sphincter photos on Flickr

failblog.org/2009/01/19/parade-float-fail/

artpage: ShawnDall.com

Arthur Lakes' Quarry 10 (Dakota Hogback, Morrison, Colorado, USA) 4 by James St. John

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This is the remnants of Arthur Lakes' "Quarry 10", a dinosaur locality on the slopes of the Dakota Hogback next to the town of Morrison, Colorado. The Dakota Hogback's bedrock consists of eastward-dipping sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic age. The beds were tilted during the Laramie Orogeny in the late Mesozoic to early Cenozoic, when the Rocky Mountains uplifted. At Quarry 10, nonmarine shales of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation are present. The original excavation was about 40 feet wide and 40 feet deep. Lakes used timbers for support, to prevent the overlying sandstone from collapsing into the quarry. An original timber support is still present at the site, now coated with a plaster field jacket. Collapse events did occur here, but they did not cause any deaths - just broken bones. Yale University told Lakes to close the quarry in 1879. The excavation was filled in using shovels (although Lakes said he blew it up) - the quarry fill is stratified.

Quarry 10 fossils include the type specimen (= the original skeleton) of Apatosaurus, a famous Jurassic sauropod dinosaur. The type Apatosaurus bones were in a very dark gray, organic-rich mudstone matrix - a small paludal environment. The bed pinches out laterally. The skeleton has Allosaurus chew marks on it. Shed teeth from Allosaurus were found associated with the Apatosaurus skeleton. The Apatosaurus died here, possibly from thirst - the site was a foul water hole.

Quarry stratigraphy:

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Black streak ~1 meter thick, with Apatosaurus ajax bones

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Greenish-gray shale, with no fossils

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Gray shale, bearing the type specimen of Apatosaurus ajax

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Large sauropod vertebrae are still in the sandstone unit above the quarry. Lakes observed them, but did not collect them. They are no longer exposed at the surface.

Other Quarry 10 fossils include coprolites that are possibly Allosaurus scat - they have sphincter striations and bolus structures. Invertebrate fossils are also present in the Morrison shales here, including unionid bivalves. Fish fragments have been found in the quarry's spoils pile.

The spoils pile from the original quarry has been processed for fossils in modern times by the nearby Morrison Museum of Natural History.

The shale would easily fall off from the dinosaur bones that Lakes collected, because the matrix was friable mudstone - no preparation was needed. The matrix sloughed off easily when urinated on, because the shale included smectite clay ("swelling clay") - this was done during the original excavation. Bones were sent downslope in chutes and then sent to Yale University.

Locality: western side of the Dakota Hogback next to the town of Morrison, north-central Colorado, USA

#sandstone by Alex Dzrx

6 Likes on Instagram

1 Comments on Instagram:

alexdircks: Favourite #MONA moment so far: lying on a beanbag watching a video work of extreme pubic close-ups, all hair and flesh and blood. A nearby 4 year old, watching with his mum, exclaims "That's a sphincter", just as a group of pastel-clad American cruise ship retirees pass by, all "Oh dear!" and "Oh my!"

Just when you thought the Holidays were BEHIND us by RC (Rufus) Roark

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You can find all the websites you want (and one is more than a buttload, if you ask me) "debunking the myth" that Sir Thomas Crapper invented the modern flush toilet. While I can't seriously object to their airing out the dirty linen of politicians and generals, who, more often than not, fouled their britches sure as sh*t, when they feel the need to leave their racing stripes on popular history by trying to wipe away the large--one is tempted to say, "commodious"--place this gentleman deserves in our hearts (not to mention other portions of our anatomy), well, that's right up there with going commando for chapping my posterior.

These outhouse philosophers argue that flush toilets had been designed and in some cases patented decades or even centuries before Thomas Crapper did his business, and that he was simply a sanitary engineer who had a successful plumbing business in London, and that he purchased the rights to a "valveless water waste preventer" (as it was called in the language of his times, which was every bit as flowery as today's aerosol air fresheners), the component that enabled the toilet to flush effectively, which was invented by either an employee named Albert Gilpin or his own nephew, George Crapper (for some reason, while they can tell us in no uncertain terms that OUR story is a crock of crap, the "myth-busters" can't be quite so positive about which one of THEIR stories is the straight poop). In other words, he didn't invent the flush toilet, he merely built one with the essential component that made it a working proposition, merely went on to manufacture, sell and install them in such quantities that they became not a luxury but an absolute necessity in the home of everyone who would count himself a member of Christian Civilization, and he was merely so successful in this venture that his name and the device became as one. And, because that's merely all he did, and since some other Englishman had built Elizabeth I an indoor biffie a couple of centuries before and because in his sketches Leonardo may have had Mona Lisa or one of those naked guys he liked to draw sitting on one, then Thomas Crapper should be flushed and forgotten.

Not to say they're full of it, but I believe it tells us something about their mental constipation that these dung beetles can't even agree on which "myth" regarding Crapper's eponymity they want to debunk. Some say his name became the noun due to the large number of American soldiers in England during WW I, many of them unfamiliar with indoor plumbing, who saw the name on the tanks in the "water closets", and just thought "Crapper" must be the English word for them. Others say it was the large number of American soldiers in England during WW II who saw the name on the tanks and, being American GI's, were soon making cracks about going to "the crapper".

I tend toward the WW I argument myself. The WW II theory sounds plausible, because there WERE a lot of American soldiers in England during WW II, the Germans having overrun all of France, forcing us to stop in England and build up for the invasion before going Over There again. On the other hand, there weren't that many American soldiers in England during WW I because that time around, their left wing having collided with The Taxis of the Marne on the road to Paris, their right wing having run into "that contemptible little army" at Wipers* and, as a result, their Schlieffen Plan having turned into Schiesse, the Heinies decided to dig a 500-mile slit trench and squat, so, when Wilson finally got off the pot and let Johnny get his gun, the AEF could book direct passage New York to Saint-Nazaire.

Still, WW I sounds more plausible. For one thing, there were SOME American servicemen in England during WW I, either in our own armed forces as liaison personnel, embassy attaches, or passing through for training, or those who had volunteered for the British Army and Royal Flying Corps in the days before Wilson decided he wasn't too proud to fight (or, at least, decided he wasn't too proud to let Black Jack, Captain Eddie and Sergeant York fight). There were also a goodly number of trans-Atlantic business men, diplomatic personnel, journalists and the like, not only during the war, but in the years before and after as well. And, let's face it, it just doesn't take all that many Americans to come up with those kind of jokes--if two or more were gathered in the presence of THAT name, whether they were familiar with indoor plumbing or not, it would have been downright un-American for some kind of off-color humor NOT to have come out of it. Further, and perhaps most telling of all, the first known reference in American literature to "a crapper", as we understand the term, was in the early nineteen-thirties, which, in case the revisionists missed it, is AFTER WW I, but BEFORE WW II.

Which is exactly the point: can we really learn anything about lavatory history from people who demonstrably don't know the difference between Number 1 and Number 2?

Additional evidence of their desperate need for some intellectual Ex-Lax is the fact that the myth-busters are, by their own admission, perplexed that Thomas Crapper is sometimes "inexplicably" misidentified as "John Crapper", or "Sir John Crapper".

"Inexplicably"...? Really...? Are you sh*tting me...?!!

One of the volumes in my personal library, treasured since childhood, actually belonged to an uncle, who received it as a Christmas present in the early nineteen-sixties, and, knowing how much I loved it, passed it on to me. A collection of men's room jokes (tame by today's standards, but quite the blue humor knee-slappers back there on the old New Frontier), with a hole bored in the upper left hand corner so that it might hang on the pull chain, and with a cartoon drawing on the cover depicting an Indian fakir about to sit on a commode seat of nails, the title is: "Jokes for the John". Now, granted, not everyone had the educational benefits I enjoyed as a child, but still, even if the old definition "Piled higher and Deeper" is never more applicable than when referring to an Ivy League PhD, I would think even someone from Harvard or Yale would not need to strain his or her mental sphincter over how the popcorn fart of JOHN Crapper got cut loose in the hurricane of History.

Whether it's affixed to John or Thomas, the "Sir" part really seems to get the Don't-Know-Their-Heads-From-Shinola crowd's bowels in an uproar. They're quicker than the Tiajuana Two-Step when it comes to pointing out that Thomas Crapper was a man of humble origins and never knighted. This, of course, is their way of taking a dump on both Thomas Crapper and us, for mistakenly referring to him by the title. Personally, I believe the only thing this proves is that with all those knobs and points and jewels sticking out all over them, it must have been a Royal Pain for Victoria and Edward to have had their crowned heads stuck up there like that, and that any of their annual honors lists that didn't include the name of Thomas Crapper are fit only for use as a scratchier, less absorbent and altogether unsatisfactory emergency substitute when all that's left of your last roll of Charmin Ultra-Soft is that empty cardboard cylinder hanging forlornly on the spindle. And, truly, that it proves the Glory of our shared Anglo-American heritage of democracy--that this is an instance where it doesn't take some fancy doin's with all their nibs at Buckingham Palace to get the job done, that the most humble commoner who has ever had a moving experience whilst sitting on the throne can and should--and, as the "myth" attests, does--afford him the honorific.

So, with regard to the revisionist myth-busters, one is tempted to quote one of the inimitable Rowan Atkinson's most memorable lines, "I wouldn't trust the bloody lot of you to know the right way to sit on a toilet seat!" (and, temptation proving too much, as one knew it would, one just did). As for Thomas Crapper, if he didn't technically "invent" the modern flush toilet, he is, more so than any other in my estimation, responsible for its having come to be counted with the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights, the Habeas Corpus, trial by jury, the English common law and the American Declaration of Independence in what Churchill has called "the joint inheritance of the English-speaking world". Indeed, along with those and Our Glorious English Language itself, it is one of the essential elements that make the English-speaking world worth inheriting. And, if he can hear me up there in that Big Water Closet in the Sky, to Thomas Crapper I will say, "Thank you, sir, and God bless you, sir, and you will always be SIR Thomas to me!"

Finally, I realize this post is a few days early, but I know you hate last-minute shopping as much as I do, and I wanted to get this out as a reminder while you still have plenty of time to get to the toilet paper-and-air freshener aisle at the supermarket, or visit your local plumbing supply store, to find That Special Something for That Special Someone.

*Wipers: the correct spelling, and the as-close-to-correct-as-anybody-but-a-Frenchman-can-get pronunciation, is "Ypres"/"Ee-preh", but surely you didn't think that I, of all people--and certainly not HERE of all places--was going to pass up the chance to use Tommy Atkins' own scatological Anglicization of it, now did you?

dont leave home without.... by mr whirling mcdervish

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crucifix and camera:

Sunday 1st – Sunday 8th April

Taking the bus up the hill from Beit Sahour to Bethlehem is an experience in itself. Grinding up and down through whining gears, bumper to bumper with any vehicle slow enough, drivers show little mercy on these black-fuming beasts. Today, before the bus even made it out of the dusty potholed terminal it jerked to a halt to make way for an Al Aqsa Martyrs’ Brigade convoy; kefiyah clad passengers sat out of car windows clattering off rounds from old Kalashnikovs, and others a couple of quick-fire sprays from Israeli smuggled M-16 machine guns. And this in the middle of Beit Sahour, just outside the towns very own answer to Spar – Suq a Shab (people’s market). This was the first time I had seen a gun toting militant parade in the four months I’ve been here, so it was a little unnerving at first and, being absorbed in myself, I was initially unable to gauge the reaction of people in general. However, as the adrenaline stemmed, the lifting silence, raised eyebrows and the slight but despondent shake of heads indicated that this behaviour is not exactly appreciated, especially not in middle-class Christian Beit Sahour. As street sounds slowly infiltrated back into the silence, the impression I got was a little like a creature tentatively protruding its feelers after an impulsive retraction. The Palestinian people in general are just sick of fighting; they sleep, eat, and read politics, and know that this militancy is getting them nowhere. It hasn’t done since the 1940’s so why should that change now. These ‘gunmen’ are for the most part just early twenty somethings, more likely to invite you to their homes for mint tea and a good dinner than cause you problems; but they're young, angry and putting on a macho show with a bit of Palestinian solidarity thrown in. And the ones that are serious; they need to reconsider what it is they are up against. They are doing more harm to the Palestinian people than their revolutionary ethics account for. The Palestinians will win over eventually but it will not come from egocentricity.

Up the hill in Nativity square (nativity church marks the spot where Jesus is said to have been born) the usual groups of intimidated looking tourists can be found, huddled in packs, bags and cameras held tight, trying their hardest to ignore desperate local hawkers pushing imported Chinese tat and bleached camera film. The vendors hang out like pack dogs, the pneumatic hiss of an opening coach door prompting Pavlovian salivation. Americans buy things, so the vendors say, but ‘Russians no good’, ‘Koreans no good’, even the Spanish, ‘no good’. I haven’t seen any British groups. I have a friend from Bethlehem who sells necklaces in the square, the kind I can remember my grandmother wearing. Sadly he fails to heed my advice: I have tried to tell him he needs to try a different angle, something religious at least, not as ‘granny’, but he tells me his sales permit will not allow any Christian goods to pass through his hands; necklaces and hats only, not even rosaries. All the vendors in the square need permission from the Palestinian Authority, but the permits given out obviously emanate from corrupt officials earning a bit of tourist shop commission on the side. There is certainly some sort of tourist racket going on but it’s hard to know the truth among some of the wilder claims. These vendors are up here seven days a week trying to make ends meet, chasing timid tourists that only buy as a means of opting out of hassle from ‘Arabs’. It is miserable to watch: men in their sixties forced into hawking “Arafat kefiyahs”, fluffy toy camels, and second rate postcards. As little as 7 years ago Bethlehem city would have been as bustling as neighbouring Jerusalem (10 mins away) but the 8 m concrete wall that now separates all aspects of their historic relationship has created an impoverished Bethlehem that is showing signs of ever-increasing ghettoisation.

Watching the way tourist groups interact with the locals in Nativity Square you can almost hear the precursory words of Israeli tour operators warning of imminent Palestinian danger – ‘ignore the Arabs, just be friendly and they’ll eventually give up and go away’. A couple from Latvia that we got talking to told us how they had been seriously warned against visiting the West Bank – this from an Israeli travel operator. They wanted to travel from Jerusalem to Jericho and then on to Jordan: this they had been advised against. If you ever do the journey for yourself you will realise the irrelevance and ignorance of these warnings. After living here four months I can’t help but laugh at the unnecessary panic tourists seem to endure, arms locked together, fast trotting nuns, wincing old ladies, and blinkered Bethlehem daytrippers: I saw a couple of these clutching each other tightly, running to catch up when their group left them 20 yards or so behind. I’m pretty sure I could hear their sphincters squeak. I find it intensely absorbing to just stand around and watch these people flock in and out of Bethlehem, many without much of a clue as to the situation here. Most come in on big shiny silver buses, dropped off then herded in and out of the church in an efficient no time wasted operation, the insensitive or ignorant among them sporting “I LOVE ISRAEL” t-shirts, or “ISRAELI ARMY” caps. As I walked past a large group of tourists, I stopped to try and take a photo of about five of the group all aiming digital devices in one way or another. I couldn’t help but stand and gawp, especially as one of them was wearing the “ISRAELI ARMY” cap I just mentioned. The image, I at least had in my head, really said something about our digital media age, and, in the sporadic aim of fire, the general associated confusion of our generally over loaded, despondent senses. Tourists are happily snapping away at the benign and the superficial but in the hurried tour program process they are missing the hidden all important truths. You would think that spiritual centres would be the last bastion of prosaic romanticism and wisdom but they seem to inadvertently be basins of attraction for two dimensional digital imprecisions.

The funniest thing I have seen, or the saddest, has to be people/pilgrims taking photos of the silver gilded star alter that marks the spot where Jesus was born. Photos will, expectedly, be taken, but some people, more the tourist element, seem to spend more time interacting with the 2inch screen on the back of their camera than they do with the immediate experience itself. The other thing I saw, possibly the most warped in the church itself; a tourist down in the manger area holding a video camera aloft in an unwitting gesture of praise to Digi-God, viewing the half swivelled screen from below, as he took in an over head view of the nativity alter. He watched the whole process in real time on the back of his camera; even stranger. What is happening to direct experience? All these images, stored away in pixels. Where do they all these 0 and 1’s, depicting trillions and trillions of caught moments, end up?. I have been envisiging a digital intelligence perusing the files of internet connected PC’s, free to upload images, slowly piecing together a perceived human reality – compiling images taken from different angles, perspectives, watching characters and their expressions, piecing together relationships, histories, and agendas.

You might argue that I spent more time looking and thinking about tourists instead of the antiquities at hand; maybe so but if these post-popular pilgrims have signed up to this then they would be on the end Jesus’ sympathies. They are truly sheep lost in fluffy clouds; awe struck by the grandeur and missing the hair-line fractures.

As I was saying before; back to the woman wearing the “ISRAELI ARMY” hat. I caught the eye of someone standing in her group just feet away. Feeling slightly irritated at the woman donning the locally offensive cap, I asked her companion, “Do you know what country this is?” After thinking about it for about 10 seconds she said, “Bethlehem?” Then after another five, “No sorry, can you tell me please?” Not even “Israel”: I would have forgiven her for this, at least.

Realising how little tourists actually know about the situation here, a friend and I, at a later date, put together a questionnaire to put to tourists up at the church of the Nativity. We asked them: what country they thought they were in - 50% said Israel (Bethlehem is West Bank, Palestine); on a rudimentary regional map, to name countries - about 20% gave accurate answers as to the location of Israel and the Palestinian Territory [West Bank and Gaza Strip], one person didn’t think Gaza was part of Palestine); is Bethlehem under military occupation? - 80% said no (it is under occupation); is Palestine in Israel or Israel in Palestine? - 50% said Palestine was in Israel (it is the other way round). Considering how many tourists pass through Bethlehem every day it is disconcerting how few have any clue as to what is going on here.

I have a couple of friends who own a shop, in a back street behind the main square. Afram, an orthodox Christian, goes off “hunting” for tourists from time to time, but usually he sits drinking cup after cup of sweet Nescafe and smoking a lot of long ‘Parliament’ cigarettes. His rough voice and hacking cough have finally put me off smoking. I have sat in their shop for hours in all, drinking untold amounts of coffee, and playing backgammon (sheish beish); throughout which time I can count the number of tourists I have encountered on two hands. Unless these shops are in on the corruption, the tourist business is all but dead. Michael, Afram’s nephew and ‘business partner’ has his story. He moved from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, with his mother and sister, when he was young, pre-first Intifada (first Palestinian uprising against the Israeli occupation) (pre-1987) when ID cards were not required to move between the two cities. This, in those times was no big deal; a little like moving from Redhill to Reigate, or Caernarfon to Bangor. However, Michael is now caught in a very strange situation; he has no ID, no official identity and is going through a lengthy and costly legal case to obtain such. The Palestinian Authority wont give him a West Bank ID because they don’t want to concede Jerusalem to the Israelis, and the Israelis don’t want to give him a Jerusalem ID because they consider him a Bethlehem Palestinian: the consequence being that for the majority of his life Michael has been unable to move beyond Bethlehem District limits (military checkpoints and ID checks separate all of the West Bank’s cities), open a bank account, get credit, own a house, drive a car, vote; all the things we are offered on a plate should we so want them. Michael tells me he is, by far, not alone in facing such mechanical bureaucracy. Sadly, similar cases are common in the West Bank.

Just down the hill from Michael’s shop is Jabel el Mawleh, a Muslim community of 50 or so ram packed houses most of which are set on a breakneck hill (taxis take an exentuated run-up to tackle the slope, wheel spinning toward the top). The ancestors of the majority of the residents were originally a farming community from Jerusalem’s Malhe area but were transplanted here after forced evacuation by the fledgling Israeli army during Israel’s 1948 ‘war of independence’. Jabel el Mawleh is, therefore, officially a refugee community awaiting right of return to its home, but this is unlikely unless the state of Israel is dissolved. Malhe, their old home, is now home to a huge marble floored shopping mall full of grey faced shoppers brandishing carrier bags and mindlessly perusing bright shiny things. If you lend an ear above the din you can hear the all encompassing word out of which all of consumerism was born; Mongggggggg, reverberating on and on through emptied, market perfected minds, oblivious to the history of Malhe’s refugees behind the wall and over the hill in Bethlehem.

And behind the wall the Palestinians remain forgotten, beyond the horizon of the world popular media until a saleable atrocity prompts air-time. What we are not shown is how the atrocity is ongoing; a day by day globally insignificant human tragedy. There are more international journalists per square mile in Israel and Palestine than anywhere else in the world, but Israel continues unheeded in the Occupied Palestinian Territories.

A Brief Word, Please? by Madame T And Daisy D

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OK, maybe not so brief. 😉

I wanted to take a moment to discuss a few things about Flickr and my personal preferences. First off, so many people seem to be terribly picky about who makes comments, who doesn't make comments, who favorites a zillion photos without commenting, personal pronouns, and on and on. Our friend gaspedal1970 for instance, has been blocked by several Flickr users after he wrote comments, solely because they didn't like what he has in his own favorites. What the hell is that about?? 😲

Well, I'm not here to make judgements.....but. (There's always a "but" after something like that, isn't there? 😉) But, in my case, I don't give a rat's behind about any of that nonsense. Comment, don't comment, favorite, don't favorite....hey, whatever floats your boat. I love nice comments like everyone else, but I don't live and die by them....and I'm not offended in the least if you look and leave. Or look, favorite and leave, whatever. Call me whatever you like, use whatever pronouns suit you, and post and favorite anything that appeals to you. It's all your business, and entirely your call.

Now that said, I do have some hard limits. I will NOT tolerate outright rudeness or explicit illegality. A little harmless toe to toe is one thing, but If you are particularly nasty with me about something, try to spam me, or post anything resembling child abuse, I WILL block and report you. Otherwise, it's your party, babe...do your thing and I'll do mine. 😉

In regards to the content of others however, there are definitely some things I like and some things I don't. But my motto is "If you don't have something nice to say...say nothing at all.". So for the most part, I will never bitch and moan about something you say or post that I don't like or agree with....I will simply ignore it. (Feel free to offer me the same courtesy. 😊)

But in the interest of honest disclosure, and just this once, here are a few things I DO NOT care for in the least:

Anything involving defecation, urination (or the stains thereof 😉), diaper play, face sitting, public exposure, endless photos of your pathetic junk...and nothing but, disgusting asshole photography...the actual sphincter that is...not the cast of "The View" (Oops, getting too close to political commentary there...better watch it.😜), gratuitous exhibitionism (Please don't freak grandma out at Costco, honey...), and basically anything repeated ad nauseum. Cocks, more cocks, feet, more feet, shoes, more shoes, butts, more butts, etc. I mean I know I have a lot of similar themes and locations, but hell, I at least make an effort to mix things up a bit. Some people have almost exactly the same photo repeated a thousand times, and I have to scroll through pages of the stuff in the feed to get beyond it. 😲

I am sometimes tempted to drop certain users as contacts so I'm not forced to wade through so much stuff I don't want to see....but I won't. I choose to make the sacrifice in the interest of friendship. But wouldn't it be nice if Flickr had a setting where you could keep a person as a contact....but choose not to see their new photos on the Flickr feed? 🤔

Hey, if any of this is your thing, fine and dandy...I just thought you might like to know that you won't see comments from Madame Tina on certain types of photos.

There you go...done! That wasn't so hard, was it? 💗💗

Hmmm....I need to copy this to my profile page, don't I? Yeah! 😉

Muscles du Bassin. Region Ano-Genitale, 1831 by Nerrivik

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'Muscles du Bassin. Region Ano-Genitale.' (Muscles of the Pelvis. Anal-Genital area.) This plate shows the muscles of the anal and genital area of an adult. Coccyx, bulbocavernosus muscle, anus, sphincter, urethra etc.

Pasta Sphincter by GArY

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Don’t believe me? Just stick your finger in, and tell me what it feels like.

L'anus de Pierre by Benoit GEETS

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Pupil (the photo within) by shoot it!

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

De pupil is de opening van het midden van de iris in het oog.

Door de pupil is de donkere binnenkant van het oog te zien, daardoor lijkt de pupil zwart. De pupil zit achter het hoornvlies en voor het glasachtig lichaam.

De iris zorgt ervoor dat de pupil groter of kleiner wordt, onder invloed van lichtsterkte en psychologische invloeden: Bij veel licht wordt de pupil kleiner, terwijl ze in het donker groter wordt.

Ook geneesmiddelen zoals atropine en verdovende middelen kunnen de pupilafmeting beïnvloeden. Bovendien veranderen de pupillen ook bij emoties (groter) of bij kijken op korte afstand (kleiner). Bij pediatrisch oogonderzoek wordt cyclopentolaat gebruikt om de pupil te vergroten.

Na gebruik van dergelijke middelen, kan de patiënt heel lichtgevoelig zijn omdat de wijde pupil te veel licht doorlaat. Daarom wordt het tijdelijk (enkele uren) dragen van een zonnebril aangeraden.

Psychologisch effect

Ziet iemand iets wat hij leuk of mooi vindt, dan worden zijn pupillen onbewust wijder ('hij zet grote ogen op'). De pupil kan daarbij zelfs als leugendetector dienen: iemand die op dieet is kan zichzelf wijsmaken dat hij een hekel heeft aan slagroomtaarten, en daar op den duur zelf in gaan geloven (fabuleren). Zijn pupillen vertellen echter iets anders.

Iemand die wijde pupillen heeft, wordt vaak aardiger gevonden, hoewel men de wijde pupillen niet bewust opmerkt.

Er is een onderzoek waarbij men een proefpersoon twee foto's van een meisje laat zien. Hij moet kiezen welke foto hij het leukst vindt. De proefpersoon zal aanvankelijk het antwoord weigeren, want de foto's lijken volkomen identiek. Daar neemt de vraagsteller geen genoegen mee, er moet een foto gekozen worden. Dus kiest de proefpersoon een van de foto's. Nu blijkt dat de foto geretoucheerd is: het meisje op de leukste foto heeft wijdere pupillen.

Kennelijk heeft de proefpersoon de volgende gedachte: "Dat meisje heeft wijde pupillen als ze mij ziet. Kennelijk vindt ze mij aardig. Dan vind ik haar ook aardig." Deze gedachte is echter volkomen onbewust.

In de oudheid was dit verschijnsel al bekend, en vrouwen gebruikten vroeger het pupilverwijdende atropine, dat gewonnen werd uit de wolfskers, als cosmetisch middel. Dat verklaart ook de wetenschappelijke naam van de wolfskers: belladonna.

The pupil is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the retina. It appears black because most of the light entering the pupil is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye. In humans the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have slit pupils. In optical terms, the anatomical pupil is the eye's aperture and the iris is the aperture stop. The image of the pupil as seen from outside the eye is the entrance pupil, which does not exactly correspond to the location and size of the physical pupil because it is magnified by the cornea. On the inner edge lies a prominent structure, the collarette, marking the junction of the embryonic pupillary membrane covering the embryonic pupil.

Control

The iris is a contractile structure, consisting mainly of [smooth muscle], surrounding the pupil. Light enters the eye through the pupil, and the iris regulates the amount of light by controlling the size of the pupil. In humans the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have slit pupils.[2] The iris contains two groups of smooth muscles; a circular group called the sphincter pupillae, and a radial group called the dilator pupillae. When the sphincter pupillae contract, the iris decreases or constricts the size of the pupil. The dilator pupillae, innervated by sympathetic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion, cause the pupil to dilate when they contract. These muscles are sometimes referred to as intrinsic eye muscles. The sensory pathway (rod or cone, bipolar, ganglion) is linked with its counterpart in the other eye by a partial crossover of each eye's fibers. This causes the effect in one eye to carry over to the other. If the drug pilocarpine is administered, the pupils will constrict and accommodation is increased due to the parasympathetic action on the circular muscle fibers, conversely, atropine will cause paraylsis of accommodation (cycloplegia) and dilation of the pupil. The sympathetic nerve system can dilate the pupil in two ways: by the stimulation of the sympathetic nerve in the neck, or by influx of adrenaline.

Optic effects

When bright light is shone on the eye light sensitive cells in the retina, including rod and cone photoreceptors and melanopsin ganglion cells, will send signals to the oculomotor nerve, specifically the parasympathetic part coming from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which terminates on the circular iris sphincter muscle. When this muscle contracts, it reduces the size of the pupil. This is the pupillary light reflex, which is an important test of brainstem function. Furthermore, the pupil will dilate if a person sees an object of interest.

The pupil gets wider in the dark but narrower in light. When narrow, the diameter is 3 to 4 millimeters. In the dark it will be the same at first, but will approach the maximum distance for a wide pupil 4 to 9 mm. In any human age group there is however considerable variation in maximal pupil size. For example, at the peak age of 15, the dark-adapted pupil can vary from 4 mm to 9 mm with different individuals. After 25 years of age the average pupil size decreases, though not at a steady rate. At this stage the pupils do not remain completely still, therefore may lead to oscillation, which may intensify and become known as hippus. When only one eye is stimulated, both eyes contract equally. The constriction of the pupil and near vision are closely tied. In bright light, the pupils constrict to prevent aberrations of light rays and thus attain their expected acuity; in the dark this is not necessary, so it is chiefly concerned with admitting sufficient light into the eye.

A condition called bene dilitatism occurs when the optic nerves are partially damaged. This condition is typified by chronically widened pupils due to the decreased ability of the optic nerves to respond to light. In normal lighting, people afflicted with this condition normally have dilated pupils, and bright lighting can cause pain. At the other end of the spectrum, people with this condition have trouble seeing in darkness. It is necessary for these people to be especially careful when driving at night due to their inability to see objects in their full perspective. This condition is not otherwise dangerous.

Psychological effects

The pupil dilates in response to extreme emotional situations such as fear, or to contact of a sensory nerve, such as pain. Task-evoked pupillary response is the tendency of pupils to dilate slightly in response to loads on working memory, increased attention, sensory discrimination, or other cognitive loads.

Facial expressions of sadness with small pupils are judged significantly more intensely sad with decreasing pupil size though people are unaware of pupil size affecting their judgment. A person's own pupil size also mirrors this with them being smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils. There is no parallel effect when people look at neutral, happy or angry expressions. Brain areas involved in this include those processing social signals in the amygdala, and areas involved in the mirror neuron system such as the left frontal operculum. The degree of empathetic contagion activated the brainstem pupillary control Edinger-Westphal nucleus in proportion to a person's pupil size change response to that in another. The greater degree to which a person's pupil dilation mirrors another person's coincides with that person having a greater empathy score.

Effect of drugs

The sphincter muscle has a parasympathetic innervation, and the dilator has a sympathetic innervation. In pupillary constriction induced by pilocarpine, not only is the sphincter nerve supply activated but that of the dilator is inhibited. The reverse is true, so control of pupil size is controlled by differences in contraction intensity of each muscle.

Certain drugs cause constriction of the pupils, such as alcohol and opioids. Other drugs, such as atropine, LSD, MDMA, mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, cocaine and amphetamines may cause pupil dilation.

Another term for the constriction of the pupil is miosis. Substances that cause miosis are described as miotic. Dilation of the pupil is mydriasis. Dilation can be caused by mydriatic substances such as an eye drop solution containing tropicamide.

123 by Beth Amphetamines

4

Commander Maro: stop right there. the tower is off limits until further notice

Lizzy: here's my papers, you giant sphincter

Maro: what's this now? by order of his eminence, possessor of these papers, the Gourmet!

Lizzy: you got it, creepy guy wearing a dress

Maro: I.. I'm sorry! your clothes, of course. I should have realized. please, excuse my ignorance. Gianna the castle chef has been eagerly awaiting your arrival. you should proceed to the ambush, I mean kitchens, straight away

Lizzy: sure, I'll just go and slaughter your men, I mean cook for the emperor right now ^_^

BLUES… IRIS by magda indigo

33 7

I love the 'regality' of this flower, very ephemeral though......

In Flowers'-language: Iris means faith; hope; wisdom and valour

Iris can mean:

* The sphincter around the pupil of the eye, the iris is the most visible part of the eye, when photographed with a flash, the iris only reacts to protect the retina, and not fast enough to avoid the red eye effect.

* The equivalent device in a camera,

* The messenger of the gods in Greek mythology,

* A variety of flower,

* A female first name.

Hope this brings a smile smile again, have a good day and thank you for your visit, so very much appreciated, Magda, (*_*)

ALL IMAGES ARE BEST seen On Black, yours too!

For more of my work: www.indigo2photography.com

Perilously Delivering Supplies by Christopher Drew

11 7

We stopped briefly to take a picture of a sign saying "this way to Bagdad" when this dude drove by at about 80 mph. He actually had to swerve a bit to the middle of the highway, which caused several of us to feel an intense constriction of the sphincter. These supply trucks are common, and their usual destination is, in fact, Iraq.

LSU by Mark

6 1

Purple sky over Golden trees (as seen from the I-10 sphincter, MRB)

Koala - Koala Bear (Phascolarctos Cinereus) by PHOTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

3 1

The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), sometimes called the koala bear, is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats. The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, dark nose. The koala has a body length of 60–85 cm (24–33 in) and weighs 4–15 kg (9–33 lb). Fur colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown. Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed.

Koalas typically inhabit open Eucalyptus woodland, as the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. This eucalypt diet has low nutritional and caloric content and contains toxic compounds that deter most other mammals from feeding on it. Koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to twenty hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. Males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers' pouches, where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives. These young koalas, known as joeys, are fully weaned around a year old. Koalas have few natural predators and parasites, but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and koala retrovirus.

Because of their distinctive appearance, koalas, along with kangaroos and emus, are recognised worldwide as symbols of Australia. They were hunted by Indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia. The first recorded encounter between a European and a koala was in 1798, and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry. Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814, although his work remained unpublished for 180 years. Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala, introducing the species to the general British public. Further details about the animal's biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists. Koalas are listed as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Among the many threats to their existence are habitat destruction caused by agriculture, urbanisation, droughts, and associated bushfires, some related to climate change. In February 2022, the koala was officially listed as endangered in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, and Queensland.

Etymology

The word "koala" comes from the Dharug gula, meaning 'no water'. Although the vowel "u" was originally written in the English orthography as "oo" (in spellings such as coola or koolah — two syllables), the spelling later became "oa" and the word is now pronounced in three syllables, possibly in error.

Adopted by white settlers, "koala" became one of several hundred Aboriginal loan words in Australian English, where it was also commonly referred to as "native bear", later "koala bear", for its supposed resemblance to a bear. It is also one of several Aboriginal words that made it into International English alongside words like "didgeridoo" and "kangaroo". The generic name, Phascolarctos, is derived from the Greek words φάσκωλος (phaskolos) 'pouch' and ἄρκτος (arktos) 'bear'. The specific name, cinereus, is Latin for 'ash coloured'.

Taxonomy

The koala was given its generic name Phascolarctos in 1816 by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, who would not give it a specific name until further review. In 1819, German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss gave it the binomial Lipurus cinereus. Because Phascolarctos was published first, according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, it has priority as the official name of the genus. French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest coined the name Phascolarctos fuscus in 1820, suggesting that the brown-coloured versions were a different species than the grey ones. Other names suggested by European authors included Marodactylus cinereus by Goldfuss in 1820, P. flindersii by René Primevère Lesson in 1827, and P. koala by John Edward Gray in 1827.

Evolution

The koala is classified with wombats (family Vombatidae) and several extinct families (including marsupial tapirs, marsupial lions and giant wombats) in the suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia. The Vombatiformes are a sister group to a clade that includes macropods (kangaroos and wallabies) and possums. The koala's lineage possibly branched off around 40 million years ago during the Eocene.

The modern koala is the only extant member of Phascolarctidae, a family that includes several extinct genera and species. During the Oligocene and Miocene, koalas lived in rainforests and had more generalised diets. Some species, such as the Riversleigh rainforest koala (Nimiokoala greystanesi) and some species of Perikoala, were around the same size as the modern koala, while others, such as species of Litokoala, were one-half to two-thirds its size Like the modern species, prehistoric koalas had well developed ear structures which suggests that they also made long-distance vocalisations and had a relatively inactive lifestyle. During the Miocene, the Australian continent began drying out, leading to the decline of rainforests and the spread of open Eucalyptus woodlands. The genus Phascolarctos split from Litokoala in the late Miocene, and had several adaptations that allowed it to live on a specialised eucalyptus diet: a shifting of the palate towards the front of the skull; upper teeth lined by thicker bone, molars located relatively low compared the jaw joint and with more chewing surface; smaller pterygoid fossa; and a larger gap separating the incisor teeth and the molars.

P. cinereus may have emerged as a dwarf form of the giant koala (P. stirtoni), following the disappearance of several giant animals in the late Pleistocene. A 2008 study questions this hypothesis, noting that P. cinereus and P. stirtoni were sympatric during the middle to late Pleistocene, and the major difference in the morphology of their teeth. The fossil record of the modern koala extends back at least to the middle Pleistocene.

Molecular relationship between living Diprotodontia families based on Phillips and collages (2023)

Vombatidae (wombats)

Phascolarctidae (koalas)

Acrobatidae

Tarsipedidae (honey possum)

Petauridae (wrist-winged gliders and allies)

Pseudocheiridae (ringtail possums and allies)

Macropodidae (kangaroos, wallabies and allies)

Phalangeridae (brushtail possums and cuscuses)

Burramyidae (pygmy possums)

Morphology tree of Phascolarctidae based on Beck and collages (2020)

Thylacoleonidae (extinct marsupial lion and allies)

Vombatomorphia (wombats and fossil relatives)

Phascolarctidae

Priscakoala lucyturnbullae

Madakoala spp.

Perikoala robustus

Nimiokoala greystanesi

Litokoala dicksmithi

Litokoala kutjamarpensis

Phascolarctos cinereus

Genetics and variations

Three subspecies are recognised: the Queensland koala (Phascolarctos cinereus adustus, Thomas 1923), the New South Wales koala (Phascolarctos cinereus cinereus, Goldfuss 1817), and the Victorian koala (Phascolarctos cinereus victor, Troughton 1935). These forms are distinguished by pelage colour and thickness, body size, and skull shape. The Queensland koala is the smallest of the three, with silver or grey short hairs and a shorter skull. The Victorian koala is the largest, with shaggier, brown fur and a wider skull. The geographic limits of these variations are based on state borders, and their status as subspecies is disputed. A 1999 genetic study suggests koalas exist as a cline within a single evolutionarily significant unit with limited gene flow between local populations.

Other studies have found that koala populations have high levels of inbreeding and low genetic variation. Such low genetic diversity may have been caused by declines in the population during the late Pleistocene. Rivers and roads have been shown to limit gene flow and contribute to the isolation of southeast Queensland populations. In April 2013, scientists from the Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology announced they had fully sequenced the koala genome.

Characteristics

The koala is a robust animal with a large head and vestigial or non-existent tail. It has a body length of 60–85 cm (24–33 in) and a weight of 4–15 kg (9–33 lb), making it among the largest arboreal marsupials. Koalas from Victoria are twice as heavy as those from Queensland. The species is sexually dimorphic, with males 50% larger than females. Males are further distinguished from females by their more curved noses and the presence of chest glands, which are visible as bald patches. The female's pouch opening is secured by a sphincter which holds the young in.

The pelage of the koala is denser on the back. The back fur colour varies from light grey to chocolate brown. The belly fur is whitish; on the rump it is mottled whitish and dark. The koala has the most effective insulating back fur of any marsupial and is highly resilient to wind and rain, while the belly fur can reflect solar radiation. The koala's curved, sharp claws are well adapted for climbing trees. The large forepaws have two opposable digits (the first and second, which are opposable to the other three) that allow them to grip small branches. On the hind paws, the second and third digits are fused, a typical condition for members of the Diprotodontia, and the attached claws (which are still separate) function like a comb. The animal has a robust skeleton and a short, muscular upper body with relatively long upper limbs that contribute to its ability to scale trees. In addition, the thigh muscles are anchored further down the shinbone, increasing its climbing power.

For a mammal, the koala has a proportionally small brain, being 60% smaller than that of a typical diprotodont, weighing only 19.2 g (0.68 oz) on average. The brain's surface is fairly smooth and "primitive". It does not entirely fill up the cranial cavity, unlike in most mammals, and is lightened by large amounts of cerebrospinal fluid. It is possible that the fluid protects the brain when animal falls from a tree. The koala's small brain size may be an adaptation to the energy restrictions imposed by its diet, which is insufficient to sustain a larger brain. Because of its small brain, the koala has a limited ability to perform complex, unusual behaviours. For example, it will not eat plucked leaves on a flat surface, which conflicts with its normal feeding routine.

The koala has a broad, dark nose with a good sense of smell, and it is known to sniff the oils of individual branchlets to assess their edibility. Its relatively small eyes are unusual among marsupials in that the pupils have vertical slits, an adaptation to living on a more vertical plane. Its round ears provide it with good hearing, and it has a well-developed middle ear. The koala larynx is located relatively low in the vocal tract and can be pulled down even further. They also possess unique folds in the velum (soft palate), known as velar vocal folds, in addition to the typical vocal folds of the larynx. These features allow the koala to produce deeper sounds than would otherwise be possible for their size.

The koala has several adaptations for its poor, toxic and fibrous diet. The animal's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth (a single premolar and four molars on each jaw), which are separated by a large gap (a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals). The koala bites a leaf with the incisors and clips it with the premolars at the petiole, before chewing it to pieces with the cusped molars. Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed. The partially worn molars of koalas in their prime are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles, resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine, which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal's energy. A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time.

Koalas are hindgut fermenters, and their digestive retention can last for up to 100 hours in the wild or up to 200 hours in captivity. This is made possible by their caecum—200 cm (80 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) in diameter—possibly the largest for an animal when accounting for its size. Koalas can hold food particles for longer fermentation if needed. They are more likely keep smaller particles as larger ones take longer to digest. While the hindgut is relatively large, only 10% of the animal's energy is obtained from digestion in this chamber. The koala's metabolic rate is only 50% of the typical mammalian rate, owing to its low energy intake, although this can vary between seasons and sexes. They can digest the toxic plant secondary metabolites, phenolic compounds and terpenes present in eucalyptus leaves due to their production of cytochrome P450, which breaks down these poisons in the liver. The koala replaces lost water at a lower rate than some other species like some possums. It maintains water by absorbing it in the caecum, resulting in drier faecal pellets packed with undigested fibre.

Distribution and habitat

The koala's geographic range covers roughly 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi), and 30 ecoregions. It ranges throughout mainland eastern and southeastern Australia, including the states of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. The koala was also introduced to several nearby islands. The population on Magnetic Island represents the northern limit of its range.

Fossil evidence shows that the koala's range stretched as far west as southwestern Western Australia during the late Pleistocene. They were likely driven to extinction in these areas by environmental changes and hunting by Indigenous Australians. Koalas were introduced to Western Australia at Yanchep in 2022. Koalas can be found in both tropical and temperate habitats ranging from dense woodlands to more spaced-out forests. In semi-arid climates, they prefer riparian habitats, where nearby streams and creeks provide refuge during times of drought and extreme heat.

Behaviour and ecology

Koalas are herbivorous, and while most of their diet consists of eucalypt leaves, they can be found in trees of other genera, such as Acacia, Allocasuarina, Callitris, Leptospermum, and Melaleuca. Though the foliage of over 600 species of Eucalyptus is available, the koala shows a strong preference for around 30. They prefer plant matter with higher protein over fibre and lignin. The most favoured species are Eucalyptus microcorys, E. tereticornis, and E. camaldulensis, which, on average, make up more than 20% of their diet. Despite its reputation as a picky eater, the koala is more generalist than some other marsupial species, such as the greater glider. The koala does not need to drink often as it can get enough water in the eucalypt leaves, though larger males may additionally drink water found on the ground or in tree hollows. When feeding, a koala reaches out to grab leaves with one forepaw while the other paws hang on to the branch. Depending on the size of the individual, a koala can walk to the end of a branch or must stay near the base. Each day, koalas eat up to 400 grams (14 oz) of leaves, spread over four to six feeding periods. Despite their adaptations to a low-energy lifestyle, they have meagre fat reserves and need to feed often.

Due to their low-energy diet, koalas limit their activity and sleep 20 hours a day. They are predominantly active at night and spend most of their waking hours foraging. They typically eat and sleep in the same tree, possibly for as long as a day. On warm days, a koala may rest with its back against a branch or lie down with its limbs dangling. When it gets very hot, the koala rests lower in the canopy and near the trunk, where the surface is cooler than the surrounding air. It curls up when it gets cold and wet. A koala will find a lower, thicker branch on which to rest when it gets windy. While it spends most of the time in the tree, the animal descends to the ground to move to another tree, leaping along. The koala usually grooms itself with its hind paws, with their double claws, but sometimes uses its forepaws or mouth.

Social life

Koalas are asocial animals and spend just 15 minutes a day on social behaviours. Where there are more koalas and fewer trees, home ranges are smaller and more clumped while the reverse is true for areas with fewer animals and more trees. Koala society appears to consist of "residents" and "transients", the former being mostly adult females and the latter males. Resident males appear to be territorial and dominant. The territories of dominant males are found near breeding females, while younger males must wait until they reach full size to challenge for breeding rights. Adult males occasionally venture outside their home ranges; when they do so, dominant ones retain their status. As a male climbs a new tree, he rubs his chest against it and sometimes dribbles urine. This scent-marking behaviour probably serves as communication, and individuals are known to sniff the bottom of a newly found tree. Chest gland secretions are complex chemical mixtures — about 40 compounds were identified in one analysis — that vary in composition and concentration with the season and the age of the individual.

Adult males communicate with loud bellows — "a long series of deep, snoring inhalations and belching exhalations". Because of their low frequency, these bellows can travel far through the forest. Koalas may bellow at any time of the year, particularly during the breeding season, when it serves to attract females and possibly intimidate other males. They also bellow to advertise their presence to their neighbours when they climb a different tree. These sounds signal the male's actual body size, as well as exaggerate it; females pay more attention to bellows that originate from larger males. Female koalas bellow, though more softly, in addition to making snarls, wails, and screams. These calls are produced when in distress and when making defensive threats. Squeaking and sqawking are produced when distraught; the former is made by younger animals and the latter by older ones. When another individual climbs over it, a koala makes a low closed-mouth grunt. Koalas also communicate with facial expressions. When snarling, wailing, or squawking, the animal curls the upper lip and points its ears forward. Screaming koalas pull their lips and ears back. Females form an oval shape with their lips when annoyed.

Agonistic behaviour typically consists of quarrels between individuals that are trying to pass each other in the tree. This occasionally involves biting. Strangers may wrestle, chase, and bite each other. In extreme situations, a male may try to displace a smaller rival from a tree, chasing, cornering and biting it. Once the individual is driven away, the victor bellows and marks the tree. Pregnant and lactating females are particularly aggressive and attack individuals that come too close. In general, however, koalas tend to avoid fighting due to energy costs.

Reproduction and development

A young joey, preserved at Port Macquarie Koala Hospital

Koalas are seasonal breeders, and give birth from October to May. Females in oestrus lean their heads back and shake their bodies. Despite these obvious signals, males will try to copulate with any female during this period, mounting them from behind. Because of his much larger size, a male can overpower a female. A female may scream and vigorously fight off her suitors but will accede to one that is dominant or familiar. The commotion can attract other males to the scene, obliging the incumbent to delay mating and fight off the intruders. A female may learn who is more dominant during these fights. Older males usually have accumulated scratches, scars, and cuts on the exposed parts of their noses and their eyelids.

Koalas are induced ovulators. The gestation period lasts 33–35 days, and a female gives birth to one joey (although twins do occur). As marsupials, the young are born tiny and barely formed, weighing no more than 0.5 g (0.02 oz). However, their lips, forelimbs, and shoulders are relatively advanced, and they can breathe, defecate and urinate. The joey crawls into its mother's pouch to continue the rest of its development. Female koalas do not clean their pouches, an unusual trait among marsupials.

The joey latches on to one of the female's two teats and suckles it. The female lactates for as long as a year to make up for her low energy production. Unlike in other marsupials, koala milk becomes less fatty as the joey grows in the pouch. After seven weeks, the joey has a proportionally large head, clear edges around its face, more colouration, and a visible pouch (if female) or scrotum (male). At 13 weeks, the joey weighs around 50 g (1.8 oz) and its head is twice as big as before. The eyes begin to open and hair begins to appear. At 26 weeks, the fully furred animal resembles an adult and can look outside the pouch.

Mother with joey on back

At six or seven months of age, the joey weighs 300–500 g (11–18 oz) and fully emerges from the pouch for the first time. It explores its new surroundings cautiously, clutching its mother for support. Around this time, the mother prepares it for a eucalyptus diet by producing a faecal pap that the joey eats from her cloaca. This pap comes from the cecum, is more liquid than regular faeces, and is filled with bacteria. A nine month old joey has its adult coat colour and weighs 1 kg (2.2 lb). Having permanently left the pouch, it rides on its mother's back for transportation, learning to climb by grasping branches. Gradually, it becomes more independent from its mother, who becomes pregnant again after a year, and the young is now around 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). Her bond with her previous offspring is permanently severed and she no longer allows it to suckle, but it will stay nearby until it is one-and-a-half to two years old.

Females become sexually mature at about three years of age and can then become pregnant; in comparison, males reach sexual maturity when they are about four years old, although they can experience spermatogenesis as early as two years. Males do not start marking their scent until they reach sexual maturity, though their chest glands become functional much earlier. Koalas can breed every year if environmental conditions are good, though the long dependence of the young usually leads to year-long gaps in births.

Health and mortality

Koalas may live from 13 to 18 years in the wild. While female koalas usually live this long, males may die sooner because of their more risky lives. Koalas usually survive falls from trees and can climb back up, but they can get hurt and even die, particularly inexperienced young and fighting males. Around six years of age, the koala's chewing teeth begin to wear down and their chewing efficiency decreases. Eventually, the cusps disappear completely and the animal will die of starvation. Koalas have few predators. Dingos and large pythons and some birds of prey may take them. Koalas are generally not subject to external parasites, other than ticks around the coast. The mite Sarcoptes scabiei gives koalas mange, while the bacterium Mycobacterium ulcerans skin ulcers, but even these are uncommon. Internal parasites are few and have little effect. These include the tapeworm Bertiella obesa, commonly found in the intestine, and the nematodes Marsupostrongylus longilarvatus and Durikainema phascolarcti, which are infrequently found in the lungs.[59] In a three-year study of almost 600 koalas taken to the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital in Queensland, 73.8% of the animals were infected with parasitic protozoal genus Trypanosoma, the most frequent of which was T. irwini.

Koalas can be subject to pathogens such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria, which can cause keratoconjunctivitis, urinary tract infection, and reproductive tract infection. Such infections are common on the mainland, but absent in some island populations. The koala retrovirus (KoRV) may cause koala immune deficiency syndrome (KIDS) which is similar to AIDS in humans. Prevalence of KoRV in koala populations suggests a trend spreading from north to south, where populations go from being completely infected to being partially uninfected.

The animals are vulnerable to bushfires due to their slow speed and the flammability of eucalypt trees. The koala instinctively seeks refuge in the higher branches, where it is vulnerable to intense heat and flames. Bushfires also break up the animal's habitat, which isolates them, decreases their numbers and creates genetic bottlenecks. Dehydration and overheating can also prove fatal. Consequently, the koala is vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Models of climate change in Australia predict warmer and drier climates, suggesting that the koala's range will shrink in the east and south to more mesic habitats.

Human relations

The first written reference to the koala was recorded by John Price, servant of John Hunter, the Governor of New South Wales. Price encountered the "cullawine" on 26 January 1798, during an expedition to the Blue Mountains, but his remarks would first be published in Historical Records of Australia, nearly a century later. In 1802, French-born explorer Francis Louis Barrallier encountered the animal when his two Aboriginal guides, returning from a hunt, brought back two koala feet they were intending to eat. Barrallier preserved the appendages and sent them and his notes to Hunter's successor, Philip Gidley King, who forwarded them to Joseph Banks. Similar to Price, Barrallier's notes were not published until 1897. Reports of the "Koolah" appeared in the Sydney Gazette in late 1803, and helped provide the impetus for King to send the artist John Lewin to paint watercolours of the animal. Lewin painted three pictures, one of which was used as a print in Georges Cuvier's Le Règne Animal (The Animal Kingdom) (1827).

Botanist Robert Brown was the first to write a formal scientific description of the koala in 1803, based on a female specimen captured near what is now Mount Kembla in the Illawarra region of New South Wales. Austrian botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer drew the animal's skull, throat, feet, and paws. Brown's work remained unpublished and largely unnoticed, however, as his field books and notes remained in his possession until his death, when they were bequeathed to the British Museum (Natural History) in London. They were not identified until 1994, while Bauer's koala watercolours were not published until 1989. William Paterson, who had befriended Brown and Bauer during their stay in New South Wales, wrote an eyewitness report of his encounters with the animals and this would be the basis for British surgeon Everard Home's anatomical writings on them. Home, who in 1808 published his report in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, coined the scientific name Didelphis coola.

George Perry would officially publish the first image of the koala in his 1810 natural history work Arcana. Perry called it the "New Holland Sloth", and his dislike for the koala, evident in his description of the animal, was reflected in the contemporary British attitudes towards Australian animals as strange and primitive the eye is placed like that of the Sloth, very close to the mouth and nose, which gives it a clumsy awkward appearance, and void of elegance in the combination they have little either in their character or appearance to interest the Naturalist or Philosopher. As Nature however provides nothing in vain, we may suppose that even these torpid, senseless creatures are wisely intended to fill up one of the great links of the chain of animated nature.

Natural history illustrator John Gould popularised the koala with his 1863 work The Mammals of Australia.

Naturalist and popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala in his three-volume work The Mammals of Australia (1845–1863) and introduced the species, as well as other members of Australia's little-known faunal community, to the public. Comparative anatomist Richard Owen, in a series of publications on the physiology and anatomy of Australian mammals, presented a paper on the anatomy of the koala to the Zoological Society of London. In this widely cited publication, he provided an early description of its internal anatomy, and noted its general structural similarity to the wombat. English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse, curator of the Zoological Society of London, was the first to correctly classify the koala as a marsupial in the 1840s, and compared it to fossil species Diprotodon and Nototherium, which had been discovered just recently. Similarly, Gerard Krefft, curator of the Australian Museum in Sydney, noted evolutionary mechanisms at work when comparing the koala to fossil marsupials in his 1871 The Mammals of Australia.

Britain finally received a living koala in 1881, which was obtained by the Zoological Society of London. As related by prosecutor to the society, William Alexander Forbes, the animal suffered an accidental demise when the heavy lid of a washstand fell on it and it was unable to free itself. Forbes dissected the fresh specimen and wrote about the female reproductive system, the brain, and the liver — parts not previously described by Owen, who had access only to preserved specimens. Scottish embryologist William Caldwell — well known in scientific circles for determining the reproductive mechanism of the platypus — described the uterine development of the koala in 1884, and used this new information to convincingly map out the evolutionary timeline of the koala and the monotremes.

Main article: Koala emblems and popular culture

The koala is well known worldwide and is a major draw for Australian zoos and wildlife parks. It has been featured in popular culture and as soft toys. It benefited the Australian tourism industry by over $1 billion in 1998, and this has subsequently grown. Its international popularly rose after World War II, when tourism to Australia increased and the animals were exported to zoos overseas. In 1997, about 75% of European and Japanese tourists placed the koala at the top of their list of animals to see. According to biologist Stephen Jackson: "If you were to take a straw poll of the animal most closely associated with Australia, it's a fair bet that the koala would come out marginally in front of the kangaroo". Factors that contribute to the koala's enduring popularity include its teddy bear-like appearance with childlike body proportions.

The koala is featured in the Dreamtime stories and mythology of Indigenous Australians. The Tharawal people believed that the animal helped them get to the continent by rowing the boat. Another myth tells of how a tribe killed a koala and used its long intestines to create a bridge for people from other parts of the world. How the koala lost its tail has been the subject of many tales. In one, a kangaroo cuts it off to punish the koala for its uncouth behaviour. Tribes in both Queensland and Victoria regarded the koala as a wise animal which gave valuable guidance. Bidjara-speaking people credited the koala for making trees grow in their arid lands. The animal is also depicted in rock carvings, though less so than some other species.

Early European settlers in Australia considered the koala to be a creeping sloth-like animal with a "fierce and menacing look". At the turn of the 20th century, the koala's reputation took a more positive turn. It appears in Ethel Pedley's 1899 book Dot and the Kangaroo, as the "funny native bear". Artist Norman Lindsay depicted a more anthropomorphic koala in The Bulletin cartoons, starting in 1904. This character also appeared as Bunyip Bluegum in Lindsay's 1918 book The Magic Pudding. The most well known fictional koala is Blinky Bill. Created by Dorothy Wall in 1933, the character appeared in several books and has been the subject of films, TV series, merchandise, and a 1986 environmental song by John Williamson. The koala first appeared on an Australian stamp in 1930.

The song "Ode to a Koala Bear" appears on the B-side of the 1983 Paul McCartney/Michael Jackson duet single Say Say Say. A koala is the main character in Hanna-Barbera's The Kwicky Koala Show and Nippon Animation's Noozles, both of which were animated cartoons of the early 1980s. Food products shaped like the koala include the Caramello Koala chocolate bar and the bite-sized cookie snack Koala's March. Dadswells Bridge in Victoria features a tourist complex shaped like a giant koala and the Queensland Reds rugby team has a koala as its icon.

Koala diplomacy

Several political leaders and members of royal families had their pictures taken with koalas, including Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Harry, Crown Prince Naruhito, Crown Princess Masako, Pope John Paul II, US President Bill Clinton, Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev and South African President Nelson Mandela At the 2014 G20 Brisbane summit, hosted by Prime Minister Tony Abbott, many world leaders, including Russian President Vladimir Putin and US President Barack Obama, were photographed holding koalas. The event gave rise to the term "koala diplomacy", which then became the Oxford Word of the Month for December 2016. The term also includes the loan of koalas by the Australian government to overseas zoos in countries such as Singapore and Japan, as a form of "soft power diplomacy", like the "panda diplomacy" practised by China.

Main article: Koala conservation

The koala was originally classified as Least Concern on the Red List, and reassessed as Vulnerable in 2014. In the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland, the species was listed under the EPBC Act in February 2022 as endangered by extinction. The described population was determined in 2012 to be "a species for the purposes of the EPBC Act 1999" in Federal legislation.

Australian policymakers had declined a 2009 proposal to include the koala in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. A 2017 WWF report found a 53% decline per generation in Queensland, and a 26% decline in New South Wales. The koala population in South Australia and Victoria appear to be abundant; however, the Australian Koala Foundation (AKF) argued that the exclusion of Victorian populations from protective measures was based on a misconception that the total koala population was 200,000, whereas they believed in 2012 that it was probably less than 100,000. AKF estimated in 2022 that there could be only 43,000–100,000.[80] This is compared with 8 to 10 million at the start of the 20th century. The Australian Government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee estimated that the 2021 koala population was 92,000, down from 185,000 two decades prior.

The koala was heavily hunted by European settlers in the early 20th century, largely for its fur. Australia exported as many as two million pelts by 1924. Koala furs were used to make rugs, coat linings, muffs, and on women's garment trimmings. The first successful efforts at conserving the species were initiated by the establishment of Brisbane's Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and Sydney's Koala Park Sanctuary in the 1920s and 1930s. The owner of the latter park, Noel Burnet, created the first successful breeding program and earned a reputation as a top expert on the species.

One of the biggest anthropogenic threats to the koala is habitat destruction and fragmentation. Near the coast, the main cause of this is urbanisation, while in rural areas, habitat is cleared for agriculture. Its favoured trees are also taken down to be made into wood products. In 2000, Australia had the fifth highest rate of land clearance globally, having removed 564,800 hectares (1,396,000 acres) of native plants. The distribution of the koala has shrunk by more than 50% since European arrival, largely due to fragmentation of habitat in Queensland. Nevertheless, koalas live in many protected areas.

While urbanisation can pose a threat to koala populations, the animals can survive in urban areas provided enough trees are present. Urban populations have distinct vulnerabilities: collisions with vehicles and attacks by domestic dogs. Cars and dogs kill about 4,000 animals every year. To reduce road deaths, government agencies have been exploring various wildlife crossing options, such as the use of fencing to channel animals toward an underpass, in some cases adding a ledge as a walkway to an existing culvert. Injured koalas are often taken to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres. In a 30-year retrospective study performed at a New South Wales koala rehabilitation centre, trauma was found to be the most frequent cause of admission, followed by symptoms of Chlamydia infection

57315 by Jason Rodhouse

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For the FIRST time this year, and 2 previous weekend failiures, success with a Portaloo Drag!!!! Sunday the 25th of November 2012, and lovely clear blue skies. The mainline via Weedon was reported closed, so nothing could go wrong today, success was guaranteed on the Northampton loop here at Barby Nortoft..........until Vermin services could be seen using the mainline!!!! With the loss of the guarantee, lots of sphincter twitching was happening for us 3 at Barby Nortoft, until finally, 57315 could be seen approaching on the loop! This is 5A16 Oxley-Euston. The Portaloo is 390008 'Vermin Stin-King'

_DSC2010.jpg by Eric Harvey Brown

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What's she lookin' fer?

This photo appeared on Fail Blog

Kegel Exercises by amareta kelly

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Kegel exercises (Kegels) are exercises designed to strengthen the muscles of the lower pelvic girdle, or pelvic floor—the pubococcygeal (PC) muscles. The PC muscles support the bladder, urethra, and urethral sphincter—the muscle group at the neck of the bladder that acts as a spigot for controlling urine flow into the urethra—and the vagina, uterus, and rectum.

trytostayhealthy.blogspot.com/2011/06/kegel-exercises.html

sphincter grip by Graeme Dawes

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pensive by Shawn Dall

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in the bathroom checkout out the beautiful day :)

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Follow @ Chronamut:

soundcloud: soundcloud.com/chronaamut

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestwold_Hall

artpage: ShawnDall.com

BLUE IRIS... by magda indigo

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The name Iris is Greek and it means rainbow for its many colours. However, most irises are shades of blue or purple. The majority of irises that we see today are hybrids of the originals.

The iris has been around for many centuries, and many artists have chosen to paint them. There are several famous paintings of the flowers.

From 1888 to 1890, Van Gogh painted at least four paintings of irises.

Monet painted "Iris" sometime between 1914 and 1917.

Not only is the iris a beautiful flower, but also they have several uses. As a live plant they are used as a water purifier. They are ingredients in some perfumes, homemade toothpaste, pottery and herbal medicines.

The stylised iris, fleur-de-lis, descends from the white iris which is native to Florence, Italy and which grew even in its city walls. This white iris, displayed against a red background, became the symbol of Florence until the Medici family, to signal a change in political power, reversed the colours making the white one red and setting in motion a centuries-long breeding program to hybridise a red iris. Catherine de Medici carried this symbol of Florence to Paris when she married the king of France where this most famous of irises acquired its nickname, fleur-de-lis.

The iris has been associated with France as Louis VII adopted it as a symbol in the 12th Century.

In Flowers'-language: Iris means faith; hope; wisdom and valour

In Fine Arts: the lenses also have an iris diaphragm which can be opened and closed to control the amount of light reaching the film.

Iris can mean:

* The sphincter around the pupil of the eye, the iris is the most visible part of the eye, when photographed with a flash, the iris only reacts to protect the retina, and not fast enough to avoid the red eye effect.

* The equivalent device in a camera,

* The messenger of the gods in Greek mythology,

* A variety of flower,

* A female first name.

Have a wonderful day and thank you for your visit, M, (*_*)

ALL IMAGES ARE BEST seen On Black, yours too!

For more of my work: www.indigo2photography.com

rate by Luna Park

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Koala - Koala Bear (Phascolarctos Cinereus) by PHOTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

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The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), sometimes called the koala bear, is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats. The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, dark nose. The koala has a body length of 60–85 cm (24–33 in) and weighs 4–15 kg (9–33 lb). Fur colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown. Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed.

Koalas typically inhabit open Eucalyptus woodland, as the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. This eucalypt diet has low nutritional and caloric content and contains toxic compounds that deter most other mammals from feeding on it. Koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to twenty hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. Males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers' pouches, where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives. These young koalas, known as joeys, are fully weaned around a year old. Koalas have few natural predators and parasites, but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and koala retrovirus.

Because of their distinctive appearance, koalas, along with kangaroos and emus, are recognised worldwide as symbols of Australia. They were hunted by Indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia. The first recorded encounter between a European and a koala was in 1798, and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry. Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814, although his work remained unpublished for 180 years. Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala, introducing the species to the general British public. Further details about the animal's biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists. Koalas are listed as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Among the many threats to their existence are habitat destruction caused by agriculture, urbanisation, droughts, and associated bushfires, some related to climate change. In February 2022, the koala was officially listed as endangered in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, and Queensland.

Etymology

The word "koala" comes from the Dharug gula, meaning 'no water'. Although the vowel "u" was originally written in the English orthography as "oo" (in spellings such as coola or koolah — two syllables), the spelling later became "oa" and the word is now pronounced in three syllables, possibly in error.

Adopted by white settlers, "koala" became one of several hundred Aboriginal loan words in Australian English, where it was also commonly referred to as "native bear", later "koala bear", for its supposed resemblance to a bear. It is also one of several Aboriginal words that made it into International English alongside words like "didgeridoo" and "kangaroo". The generic name, Phascolarctos, is derived from the Greek words φάσκωλος (phaskolos) 'pouch' and ἄρκτος (arktos) 'bear'. The specific name, cinereus, is Latin for 'ash coloured'.

Taxonomy

The koala was given its generic name Phascolarctos in 1816 by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, who would not give it a specific name until further review. In 1819, German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss gave it the binomial Lipurus cinereus. Because Phascolarctos was published first, according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, it has priority as the official name of the genus. French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest coined the name Phascolarctos fuscus in 1820, suggesting that the brown-coloured versions were a different species than the grey ones. Other names suggested by European authors included Marodactylus cinereus by Goldfuss in 1820, P. flindersii by René Primevère Lesson in 1827, and P. koala by John Edward Gray in 1827.

Evolution

The koala is classified with wombats (family Vombatidae) and several extinct families (including marsupial tapirs, marsupial lions and giant wombats) in the suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia. The Vombatiformes are a sister group to a clade that includes macropods (kangaroos and wallabies) and possums. The koala's lineage possibly branched off around 40 million years ago during the Eocene.

The modern koala is the only extant member of Phascolarctidae, a family that includes several extinct genera and species. During the Oligocene and Miocene, koalas lived in rainforests and had more generalised diets. Some species, such as the Riversleigh rainforest koala (Nimiokoala greystanesi) and some species of Perikoala, were around the same size as the modern koala, while others, such as species of Litokoala, were one-half to two-thirds its size Like the modern species, prehistoric koalas had well developed ear structures which suggests that they also made long-distance vocalisations and had a relatively inactive lifestyle. During the Miocene, the Australian continent began drying out, leading to the decline of rainforests and the spread of open Eucalyptus woodlands. The genus Phascolarctos split from Litokoala in the late Miocene, and had several adaptations that allowed it to live on a specialised eucalyptus diet: a shifting of the palate towards the front of the skull; upper teeth lined by thicker bone, molars located relatively low compared the jaw joint and with more chewing surface; smaller pterygoid fossa; and a larger gap separating the incisor teeth and the molars.

P. cinereus may have emerged as a dwarf form of the giant koala (P. stirtoni), following the disappearance of several giant animals in the late Pleistocene. A 2008 study questions this hypothesis, noting that P. cinereus and P. stirtoni were sympatric during the middle to late Pleistocene, and the major difference in the morphology of their teeth. The fossil record of the modern koala extends back at least to the middle Pleistocene.

Molecular relationship between living Diprotodontia families based on Phillips and collages (2023)

Vombatidae (wombats)

Phascolarctidae (koalas)

Acrobatidae

Tarsipedidae (honey possum)

Petauridae (wrist-winged gliders and allies)

Pseudocheiridae (ringtail possums and allies)

Macropodidae (kangaroos, wallabies and allies)

Phalangeridae (brushtail possums and cuscuses)

Burramyidae (pygmy possums)

Morphology tree of Phascolarctidae based on Beck and collages (2020)

Thylacoleonidae (extinct marsupial lion and allies)

Vombatomorphia (wombats and fossil relatives)

Phascolarctidae

Priscakoala lucyturnbullae

Madakoala spp.

Perikoala robustus

Nimiokoala greystanesi

Litokoala dicksmithi

Litokoala kutjamarpensis

Phascolarctos cinereus

Genetics and variations

Three subspecies are recognised: the Queensland koala (Phascolarctos cinereus adustus, Thomas 1923), the New South Wales koala (Phascolarctos cinereus cinereus, Goldfuss 1817), and the Victorian koala (Phascolarctos cinereus victor, Troughton 1935). These forms are distinguished by pelage colour and thickness, body size, and skull shape. The Queensland koala is the smallest of the three, with silver or grey short hairs and a shorter skull. The Victorian koala is the largest, with shaggier, brown fur and a wider skull. The geographic limits of these variations are based on state borders, and their status as subspecies is disputed. A 1999 genetic study suggests koalas exist as a cline within a single evolutionarily significant unit with limited gene flow between local populations.

Other studies have found that koala populations have high levels of inbreeding and low genetic variation. Such low genetic diversity may have been caused by declines in the population during the late Pleistocene. Rivers and roads have been shown to limit gene flow and contribute to the isolation of southeast Queensland populations. In April 2013, scientists from the Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology announced they had fully sequenced the koala genome.

Characteristics

The koala is a robust animal with a large head and vestigial or non-existent tail. It has a body length of 60–85 cm (24–33 in) and a weight of 4–15 kg (9–33 lb), making it among the largest arboreal marsupials. Koalas from Victoria are twice as heavy as those from Queensland. The species is sexually dimorphic, with males 50% larger than females. Males are further distinguished from females by their more curved noses and the presence of chest glands, which are visible as bald patches. The female's pouch opening is secured by a sphincter which holds the young in.

The pelage of the koala is denser on the back. The back fur colour varies from light grey to chocolate brown. The belly fur is whitish; on the rump it is mottled whitish and dark. The koala has the most effective insulating back fur of any marsupial and is highly resilient to wind and rain, while the belly fur can reflect solar radiation. The koala's curved, sharp claws are well adapted for climbing trees. The large forepaws have two opposable digits (the first and second, which are opposable to the other three) that allow them to grip small branches. On the hind paws, the second and third digits are fused, a typical condition for members of the Diprotodontia, and the attached claws (which are still separate) function like a comb. The animal has a robust skeleton and a short, muscular upper body with relatively long upper limbs that contribute to its ability to scale trees. In addition, the thigh muscles are anchored further down the shinbone, increasing its climbing power.

For a mammal, the koala has a proportionally small brain, being 60% smaller than that of a typical diprotodont, weighing only 19.2 g (0.68 oz) on average. The brain's surface is fairly smooth and "primitive". It does not entirely fill up the cranial cavity, unlike in most mammals, and is lightened by large amounts of cerebrospinal fluid. It is possible that the fluid protects the brain when animal falls from a tree. The koala's small brain size may be an adaptation to the energy restrictions imposed by its diet, which is insufficient to sustain a larger brain. Because of its small brain, the koala has a limited ability to perform complex, unusual behaviours. For example, it will not eat plucked leaves on a flat surface, which conflicts with its normal feeding routine.

The koala has a broad, dark nose with a good sense of smell, and it is known to sniff the oils of individual branchlets to assess their edibility. Its relatively small eyes are unusual among marsupials in that the pupils have vertical slits, an adaptation to living on a more vertical plane. Its round ears provide it with good hearing, and it has a well-developed middle ear. The koala larynx is located relatively low in the vocal tract and can be pulled down even further. They also possess unique folds in the velum (soft palate), known as velar vocal folds, in addition to the typical vocal folds of the larynx. These features allow the koala to produce deeper sounds than would otherwise be possible for their size.

The koala has several adaptations for its poor, toxic and fibrous diet. The animal's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth (a single premolar and four molars on each jaw), which are separated by a large gap (a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals). The koala bites a leaf with the incisors and clips it with the premolars at the petiole, before chewing it to pieces with the cusped molars. Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed. The partially worn molars of koalas in their prime are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles, resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine, which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal's energy. A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time.

Koalas are hindgut fermenters, and their digestive retention can last for up to 100 hours in the wild or up to 200 hours in captivity. This is made possible by their caecum—200 cm (80 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) in diameter—possibly the largest for an animal when accounting for its size. Koalas can hold food particles for longer fermentation if needed. They are more likely keep smaller particles as larger ones take longer to digest. While the hindgut is relatively large, only 10% of the animal's energy is obtained from digestion in this chamber. The koala's metabolic rate is only 50% of the typical mammalian rate, owing to its low energy intake, although this can vary between seasons and sexes. They can digest the toxic plant secondary metabolites, phenolic compounds and terpenes present in eucalyptus leaves due to their production of cytochrome P450, which breaks down these poisons in the liver. The koala replaces lost water at a lower rate than some other species like some possums. It maintains water by absorbing it in the caecum, resulting in drier faecal pellets packed with undigested fibre.

Distribution and habitat

The koala's geographic range covers roughly 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi), and 30 ecoregions. It ranges throughout mainland eastern and southeastern Australia, including the states of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. The koala was also introduced to several nearby islands. The population on Magnetic Island represents the northern limit of its range.

Fossil evidence shows that the koala's range stretched as far west as southwestern Western Australia during the late Pleistocene. They were likely driven to extinction in these areas by environmental changes and hunting by Indigenous Australians. Koalas were introduced to Western Australia at Yanchep in 2022. Koalas can be found in both tropical and temperate habitats ranging from dense woodlands to more spaced-out forests. In semi-arid climates, they prefer riparian habitats, where nearby streams and creeks provide refuge during times of drought and extreme heat.

Behaviour and ecology

Koalas are herbivorous, and while most of their diet consists of eucalypt leaves, they can be found in trees of other genera, such as Acacia, Allocasuarina, Callitris, Leptospermum, and Melaleuca. Though the foliage of over 600 species of Eucalyptus is available, the koala shows a strong preference for around 30. They prefer plant matter with higher protein over fibre and lignin. The most favoured species are Eucalyptus microcorys, E. tereticornis, and E. camaldulensis, which, on average, make up more than 20% of their diet. Despite its reputation as a picky eater, the koala is more generalist than some other marsupial species, such as the greater glider. The koala does not need to drink often as it can get enough water in the eucalypt leaves, though larger males may additionally drink water found on the ground or in tree hollows. When feeding, a koala reaches out to grab leaves with one forepaw while the other paws hang on to the branch. Depending on the size of the individual, a koala can walk to the end of a branch or must stay near the base. Each day, koalas eat up to 400 grams (14 oz) of leaves, spread over four to six feeding periods. Despite their adaptations to a low-energy lifestyle, they have meagre fat reserves and need to feed often.

Due to their low-energy diet, koalas limit their activity and sleep 20 hours a day. They are predominantly active at night and spend most of their waking hours foraging. They typically eat and sleep in the same tree, possibly for as long as a day. On warm days, a koala may rest with its back against a branch or lie down with its limbs dangling. When it gets very hot, the koala rests lower in the canopy and near the trunk, where the surface is cooler than the surrounding air. It curls up when it gets cold and wet. A koala will find a lower, thicker branch on which to rest when it gets windy. While it spends most of the time in the tree, the animal descends to the ground to move to another tree, leaping along. The koala usually grooms itself with its hind paws, with their double claws, but sometimes uses its forepaws or mouth.

Social life

Koalas are asocial animals and spend just 15 minutes a day on social behaviours. Where there are more koalas and fewer trees, home ranges are smaller and more clumped while the reverse is true for areas with fewer animals and more trees. Koala society appears to consist of "residents" and "transients", the former being mostly adult females and the latter males. Resident males appear to be territorial and dominant. The territories of dominant males are found near breeding females, while younger males must wait until they reach full size to challenge for breeding rights. Adult males occasionally venture outside their home ranges; when they do so, dominant ones retain their status. As a male climbs a new tree, he rubs his chest against it and sometimes dribbles urine. This scent-marking behaviour probably serves as communication, and individuals are known to sniff the bottom of a newly found tree. Chest gland secretions are complex chemical mixtures — about 40 compounds were identified in one analysis — that vary in composition and concentration with the season and the age of the individual.

Adult males communicate with loud bellows — "a long series of deep, snoring inhalations and belching exhalations". Because of their low frequency, these bellows can travel far through the forest. Koalas may bellow at any time of the year, particularly during the breeding season, when it serves to attract females and possibly intimidate other males. They also bellow to advertise their presence to their neighbours when they climb a different tree. These sounds signal the male's actual body size, as well as exaggerate it; females pay more attention to bellows that originate from larger males. Female koalas bellow, though more softly, in addition to making snarls, wails, and screams. These calls are produced when in distress and when making defensive threats. Squeaking and sqawking are produced when distraught; the former is made by younger animals and the latter by older ones. When another individual climbs over it, a koala makes a low closed-mouth grunt. Koalas also communicate with facial expressions. When snarling, wailing, or squawking, the animal curls the upper lip and points its ears forward. Screaming koalas pull their lips and ears back. Females form an oval shape with their lips when annoyed.

Agonistic behaviour typically consists of quarrels between individuals that are trying to pass each other in the tree. This occasionally involves biting. Strangers may wrestle, chase, and bite each other. In extreme situations, a male may try to displace a smaller rival from a tree, chasing, cornering and biting it. Once the individual is driven away, the victor bellows and marks the tree. Pregnant and lactating females are particularly aggressive and attack individuals that come too close. In general, however, koalas tend to avoid fighting due to energy costs.

Reproduction and development

A young joey, preserved at Port Macquarie Koala Hospital

Koalas are seasonal breeders, and give birth from October to May. Females in oestrus lean their heads back and shake their bodies. Despite these obvious signals, males will try to copulate with any female during this period, mounting them from behind. Because of his much larger size, a male can overpower a female. A female may scream and vigorously fight off her suitors but will accede to one that is dominant or familiar. The commotion can attract other males to the scene, obliging the incumbent to delay mating and fight off the intruders. A female may learn who is more dominant during these fights. Older males usually have accumulated scratches, scars, and cuts on the exposed parts of their noses and their eyelids.

Koalas are induced ovulators. The gestation period lasts 33–35 days, and a female gives birth to one joey (although twins do occur). As marsupials, the young are born tiny and barely formed, weighing no more than 0.5 g (0.02 oz). However, their lips, forelimbs, and shoulders are relatively advanced, and they can breathe, defecate and urinate. The joey crawls into its mother's pouch to continue the rest of its development. Female koalas do not clean their pouches, an unusual trait among marsupials.

The joey latches on to one of the female's two teats and suckles it. The female lactates for as long as a year to make up for her low energy production. Unlike in other marsupials, koala milk becomes less fatty as the joey grows in the pouch. After seven weeks, the joey has a proportionally large head, clear edges around its face, more colouration, and a visible pouch (if female) or scrotum (male). At 13 weeks, the joey weighs around 50 g (1.8 oz) and its head is twice as big as before. The eyes begin to open and hair begins to appear. At 26 weeks, the fully furred animal resembles an adult and can look outside the pouch.

Mother with joey on back

At six or seven months of age, the joey weighs 300–500 g (11–18 oz) and fully emerges from the pouch for the first time. It explores its new surroundings cautiously, clutching its mother for support. Around this time, the mother prepares it for a eucalyptus diet by producing a faecal pap that the joey eats from her cloaca. This pap comes from the cecum, is more liquid than regular faeces, and is filled with bacteria. A nine month old joey has its adult coat colour and weighs 1 kg (2.2 lb). Having permanently left the pouch, it rides on its mother's back for transportation, learning to climb by grasping branches. Gradually, it becomes more independent from its mother, who becomes pregnant again after a year, and the young is now around 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). Her bond with her previous offspring is permanently severed and she no longer allows it to suckle, but it will stay nearby until it is one-and-a-half to two years old.

Females become sexually mature at about three years of age and can then become pregnant; in comparison, males reach sexual maturity when they are about four years old, although they can experience spermatogenesis as early as two years. Males do not start marking their scent until they reach sexual maturity, though their chest glands become functional much earlier. Koalas can breed every year if environmental conditions are good, though the long dependence of the young usually leads to year-long gaps in births.

Health and mortality

Koalas may live from 13 to 18 years in the wild. While female koalas usually live this long, males may die sooner because of their more risky lives. Koalas usually survive falls from trees and can climb back up, but they can get hurt and even die, particularly inexperienced young and fighting males. Around six years of age, the koala's chewing teeth begin to wear down and their chewing efficiency decreases. Eventually, the cusps disappear completely and the animal will die of starvation. Koalas have few predators. Dingos and large pythons and some birds of prey may take them. Koalas are generally not subject to external parasites, other than ticks around the coast. The mite Sarcoptes scabiei gives koalas mange, while the bacterium Mycobacterium ulcerans skin ulcers, but even these are uncommon. Internal parasites are few and have little effect. These include the tapeworm Bertiella obesa, commonly found in the intestine, and the nematodes Marsupostrongylus longilarvatus and Durikainema phascolarcti, which are infrequently found in the lungs.[59] In a three-year study of almost 600 koalas taken to the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital in Queensland, 73.8% of the animals were infected with parasitic protozoal genus Trypanosoma, the most frequent of which was T. irwini.

Koalas can be subject to pathogens such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria, which can cause keratoconjunctivitis, urinary tract infection, and reproductive tract infection. Such infections are common on the mainland, but absent in some island populations. The koala retrovirus (KoRV) may cause koala immune deficiency syndrome (KIDS) which is similar to AIDS in humans. Prevalence of KoRV in koala populations suggests a trend spreading from north to south, where populations go from being completely infected to being partially uninfected.

The animals are vulnerable to bushfires due to their slow speed and the flammability of eucalypt trees. The koala instinctively seeks refuge in the higher branches, where it is vulnerable to intense heat and flames. Bushfires also break up the animal's habitat, which isolates them, decreases their numbers and creates genetic bottlenecks. Dehydration and overheating can also prove fatal. Consequently, the koala is vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Models of climate change in Australia predict warmer and drier climates, suggesting that the koala's range will shrink in the east and south to more mesic habitats.

Human relations

The first written reference to the koala was recorded by John Price, servant of John Hunter, the Governor of New South Wales. Price encountered the "cullawine" on 26 January 1798, during an expedition to the Blue Mountains, but his remarks would first be published in Historical Records of Australia, nearly a century later. In 1802, French-born explorer Francis Louis Barrallier encountered the animal when his two Aboriginal guides, returning from a hunt, brought back two koala feet they were intending to eat. Barrallier preserved the appendages and sent them and his notes to Hunter's successor, Philip Gidley King, who forwarded them to Joseph Banks. Similar to Price, Barrallier's notes were not published until 1897. Reports of the "Koolah" appeared in the Sydney Gazette in late 1803, and helped provide the impetus for King to send the artist John Lewin to paint watercolours of the animal. Lewin painted three pictures, one of which was used as a print in Georges Cuvier's Le Règne Animal (The Animal Kingdom) (1827).

Botanist Robert Brown was the first to write a formal scientific description of the koala in 1803, based on a female specimen captured near what is now Mount Kembla in the Illawarra region of New South Wales. Austrian botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer drew the animal's skull, throat, feet, and paws. Brown's work remained unpublished and largely unnoticed, however, as his field books and notes remained in his possession until his death, when they were bequeathed to the British Museum (Natural History) in London. They were not identified until 1994, while Bauer's koala watercolours were not published until 1989. William Paterson, who had befriended Brown and Bauer during their stay in New South Wales, wrote an eyewitness report of his encounters with the animals and this would be the basis for British surgeon Everard Home's anatomical writings on them. Home, who in 1808 published his report in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, coined the scientific name Didelphis coola.

George Perry would officially publish the first image of the koala in his 1810 natural history work Arcana. Perry called it the "New Holland Sloth", and his dislike for the koala, evident in his description of the animal, was reflected in the contemporary British attitudes towards Australian animals as strange and primitive the eye is placed like that of the Sloth, very close to the mouth and nose, which gives it a clumsy awkward appearance, and void of elegance in the combination they have little either in their character or appearance to interest the Naturalist or Philosopher. As Nature however provides nothing in vain, we may suppose that even these torpid, senseless creatures are wisely intended to fill up one of the great links of the chain of animated nature.

Natural history illustrator John Gould popularised the koala with his 1863 work The Mammals of Australia.

Naturalist and popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala in his three-volume work The Mammals of Australia (1845–1863) and introduced the species, as well as other members of Australia's little-known faunal community, to the public. Comparative anatomist Richard Owen, in a series of publications on the physiology and anatomy of Australian mammals, presented a paper on the anatomy of the koala to the Zoological Society of London. In this widely cited publication, he provided an early description of its internal anatomy, and noted its general structural similarity to the wombat. English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse, curator of the Zoological Society of London, was the first to correctly classify the koala as a marsupial in the 1840s, and compared it to fossil species Diprotodon and Nototherium, which had been discovered just recently. Similarly, Gerard Krefft, curator of the Australian Museum in Sydney, noted evolutionary mechanisms at work when comparing the koala to fossil marsupials in his 1871 The Mammals of Australia.

Britain finally received a living koala in 1881, which was obtained by the Zoological Society of London. As related by prosecutor to the society, William Alexander Forbes, the animal suffered an accidental demise when the heavy lid of a washstand fell on it and it was unable to free itself. Forbes dissected the fresh specimen and wrote about the female reproductive system, the brain, and the liver — parts not previously described by Owen, who had access only to preserved specimens. Scottish embryologist William Caldwell — well known in scientific circles for determining the reproductive mechanism of the platypus — described the uterine development of the koala in 1884, and used this new information to convincingly map out the evolutionary timeline of the koala and the monotremes.

Main article: Koala emblems and popular culture

The koala is well known worldwide and is a major draw for Australian zoos and wildlife parks. It has been featured in popular culture and as soft toys. It benefited the Australian tourism industry by over $1 billion in 1998, and this has subsequently grown. Its international popularly rose after World War II, when tourism to Australia increased and the animals were exported to zoos overseas. In 1997, about 75% of European and Japanese tourists placed the koala at the top of their list of animals to see. According to biologist Stephen Jackson: "If you were to take a straw poll of the animal most closely associated with Australia, it's a fair bet that the koala would come out marginally in front of the kangaroo". Factors that contribute to the koala's enduring popularity include its teddy bear-like appearance with childlike body proportions.

The koala is featured in the Dreamtime stories and mythology of Indigenous Australians. The Tharawal people believed that the animal helped them get to the continent by rowing the boat. Another myth tells of how a tribe killed a koala and used its long intestines to create a bridge for people from other parts of the world. How the koala lost its tail has been the subject of many tales. In one, a kangaroo cuts it off to punish the koala for its uncouth behaviour. Tribes in both Queensland and Victoria regarded the koala as a wise animal which gave valuable guidance. Bidjara-speaking people credited the koala for making trees grow in their arid lands. The animal is also depicted in rock carvings, though less so than some other species.

Early European settlers in Australia considered the koala to be a creeping sloth-like animal with a "fierce and menacing look". At the turn of the 20th century, the koala's reputation took a more positive turn. It appears in Ethel Pedley's 1899 book Dot and the Kangaroo, as the "funny native bear". Artist Norman Lindsay depicted a more anthropomorphic koala in The Bulletin cartoons, starting in 1904. This character also appeared as Bunyip Bluegum in Lindsay's 1918 book The Magic Pudding. The most well known fictional koala is Blinky Bill. Created by Dorothy Wall in 1933, the character appeared in several books and has been the subject of films, TV series, merchandise, and a 1986 environmental song by John Williamson. The koala first appeared on an Australian stamp in 1930.

The song "Ode to a Koala Bear" appears on the B-side of the 1983 Paul McCartney/Michael Jackson duet single Say Say Say. A koala is the main character in Hanna-Barbera's The Kwicky Koala Show and Nippon Animation's Noozles, both of which were animated cartoons of the early 1980s. Food products shaped like the koala include the Caramello Koala chocolate bar and the bite-sized cookie snack Koala's March. Dadswells Bridge in Victoria features a tourist complex shaped like a giant koala and the Queensland Reds rugby team has a koala as its icon.

Koala diplomacy

Several political leaders and members of royal families had their pictures taken with koalas, including Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Harry, Crown Prince Naruhito, Crown Princess Masako, Pope John Paul II, US President Bill Clinton, Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev and South African President Nelson Mandela At the 2014 G20 Brisbane summit, hosted by Prime Minister Tony Abbott, many world leaders, including Russian President Vladimir Putin and US President Barack Obama, were photographed holding koalas. The event gave rise to the term "koala diplomacy", which then became the Oxford Word of the Month for December 2016. The term also includes the loan of koalas by the Australian government to overseas zoos in countries such as Singapore and Japan, as a form of "soft power diplomacy", like the "panda diplomacy" practised by China.

Main article: Koala conservation

The koala was originally classified as Least Concern on the Red List, and reassessed as Vulnerable in 2014. In the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland, the species was listed under the EPBC Act in February 2022 as endangered by extinction. The described population was determined in 2012 to be "a species for the purposes of the EPBC Act 1999" in Federal legislation.

Australian policymakers had declined a 2009 proposal to include the koala in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. A 2017 WWF report found a 53% decline per generation in Queensland, and a 26% decline in New South Wales. The koala population in South Australia and Victoria appear to be abundant; however, the Australian Koala Foundation (AKF) argued that the exclusion of Victorian populations from protective measures was based on a misconception that the total koala population was 200,000, whereas they believed in 2012 that it was probably less than 100,000. AKF estimated in 2022 that there could be only 43,000–100,000.[80] This is compared with 8 to 10 million at the start of the 20th century. The Australian Government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee estimated that the 2021 koala population was 92,000, down from 185,000 two decades prior.

The koala was heavily hunted by European settlers in the early 20th century, largely for its fur. Australia exported as many as two million pelts by 1924. Koala furs were used to make rugs, coat linings, muffs, and on women's garment trimmings. The first successful efforts at conserving the species were initiated by the establishment of Brisbane's Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and Sydney's Koala Park Sanctuary in the 1920s and 1930s. The owner of the latter park, Noel Burnet, created the first successful breeding program and earned a reputation as a top expert on the species.

One of the biggest anthropogenic threats to the koala is habitat destruction and fragmentation. Near the coast, the main cause of this is urbanisation, while in rural areas, habitat is cleared for agriculture. Its favoured trees are also taken down to be made into wood products. In 2000, Australia had the fifth highest rate of land clearance globally, having removed 564,800 hectares (1,396,000 acres) of native plants. The distribution of the koala has shrunk by more than 50% since European arrival, largely due to fragmentation of habitat in Queensland. Nevertheless, koalas live in many protected areas.

While urbanisation can pose a threat to koala populations, the animals can survive in urban areas provided enough trees are present. Urban populations have distinct vulnerabilities: collisions with vehicles and attacks by domestic dogs. Cars and dogs kill about 4,000 animals every year. To reduce road deaths, government agencies have been exploring various wildlife crossing options, such as the use of fencing to channel animals toward an underpass, in some cases adding a ledge as a walkway to an existing culvert. Injured koalas are often taken to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres. In a 30-year retrospective study performed at a New South Wales koala rehabilitation centre, trauma was found to be the most frequent cause of admission, followed by symptoms of Chlamydia infection

Indonesia - Bali - Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) - Bats - 2 by Manfred Sommer

3

Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera (/kaɪˈrɒptərə/; from the Ancient Greek: χείρ - cheir, "hand" and Ancient Greek: πτερόν - pteron, "wing" whose forelimbs form webbed wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums, and colugos, can only glide for short distances. Bats do not flap their entire forelimbs, as birds do, but instead flap their spread-out digits, which are very long and covered with a thin membrane or patagium.

Bats are the second largest order of mammals (after the rodents), representing about 20% of all classified mammal species worldwide, with about 1,240 bat species divided into two suborders: the less specialized and largely fruit-eating megabats, or flying foxes, and the highly specialized and echolocating microbats. About 70% of bat species are insectivores. Most of the rest are frugivores, or fruit eaters. A few species, such as the fish-eating bat, feed from animals other than insects, with the vampire bats being hematophagous, or feeding on blood.

Bats are present throughout most of the world, with the exception of extremely cold regions. They perform the vital ecological roles of pollinating flowers and dispersing fruit seeds; many tropical plant species depend entirely on bats for the distribution of their seeds. Bats are economically important, as they consume insect pests, reducing the need for pesticides. The smallest bat is the Kitti's hog-nosed bat, measuring 29–34 mm in length, 15 cm across the wings and 2–2.6 g in mass. It is also arguably the smallest extant species of mammal, with the Etruscan shrew being the other contender. The largest species of bat are a few species of Pteropus (fruit bats or flying foxes) and the giant golden-crowned flying fox with a weight up to 1.6 kg and wingspan up to 1.7 m.

The Mexican free-tailed bat is the fastest flying animal in horizontal flight.

ETYMOLOGY

In many languages, the word for "bat" is cognate with the word for "mouse": for example, chauve-souris ("bald-mouse") in French, murciélago ("blind mouse") in Spanish, saguzahar ("old mouse") in Basque, летучая мышь ("flying mouse") in Russian, slijepi miš ("blind mouse") in Bosnian, nahkhiir ("leather mouse") in Estonian, vlermuis (winged mouse) in Afrikaans, from the Dutch word vleermuis (from Middle Dutch "winged mouse").

An older English name for bats is flittermouse, which matches their name in other Germanic languages (for example German Fledermaus and Swedish fladdermus), related to fluttering of wings. Middle English had bakke, which may have undergone a shift from -k- to -t- influenced by Latin blatta, "moth, nocturnal insect".

CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION

Bats are placental mammals. Bats were formerly thought to have been most closely related to the flying lemurs, treeshrews, and primates, but recent molecular cladistics research indicates that they actually belong to Laurasiatheria, a diverse group also containing Carnivora and Artiodactyla.

The two traditionally recognized suborders of bats are:

- Megachiroptera (megabats)

- Microchiroptera (microbats/echolocating bats)

Not all megabats are larger than microbats. The major distinctions between the two suborders are:

- Microbats use echolocation; with the exception of the genus Rousettus, megabats do not.

- Microbats lack the claw at the second finger of the forelimb.

- The ears of microbats do not close to form a ring; the edges are separated from each other at the base of the ear.

- Microbats lack underfur; they are either naked or have guard hairs.

Megabats eat fruit, nectar, or pollen. Most microbats eat insects; others may feed on fruit, nectar, pollen, fish, frogs, small mammals, or the blood of animals. Megabats have well-developed visual cortices and show good visual acuity, while microbats rely on echolocation for navigation and finding prey.

The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate. The traditional subdivision between Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera reflects the view that these groups of bats have evolved independently of each other for a long time, from a common ancestor already capable of flight. This hypothesis recognized differences between microbats and megabats and acknowledged that flight has only evolved once in mammals. Most molecular biological evidence supports the view that bats form a single or monophyletic group.

Researchers have proposed alternative views of chiropteran phylogeny and classification, but more research is needed.

In the 1980s, a hypothesis based on morphological evidence was offered that stated the Megachiroptera evolved flight separately from the Microchiroptera. The so-called flying primate hypothesis proposes that, when adaptations to flight are removed, the Megachiroptera are allied to primates by anatomical features not shared with Microchiroptera. One example is that the brains of megabats show a number of advanced characteristics that link them to primates. Although recent genetic studies strongly support the monophyly of bats, debate continues as to the meaning of available genetic and morphological evidence.

Genetic evidence indicates that megabats originated during the early Eocene and should be placed within the four major lines of microbats.

Consequently, two new suborders based on molecular data have been proposed. The new suborder of Yinpterochiroptera includes the Pteropodidae, or megabat family, as well as the families Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae, Craseonycteridae, Megadermatidae, and Rhinopomatidae The other new suborder, Yangochiroptera, includes all of the remaining families of bats (all of which use laryngeal echolocation). These two new suborders are strongly supported by statistical tests. Teeling (2005) found 100% bootstrap support in all maximum likelihood analyses for the division of Chiroptera into these two modified suborders. This conclusion is further supported by a 15-base-pair deletion in BRCA1 and a seven-base-pair deletion in PLCB4 present in all Yangochiroptera and absent in all Yinpterochiroptera. Perhaps most convincingly, a phylogenomic study by Tsagkogeorga et al (2013) showed that the two new proposed suborders were supported by analyses of thousands of genes.

The chiropteran phylogeny based on molecular evidence is controversial because microbat paraphyly implies that one of two seemingly unlikely hypotheses occurred. The first suggests that laryngeal echolocation evolved twice in Chiroptera, once in Yangochiroptera and once in the rhinolophoids. The second proposes that laryngeal echolocation had a single origin in Chiroptera, was subsequently lost in the family Pteropodidae (all megabats), and later evolved as a system of tongue-clicking in the genus Rousettus.

Analyses of the sequence of the "vocalization" gene, FoxP2, were inconclusive as to whether laryngeal echolocation was secondarily lost in the pteropodids or independently gained in the echolocating lineages. However, analyses of the "hearing" gene, Prestin, seemed to favor the independent gain in echolocating species rather than a secondary loss in the pteropodids.

In addition to Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera, the names Pteropodiformes and Vespertilioniformes have also been proposed for these suborders. Under this new proposed nomenclature, the suborder Pteropodiformes includes all extant bat families more closely related to the genus Pteropus than the genus Vespertilio, while the suborder Vespertilioniformes includes all extant bat families more closely related to the genus Vespertilio than to the genus Pteropus.

Little fossil evidence is available to help map the evolution of bats, since their small, delicate skeletons do not fossilize very well. However, a Late Cretaceous tooth from South America resembles that of an early microchiropteran bat. Most of the oldest known, definitely identified bat fossils were already very similar to modern microbats. These fossils, Icaronycteris, Archaeonycteris, Palaeochiropteryx and Hassianycteris, are from the early Eocene period, 52.5 million years ago. Archaeopteropus, formerly classified as the earliest known megachiropteran, is now classified as a microchiropteran.

Bats were formerly grouped in the superorder Archonta, along with the treeshrews (Scandentia), colugos (Dermoptera), and the primates, because of the apparent similarities between Megachiroptera and such mammals. Genetic studies have now placed bats in the superorder Laurasiatheria, along with carnivorans, pangolins, odd-toed ungulates, even-toed ungulates, and cetaceans. A recent study by Zhang et al. places Chiroptera as a sister taxon to the clade Perissodactyla (which includes horses and other odd-toed ungulates). However, the first phylogenomic analysis of bats shows that they are not sisters to Perissodactyla, instead they are sisters to a larger group that includes ungulates and carnivores.

Megabats primarily eat fruit or nectar. In New Guinea, they are likely to have evolved for some time in the absence of microbats, which has resulted in some smaller megabats of the genus Nyctimene becoming (partly) insectivorous to fill the vacant microbat ecological niche. Furthermore, some evidence indicates that the fruit bat genus Pteralopex from the Solomon Islands, and its close relative Mirimiri from Fiji, have evolved to fill some niches that were open because there are no nonvolant or nonflying mammals on those islands.

FOSSIL BATS

Fossilized remains of bats are few, as they are terrestrial and light-boned. Only an estimated 12% of the bat fossil record is complete at the genus level. Fossil remains of an Eocene bat, Icaronycteris, were found in 1960. Another Eocene bat, Onychonycteris finneyi, was found in the 52-million-year-old Green River Formation in Wyoming, United States, in 2003. This intermediate fossil has helped to resolve a long-standing disagreement regarding whether flight or echolocation developed first in bats. The shape of the rib cage, faceted infraspious fossa of the scapula, manus morphology, robust clavicle, and keeled sternum all indicated Onychonycteris was capable of powered flight. However, the well-preserved skeleton showed that the small cochlea of the inner ear did not have the morphology necessary to echolocate. O. finneyi lacked an enlarged orbical apophysis on the malleus, and a stylohyal element with an expanded paddle-like cranial tip - both of which are characteristics linked to echolocation in other prehistoric and extant bat species. Because of these absences, and the presence of characteristics necessary for flight, Onychonycteris provides strong support for the “flight first” hypothesis in the evolution of flight and echolocation in bats.

The appearance and flight movement of bats 52.5 million years ago were different from those of bats today. Onychonycteris had claws on all five of its fingers, whereas modern bats have at most two claws appearing on two digits of each hand. It also had longer hind legs and shorter forearms, similar to climbing mammals that hang under branches, such as sloths and gibbons. This palm-sized bat had short, broad wings, suggesting that it could not fly as fast or as far as later bat species. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, Onychonycteris likely alternated between flaps and glides while in the air. Such physical characteristics suggest that this bat did not fly as much as modern bats do, rather flying from tree to tree and spending most of its waking day climbing or hanging on the branches of trees. The distinctive features noted on the Onychonycteris fossil also support the claim that mammalian flight most likely evolved in arboreal gliders, rather than terrestrial runners. This model of flight development, commonly known as the "trees-down" theory, implies that bats attained powered flight by taking advantage of height and gravity, rather than relying on running speeds fast enough for a ground-level take off.

The mid-Eocene genus Necromantis is one of the earliest examples of bats specialised to hunt vertebrate prey, as well as one of the largest bats of its epoch. The late-Eocene Witwatia is another similarly large predatory bat, while Aegyptonycteris is among the first and largest omnivorous bat species.

The extinct bats Palaeochiropteryx tupaiodon and Hassianycteris kumari are the first fossil mammals to have their colouration discovered, both of a reddish brown.

HABITATS

Flight has enabled bats to become one of the most widely distributed groups of mammals.[38] Apart from the Arctic, the Antarctic and a few isolated oceanic islands, bats exist all over the world. Bats are found in almost every habitat available on Earth. Different species select different habitats during different seasons, ranging from seasides to mountains and even deserts, but bat habitats have two basic requirements: roosts, where they spend the day or hibernate, and places for foraging. Most temperate species additionally need a relatively warm hibernation shelter. Bat roosts can be found in hollows, crevices, foliage, and even human-made structures, and include "tents" the bats construct by biting leaves.

The United States is home to an estimated 45 to 48 species of bats. The three most common species are Myotis lucifugus (little brown bat), Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat), and Tadarida brasiliensis (Mexican free-tailed bat). The little and the big brown bats are common throughout the northern two-thirds of the country, while the Mexican free-tailed bat is the most common species in the southwest, sometimes even appearing in portions of the Southeast.

ANATOMY

WINGS

The finger bones of bats are much more flexible than those of other mammals, owing to their flattened cross-section and to low levels of minerals, such as calcium, near their tips. In 2006, Sears et al. published a study that traces the elongation of manual bat digits, a key feature required for wing development, to the upregulation of bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmps). During embryonic development, the gene controlling Bmp signaling, Bmp2, is subjected to increased expression in bat forelimbs - resulting in the extension of the offspring's manual digits. This crucial genetic alteration helps create the specialized limbs required for volant locomotion. Sears et al. (2006) also studied the relative proportion of bat forelimb digits from several extant species and compared these with a fossil of Lcaronycteris index, an early extinct species from approximately 50 million years ago. The study found no significant differences in relative digit proportion, suggesting that bat wing morphology has been conserved for over 50 million years.

The wings of bats are much thinner and consist of more bones than the wings of birds, allowing bats to maneuver more accurately than the latter, and fly with more lift and less drag. By folding the wings in toward their bodies on the upstroke, they save 35 percent energy during flight. The membranes are also delicate, ripping easily; however, the tissue of the bat's membrane is able to regrow, such that small tears can heal quickly. The surface of their wings is equipped with touch-sensitive receptors on small bumps called Merkel cells, also found on human fingertips. These sensitive areas are different in bats, as each bump has a tiny hair in the center, making it even more sensitive and allowing the bat to detect and collect information about the air flowing over its wings, and to fly more efficiently by changing the shape of its wings in response. An additional kind of receptor cell is found in the wing membrane of species that use their wings to catch prey. This receptor cell is sensitive to the stretching of the membrane. The cells are concentrated in areas of the membrane where insects hit the wings when the bats capture them.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Bats seem to make use of particularly strong venomotion (rhythmic contraction of venous wall muscles). In most mammals, the walls of the veins provide mainly passive resistance (maintaining their shape as deoxygenated blood flows through them), but in bats they appear to actively support blood flow back to the heart with this pumping action.

Bats also possess a system of sphincter valves on the arterial side of the vascular network that runs along the edge of their wings. In the fully open state, these allow oxygenated blood to flow through the capillary network across the flight membrane (i.e. wing surface), but when contracted, they shunt flow directly to the veins, bypassing the wing capillaries. This is likely an important tool for thermoregulation, allowing the bats to control the amount of heat exchanged through the thin flight membrane (many other mammals use the capillary network in oversized ears for the same purpose).

OTHER

The teeth of microbats resemble insectivorans. They are very sharp to bite through the hardened armor of insects or the skin of fruit.

The tube-lipped nectar bat (Anoura fistulata) has the longest tongue of any mammal relative to its body size. This is beneficial to them in terms of pollination and feeding. Their long, narrow tongues can reach deep into the long cup shape of some flowers. When the tongue retracts, it coils up inside its rib cage.

Bats possess highly adapted lung systems to cope with the pressures of powered-flight. Flight is an energetically taxing aerobic activity and requires large amounts of oxygen to be sustained. In bats, the relative alveolar surface area and pulmonary capillary blood volume are significantly larger than most other small quadrupedal mammals

ECHOLOCATION

Bat echolocation is a perceptual system where ultrasonic sounds are emitted specifically to produce echoes. By comparing the outgoing pulse with the returning echoes, the brain and auditory nervous system can produce detailed images of the bat's surroundings. This allows bats to detect, localize, and even classify their prey in complete darkness. At 130 decibels in intensity, bat calls are some of the most intense, airborne animal sounds.

To clearly distinguish returning information, bats must be able to separate their calls from the echoes that they receive. Microbats use two distinct approaches.

- Low duty cycle echolocation: Bats can separate their calls and returning echoes by time. Bats that use this approach time their short calls to finish before echoes return. This is important because these bats contract their middle ear muscles when emitting a call, so they can avoid deafening themselves. The time interval between the call and echo allows them to relax these muscles, so they can clearly hear the returning echo. The delay of the returning echoes provides the bat with the ability to estimate the range to their prey.

- High duty cycle echolocation: Bats emit a continuous call and separate pulse and echo in frequency. The ears of these bats are sharply tuned to a specific frequency range. They emit calls outside of this range to avoid self-deafening. They then receive echoes back at the finely tuned frequency range by taking advantage of the Doppler shift of their motion in flight. The Doppler shift of the returning echoes yields information relating to the motion and location of the bat's prey. These bats must deal with changes in the Doppler shift due to changes in their flight speed. They have adapted to change their pulse emission frequency in relation to their flight speed so echoes still return in the optimal hearing range.

The new Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera classification of bats, supported by molecular evidence, suggests two possibilities for the evolution of echolocation. It may have been gained once in a common ancestor of all bats and was then subsequently lost in the Old World fruit bats, only to be regained in the horseshoe bats, or echolocation evolved independently in both the Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera lineages.

Two groups of moths exploit a bat sense to echolocate: tiger moths produce ultrasonic signals to warn the bats that they (the moths) are chemically protected or aposematic, other moth species produce signals to jam bat echolocation. Many moth species have a hearing organ called a tympanum, which responds to an incoming bat signal by causing the moth's flight muscles to twitch erratically, sending the moth into random evasive maneuvers.

In addition to echolocating prey, bat ears are sensitive to the fluttering of moth wings, the sounds produced by tymbalate insects, and the movement of ground-dwelling prey, such as centipedes, earwigs, etc. The complex geometry of ridges on the inner surface of bat ears helps to sharply focus not only echolocation signals, but also to passively listen for any other sound produced by the prey. These ridges can be regarded as the acoustic equivalent of a Fresnel lens, and may be seen in a large variety of unrelated animals, such as the aye-aye, lesser galago, bat-eared fox, mouse lemur, and others.

By repeated scanning, bats can mentally construct an accurate image of the environment in which they are moving and of their prey item.

OTHER SENSES

Although the eyes of most microbat species are small and poorly developed, leading to poor visual acuity, no species is blind. Microbats use vision to navigate, especially for long distances when beyond the range of echolocation, and species that are gleaners - that is, ones that attempt to swoop down from above to ambush insects, like crickets on the ground or moths up a tree, often have eyesight about as good as a rat's. Some species have been shown to be able to detect ultraviolet light, and most cave-dwelling species have developed the ability to utilize very dim light. They also have high-quality senses of smell and hearing. Bats hunt at night, reducing competition with birds, minimizing contact with certain predators, and travel large distances (up to 800 km) in their search for food.

Megabat species often have excellent eyesight as good as, if not better than, human vision. This eyesight is, unlike its microbat relations, adapted to both night and daylight vision and enables the bat to have some colour vision whereas the microbat sees in blurred shades of grey.

BEHAVIOUR

Most microbats are nocturnal and are active at twilight. A large portion of bats migrate hundreds of kilometres to winter hibernation dens, while some pass into torpor in cold weather, rousing and feeding when warm weather allows for insects to be active. Others retreat to caves for winter and hibernate for six months. Bats rarely fly in rain, as the rain interferes with their echolocation, and they are unable to locate their food.

The social structure of bats varies, with some leading solitary lives and others living in caves colonized by more than a million bats.[69] The fission-fusion social structure is seen among several species of bats. The term "fusion" refers to a large numbers of bats that congregate in one roosting area, and "fission" refers to breaking up and the mixing of subgroups, with individual bats switching roosts with others and often ending up in different trees and with different roostmates.

Studies also show that bats make various sounds in order to communicate with one another. Scientists in the field have listened to bats and have been able to associate certain sounds with certain behaviours that bats make after the sounds are made.

Insectivores make up 70% of bat species and locate their prey by means of echolocation. Of the remainder, most feed on fruits. Only three species sustain themselves with blood.

Some species even prey on vertebrates. The leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae) of Central America and South America, and the two bulldog bat (Noctilionidae) species feed on fish. At least two species of bat are known to feed on other bats: the spectral bat, also known as the American false vampire bat, and the ghost bat of Australia. One species, the greater noctule bat, catches and eats small birds in the air.

Predators of bats include bat hawks, bat falcons and even spiders.

REPRODUCTION

Most bats have a breeding season, which is in the spring for species living in a temperate climate. Bats may have one to three litters in a season, depending on the species and on environmental conditions, such as the availability of food and roost sites. Females generally have one offspring at a time, which could be a result of the mother's need to fly to feed while pregnant. Female bats nurse their young until they are nearly adult size, because a young bat cannot forage on its own until its wings are fully developed.

Female bats use a variety of strategies to control the timing of pregnancy and the birth of young, to make delivery coincide with maximum food ability and other ecological factors. Females of some species have delayed fertilization, in which sperm is stored in the reproductive tract for several months after mating. In many such cases, mating occurs in the fall, and fertilization does not occur until the following spring. Other species exhibit delayed implantation, in which the egg is fertilized after mating, but remains free in the reproductive tract until external conditions become favorable for giving birth and caring for the offspring.

In yet another strategy, fertilization and implantation both occur, but development of the fetus is delayed until favorable conditions prevail, during the delayed development the mother still gives the fertilized egg nutrients, and oxygenated blood to keep it alive. However, this process can go for a long period of time, because of the advanced gas exchange system. All of these adaptations result in the pup being born during a time of high local production of fruit or insects.

At birth, the wings are too small to be used for flight. Young microbats become independent at the age of six to eight weeks, while megabats do not until they are four months old.

LIFE EXPECTANCY

A single bat can live over 20 years, but bat population growth is limited by the slow birth rate. Five species have been recorded living over 30 years in the wild: the brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus), little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), Brandt's bat (Myotis brandti), lesser mouse-eared bat (Myotis blythii) and greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum).

HUNTING, FEEDING AND DRINKING

Newborn bats feed solely on their mother's milk. When they are a few weeks old, bats are expected to fly and hunt on their own. It is up to them to find and catch their prey, along with satisfying their thirst.

To survive hibernation months, some species build up large reserves of body fat, both as fuel and as insulation.

HUNTING

Most bats are nocturnal creatures. Their daylight hours are spent grooming and sleeping; they hunt during the night. The means by which bats navigate while finding and catching their prey in the dark was unknown until the 1790s, when Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted a series of experiments on a group of hooded and surgically blinded bats. These bats were placed in a room in total darkness, with silk threads strung across the room. Even then, the bats were able to navigate their way through the room. Spallanzani concluded the bats were not using their eyes to fly through complete darkness, but something else.

Spallanzani decided the bats were able to catch and find their prey through the use of their ears. To prove this theory, Spallanzani plugged the ears of the bats in his experiment. To his pleasure, he found that the bats with plugged ears were not able to fly with the same amount of skill and precision as they were able to without their ears plugged. Unfortunately for Spallanzani, the twin concepts of sound waves and acoustics would not be understood for another century and he could not explain why specifically the bats were crashing into walls and the threads that he'd strung up around the room, and because of the methodology Spallanzani used, many of his test subjects died.

It was thus well known through the nineteenth century that the chiropteran ability to navigate had something to do with hearing, but how they accomplish this was not proven conclusively until the 1930s, by Donald R. Griffin, a biology student at Harvard University. Using a locally native species, the little brown bat, he discovered that bats use echolocation to locate and catch their prey. When bats fly, they produce a constant stream of high-pitched sounds. When the sound waves produced by these sounds hit an insect or other animal, the echoes bounce back to the bat, and guide them to the source.

FEEDING AND DIET

The majority of food consumed by bats includes insects, fruits and flower nectar, vertebrates and blood. Almost three-fourths of the world's bats are insect eaters. Bats consume both aerial and ground-dwelling insects. Each bat is typically able to consume one-third of its body weight in insects each night, and several hundred insects in a few hours. This means that a group of a thousand bats could eat four tons of insects each year. If bats were to become extinct, it has been calculated that the insect population would reach an alarmingly high number.

VITAMIN C

The Chiroptera as a whole are in the process of losing the ability to synthesize vitamin C: most have lost it completely. In a test of 34 bat species from six major families of bats, including major insect- and fruit-eating bat families, all were found to have lost the ability to synthesize it, and this loss may derive from a common bat ancestor, as a single mutation. However, recent results show that there are at least two species of bat, the frugivorous bat (Rousettus leschenaultii) and insectivorous bat (Hipposideros armiger), that have retained their ability to produce vitamin C.

AERIAL INSECTTIVORES

Watching a bat catch and eat an insect is difficult. The action is so fast that all one sees is a bat rapidly changing directions, and continuing on its way. Scientist Frederick A. Webster discovered how bats catch their prey. In 1960, Webster developed a high-speed camera that was able to take one thousand pictures per second. These photos revealed the fast and precise way in which bats catch insects. Occasionally, a bat will catch an insect in mid-air with its mouth, and eat it in the air. However, more often than not, a bat will use its tail membrane or wings to scoop up the insect and trap it in a sort of "bug net". Then, the bat will take the insect back to its roost. There, the bat will proceed to eat said insect, often using its tail membrane as a kind of napkin, to prevent its meal from falling to the ground. One common insect prey is Helicoverpa zea, a moth that causes major agricultural damage.

FORAGE GLEANERS

These bats typically fly down and grasp their prey off the ground with their teeth, and take it to a nearby perch to eat it. Generally, these bats do not use echolocation to locate their prey. Instead, they rely on the sounds produced by the insects. Some make unique sounds, and almost all make some noise while moving through the environment.

FRUITS AND FLOWER NECTAR

Fruit eating, or frugivory, is found in particular species from both major suborders. These bats favor fleshy and sweet fruits, but not those particularly strong smelling or colorful. They pull the fruit off the trees with their teeth, then fly back to their roosts to consume them, sucking out the juice and spitting the seeds and pulp out onto the ground.

This helps disperse the seeds of these fruit trees, which may take root and grow where the bats have left them. Over 150 types of plants depend on bats in order to reproduce.

Some Chiropterans consume nectar instead, for which they have acquired specialized adaptations. These bats possess long muzzles and long, extensible tongues covered in fine bristles that aid them in feeding on particular flowers and plants. However, because of these features, nectar-feeding bats cannot easily turn to other food sources in times of scarcity, making them more prone to extinction than any other type of bat.

Nectar feeding also aids a variety of plants, since these bats serve as pollinators: pollen gets stuck to the bats' fur while they sip the nectar, and is transferred to the next flower they visit (or dusts off in flight). Rainforests are said to benefit the most from bat pollination, because of the large variety of plants that depend on it.

VERTEBRATES

Some bats are primarily carnivorous, feeding on vertebrates. These bats typically eat a variety of animals, especially frogs, lizards, birds, and sometimes other bats.

Trachops cirrhosus, for example, is particularly skilled at catching frogs. These bats locate large groups of frogs by tracking their mating calls, then plucking them from the surface of the water with their sharp canine teeth. Another example is the greater noctule bat, which is believed to catch birds in flight.

Also, several bat species, found on all continents, feed on fish. They use echolocation to detect tiny ripples on the water's surface, swoop down and use specially enlarged claws on their hind feet to grab the fish, then take their prey to a feeding roost and consume it.

BLOOD

A few species, specifically the common, white-winged, and hairy-legged vampire bats, exclusively consume animal blood. This is referred to as hematophagy. The common vampire bat typically feeds on mammals, while the hairy-legged and white-winged vampires feed on birds instead. These species are found throughout Central and South America, as well as in Mexico and on the island of Trinidad.

DEFECATION

Bat dung, or guano, is so rich in nutrients that it is mined from caves, bagged, and used by farmers to fertilize their crops. During the U.S. Civil War, guano was used to make gunpowder.

DRINKING

In 1960, Frederic A. Webster discovered some bats' method of drinking water using a high-speed (1000 FPS) camera and flashgun. He captured one skimming just above the surface of the water, lowering its jaw to collect a small quantity of water on each pass, taking repeated passes until it drank its fill.

Other bats, such as the flying fox or fruit bat, gently skim the water's surface, then land nearby to lick the water from their chest fur.

INTERACTION WITH HUMANS

DISEASE TRANSMISSION

Bats are natural reservoirs for a large number of zoonotic pathogens, including rabies, histoplasmosis (directly and in guano), Henipavirus (i.e. Nipah virus and Hendra virus) and possibly ebola virus.

Their high mobility, broad distribution, long life spans, substantial sympatry, and social behaviour (communal roosting and fission-fusion social structure) make bats favourable hosts and vectors of disease. Compared to rodents, bats carry more zoonotic viruses per species, and each virus is shared with more (especially sympatric) species. They also seem to be highly resistant to many of the pathogens they carry, suggesting a potential commensal/mutualistic relationship or specific adaptations to the bats' immune systems. Furthermore, their interactions with humans' livestock and pets (e.g. cattle, pigs, goats), such as predation (in the case of vampire bats), an accidental encounter, or an animal scavenging a bat carcass, compound the risk of zoonotic transmission.

Among ectoparasites, bats carry fleas and mites, as well as specific parasites called bat bugs. However, they are one of the few mammalian orders that cannot host lice (most of the others are water animals). This may be due to overwhelming competition from more effective, specialized parasites, such as the bat bugs which occupy the same niche.

They are also implicated in the emergence of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), since they serve as a natural host for the type of virus involved (the genus Coronavirus, whose members typically cause mild respiratory disease in humans). A joint CAS/CSIRO team using phylogenetic analysis found that the SARS Coronavirus originated within the SARS-like Coronavirus group carried by the bat population in China. However, note that they only served as the source of the precursor virus (which "jumped" to humans and evolved into the strain responsible for SARS): bats do not carry the SARS virus itself.

RABIES

As of 2016, bats present a significant hazard in areas where the virus is endemic (such as the southern United States). They serve as the natural reservoirs for the rabies virus. For example, studies performed on Mexican free-tailed bats in Austin, Texas found an exposure rate of 45% among otherwise healthy individuals.

In the United States, bats typically constitute around a quarter of reported cases of rabies in wild animals. However, their bites account for the vast majority of cases of rabies in humans. Of the 36 cases of domestically acquired rabies recorded in the country in 1995–2010, two were caused by dog bites and four patients were infected by receiving transplants from an organ donor who had previously died of rabies. All other cases were caused by bat bites.

Rabies is considered fully preventable if the patient is administered a vaccine prior to the onset of symptoms. However, unlike raccoon or skunk bites, bat bites may go ignored or unnoticed and hence untreated. Many victims may not realize they have been bitten, because bats have very small teeth and do not always leave obvious marks. Victims may also be bitten while sleeping or intoxicated, and children, pets, and the mentally handicapped are especially vulnerable. Rabid bats are broadly distributed throughout the United States; in 2008–2010, cases were reported in every state except Alaska and Hawaii, and Puerto Rico.

The most severe threat to humans and domestic animals comes from sick, downed, or dead bats, which typically have a very high infection rate (e.g. 70% for the Austin bats). Furthermore, since they may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, these stricken bats are much more likely to come into contact with humans.

Public health organizations such as the CDC generally recommend that any contact with a potentially infected animal (including any bat) be reported promptly, and those at risk of infection are treated with a post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) regimen to prevent contraction of the virus, which is near-universally fatal with very few exceptions. 30,000 PEP treatments are performed each year in the US, in large part due to contact with bats.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provide fully detailed information on all aspects of bat management in North America, including how to capture a bat, what to do in case of exposure, and how to bat-proof a house humanely. In certain countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to handle bats without a license and advice should be sought from an expert organisation, such as the Bat Conservation Trust, if a trapped or injured bat is found. Where rabies is not endemic, as throughout most of Western Europe, small bats can be considered harmless. Larger bats may bite if handled.

There is evidence that bat rabies virus can infect victims purely through airborne transmission ("cryptic rabies"), without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat itself. This phenomenon has very rarely been reported, and has occurred among victims breathing virus-infected air in environments such as caves, after long exposures.

Evidence suggests that all active widespread rabies strains (i.e. those affecting most terrestrial carnivores/omnivores) evolved from strains that were originally endemic to bats. Through zoonosis, these strains mutated and "jumped" to other species. In North America, for example, this jump reportedly occurred in the mid-1600s.

WIKIPEDIA

Albinism,,, Haji Malang Beggars by firoze shakir photographerno1

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Albinism (from Latin albus, "white"; see extended etymology, also called achromia, achromasia, or achromatosis) is a congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino (US /ælˈbaɪnoʊ/,[1] or UK /ælˈbiːnoʊ/)[2] an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as albinoid.[3]

Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus and astigmatism. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells leading to increased susceptibility to infection.[4]

In humans, there are two principal types of albinism, oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only.

Most oculocutaenous albinistic humans appear white or very pale as the melanin pigments responsible for brown, black, and some yellow colorations are not present. Ocular albinism results in pale blue eyes, and may require genetic testing to diagnose.

Because individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.[5]

The human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. However, there are cases in which the eyes of an albinistic person appear red, pink or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present, due to the red of retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity.

The albinistic are generally as healthy as the rest of the population (but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality,[6] although the lack of pigment blocking ultraviolet radiation increases the risk of skin cancer and other problems.

Visual problems[edit source | editbeta]

Malian singer Salif Keita

Development of the optical system is highly dependent on the presence of melanin, and the reduction or absence of this pigment in albinistic individuals may lead to

Misrouting of the retinogeniculate projections, resulting in abnormal decussation (crossing) of optic nerve fibres[5]

Photophobia and decreased visual acuity due to light scattering within the eye (ocular straylight)[5][7]

Reduced visual acuity due to foveal hypoplasia and possibly light-induced retinal damage[5]

Eye conditions common in albinism include:

Nystagmus, irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth, or in circular motion.[5]

Astigmatism, irregular shaped cornea requiring additional cylindrical corrective lenses in spectacles.[8]

Amblyopia, decrease in acuity of one or both eyes due to poor transmission to the brain, often due to other conditions such as strabismus.[5]

Optic nerve hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the optic nerve

Some of the visual problems associated with albinism arise from a poorly developed retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) due to the lack of melanin.[citation needed] This degenerate RPE causes foveal hypoplasia (a failure in the development of normal foveae), which results in eccentric fixation and lower visual acuity, and often a minor level of strabismus.

The iris is a sphincter formed from pigmented tissue that contracts when the eye is exposed to bright light, to protect the retina by limiting the amount of light passing through the pupil. In low light conditions the iris relaxes to allow more light to enter the eye. In albinistic subjects, the iris does not have enough pigment to block the light, thus the decrease in pupil diameter is only partially successful in reducing the amount of light entering the eye.[citation needed] Additionally, the improper development of the RPE, which in normal eyes absorbs most of the reflected sunlight, further increases glare due to light scattering within the eye.[9] The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to discomfort in bright light, but this can be reduced by the use of sunglasses and/or brimmed hats.[10]

Genetics[edit source | editbeta]

Most forms of albinism are the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes) passed from both parents of an individual, though some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body.[6][11]

The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes.[6] An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X chromosomes.[12]

There are two different forms of albinism: a partial lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or hypomelanosis and the total absence of melanin is known as amelanism or amelanosis.

Diagnosis[edit source | editbeta]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007)

Genetic testing can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits except in the cases of non-OCA disorders (see below) that cause albinism along with other medical problems which may be treatable. The symptoms of albinism can be treated by various methods detailed below.

Treatment[edit source | editbeta]

For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the ocular muscles to decrease nystagmus, strabismus and common refractive errors like astigmatism.[5] Nystagmus-damping surgery can also be performed, to reduce the "shaking" of the eyes back and forth.[13] The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances.

Glasses and other vision aids, large-print materials as well as bright but angled reading lights, can help individuals with albinism, even though their vision cannot be corrected completely. Some people with albinism do well using bifocals (with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, and/or hand-held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars.[10] Contact lenses may be colored to block light transmission through the iris. But in the case of nystagmus this is not possible, due to the irritation that is caused by the movement of the eyes. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles. (See also NOAH bulletin "Low Vision Aids".)

Epidemiology[edit source | editbeta]

Albinism affects people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in 17,000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism varies considerably by population, and is highest overall in people of sub-Saharan African descent.[14]

Society and culture[edit source | editbeta]

Main articles: Persecution of people with albinism and Albinism in popular culture

In physical terms, humans with albinism commonly have visual problems and need sun protection. They often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism.

In African countries such as Tanzania[15] and Burundi,[16][17] there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft-related killings of albino people in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witchdoctors. Numerous authenticated incidents have occurred in Africa during the 21st Century.[18][19][20][21] For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14-year-old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes.[22] Again in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts,[16] as part of a continuing problem. National Geographic estimates that in Tanzania a complete set of albino body parts is worth $75,000.[1]

Another harmful and false belief is that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV. This has led, for example in Zimbabwe, to rapes (and subsequent HIV infection).[23]

Certain ethnic groups and insular areas exhibit heightened susceptibility to albinism, presumably due to genetic factors. These include notably the Native American Kuna and Zuni nations (respectively of Panama and New Mexico); Japan, in which one particular form of albinism is unusually common; and Ukerewe Island, the population of which shows a very high incidence of albinism.[24]

Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston "Yellowman" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Willie "Piano Red" Perryman; and fashion models Connie Chiu and Shaun Ross. Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have been an albino because he was said to have been born with white hair.

In animals[edit source | editbeta]

Many animals with albinism lack their protective camouflage and are unable to conceal themselves from their predators or prey; the survival rate of animals with albinism in the wild is usually quite low.[25][26] However the novelty of albino animals has occasionally led to their protection by groups such as the Albino Squirrel Preservation Society.

In what used to be called "partial albinism" but is more often termed leucism there can be a single patch or patches of skin that lack melanin. Especially in albinistic birds and reptiles, ruddy and yellow hues or other colors may be present on the entire body or in patches (as is common among pigeons), because of the presence of other pigments unaffected by albinism such as porphyrins, pteridines and psittacins, as well as carotenoid pigments derived from the diet.

Intentionally bred albinistic strains of some animal species are commonly used as model organisms in biomedical study and experimentation, although some researchers have argued that they are not always the best choice.[27] Examples include the BALB/c mouse and Wistar and Sprague Dawley rat strains, while albino rabbits were historically used for Draize toxicity testing.[28] The yellow mutation in fruit flies is their version of albinism.

The incidence of albinism can be artificially increased in fish by exposing the eggs to heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, selenium, zinc).[29]

The eyes of an albino animal appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the underlying retinal blood vessels shows through where there is no pigment to obscure it.

Famous albino animals include Migaloo, a humpback whale off the coast of Australia; Pinky, a bottlenose dolphin living in and around in Calcasieu Lake, Louisiana; Snowflake, a Barcelona Zoo gorilla; Snowflake, a Bristol Zoo penguin; and Mahpiya Ska (Sioux for "White Cloud"), a buffalo in Jamestown, North Dakota.[30] The inspiration for Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick was a sperm whale known as Mocha Dick.

Znojmo sunrise by Michal Prodelal

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It’s different this time - 2 photos with the same story. I was planning this for a long time, see that in my head, and finally got opportunity to do so (timing and weather). A Sunday was chosen as the D-day. My girlfriend had to go to work, so I get up with her at 3:50 am. Get dressed while still yawning and prepare the important meal of the day – first breakfast. Take my backpack, water, and load everything to the car, pickup the rest of the team (sometimes is better not to be alone, especially when other persons have coffee) and towards parking near Kraluv stolec. In the parking lot are 2 cars with a sleeping crew. We quietly pulled our things out and went through a night forest. After about a kilometre I found out that my phone remained in the car in a quite visible place… (Holly s*it) Put the backpack down and quick sprint to the car and back, all in the light of the headlamp. Fuuuuu, my pulse is 140+, lungs lying on the way. We kept going, it’s starting to be brighter, the forest coming to live – rustles, beeps, and roe deer barks everywhere. At a slightly increased pace, we arrived at a crossroad, on the right Kraluv stolec, on the left a viewpoint where we were headed. The narrow path winds through the forest, it’s still quite dark – we have time. Suddenly on the hillside beneath us we hear stomping, oink oink oink, blood in our veins is frozen, sphincter clenched (thankfully) – a small crowd of wild boars, more frightened than us, is moving away from us, we see shadows shifting away among the trees – what a relief. After a while we are on the lookout. We unpack the equipment, I choose a 150-600mm Sigma and start with some test photos, some HDR and panoramas. Now is the best time to sit with a coffee and just enjoy the nice view. We are waiting for the best moment. Another memory in the collection is how the morning sun spilled over the landscape, a slight haze over the river and the smell of hot coffee. Not far from us argue the magpies, and a nuthatch climbs a tree next to it, and a spotted woodpecker a short distance away. Suddenly, a larger bird flies silently and lands a few meters from us, startled and flies on, an owl at a guess. At one point, I change the lens to samyang 24mm and more photos are taken. Soon the sun is high enough, so we head back, almost no one in the woods. Excellent. The crews wake up in the parking lot with their breakfast and look at us suspiciously, we pack up and leave - it's 8 am. I consider dawn and dusk as the best parts of the day for the photo shoot. Dawn is sometimes better, because it is completely calm, and one never knows where a cloud or haze will appear.

Analingus Venn Diagram by Kaz Vorpal

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The various kinds of people relating to analingus:

• People who would enjoy receiving Analingus

• People who would be happy to give Analingus

• People who understand Analingus is not a bad thing

Where they intersect, very happy people

Country Pile by Dan Belton ( No Badger Cull ) In Memoriam

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Just a little snap of the Belton residence, the old pile's been in our family since 1534 when one Jeremiah ' Sphincter ' Belton-Smythe won it in a drunken card game, supposedly with a one-armed Spaniard called Gerald. Jeremiah famously perished in a freak croquet accident many years later, riddled with syphilis and married to a tortoise half his age so the story goes ( oh the shame ! ) A modest country residence in these days of austerity, one doesn't want to rub one's wealth in peoples noses don't you know, only has a skeleton staff these days with 85 members of staff ( well one needs pastry chefs and horses don't shoe themselves do they ). Can't be expected to let our topiarist go either, been topiarising for us for generations....besides there was a rather icky blackmailing business which we don't want being made public.

FLOWER TONGUE... IRIS by magda indigo

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Organic, sensual, all about shape and colour. Yellow Iris.

I don't talk to flowers, they talk to me and I gladly listen!

In Flowers'-language: Iris means faith; hope; wisdom and valour

In Fine Arts: the lenses also have an iris diaphragm which can be opened and closed to control the amount of light reaching the film.

Iris can mean:

* The sphincter around the pupil of the eye, the iris is the most visible part of the eye, when photographed with a flash, the iris only reacts to protect the retina, and not fast enough to avoid the red eye effect.

* The equivalent device in a camera,

* The messenger of the gods in Greek mythology

* A variety of flower,

* A female first name.

I wish you a good day and thanx for your visit, so very much appreciated, Magda, (*_*)

SUPPORT the PHOTOGRAPHER: BUY DIRECT!

For more of my other work visit here: www.indigo2photography.com

IT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN (BY LAW!!!) TO USE ANY OF MY images or TEXT on websites, blogs or any other media without my explicit permission. If you do, without accreditation, it is STEALING © All rights reserved

I Woke Up Remembering The Melodeon by Marcel Mac Duchamp and Rroseeen Ní Shélavy in Infrat(h)in

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I know, how strange is that? It is a word I have always sort of loved, a childhood word, about compression and expansion of time (at least for yours truly). I probably didn’t realise that completely then, but there it was being illustrated right in front of me as those bellows inflated and collapsed, doing their wailing thing.

I remember it differently, the spelling at least. As children we pronounced it more as a ‘Melogeon’, which was not unlike the g-sound of bludgeon. Anyway, it registered, imprinted, and ensconced itself in a sort of reservoir describing how time distends, contracts and eventually caressingly bludgeons. I even find that I love its bludgeoning, its ‘melogeoning’.

It somehow leaves you room to squeeze something out of it. It’s generous like that.

I took a look back to find if I had used the word, and I had. ‘Ruin’ had written to ‘Rack’, knowing she would ‘get it’, acknowledging it as part of the indigenous patois of our shared small island, our infant republic. It would, of course, be called a squeezebox anywhere else. But for us it was a melogeon with a ‘G’, though we used the proper spelling when we wrote. However, we both knew how it was really pronounced, and we relished that bludgeoning.

I am not at all sure why we both so wanted to be bludgeoned, we just did, perhaps it was part of our inheritance. There’s a delicacy in freckles that talks of blistering. Ruin loved, and envied, Rack's blister-free pellucidity.

That first usage was during the re-election of George Bush (the son), shades of Trump and UBU.

Dear Ruin,

Delighted your anus is merely falling apart as opposed to malignant.

Off to the doctor myself today. Manhattan is full of very depressed people, and one crosses the street to avoid the smiling ones. Serious talk among many of my friends, even the ones well-appointed here, of leaving the country. Canada sounds nice.

Foggy is deathly with bronchitis or pneumonia or something, Bush on the radio giving his acceptance speech. Oh drear.

What the hell to do? Where to flee to?

Love,

Rack

Ruin: Canada…. don’t you dare!!!

Rack: Nah, only kidding, but it's big and near.

r xoxo

BushRacked,

6:56 of a morning and we're off to Dublin in the Green, in the Green, where the bayonets glisten in the sun... Yes, Canada is big and so is me Buttercrust van, but I wouldn't want to live there. Cannot abide that Monsewer Trousseau. I stand by my manhole, corrected, praise the small case baby jesus for anus-ol! I am taking my fully developed clit with me and will start to anoint its shrinking when I return at that juncture (I will admit that I do enjoy sitting on it)... Who after all, would want to take Anus-Ol (crows feet beware) through the rigorous sphincter of the Irish immigration officials tight knit circle… Anything to declare? Yep, a new clit, wanna see it? Do-Do is done done, wiping assiduously backwards to keep the clit clean, note to self: Self, get some Baba moisty wipes (with Ho-ho ba). Your homosexual and potential single mother bud. 7:07, doesn't time fry, or fly time or somesuch? I am replete.

Kisses,

Baby Sham (Ruin)

Memories malodorous melodeon plays me like an out of tune Ukulele.

Xxx

Ruin,

Dearest Ruin,

Oh, how I envy you going off to the greeny with your manclit tucked between your intercrural intersection. So nice to be going on an adventure, though I hope 'tis less windy than here - 40 mph gusts - rather cleansing.

The problem with work is that it is dull and occupies too much of one's time.

Yesterday I sat beside one Mr. Gerry as we HIV dripped in tandem. He is well and amusing in a blithe sort of way. Working as a "talent booker" at Channel 13 and doing some "acting." He asked after you and I was delighted to be able to tell him that you are most excellent.

Well, I'm off to the labour camp, resentful and dreamy of some alternative. What if I bought one of those old shipping containers people are now housing themselves in and stuck it in my parents back garden? George W. has finally given us all an accelerated ticket out of here. There really is much talk among the disenfranchised of leaving the US of A.

Enjoy the snot-green and tell me all upon your return.

Much love, Rack

I could go on, but I won’t, finding melodeons all over the kip. I used it on a number of occasions, and Rack absorbed it, like something she trusted.

Joyce used ‘melodeon’ three times, once in ‘Finnegans Wake’ and twice in ‘Ulysses’.

“Myrrdin aloer! as old Mar- sellas Cambriannus puts his. But, on Professor Llewellys ap Bryllars, F.D., Ph. Dr's showings, the plea, if he pleads, is all posh and robbage on a melodeontic scale since his man's when is no otherman's quandour (Mine, dank you.^) while, for aught I care for the contrary, the all is where in love as war and”

Finnegans Wake Page 150

What was he on about? Was it the wondrous Syphilis talking, like HIV talks through Rack and me, when we allow it? What a marvellous genius he was to be able to make himself transparent enough to let that madness out, so it could talk through him, all that rapturous viral overspilling experience, uncontrolled, expressing itself lucidly. I would love to be able to allow HIV to speak, but I am perhaps too full of myself for that. I guess you have to squeezebox that part out, somehow condense the self enough.

Sometime earlier he wrote:

“In Lionel Marks’s antique saleshop window haughty Henry Lionel Leopold dear Henry Flower earnestly Mr Leopold Bloom envisaged battered candlesticks melodeon oozing maggoty blowbags. Bargain: six bob. Might learn to play. Cheap. Let her pass. Course everything is dear if you don’t want it. That’s what good salesman is. Make you buy what he wants to sell. Chap sold me the Swedish razor he shaved me with. Wanted to

charge me for the edge he gave it. She’s passing now. Six bob.”

And

“while in the boreens and green lanes the colleens with their swains strolled what times the strains of the organtoned melodeon Britannia metalbound with four acting stops and twelvefold bellows, a sacrifice, greatest bargain ever...._”

Both in ‘Ulysses’.

Apparently being squeezboxed might be in our blood. I suspect things might be about to become a lot more complicated. That might be a natural progression as time becomes more compressed and appears to becomes shorter. At some point the essence might have to emerge, before it is too late.

That very idea makes me laugh, that idea of 'too late', and of time having length, those absurdities.

Who believes in time anyway?

Go on, 'melogeon' me. I will love you to death anyway. I promise.

looking out the window by Shawn Dall

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in the bathroom keeping my little basil plant happy :)

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sun aglow by Shawn Dall

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hello by Shawn Dall

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oh hello there by Shawn Dall

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in the bathroom checking out the beautiful day :)

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too big haha by Shawn Dall

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~Snortypeople

Taken in the temple to the Con Sumer

Ha- rrods

Horseshoe Bend by Just Fab

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Nothing to make your sphincter pucker like hanging off the edge of this canyon to take this picture. Near Page, Arizona. Thanksgving weekend. I'm taking time to process a few shots I've been meaning to.

GI Joe #0 Cover by Ben Templesmith

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Yep, I'm doing some Joe stuff. Though honestly, I'm not a Joe supporter, I'm a Cobra guy.

This is just a cover, but more things are in the works, though I am loathe to say exactly what they are yet.

364 by Fearless Photoworks

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'Muscles du Pharynx by Nerrivik

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'Ensemble des Muscles du Pharynx. Plan Posterieur.' (Muscles of the Human Pharynx. Backside.) This plate shows the muscles of the pharynx of an adult. Superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle, idem inferior, idem middle, esophageal sphincter, stylopharyngeus, platysma muscle etc.

hungry by Shawn Dall

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om nom nom

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