but often have a distinguishing trace of purple on the gills 26Jt flic.kr/p/22B7g6H & 27Jt flic.kr/p/K2AALV .
3: Variously sized, rounded, spiculose tubercles 27Jt flic.kr/p/K2AALV give a stiff unyielding feel to the mantle.
4: Voluminous gills resembling curled kale. Often blotched with variable amount of lilac or purple 26Jt flic.kr/p/22B7g6H & 27Jt flic.kr/p/K2AALV. The anal papilla may be brownish if gills are dark 28Jt flic.kr/p/22B7ePV .
5: Base of gills not surrounded by collar-like sheath 28Jt flic.kr/p/22B7ePV .
6: Short, thick, oral tentacles 29Jt flic.kr/p/FQyipy .
7: Convex body with raised profile 26Jt flic.kr/p/22B7g6H .
8: Rhinophores have a translucent whitish, or slightly tinted, basal stem and a yellow or orange distal part with 20 or more lamellae, often with small flecks of opaque white. Conical, when retracted like on J. tomentosa, but much more slender than that species when fully extended 27.1Jt flic.kr/p/2mMoweB .
9: Posterior of foot protrudes a little when in motion.
Acanthodoris pilosa (Abildgaard in Müller, 1789)
1: Usual maximum length 40 mm.
2: Dorsally white or brown 30Jt flic.kr/p/22B7e9X , occasionally, black or yellow 31Jt flic.kr/p/FQyi81 . Pale colours may be evenly freckled darker, but not with large patches of pigment.
3: Soft, tall, thin, conical tubercles on mantle 31Jt flic.kr/p/FQyi81, but sometimes contracted or poorly developed and not so distinctive 32Jt flic.kr/p/22B7dAT. Body soft and yielding.
4: Voluminous tripinnate gills can contract but not retract into pocket; usually, opaque white pigment along each side of translucent midribs forms a star when gills expanded 32Jt flic.kr/p/22B7dAT . Anal papilla not brown, except possibly on brown specimens.
5: Base of gills not surrounded by collar-like sheath.
6: Narrow oral veil extended laterally into broad, flat oral tentacles. Anterior of veil has two protrusions centrally 33Jt flic.kr/p/22B7cRM .
7 Convex body with raised profile 30Jt flic.kr/p/22B7e9X .
8: Long rhinophores bent rearwards; concolorous with body and no dark dots on pale colour forms. Up to 24 lamellae on large specimens.
9: Posterior of foot protrudes a little when in motion.
Cadlina laevis (Linnaeus, 1767) 33.1Jt flic.kr/p/2mMC83S
1: Usual maximum length 32 mm.
2: Shiny white with opaque yellow or white glands near the periphery and, sometimes, has an opaque yellow or white peripheral border.
3: Unobtrusive, very small, un-crowded, soft tubercles give very soft texture to mantle.
4: White gills not voluminous, hidden much of the time retracted into pocket.
5: Base of gills not surrounded by collar-like sheath.
6: Very small oral tentacles.
7: Body has a flattened low profile.
8: Rhinophores white or yellowish with about 12 lamellae and no dark dots.
9: Posterior of foot protrudes when in motion.
Similar species in the Mediterranean
There are several difficult-to-differentiate similar species in the Mediterranean; see opistobranquis.info/en/?s=Jorunna . The following is insufficient to differentiate them all, but workers in north-western Europe need to be aware of them in case some spread north with climate change.
Jorunna onubensis Cervera, García-Gómez & García, 1986,
Jorunna onubensis is very similar to J. tomentosa. The external features below are described in the original description of J. onubensis, based on four intertidal specimens from Huelva, southern Spain. The features illustrated in this Flickr account are on a specimen from Catalonia of J. onubensis identified by Miquel Pontes and confirmed by Prof. J. Lucas Cervera. Many features are common to both J. onubensis and J. tomentosa; those in bold font may be the best features for distinguishing them, but confirmation by dissection and/or D.N.A, sequencing is desirable. Specimens of J. onubensis photographed by one of the authors of its first published description, J. C. García Gómez, can be seen with other south European Jorunna species at opistobranquis.info/en/?s=Jorunna
It has been recorded from Spain, Portugal, Madeira and the Canary Islands.
1: 12 mm to 18 mm long (four specimens March & April 1984). 2: Light brown, often slightly pinkish, mantle 34Jt flic.kr/p/FQyhy5 [sometimes grey?]. Sometimes with scattered dark, greyish or greyish-brown, blotches of varying size. Small opaque glands near posterior border of mantle 36Jt flic.kr/p/22B7b8M .
3: Very fine, crowded, linear tubercles (caryophyllidia), similar to J. tomentosa, some with opaque, bright-white apex 37Jt flic.kr/p/22B7aUv 4: The light brown to transparent whitish gills have a fine brown punctuation, hardly distinguishable to the naked eye 38Jt flic.kr/p/22B7aQx & 39Jt flic.kr/p/22B7a9H The end of the anal papilla is brown with whitish striations that subdivide it into unequal parts 38Jt flic.kr/p/22B7aQx
5: Base of extended gills surrounded by collar-like sheath 39Jt flic.kr/p/22B7a9H which closes over the gills when they are retracted into a pit 35Jt flic.kr/p/22B7bHp .
6: Slender tapered oral tentacles, similar to J. tomentosa.
7: Convex body with raised profile, similar to J. tomentosa.
8: Short rhinophores are whitish, sometimes with strip of dark brown subapically. Basal stem transparent. About 15 lamellae form conical distal half.
9: Posterior of foot protrudes slightly when in motion.
Tayuva lilacina (Gould, 1852)
Synonym: Discodoris maculosa Bergh, 1884.
Occurs in Mediterranean and most tropical seas; not recorded in NW Europe.
1: Up to 60 mm long. (Juveniles, c. 10 mm length, are superficially very similar to Jorunna tomentosa.)
2: Light brown to light olive grey with many slightly darker circular patches 40Jt flic.kr/p/23YrP1D . Often, two or three rows of the patches have black-brown marks on them 41Jt flic.kr/p/K2AtdP .
3: Crowded, low, conical tubercles (not linear caryophyllidia), often several apically capped with opaque white; body has hard texture 42Jt flic.kr/p/23YrMUF . On older specimens, many tubercles are white, and the mantle may be abundantly speckled white 43Jt flic.kr/p/FQydL5 .
4: Gills golden brown with white tips 40Jt flic.kr/p/23YrP1D , but often retracted out of sight.
5: Base of extended gills surrounded by large raised sheath which closes over the gills when they are retracted into a pit 41Jt flic.kr/p/K2AtdP .
6: Slender tapered oral tentacles 42Jt flic.kr/p/23YrMUF .
7: Body has a flattened low profile 40Jt flic.kr/p/23YrP1D, but can occasionally assume a more raised profile.
8: Rhinophores tall when extended. On adults, basal stem whitish with many fine brown freckles. About 20 lamellae with many brown spots.
9: Posterior of foot may protrude very slightly when in motion.
Habits and ecology
J. tomentosa lives on hard-substrates on the lower shore, and sublittorally in shallow coastal waters.
It feeds on several Haliclona spp. of sponge 44Jt flic.kr/p/EjoQPp including Haliclona oculta www.habitas.org.uk/marinelife/species.asp?item=C8600 , Haliclona cinerea www.habitas.org.uk/marinelife/species.asp?item=C8560 and, perhaps, Halichondria panicea www.habitas.org.uk/marinelife/species.asp?item=C4840 . Faeces are expelled as a stream of mucus bound pellets 16Jt flic.kr/p/22B7kkV from the anus on a raised brown papilla 17Jt flic.kr/p/K2ADhB. J. tomentosa breeds when it is 19 mm long or larger. Like other dorids, it is a simultaneous hermaphrodite. The spawn is a broad ribbon attached by its edge to the prey organism or substrate in a spiral of two or three turns, which may be tight and neat (Picton & Morrow) initially, later becoming convoluted 45Jt flic.kr/p/22B7i9F . Each spawn mass has up to 145 000 ova. Spawning has been recorded from February to August in Britain and to September in the Bay of Biscay (Thompson & Brown, 1984). Veliger larvae spend about 23 days at 10º C in the plankton before metamorphosis.
Distribution and status
J. tomentosa occurs from northern Norway to the eastern Mediterranean. It is also reported, but requires DNA confirmation, from the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa; GBIF map www.gbif.org/species/2292454 . It is quite common around Britain and Ireland but scarce or absent in the north-east Irish Sea and between Flamborough and Kent. NBN UK map species.nbnatlas.org/species/NHMSYS0021512462
Acknowledgements
The comparison images and text in this account depend greatly on the generous contributions of others who provided over a third of the images. I gratefully thank Jim Anderson www.nudibranch.org/Scottish%20Nudibranchs/ , Vanessa Charles and Paula Lightfoot for use of their images. I acknowledge and thank Prof. J. Lucas Cervera, Enric Madrenas, Jakov Prkić and Miquel Pontes opistobranquis.info/en/#gsc.tab=0 for images, information and useful discussion of Mediterranean material. Any errors or omissions are my (I.F.S.) responsibility.
Links and references
Alder, J. & Hancock, A. 1845-1855. A monograph of the British nudibranchiate mollusca. London, Ray Society.
www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/131598#page/106/mode/1up &
www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/131598#page/107/mode/1up
Camacho-Garcia, Y. & Gosliner, T.M. 2008. Systematic revision of Jorunna Bergh, 1876 (Nudibranchia: Discodorididae) with morphological phyplogenetic analysis. J. Mollus. Stud. 74: 143 to 181. www.researchgate.net/publication/240589318_Systematic_rev...
Catteneo Vietti, R., Angelini, S., Gaggero, L. & Lucchetti, G. 1995. Mineral composition of nudibranch spicules. J. Mollus. Stud. 61 (3): 331-337. Abstract at mollus.oxfordjournals.org/content/61/3/331.abstract
Cervera J. L., Garcia J. C. & Garcia F. J. (1986). Il genere Jorunna Bergh, 1876 (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Nudibranchia) nel litorale Iberico. Lavori, Società Italiana di Malacologia 22: 111-134
www.societaitalianadimalacologia.it/index.php?option=com_...
[Click “fasciolo completo” for 60 MB PDF. Contains illustrated original description of J. onubensis on pages 111 to 134]
Neuhaus J., Rauch, C., Bakken T., Picton, B., Pola M. and Malaquias, M.A.E. 2021. The genus Jorunna (Nudibranchia: Discodorididae) in Europe: a new species and a possible case of incipient speciation. Journal of Molluscan Studies 87: 1 – 31.
www.researchgate.net/publication/355042690_The_genus_Joru...
Picton, B.E. & Morrow, C.C. Encyclopedia of marine life of Britain and Ireland. [For prey species]. Accessed January 2018. www.habitas.org.uk/marinelife/index.html
Schmekel, L. & Portmann, A. 1982. Opisthobranchia des Mittelmeeres, Nudibranchia und Saccoglossa. Berlin, Springer.
Thompson, T.E. & Brown, G.H. 1984. Biology of opisthobranch molluscs 2. London, Ray Society.
Current taxonomy: World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS)
www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=140166
Glossary
caryophyllidia = digital tubercles with terminal knob surrounded by coronet of spikes, like a clove (spice), on some dorid sea slugs.
cephalic = (adj.) of or on the head.
dorid = a sea slug in the infraorder Doridoidei; with gills and rhinophores on the dorsum; often shaped like half a lemon or grape.
lamellae = small plates on rhinophores, or leaflets of gill.(sing. lamella)
mantle = (of nudibranchs) sheet of tissue forming part or all of notum (dorsal body surface).
monotaxic = (of locomotion waves) single series of waves across complete width of foot.
papilla = (pl. papillae) small cone-shaped protrusion of flesh.
plankton = animals and plants that drift in pelagic zone (main body of water).
retrograde = (of locomotion waves on foot) waves travel from anterior to posterior.
rhinophores = (pl.) chemo-receptor tentacles on top of head of nudibranch.
tripinnate = (of gill) threefold branching; “boughs, branches, twigs” in one plane like a feather.
spicule = (in dorid seaslugs) small, slender, sharp-pointed feature mainly composed of calcite (CaCO3) and brucite (Mg(OH)2) .
unipinnate = (of gill plume) unbranched simple leaflets along each side of main rib.
veliger = shelled larva of marine gastropod or bivalve mollusc which swims by beating cilia of a velum (bilobed flap).
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