His phenomenally successful novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831), his play Les Burgraves (1842-43) and, later on in his life, his mammoth epic La legende des siecles (published between 1859 and 1883) were key texts for contemporaries.

Though Christian buildings by purpose, Europe’s Gothic cathedrals contain an ancient Pagan wisdom hidden in their architecture. This wisdom, which predates Christianity, was placed by the operative Freemasons, builders commissioned by the Church to create cathedrals, churches, and other edifices. For centuries the Masonic heresy went unrecognized, but the Church eventually outlawed the Freemasons and called for their immediate destruction once the heresy was discovered. Their structures live on, however, and in this article we’ll see how Freemasonry’s “lost secret” can be found encoded in the stone architecture of Gothic cathedrals.This “pairs of opposites” wisdom is the lost key to all the Mystery schools in history (Perennial Philosophy, Hermetic Teachings, Philosopher’s Stone, etc. and so on). The “pairs of opposites” can be witnessed in the natural mechanics of the moon: they each spend half the day up, and though the Sun is far larger than the moon they appear the same size because the moon is much closer. These natural pairings are strong evidence towards the sun and the moon as being equal but opposing natural symbols.Quasimodo is a monstrously deformed hunchback who was left on the foundling bench in front of Notre Dame. “Sixteen years previous to the epoch ... His play on at the beginning of the book fails due to the dignitaries showing up late, and perhaps it being too esoteric for the masses.

The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (French: Notre-Dame de Paris, "Our Lady of Paris") is a French Romantic/Gothic novel by Victor Hugo, published in 1831. The original French title refers to Notre Dame Cathedral, on which the story is centered. English translator Frederic Shoberl named the novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame in 1833 because at the time, Gothic novels were more popular than Romance novels in England.[1] The story is set in Paris, France in the Late Middle Ages, during the reign of Louis XI.Victor Hugo began writing Notre-Dame de Paris in 1829, largely to make his contemporaries more aware of the value of the Gothic architecture, which was neglected and often destroyed to be replaced by new buildings or defaced by replacement of parts of buildings in a newer style. For instance, the medieval stained glass panels of Notre-Dame de Paris had been replaced by white glass to let more light into the church.This explains the large descriptive sections of the book, which far exceed the requirements of the story. A few years earlier, Hugo had already published a paper entitled Guerre aux Démolisseurs (War to the Demolishers) specifically aimed at saving Paris' medieval architecture.

 

The agreement with his original publisher, Gosselin, was that the book would be finished that same year, but Hugo was constantly delayed due to the demands of other projects. In the summer of 1830, Gosselin demanded that Hugo complete the book by February 1831. Beginning in September 1830, Hugo worked nonstop on the project thereafter. The book was finished six months later.Paris, 1482. The gypsy Esmeralda (born as Agnés) captures the hearts of many men, including those of Captain Phoebus and Pierre Gringoire, but especially Quasimodo and his guardian Archdeacon Claude Frollo. Frollo is torn between his obsessive lust for Esmeralda and the rules of the Notre Dame Cathedral. He orders Quasimodo to kidnap her, but the hunchback is captured by Phoebus and his guards, who save Esmeralda. Gringoire, who attempted to help Esmeralda but was knocked out by Quasimodo, is about to be hanged by beggars when Esmeralda saves him by agreeing to marry him for four years.

 

The following day, Quasimodo is sentenced to be flogged and turned on the pillory for one hour, followed by another hour's public exposure. He calls for water. Esmeralda, seeing his thirst, approaches the public stocks and offers him a drink of water. It saves him, and she captures his heart.

 

Later, Esmeralda is arrested and charged with the attempted murder of Phoebus, whom Frollo actually attempted to kill in jealousy after seeing him trying to seduce Esmeralda. She is sentenced to death by hanging. As she is being led to the gallows, Quasimodo swings down by the bell rope of Notre-Dame and carries her off to the cathedral under the law of sanctuary, temporarily protecting her from arrest.

 

Frollo later informs Gringoire that the Court of Parlement has voted to remove Esmeralda's right to the sanctuary so she can no longer seek shelter in the Cathedral and will be taken away to be killed. Clopin, the leader of the Gypsies, hears the news from Gringoire and rallies the citizens of Paris to charge the cathedral and rescue Esmeralda.

 

When Quasimodo sees the Gypsies, he assumes they are there to hurt Esmeralda, so he drives them off. Likewise, he thinks the King's men want to rescue her, and tries to help them find her. She is rescued by Frollo and Gringoire. But after yet another failed attempt to win her love, Frollo betrays Esmeralda by handing her to the troops and watches while she is being hanged. When Frollo laughs during Esmeralda's hanging, Quasimodo pushes him from the height of Notre Dame to his death. Quasimodo sees Esmeralda's body, he dies with her and their bodies turn to dust

The one that surprises me the most is the Disney film. I have not seen it, but I cannot imagine Disney remaining true to the story and it still be a Disney film. The only character in the book with any sort of redeemable qualities is Quasimodo. La Esmeralda was basically an innocent, but in the end her obsession kills her.

 

Say what you will about numerable top 100 novels lists that float around on the Internet, but I use them to get ideas on classical literature to read. As I read this book I wondered if it was on any of the lists. I wondered this because it is so well written and the story line leads the reader on at such a quick pace. Surprisingly it was not. I attribute this to two possible causes. First, there are few chapters in the novel that are basically history lessons about Paris. I found them interesting, but some readers may find them a bit tedious. Secondly, the ending of the books leaves the reader with a sense of the futility of life.

 

The book is set in Paris at the tail end of the medieval period, the 15th century. It is a time of superstition, over religiosity, absolute power of the establishment, and little concern for human life or the humanity of individuals. It was a time of huge class distinctions, with the lower classes considered to have little or no value. It was a time when there were gibbets and machines for public torture practically in ever square of the city.

 

One of the principles characters is Quasimodo. Quasimodo is a monstrously deformed hunchback who was left on the foundling bench in front of Notre Dame.

 

“Sixteen years previous to the epoch when this story takes place, one fine morning, on Quasimodo Sunday, a living creature had been deposited, after mass, in the church of Notre-Dame, on the wooden bed securely fixed in the vestibule on the left, opposite that great image of Saint Christopher, which the figure of Messire Antoine des Essarts, chevalier, carved in stone, had been gazing at on his knees since 1413, when they took it into their heads to overthrow the saint and the faithful follower. Upon this bed of wood it was customary to expose foundlings for public charity. Whoever cared to take them did so. In front of the wooden bed was a copper basin for alms.”

 

Another one of the principle characters, the Archdeacon Claude Frollo, claimed the foundling and named him Quasimodo in honor of the religious holiday. Frollo raised Quasimodo, educated him the best he could, and eventually made him the bell ringer of Notre Dame. In many ways Quasimodo is a vile creature operating at a primitive level. Due to his deafness, a result of being so close to ringing big bells of the cathedral, he is isolated beyond the isolation created by his grotesque appearance. In the end he is as close to a hero as the book has. He and Claude Frollo both “loved” La Esmeralda, but in much different ways. Quasimodo loved her in a self-sacrificing manner that did not make demands on her.

 

Archdeacon Claude Frollo is wonderful argument against the celibacy of the priesthood. Here is a man of remarkable intellect and drive who suppresses basic human passions. He does so to adhere to the teachings of the church. He sublimates these desires into his pursuit of knowledge. He is a man who many ways wants to do Good. However, when the physical urgings can no longer be ignored they overwhelm him with disastrous results for a large number of folks. The unfortunate object of his obsession is La Esmeralda, a gypsy street dancer. In the end he orchestrates her death rather than allow someone else to have her. The novel in many ways is a tale of this obsession and others obsessions gone astray.

 

The pivot around which the novel turns is La Esmeralda, the gypsy street dancer. It turns out she was actually kidnapped by the gypsies as a baby and raised by them. Before she died, a gypsy woman told La Esmeralda of her real mother. This became her obsession in life, to be reunited with her mother. Excluding that here is a person that lived in the moment, plying her street dancing trade. She also had a trained goat, Djali, with which she entertained crowds with feats of his ability to mimic haughty personages, tell time, etc. She lives in a section of town full of gypsies, pickpockets, beggars and other assorted outsiders. Her beauty is admired by all who see her, and she is revered by these people. Her obsession with a soldier, Phoebus de Chateaupers, leads to her downfall and death.

 

Phoebus de Chateaupers is a self-centered soldier and general bon vivant. There is a kidnapping attempt on La Esmeralda. He and the soldiers under his command prevent this. When La Esmeralda first sees her rescuer, she is smitten beyond any degree of sanity. He later on sees her as just another female conquest. He is a cad to her, and a cad to his finance, Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier. It is he who is the proximate cause of La Esmeralda’s troubles with the authorities.

 

Sister Gudule aka the sacked nun who self-imprisoned herself in a small cell opening onto a square of the city of Paris. She had been in there for 15 years feed and mocked by the citizens of Paris. It comes out at the end of the novel that she is really La Esmeralda’s mother.

 

There is Jehan Frollo the brother of Archdeacon Claude Frollo and a thorn in his side. He is ostensibly a student, but his primary activities are carousing and drinking. In the end he dies in the riot outside of Notre Dame meant to free La Esmeralda.

 

Another character that ties many parts of the book together is Pierre Gringoire, a supposed playwright. His play on at the beginning of the book fails due to the dignitaries showing up late, and perhaps it being too esoteric for the masses. Not being paid he has nowhere to sleep and nothing to eat. For various reasons he follows La Esmeralda, disrupts her kidnapping by Quasimodo and an unknown assistant. Then he loses her path. He ends up in the Cour des Miracles which is basically the bad section of town. “The King” of this domain is about to hang Gringoire when La Esmeralda intervenes.

 

“You are going to hang this man?” she said gravely, to Clopin.

 

“Yes, sister,” replied the King of Thunes, “unless you will take him for your husband.”

 

She made her pretty little pout with her under lip. “I’ll take him,” said she.

 

Gringoire firmly believed that he had been in a dream ever since morning, and that this was the continuation of it.

 

The change was, in fact, violent, though a gratifying one. They undid the noose, and made the poet step down from the stool. His emotion was so lively that he was obliged to sit down.

 

The Duke of Egypt brought an earthenware crock, without uttering a word. The gypsy offered it to Gringoire: “Fling it on the ground,” said she.

 

The crock broke into four pieces.

 

“Brother,” then said the Duke of Egypt, laying his hands upon their foreheads, “she is your wife; sister, he is your husband for four years. Go.”

 

But the marriage is never consummated. La Esmeralda must remain virginal in order for the search for her mother to be successful. Gringoire disappears for a while in the novel to reappear towards the end. He is somewhat friendly with Claude Frollo and hatches a plot to allow the Claude Frollo to kidnap La Esmeralda. The plot results in 100s of the vagabounds of the Cour of Miracles being slaughtered by the Louis XI’s soldiers.

 

Besides the obsessions of Claude Frollo, Quasimodo and La Esmeralda the novel deals with the human insanity that was the middle ages. The courts are basically the whim of the magistrate without any rules of evidence. The first chapter of Book 6 is absolutely hilarious as the deaf magistrate is questioning the deaf Quasimodo. It is a scene worthy of Monty Python. Then at the end of the trail after Quasimodo has been sentenced one of the clerks tries to intervene for a little clemency.

 

However, at the moment when Master Florian Barbedienne was reading the sentence in his turn, before signing it, the clerk felt himself moved with pity for the poor wretch of a prisoner, and, in the hope of obtaining some mitigation of the penalty, he approached as near the auditor’s ear as possible, and said, pointing to Quasimodo, “That man is deaf.”

 

He hoped that this community of infirmity would awaken Master Florian’s interest in behalf of the condemned man. But, in the first place, we have already observed that Master Florian did not care to have his deafness noticed. In the next place, he was so hard of hearing That he did not catch a single word of what the clerk said to him; nevertheless, he wished to have the appearance of hearing, and replied, “Ah! ah! that is different; I did not know that. An hour more of the pillory, in that case.”

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Armored wheeled vehicles were developed early in Germany, since they were not subject to the restrictions of the Versailles Treaty. The Sd.Kfz. 234 (Sonder-Kraftfahrzeug, or Special Purpose Vehicle) belonged to the so-called ARK series vehicles (the type designation of the chassis) and was the successor to the earlier, eight-wheeled Sd.Kfz. 231/232/233 heavy scout car family. The Sd.Kfz. 234 was a considerable step forward and incorporated several innovative features, including a monocoque chassis with eight wheels and an air-cooled Tatra 103 diesel engine that was originally chosen for use in North Africa. The latter gave the vehicle an extraordinary range of more than 600 miles (1.000 km) and a very good performance. The vehicle had eight-wheel steering and drive and was able to quickly change direction thanks to a second, rear-facing driver's seat, what made quick retreats and unexpected position changes easier.

 

Chassis were built by Büssing-NAG in Leipzig-Wahren, while armoured bodies were provided by Deutsche Edelstahlwerke of Krefeld and turrets by Daimler Benz in Berlin-Marienfelde and Schichau of Elbing, with engines from Ringhoffer-Tatra-Werke AG of Nesseldorf. The first and possibly best known version to reach frontline service was the Sd.Kfz. 234/2 ‘Puma’. It had a horseshoe-shaped turret armed with a 5cm L/60 gun, which had originally been developed for the VK 16.02 Leopard light tank which never made into production. Even though it was a dedicated reconnaissance vehicle, the armament made it possible to defend the vehicle effectively and even take on light armored vehicles. The Sd.Kfz. 234/2 was produced from late 1943 to mid-1944 and replaced in production by the second version, the Sd.Kfz. 234/1, which was less complex and easier to build. It had a simpler open turret and was armed only with a light 2 cm KwK 38 gun (in the so-called Hängelafette 38). It was manufactured from mid-1944 to early 1945 and became the standard reconnaissance vehicle in this period.

 

Other versions were derived from the Sd.Kfz. 234, too. The Sd.Kfz. 234/3, produced simultaneously with the 234/1, served as a support for the lightly armed reconnaissance vehicles with more firepower. It had an open-topped superstructure, too, but carried a short-barreled 7.5cm K51 L/24 gun. This gun was intended primarily for use against soft targets, but when using a hollow charge shell, the penetration power exceeded that of the 5cm L/60 gun. This variant was produced until late 1944, before switching production to the 234/4. This version replaced the L/24 gun with the 7.5cm L/46 PaK 40 and was primarily another attempt to increase the mobility of this anti-tank gun and not a reconnaissance vehicle. It was not very successful, though: the heavy weapon stretched the light 234 chassis to its limits and only a very limited ammunition load of just twelve rounds could be carried on board due to lack of storage space. This variant was manufactured from the end of 1944 on only in limited numbers.

 

In mid-1945 another reconnaissance variant appeared, the Sd.Kfz. 234/5. It was a kind of hybrid between the earlier 234/1 and 234/2 variants, combining the light armament with a fully closed turret that offered the crew better protection from enemy fire and climatic conditions. The origins of the Sd.Kfz. 234/5 remain a little unclear – in fact, this variant started as a field conversion of a handful of Sd.Kfz. 234/2s in Hungary in mid-1944, which were retrofitted in field workshops with turrets from damaged Panzer-Spähwagen (neue Art) II ‘Luchs’ (also known as ‘Panzer II Ausf. L’, ‘Sd.Kfz. 123 mit 2-cm-KwK 38’ and VK 13.03 during the vehicle’s development phase). This simple combination of existing components turned out to be so effective and popular among the crews that it was quickly ordered into production.

 

Both chassis and turret remained unchanged, with a maximum armor of 30 mm (1.18 in), but the small turret with its light weapon (which had been adapted from a 20 mm anti-aircraft gun with a higher rate of fire than earlier guns of this type) reduced the overall weight to a little under 11 tons. This, and a slightly more powerful variant of the Tatra 103 V12 diesel engine, raised the vehicle’s top speed by 10 km/h (6 mph). In service the Sd.Kfz. 234/5 was generally known as ‘Puma II’ and the frontline units frequently modified their vehicles.

Among these field updates were commander cupolas, transplanted from damaged Panzer III and IV and sometimes outfitted with a mount for a light Fla-MG (anti-aircraft machine gun), as well as more effective exhaust mufflers for a reduced noise signature. Additional thin, spaced armor plates were sometimes bolted to the hull and/or to the turret front to better protect the vehicle from armor-piercing weapons, esp. against rounds from Russian 14.5 mm tank rifles. Makeshift wire mesh shields against hollow charges, similar to heavier Thoma shields on battle tanks, were occasionally added, too, as well as smoke dischargers, mounted to the turret sides or to the vehicle’s front. Night vision devices (Infrarot-Nachtsichtgerät F.G. 1250 or F.G. 1252) were fitted when available, and some late-production Sd.Kfz. 234/5s had a 140 cm (55 in) Telemeter KDO 44 stereoscopic rangefinder/telescope integrated into the turret, protruding from it on both sides. Vehicles that were almost exclusively operated on roads frequently had the wheels of the 2nd axle removed in order to reduce overall weight, rolling resistance and save precious rubber/tires.

 

Since production could not meet the operational units’ demand the Sd.Kfz. 234/5s were issued very selectively to Panzerspähwagen companies of the Panzer Aufklärung battalions. They were operated alongside other Sd.Kfz. 234 versions and Panzer II, III and 38(t) Spähpanzer versions to provide artillery, AA and AT support. The Puma IIs were mostly given to veteran crews and equipped primarily Panzerdivision units operating in Russia, even though a few were sent to the Western front, too.

Exact production numbers remain uncertain because the original production of 81 new vehicles by Büssing-NAG was complemented by an uncertain number of field conversions that allowed older/damaged Sd.Kfz. 234/1 and 2s to be repaired and/or updated with the light ‘Luchs’ turret. The total number of operational Sd.Kfz. 234/5s remained less than 100, though.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Four (commander, gunner, driver, radio operator/2nd driver)

Weight: 10,600 kg (25,330 lb)

Length: 6.02 m (19 ft 9 in)

Width: 2.36 m (7 ft 9 in)

Height: 2.32 meters (7 ft 7¼ in)

2.53 meters (8 ft 3½ in) when outfitted with a commander cupola

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Track width: 1.95 m (6 ft 4 1/2 in)

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 2m (6 ft 6 1/2 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 360 l

Fuel consumption: 40 l/100 km on roads, 60 l/100 km off-road

 

Armor:

9 — 30 mm (0.35-1.18 in), sometimes augmented with

additional 5 — 10 mm (0.2-0.4 in) armor plates on the front of hull and/or turret

 

Performance:

Maximum road speed: 90 km/h (56 mph)

Operational range: 1,000 km (625 mi) on-road

600 km (373 mi) off-road

Power/weight: 20,75 PS/t

 

Engine:

Air-cooled 14,825 cc (905³ in) Tatra 103 V12 diesel engine,

with 157 kW (220 hp) output at 2.200 RPM

 

Transmission:

Büssing-NAG "GS" with 3 forward and reverse gears, eight-wheel drive

 

Armament:

1× 20mm KwK 38 L/55 machine cannon with 330 rounds

1× co-axial 7.92 mm Maschinengewehr 42 with 2.550 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

A straightforward conversion, and at its core this is not a what-if model because the Sd.Kfz. 234 was actually outfitted with the light ‘Luchs’ turret – even though this was probably only a field-modified, single vehicle that was eventually captured by Allied troops in Czechoslovakia in 1945. It was not an official variant (yet). However, as exotic as this combo seems, there is a complete 1:72 kit of this exotic vehicle from Attack Kits, but it’s pricey, and ModelTrans/Silesian Models from Germany does a resin conversion kit with the ‘Luchs’ turret. The latter set was used for this model and mated it with a Hasegawa Sd.Kfz. 234/2 hull, IMHO the best model of this vehicle, and even as a combo cheaper than the Attack kit.

 

Building the fictional Sd.Kfz. 234/5 from these ingredients was a very simple affair, everything was basically taken over OOB. For a more sophisticated in-service vehicle, I took over the smoke dischargers from the Hasegawa kit, added a leftover Panzer IV cupola as well as scratched fairings for a stereoscopic rangefinder, and replaced the original twin exhaust mufflers on the rear fenders with a different/bigger piece from an early Panzer IV, placed above the spare tire. This made enough room to add stowage boxes and no less than six jerry cans (all from the Hasegawa kit).

The antennae were made from heated sprue material and the gun barrels are brass pieces, left over from a First To Fight Sd.Kfz. 232, which looked better than the (already fine and good, though) parts from the ModelTrans conversion set. The commander figure came from the Hasegawa kit.

  

Painting and markings:

A conservative approach, and I stuck to German late-war practice to apply a uniform Dunkelgelb (RAL 7028) livery over a red primer base upon delivery. Individual camouflage in medium green and dark brown was later applied in the field on top of that – a classic ‘Hinterhalt’ scheme.

 

Initially, the hull’s underside was sprayed with Oxidrot (RAL 3009) from the rattle can, while the upper surfaces received a primer coat with a sandy brown. On top of the sand brown came a thin layer of RAL 7028 (thinned Tamiya XF-60, which is a rather desert-yellowish and pale interpretation of the tone, it should AFAIK have a slight greenish hue) to all directly visible surfaces, wheel hubs and the turret, for a cloudy and uneven basic camouflage. The individual, disruptive ‘tiger stripe’ camouflage was inspired by a late-war Panther battle tank from literature.

 

The stripes were applied to the Dunkelgelb basis with a small brush and thinned Tamiya XF-58 (Olive Green) and XF-64 (Red Brown), for a makeshift camouflage with scarce paint that still meets official regulations. Following these, the wheel hubs remained in just a single color (making them less obvious when on the move), and the light Dunkelgelb was chosen to lighten the lower vehicle areas up, esp. with the rel. dark interior of the wheelhouses. The interior of the turret and the hatch were painted in a yellowish ivory tone (Revell 314), the tires were painted with Revell 09 (Anthracite) and later dry-brushed with light grey and beige.

 

A thin black-brown ink wash and some dry-brushing along the many edges with grey and beige were used to weather the model and emphasize details. After decals had been applied (taken from the Hasegawa kit), the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish and grey-brown mineral pigments were very lightly dusted onto the model with a soft brush around the wheels and the lower hull to simulate some dust.

  

Well, this can be considered a semi-whif since such a vehicle actually existed – but there never was a serial production, and I tried to enhance the fictional aspect with some added details like the commander cupola or the rangefinder. It’s a subtle conversion, though. I was initially skeptical about the “tiger stripe” livery, but when it was applied, I was surprised how effective it is! It really blurs the vehicle’s outlines and details – making the turret conversion even less apparent.

 

Zion National Park is an American national park located in southwestern Utah near the town of Springdale. Located at the junction of the Colorado Plateau, Great Basin, and Mojave Desert regions, the park has a unique geography and a variety of life zones that allow for unusual plant and animal diversity. Numerous plant species as well as 289 species of birds, 75 mammals (including 19 species of bat), and 32 reptiles inhabit the park's four life zones: desert, riparian, woodland, and coniferous forest. Zion National Park includes mountains, canyons, buttes, mesas, monoliths, rivers, slot canyons, and natural arches. The lowest point in the park is 3,666 ft (1,117 m) at Coalpits Wash and the highest peak is 8,726 ft (2,660 m) at Horse Ranch Mountain. A prominent feature of the 229-square-mile (590 km2) park is Zion Canyon, which is 15 miles (24 km) long and up to 2,640 ft (800 m) deep. The canyon walls are reddish and tan-colored Navajo Sandstone eroded by the North Fork of the Virgin River.

 

Human habitation of the area started about 8,000 years ago with small family groups of Native Americans, one of which was the semi-nomadic Basketmaker Ancestral Puebloans (who used to be called Anasazi by early non-indigenous archeologists)(c. 300 CE). Subsequently, what has been called the Virgin Anasazi culture (c. 500) and the Parowan Fremont group developed as the Basketmakers settled in permanent communities. Both groups moved away by 1300 and were replaced by the Parrusits and several other Southern Paiute subtribes. Mormons came into the area in 1858 and settled there in the early 1860s.

 

In 1909, President William Howard Taft named the area Mukuntuweap National Monument in order to protect the canyon. In 1918, the acting director of the newly created National Park Service, Horace Albright, drafted a proposal to enlarge the existing monument and change the park's name to Zion National Monument, Zion being a term used by the Mormons. According to historian Hal Rothman: "The name change played to a prevalent bias of the time. Many believed that Spanish and Indian names would deter visitors who, if they could not pronounce the name of a place, might not bother to visit it. The new name, Zion, had greater appeal to an ethnocentric audience." On November 19, 1919, Congress redesignated the monument as Zion National Park, and the act was signed by President Woodrow Wilson. The Kolob section was proclaimed a separate Zion National Monument in 1937, but was incorporated into the national park in 1956. Congress designated 85% of the park a wilderness area in 2009.

 

The geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area includes nine formations that together represent 150 million years of mostly Mesozoic-aged sedimentation. At various periods in that time warm, shallow seas, streams, ponds and lakes, vast deserts, and dry near-shore environments covered the area. Uplift associated with the creation of the Colorado Plateau lifted the region 10,000 feet (3,000 m) starting 13 million years ago.

 

As stated in the foundation document:

 

The purpose of Zion National Park is to preserve the dramatic geology including Zion Canyon and a labyrinth of deep and brilliantly colored Navajo sandstone canyons formed by extraordinary processes of erosion at the margin of the Colorado Plateau; to safeguard the park's wilderness character and its wild and scenic river values; to protect evidence of human history; and to provide for scientific research and the enjoyment and enlightenment of the public.

 

The park is located in southwestern Utah in Washington, Iron and Kane counties. Geomorphically, it is located on the Markagunt and Kolob plateaus, at the intersection of three North American geographic provinces: the Colorado Plateau, the Great Basin, and the Mojave Desert. The northern part of the park is known as the Kolob Canyons section and is accessible from Interstate 15, exit 40.

 

The 8,726-foot (2,660 m) summit of Horse Ranch Mountain is the highest point in the park; the lowest point is the 3,666-foot (1,117 m) elevation of Coal Pits Wash, creating a relief of about 5,100 feet (1,600 m).

 

Streams in the area take rectangular paths because they follow jointing planes in the rocks. The stream gradient of the Virgin River, whose North Fork flows through Zion Canyon in the park, ranges from 50 to 80 feet per mile (9.5 to 15.2 m/km) (0.9–1.5%)—one of the steepest stream gradients in North America.

 

The road into Zion Canyon is 6 miles (9.7 km) long, ending at the Temple of Sinawava, which is named for the coyote god of the Paiute Indians. The canyon becomes more narrow near the Temple and a hiking trail continues to the mouth of The Narrows, a gorge only 20 feet (6 m) wide and up to 2,000 feet (610 m) tall. The Zion Canyon road is served by a free shuttle bus from early April to late October and by private vehicles the other months of the year. Other roads in Zion are open to private vehicles year-round.

 

The east side of the park is served by Zion-Mount Carmel Highway (SR-9), which passes through the Zion–Mount Carmel Tunnel and ends at US 89 at Mount Carmel Junction. Park features on the east side of the park include Checkerboard Mesa and The East Temple.

 

The Kolob Terrace area, northwest of Zion Canyon, features a slot canyon called The Subway, and a panoramic view of the entire area from Lava Point. The Kolob Canyons section, further to the northwest near Cedar City, features Tucupit Point and one of the world's longest natural arches, Kolob Arch.

 

Other notable geographic features of Zion Canyon include Angels Landing, The Great White Throne, the Court of the Patriarchs, The Sentinel, The West Temple, Towers of the Virgin, the Altar of Sacrifice, The Watchman, Weeping Rock, and the Emerald Pools.

 

Spring weather is unpredictable, with stormy, wet days being common, mixed with occasional warm, sunny weather. Precipitation is normally heaviest in March. Spring wildflowers bloom from April through June, peaking in May. Fall days are usually clear and mild; nights are often cool. Summer days are hot (95 to 110 °F; 35 to 43 °C), but overnight lows are usually comfortable (65 to 70 °F; 18 to 21 °C). Afternoon thunderstorms are common from mid-July through mid-September. Storms may produce waterfalls as well as flash floods. Autumn tree-color displays begin in September in the high country; in Zion Canyon, autumn colors usually peak in late October. Winter in Zion Canyon is fairly mild. Winter storms bring rain or light snow to Zion Canyon and heavier snow to the higher elevations. Clear days may become quite warm, reaching 60 °F (16 °C); nights are often 20 to 40 °F (−7 to 4 °C). Winter storms can last several days and make roads icy. Zion roads are plowed, except the Kolob Terrace Road which is closed when covered with snow. Winter driving conditions last from November through March.

 

Archaeologists have divided the long span of Zion's human history into three cultural periods: the Archaic, Protohistoric and Historic periods. Each period is characterized by distinctive technological and social adaptations.

 

Archaic period

The first human presence in the region dates to 8,000 years ago when family groups camped where they could hunt or collect plants and seeds. About 2,000 years ago, some groups began growing corn and other crops, leading to an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. Later groups in this period built permanent villages called pueblos. Archaeologists call this the Archaic period and it lasted until c. 500. Baskets, cordage nets, and yucca fiber sandals have been found and dated to this period. The Archaic toolkits included flaked stone knives, drills, and stemmed dart points. The dart points were attached to wooden shafts and propelled by throwing devices called atlatls.

 

By c. 300, some of the archaic groups developed into an early branch of seminomadic Anasazi, the Basketmakers. Basketmaker sites have grass- or stone-lined storage cists and shallow, partially underground dwellings called pithouses. They were hunters and gatherers who supplemented their diet with limited agriculture. Locally collected pine nuts were important for food and trade.

 

Both the Virgin Anasazi and the Parowan Fremont disappeared from the archaeological record of southwestern Utah by c. 1300. Extended droughts in the 11th and 12th centuries, interspersed with catastrophic flooding, may have made horticulture impossible in this arid region.

 

Tradition and archaeological evidence hold that their replacements were Numic-speaking cousins of the Virgin Anasazi, such as the Southern Paiute and Ute. The newcomers migrated on a seasonal basis up and down valleys in search of wild seeds and game animals. Some, particularly the Southern Paiute, also planted fields of corn, sunflowers, and squash to supplement their diet. These more sedentary groups made brownware vessels that were used for storage and cooking.

 

The Historic period begins in the late 18th century with the exploration of southern Utah by padre Silvestre Vélez de Escalante and padre Francisco Atanasio Domínguez. The padres passed near what is now the Kolob Canyons Visitor Center on October 13, 1776, becoming the first people of European descent known to visit the area. In 1825, trapper and trader Jedediah Smith explored some of the downstream areas while under contract with the American Fur Company.

 

In 1847, Mormon farmers from the Salt Lake area became the first people of European descent to settle the Virgin River region. In 1851, the Parowan and Cedar City areas were settled by Mormons who used the Kolob Canyons area for timber, and for grazing cattle, sheep, and horses. They prospected for mineral deposits, and diverted Kolob water to irrigate crops in the valley below. Mormon settlers named the area Kolob which in Mormon scripture is the heavenly place nearest the residence of God.

 

Settlements had expanded 30 miles (48 km) south to the lower Virgin River by 1858. That year, a Southern Paiute guide led young Mormon missionary and interpreter Nephi Johnson into the upper Virgin River area and Zion Canyon.[28] Johnson wrote a favorable report about the agricultural potential of the upper Virgin River basin, and returned later that year to found the town of Virgin. In 1861 or 1862, Joseph Black made the arduous journey to Zion Canyon and was very impressed by its beauty.

 

The floor of Zion Canyon was settled in 1863 by Isaac Behunin, who farmed corn, tobacco, and fruit trees. The Behunin family lived in Zion Canyon near the site of today's Zion Lodge during the summer, and wintered in Springdale. Behunin is credited with naming Zion, a reference to the place of peace mentioned in the Bible. Two more families settled Zion Canyon in the next couple of years, bringing with them cattle and other domesticated animals. The canyon floor was farmed until Zion became a Monument in 1909.

 

The Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869 entered the area after their first trip through the Grand Canyon. John Wesley Powell visited Zion Canyon in 1872 and named it Mukuntuweap, under the impression that that was the Paiute name. Powell Survey photographers John K. Hillers and James Fennemore first visited the Zion Canyon and Kolob Plateau region in the spring of 1872. Hillers returned in April 1873 to add more photographs to the "Virgin River Series" of photographs and stereographs. Hillers described wading the canyon for four days and nearly freezing to death to take his photographs.

 

Paintings of the canyon by Frederick S. Dellenbaugh were exhibited at the Saint Louis World's Fair in 1904, followed by a favorable article in Scribner's Magazine the next year. The article and paintings, along with previously created photographs, paintings, and reports, led to President William Howard Taft's proclamation on July 31, 1909, that created Mukuntuweap National Monument. In 1917, the acting director of the newly created National Park Service visited the canyon and proposed changing its name from the locally unpopular Mukuntuweap to Zion, a name used by the local Mormon community. The United States Congress added more land and established Zion National Park on November 19, 1919. A separate Zion National Monument, the Kolob Canyons area, was proclaimed on January 22, 1937, and was incorporated into the park on July 11, 1956.

 

Travel to the area before it was a national park was rare due to its remote location, lack of accommodations, and the absence of real roads in southern Utah. Old wagon roads were upgraded to the first automobile roads starting about 1910, and the road into Zion Canyon was built in 1917 leading to the Grotto, short of the present road that now ends at the Temple of Sinawava.

 

Touring cars could reach Zion Canyon by the summer of 1917. The first visitor lodging in Zion Canyon, called Wylie Camp, was established that same year as a tent camp. The Utah Parks Company, a subsidiary of the Union Pacific Railroad, acquired Wylie Camp in 1923, and offered ten-day rail/bus tours to Zion, nearby Bryce Canyon, the Kaibab Plateau, and the North Rim of the Grand Canyon. The Zion Lodge complex was built in 1925 at the site of the Wylie tent camp. Architect Gilbert Stanley Underwood designed the Zion Lodge in a rustic architectural style, while the Utah Parks Company funded the construction.

 

Work on the Zion Mount Carmel Highway started in 1927 to enable reliable access between Springdale and the east side of the park. The road opened in 1930 and park visit and travel in the area greatly increased. The most famous feature of the Zion – Mount Carmel Highway is its 1.1-mile (1.8 km) tunnel, which has six large windows cut through the massive sandstone cliff.

 

In 1896, local rancher John Winder improved the Native American footpath up Echo Canyon, which later became the East Rim Trail. Entrepreneur David Flanigan used this trail in 1900 to build cableworks that lowered lumber into Zion Canyon from Cable Mountain. More than 200,000 board feet (470 m3) of lumber were lowered by 1906. The auto road was extended to the Temple of Sinawava, and a trail built from there 1 mile (1.6 km) to the start of the Narrows. Angel's Landing Trail was constructed in 1926 and two suspension bridges were built over the Virgin River. Other trails were constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the 1930s.

 

Zion National Park has been featured in numerous films, including The Deadwood Coach (1924), Arizona Bound (1927), Nevada (1927), Ramrod (1947) and Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969).

 

Zion Canyon Scenic Drive provides access to Zion Canyon. Traffic congestion in the narrow canyon was recognized as a major problem in the 1990s and a public transportation system using propane-powered shuttle buses was instituted in the year 2000. As part of its shuttle fleet, Zion has two electric trams each holding up to 36 passengers. Usually from early April through late October, the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles and visitors ride the shuttle buses. The National Park Service has contracted the management of the shuttle bus system to transit operator RATP Dev.

 

On April 12, 1995, heavy rains triggered a landslide that blocked the Virgin River in Zion Canyon. Over a period of two hours, the river carved away part of the only exit road from the canyon, trapping 450 guests and employees at the Zion Lodge. A one-lane, temporary road was constructed within 24 hours to allow evacuation of the Lodge. A more stable albeit temporary road was completed on May 25, 1995, to allow summer visitors to access the canyon. This road was replaced with a permanent road during the first half of 1996.

 

The Zion–Mount Carmel Highway can be travelled year-round. Access for oversized vehicles requires a special permit, and is limited to daytime hours, as traffic through the tunnel must be one way to accommodate large vehicles. The 5-mile (8.0 km)-long Kolob Canyons Road was built to provide access to the Kolob Canyons section of the park. This road often closes in the winter.

 

In March 2009, President Barack Obama signed into law the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009, which designated and further protected 124,406 acres (50,345 ha) of park land, about 85% of the park, as the Zion Wilderness.

 

In September 2015, flooding trapped a party of seven in Keyhole Canyon, a slot canyon in the park. The flash flood killed all seven members of the group, whose remains were located after a search lasting several days.

 

In 2017, some scenes from the TV series Extinct were shot in the park.

 

The nine known exposed geologic formations in Zion National Park are part of a super-sequence of rock units called the Grand Staircase. Together, these formations represent about 150 million years of mostly Mesozoic-aged sedimentation in that part of North America. The formations exposed in the Zion area were deposited as sediment in very different environments:

 

The warm, shallow (sometimes advancing or retreating) sea of the Kaibab and Moenkopi formations

Streams, ponds, and lakes of the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta formations

The vast desert of the Navajo and Temple Cap formations

The dry near-shore environment of the Carmel Formation

 

Uplift affected the entire region, known as the Colorado Plateaus, by slowly raising these formations more than 10,000 feet (3,000 m) higher than where they were deposited. This steepened the stream gradient of the ancestral Virgin and other rivers on the plateau.

 

The faster-moving streams took advantage of uplift-created joints in the rocks. Eventually, all Cenozoic-aged formations were removed and gorges were cut into the plateaus. Zion Canyon was cut by the North Fork of the Virgin River in this way. During the later part of this process, lava flows and cinder cones covered parts of the area.

 

High water volume in wet seasons does most of the downcutting in the main canyon. These flood events are responsible for transporting most of the 3 million short tons (2.7 million metric tons) of rock and sediment that the Virgin River transports yearly. The Virgin cuts away its canyon faster than its tributaries can cut away their own streambeds, so tributaries end in waterfalls from hanging valleys where they meet the Virgin. The valley between the peaks of the Twin Brothers is a notable example of a hanging valley in the canyon.

 

The Great Basin, Mojave Desert, and Colorado Plateau converge at Zion and the Kolob canyons. This, along with the varied topography of canyon–mesa country, differing soil types, and uneven water availability, provides diverse habitat for the equally diverse mix of plants and animals that live in the area. The park is home to 289 bird, 79 mammals, 28 reptiles, 7 fish, and 6 amphibian species. These organisms make their homes in one or more of four life zones found in the park: desert, riparian, woodland, and coniferous forest.

 

Desert conditions persist on canyon bottoms and rocky ledges away from perennial streams. Sagebrush, prickly pear cactus, and rabbitbrush, along with sacred datura and Indian paintbrush, are common. Utah penstemon and golden aster can also be found. Milkvetch and prince's plume are found in pockets of selenium-rich soils.

 

Common daytime animals include mule deer, rock squirrels, pinyon jays, and whiptail and collared lizards. Desert cottontails, jackrabbits, and Merriam's kangaroo rats come out at night. Cougars, bobcats, coyotes, badgers, gray foxes, and ring-tail cats are the top predators.

 

Cooler conditions persist at mid-elevation slopes, from 3,900 to 5,500 feet (1,200 to 1,700 m). Stunted forests of pinyon pine and juniper coexist here with manzanita shrubs, cliffrose, serviceberry, scrub oak, and yucca. Stands of ponderosa pine, Gambel oak, manzanita and aspen populate the mesas and cliffs above 6,000 feet (1,800 m).

 

Golden eagles, red-tailed hawks, peregrine falcons, and white-throated swifts can be seen in the area. Desert bighorn sheep were reintroduced in the park in 1973. California condors were reintroduced in the Arizona Strip and in 2014 the first successful breeding of condors in the park was confirmed. Nineteen species of bat also live in the area.

 

Boxelder, Fremont cottonwood, maple, and willow dominate riparian plant communities. Animals such as bank beavers, flannel-mouth suckers, gnatcatchers, dippers, canyon wrens, the virgin spinedace, and water striders all make their homes in the riparian zones.

 

Activities

Rangers at the visitor centers in Zion Canyon and Kolob Canyons can help visitors plan their stay. Guided horseback riding trips, nature walks, and evening programs are available from late March to early November. The Junior Ranger Program for children ages 4 and up is active year-round at the Nature Center, Human History Museum, and the visitor centers.[65] A bookstore attached to the Zion Canyon visitor center offers books, maps, and souvenirs. The Grotto in Zion Canyon, the visitor center, and the viewpoint at the end of Kolob Canyons Road have the only designated picnic sites.

 

Seven trails with round-trip times of half an hour (Weeping Rock) to 4 hours (Angels Landing) are found in Zion Canyon. Two popular trails, Taylor Creek (4 hours round trip) and Kolob Arch (8 hours round trip), are in the Kolob Canyons section of the park, near Cedar City. Hiking up into The Narrows from the Temple of Sinawava is popular in summer, but hiking beyond Big Springs requires a permit. The entire Narrows from Chamberlain's Ranch is a 16-mile one way trip that typically takes 12 hours of strenuous hiking. A shorter alternative is to enter the Narrows via Orderville Canyon. Both Orderville and the full Narrows require a back country permit. Entrance to the Parunuweap Canyon section of the park downstream of Labyrinth Falls is prohibited. Other often-used backcountry trails include the West Rim and LaVerkin Creek. The more primitive sections of Zion include the Kolob Terrace and the Kolob Canyons. A network of trails totaling 50 miles in distance connect Zion's northwest corner of the park (Lee Pass Trailhead) to its southeast section (East Rim Trailhead). Popularly known as the Zion Traverse, the route offers backpackers a diverse experience of the park.

 

Zion is a center for rock climbing, with short walls like Spaceshot, Moonlight Buttress, Prodigal Son, Ashtar Command, and Touchstone being the most popular, highly rated routes.

 

Lodging in the park is available at Zion Lodge, located halfway through Zion Canyon. Just outside the park more lodging is available in Springdale.

 

Zion has three campgrounds: South and Watchman at the far southern side of the park, and a primitive site at Lava Point in the middle of the park off Kolob Terrace Road. Overnight camping in the backcountry requires permits.

 

Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Colorado to its east, Wyoming to its northeast, Idaho to its north, Arizona to its south, and Nevada to its west. Utah also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast. Of the fifty U.S. states, Utah is the 13th-largest by area; with a population over three million, it is the 30th-most-populous and 11th-least-densely populated. Urban development is mostly concentrated in two areas: the Wasatch Front in the north-central part of the state, which is home to roughly two-thirds of the population and includes the capital city, Salt Lake City; and Washington County in the southwest, with more than 180,000 residents. Most of the western half of Utah lies in the Great Basin.

 

Utah has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups such as the ancient Puebloans, Navajo, and Ute. The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the mid-16th century, though the region's difficult geography and harsh climate made it a peripheral part of New Spain and later Mexico. Even while it was Mexican territory, many of Utah's earliest settlers were American, particularly Mormons fleeing marginalization and persecution from the United States via the Mormon Trail. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the region was annexed by the U.S., becoming part of the Utah Territory, which included what is now Colorado and Nevada. Disputes between the dominant Mormon community and the federal government delayed Utah's admission as a state; only after the outlawing of polygamy was it admitted in 1896 as the 45th.

 

People from Utah are known as Utahns. Slightly over half of all Utahns are Mormons, the vast majority of whom are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which has its world headquarters in Salt Lake City; Utah is the only state where a majority of the population belongs to a single church. A 2023 paper challenged this perception (claiming only 42% of Utahns are Mormons) however most statistics still show a majority of Utah residents belong to the LDS church; estimates from the LDS church suggests 60.68% of Utah's population belongs to the church whilst some sources put the number as high as 68%. The paper replied that membership count done by the LDS Church is too high for several reasons. The LDS Church greatly influences Utahn culture, politics, and daily life, though since the 1990s the state has become more religiously diverse as well as secular.

 

Utah has a highly diversified economy, with major sectors including transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, multi-level marketing, and tourism. Utah has been one of the fastest growing states since 2000, with the 2020 U.S. census confirming the fastest population growth in the nation since 2010. St. George was the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah ranks among the overall best states in metrics such as healthcare, governance, education, and infrastructure. It has the 12th-highest median average income and the least income inequality of any U.S. state. Over time and influenced by climate change, droughts in Utah have been increasing in frequency and severity, putting a further strain on Utah's water security and impacting the state's economy.

 

The History of Utah is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Utah located in the western United States.

 

Archaeological evidence dates the earliest habitation of humans in Utah to about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Paleolithic people lived near the Great Basin's swamps and marshes, which had an abundance of fish, birds, and small game animals. Big game, including bison, mammoths and ground sloths, also were attracted to these water sources. Over the centuries, the mega-fauna died, this population was replaced by the Desert Archaic people, who sheltered in caves near the Great Salt Lake. Relying more on gathering than the previous Utah residents, their diet was mainly composed of cattails and other salt tolerant plants such as pickleweed, burro weed and sedge. Red meat appears to have been more of a luxury, although these people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Artifacts include nets woven with plant fibers and rabbit skin, woven sandals, gaming sticks, and animal figures made from split-twigs. About 3,500 years ago, lake levels rose and the population of Desert Archaic people appears to have dramatically decreased. The Great Basin may have been almost unoccupied for 1,000 years.

 

The Fremont culture, named from sites near the Fremont River in Utah, lived in what is now north and western Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from approximately 600 to 1300 AD. These people lived in areas close to water sources that had been previously occupied by the Desert Archaic people, and may have had some relationship with them. However, their use of new technologies define them as a distinct people. Fremont technologies include:

 

use of the bow and arrow while hunting,

building pithouse shelters,

growing maize and probably beans and squash,

building above ground granaries of adobe or stone,

creating and decorating low-fired pottery ware,

producing art, including jewelry and rock art such as petroglyphs and pictographs.

 

The ancient Puebloan culture, also known as the Anasazi, occupied territory adjacent to the Fremont. The ancestral Puebloan culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, including the San Juan River region of Utah. Archaeologists debate when this distinct culture emerged, but cultural development seems to date from about the common era, about 500 years before the Fremont appeared. It is generally accepted that the cultural peak of these people was around the 1200 CE. Ancient Puebloan culture is known for well constructed pithouses and more elaborate adobe and masonry dwellings. They were excellent craftsmen, producing turquoise jewelry and fine pottery. The Puebloan culture was based on agriculture, and the people created and cultivated fields of maize, beans, and squash and domesticated turkeys. They designed and produced elaborate field terracing and irrigation systems. They also built structures, some known as kivas, apparently designed solely for cultural and religious rituals.

 

These two later cultures were roughly contemporaneous, and appear to have established trading relationships. They also shared enough cultural traits that archaeologists believe the cultures may have common roots in the early American Southwest. However, each remained culturally distinct throughout most of their existence. These two well established cultures appear to have been severely impacted by climatic change and perhaps by the incursion of new people in about 1200 CE. Over the next two centuries, the Fremont and ancient Pueblo people may have moved into the American southwest, finding new homes and farmlands in the river drainages of Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico.

 

In about 1200, Shoshonean speaking peoples entered Utah territory from the west. They may have originated in southern California and moved into the desert environment due to population pressure along the coast. They were an upland people with a hunting and gathering lifestyle utilizing roots and seeds, including the pinyon nut. They were also skillful fishermen, created pottery and raised some crops. When they first arrived in Utah, they lived as small family groups with little tribal organization. Four main Shoshonean peoples inhabited Utah country. The Shoshone in the north and northeast, the Gosiutes in the northwest, the Utes in the central and eastern parts of the region and the Southern Paiutes in the southwest. Initially, there seems to have been very little conflict between these groups.

 

In the early 16th century, the San Juan River basin in Utah's southeast also saw a new people, the Díne or Navajo, part of a greater group of plains Athabaskan speakers moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In addition to the Navajo, this language group contained people that were later known as Apaches, including the Lipan, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apaches.

 

Athabaskans were a hunting people who initially followed the bison, and were identified in 16th-century Spanish accounts as "dog nomads". The Athabaskans expanded their range throughout the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblo peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first specifically mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navaho) in the 1620s, referring to the people in the Chama valley region east of the San Juan River, and north west of Santa Fe. By the 1640s, the term Navaho was applied to these same people. Although the Navajo newcomers established a generally peaceful trading and cultural exchange with the some modern Pueblo peoples to the south, they experienced intermittent warfare with the Shoshonean peoples, particularly the Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado.

 

At the time of European expansion, beginning with Spanish explorers traveling from Mexico, five distinct native peoples occupied territory within the Utah area: the Northern Shoshone, the Goshute, the Ute, the Paiute and the Navajo.

 

The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado may have crossed into what is now southern Utah in 1540, when he was seeking the legendary Cíbola.

 

A group led by two Spanish Catholic priests—sometimes called the Domínguez–Escalante expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the California coast. The expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. All of what is now Utah was claimed by the Spanish Empire from the 1500s to 1821 as part of New Spain (later as the province Alta California); and subsequently claimed by Mexico from 1821 to 1848. However, Spain and Mexico had little permanent presence in, or control of, the region.

 

Fur trappers (also known as mountain men) including Jim Bridger, explored some regions of Utah in the early 19th century. The city of Provo was named for one such man, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah is named for a brigade leader of the Hudson's Bay Company, Peter Skene Ogden who trapped in the Weber Valley. In 1846, a year before the arrival of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints, the ill-fated Donner Party crossed through the Salt Lake valley late in the season, deciding not to stay the winter there but to continue forward to California, and beyond.

 

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormon pioneers, first came to the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847. At the time, the U.S. had already captured the Mexican territories of Alta California and New Mexico in the Mexican–American War and planned to keep them, but those territories, including the future state of Utah, officially became United States territory upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. The treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, 1848.

 

Upon arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormon pioneers found no permanent settlement of Indians. Other areas along the Wasatch Range were occupied at the time of settlement by the Northwestern Shoshone and adjacent areas by other bands of Shoshone such as the Gosiute. The Northwestern Shoshone lived in the valleys on the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake and in adjacent mountain valleys. Some years after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley Mormons, who went on to colonize many other areas of what is now Utah, were petitioned by Indians for recompense for land taken. The response of Heber C. Kimball, first counselor to Brigham Young, was that the land belonged to "our Father in Heaven and we expect to plow and plant it." A 1945 Supreme Court decision found that the land had been treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone had been recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States.

 

Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to make a place to live. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches, and schools. Access to water was crucially important. Almost immediately, Brigham Young set out to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed.

 

Shortly after the first company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, the community of Bountiful was settled to the north. In 1848, settlers moved into lands purchased from trapper Miles Goodyear in present-day Ogden. In 1849, Tooele and Provo were founded. Also that year, at the invitation of Ute chief Wakara, settlers moved into the Sanpete Valley in central Utah to establish the community of Manti. Fillmore, Utah, intended to be the capital of the new territory, was established in 1851. In 1855, missionary efforts aimed at western native cultures led to outposts in Fort Lemhi, Idaho, Las Vegas, Nevada and Elk Mountain in east-central Utah.

 

The experiences of returning members of the Mormon Battalion were also important in establishing new communities. On their journey west, the Mormon soldiers had identified dependable rivers and fertile river valleys in Colorado, Arizona and southern California. In addition, as the men traveled to rejoin their families in the Salt Lake Valley, they moved through southern Nevada and the eastern segments of southern Utah. Jefferson Hunt, a senior Mormon officer of the Battalion, actively searched for settlement sites, minerals, and other resources. His report encouraged 1851 settlement efforts in Iron County, near present-day Cedar City. These southern explorations eventually led to Mormon settlements in St. George, Utah, Las Vegas and San Bernardino, California, as well as communities in southern Arizona.

 

Prior to establishment of the Oregon and California trails and Mormon settlement, Indians native to the Salt Lake Valley and adjacent areas lived by hunting buffalo and other game, but also gathered grass seed from the bountiful grass of the area as well as roots such as those of the Indian Camas. By the time of settlement, indeed before 1840, the buffalo were gone from the valley, but hunting by settlers and grazing of cattle severely impacted the Indians in the area, and as settlement expanded into nearby river valleys and oases, indigenous tribes experienced increasing difficulty in gathering sufficient food. Brigham Young's counsel was to feed the hungry tribes, and that was done, but it was often not enough. These tensions formed the background to the Bear River massacre committed by California Militia stationed in Salt Lake City during the Civil War. The site of the massacre is just inside Preston, Idaho, but was generally thought to be within Utah at the time.

 

Statehood was petitioned for in 1849-50 using the name Deseret. The proposed State of Deseret would have been quite large, encompassing all of what is now Utah, and portions of Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, Oregon, New Mexico and California. The name of Deseret was favored by the LDS leader Brigham Young as a symbol of industry and was derived from a reference in the Book of Mormon. The petition was rejected by Congress and Utah did not become a state until 1896, following the Utah Constitutional Convention of 1895.

 

In 1850, the Utah Territory was created with the Compromise of 1850, and Fillmore (named after President Fillmore) was designated the capital. In 1856, Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the territorial capital.

 

The first group of pioneers brought African slaves with them, making Utah the only place in the western United States to have African slavery. Three slaves, Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby, came west with this first group in 1847. The settlers also began to purchase Indian slaves in the well-established Indian slave trade, as well as enslaving Indian prisoners of war. In 1850, 26 slaves were counted in Salt Lake County. Slavery didn't become officially recognized until 1852, when the Act in Relation to Service and the Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners were passed. Slavery was repealed on June 19, 1862, when Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories.

 

Disputes between the Mormon inhabitants and the federal government intensified after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy became known. The polygamous practices of the Mormons, which were made public in 1854, would be one of the major reasons Utah was denied statehood until almost 50 years after the Mormons had entered the area.

 

After news of their polygamous practices spread, the members of the LDS Church were quickly viewed by some as un-American and rebellious. In 1857, after news of a possible rebellion spread, President James Buchanan sent troops on the Utah expedition to quell the growing unrest and to replace Brigham Young as territorial governor with Alfred Cumming. The expedition was also known as the Utah War.

 

As fear of invasion grew, Mormon settlers had convinced some Paiute Indians to aid in a Mormon-led attack on 120 immigrants from Arkansas under the guise of Indian aggression. The murder of these settlers became known as the Mountain Meadows massacre. The Mormon leadership had adopted a defensive posture that led to a ban on the selling of grain to outsiders in preparation for an impending war. This chafed pioneers traveling through the region, who were unable to purchase badly needed supplies. A disagreement between some of the Arkansas pioneers and the Mormons in Cedar City led to the secret planning of the massacre by a few Mormon leaders in the area. Some scholars debate the involvement of Brigham Young. Only one man, John D. Lee, was ever convicted of the murders, and he was executed at the massacre site.

 

Express riders had brought the news 1,000 miles from the Missouri River settlements to Salt Lake City within about two weeks of the army's beginning to march west. Fearing the worst as 2,500 troops (roughly 1/3rd of the army then) led by General Albert Sidney Johnston started west, Brigham Young ordered all residents of Salt Lake City and neighboring communities to prepare their homes for burning and evacuate southward to Utah Valley and southern Utah. Young also sent out a few units of the Nauvoo Legion (numbering roughly 8,000–10,000), to delay the army's advance. The majority he sent into the mountains to prepare defenses or south to prepare for a scorched earth retreat. Although some army wagon supply trains were captured and burned and herds of army horses and cattle run off no serious fighting occurred. Starting late and short on supplies, the United States Army camped during the bitter winter of 1857–58 near a burned out Fort Bridger in Wyoming. Through the negotiations between emissary Thomas L. Kane, Young, Cumming and Johnston, control of Utah territory was peacefully transferred to Cumming, who entered an eerily vacant Salt Lake City in the spring of 1858. By agreement with Young, Johnston established the army at Fort Floyd 40 miles away from Salt Lake City, to the southwest.

 

Salt Lake City was the last link of the First Transcontinental Telegraph, between Carson City, Nevada and Omaha, Nebraska completed in October 1861. Brigham Young, who had helped expedite construction, was among the first to send a message, along with Abraham Lincoln and other officials. Soon after the telegraph line was completed, the Deseret Telegraph Company built the Deseret line connecting the settlements in the territory with Salt Lake City and, by extension, the rest of the United States.

 

Because of the American Civil War, federal troops were pulled out of Utah Territory (and their fort auctioned off), leaving the territorial government in federal hands without army backing until General Patrick E. Connor arrived with the 3rd Regiment of California Volunteers in 1862. While in Utah, Connor and his troops soon became discontent with this assignment wanting to head to Virginia where the "real" fighting and glory was occurring. Connor established Fort Douglas just three miles (5 km) east of Salt Lake City and encouraged his bored and often idle soldiers to go out and explore for mineral deposits to bring more non-Mormons into the state. Minerals were discovered in Tooele County, and some miners began to come to the territory. Conner also solved the Shoshone Indian problem in Cache Valley Utah by luring the Shoshone into a midwinter confrontation on January 29, 1863. The armed conflict quickly turned into a rout, discipline among the soldiers broke down, and the Battle of Bear River is today usually referred to by historians as the Bear River Massacre. Between 200 and 400 Shoshone men, women and children were killed, as were 27 soldiers, with over 50 more soldiers wounded or suffering from frostbite.

 

Beginning in 1865, Utah's Black Hawk War developed into the deadliest conflict in the territory's history. Chief Antonga Black Hawk died in 1870, but fights continued to break out until additional federal troops were sent in to suppress the Ghost Dance of 1872. The war is unique among Indian Wars because it was a three-way conflict, with mounted Timpanogos Utes led by Antonga Black Hawk fighting federal and Utah local militia.

 

On May 10, 1869, the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, north of the Great Salt Lake. The railroad brought increasing numbers of people into the state, and several influential businessmen made fortunes in the territory.

 

Main article: Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century

During the 1870s and 1880s, federal laws were passed and federal marshals assigned to enforce the laws against polygamy. In the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church leadership dropped its approval of polygamy citing divine revelation. When Utah applied for statehood again in 1895, it was accepted. Statehood was officially granted on January 4, 1896.

 

The Mormon issue made the situation for women the topic of nationwide controversy. In 1870 the Utah Territory, controlled by Mormons, gave women the right to vote. However, in 1887, Congress disenfranchised Utah women with the Edmunds–Tucker Act. In 1867–96, eastern activists promoted women's suffrage in Utah as an experiment, and as a way to eliminate polygamy. They were Presbyterians and other Protestants convinced that Mormonism was a non-Christian cult that grossly mistreated women. The Mormons promoted woman suffrage to counter the negative image of downtrodden Mormon women. With the 1890 Manifesto clearing the way for statehood, in 1895 Utah adopted a constitution restoring the right of women's suffrage. Congress admitted Utah as a state with that constitution in 1896.

 

Though less numerous than other intermountain states at the time, several lynching murders for alleged misdeeds occurred in Utah territory at the hand of vigilantes. Those documented include the following, with their ethnicity or national origin noted in parentheses if it was provided in the source:

 

William Torrington in Carson City (then a part of Utah territory), 1859

Thomas Coleman (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1866

3 unidentified men at Wahsatch, winter of 1868

A Black man in Uintah, 1869

Charles A. Benson in Logan, 1873

Ah Sing (Chinese man) in Corinne, 1874

Thomas Forrest in St. George, 1880

William Harvey (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1883

John Murphy in Park City, 1883

George Segal (Japanese man) in Ogden, 1884

Joseph Fisher in Eureka, 1886

Robert Marshall (Black man) in Castle Gate, 1925

Other lynchings in Utah territory include multiple instances of mass murder of Native American children, women, and men by White settlers including the Battle Creek massacre (1849), Provo River Massacre (1850), Nephi massacre (1853), and Circleville Massacre (1866).

 

Beginning in the early 20th century, with the establishment of such national parks as Bryce Canyon National Park and Zion National Park, Utah began to become known for its natural beauty. Southern Utah became a popular filming spot for arid, rugged scenes, and such natural landmarks as Delicate Arch and "the Mittens" of Monument Valley are instantly recognizable to most national residents. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the construction of the Interstate highway system, accessibility to the southern scenic areas was made easier.

 

Beginning in 1939, with the establishment of Alta Ski Area, Utah has become world-renowned for its skiing. The dry, powdery snow of the Wasatch Range is considered some of the best skiing in the world. Salt Lake City won the bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1995, and this has served as a great boost to the economy. The ski resorts have increased in popularity, and many of the Olympic venues scattered across the Wasatch Front continue to be used for sporting events. This also spurred the development of the light-rail system in the Salt Lake Valley, known as TRAX, and the re-construction of the freeway system around the city.

 

During the late 20th century, the state grew quickly. In the 1970s, growth was phenomenal in the suburbs. Sandy was one of the fastest-growing cities in the country at that time, and West Valley City is the state's 2nd most populous city. Today, many areas of Utah are seeing phenomenal growth. Northern Davis, southern and western Salt Lake, Summit, eastern Tooele, Utah, Wasatch, and Washington counties are all growing very quickly. Transportation and urbanization are major issues in politics as development consumes agricultural land and wilderness areas.

 

In 2012, the State of Utah passed the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act in an attempt to gain control over a substantial portion of federal land in the state from the federal government, based on language in the Utah Enabling Act of 1894. The State does not intend to use force or assert control by limiting access in an attempt to control the disputed lands, but does intend to use a multi-step process of education, negotiation, legislation, and if necessary, litigation as part of its multi-year effort to gain state or private control over the lands after 2014.

 

Utah families, like most Americans everywhere, did their utmost to assist in the war effort. Tires, meat, butter, sugar, fats, oils, coffee, shoes, boots, gasoline, canned fruits, vegetables, and soups were rationed on a national basis. The school day was shortened and bus routes were reduced to limit the number of resources used stateside and increase what could be sent to soldiers.

 

Geneva Steel was built to increase the steel production for America during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had proposed opening a steel mill in Utah in 1936, but the idea was shelved after a couple of months. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war and the steel plant was put into progress. In April 1944, Geneva shipped its first order, which consisted of over 600 tons of steel plate. Geneva Steel also brought thousands of job opportunities to Utah. The positions were hard to fill as many of Utah's men were overseas fighting. Women began working, filling 25 percent of the jobs.

 

As a result of Utah's and Geneva Steels contribution during the war, several Liberty Ships were named in honor of Utah including the USS Joseph Smith, USS Brigham Young, USS Provo, and the USS Peter Skene Ogden.

 

One of the sectors of the beachhead of Normandy Landings was codenamed Utah Beach, and the amphibious landings at the beach were undertaken by United States Army troops.

 

It is estimated that 1,450 soldiers from Utah were killed in the war.

Any purpose will be good. As weirder is a phainting, better it is :D

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some Background:

On 23 January 1992, the Lithuanian Minister of Defense signed an order establishing the staff for the Aviation Base of the Aviation Service. But an actual base in the Šiauliai airport territory (Barysiai airfield) was not established until March, when according to the ordinance of the Government of Lithuanian Republic, all the infrastructure, buildings, territory and 24 An-2 aircraft were passed from ”Lithuanian Airlines" to the Aviation Service of the Ministry of Defense in January 1992.

 

On 12 June 1992, the first time after regaining the independence of Lithuania, An-2 aircraft, marked with the double cross of Vytis on its wings – the distinguishing sign of Lithuanian Air Force – took off from Barysiai airfield. This date is considered to be the Aviation Base foundation date. In February 1993 four L-39C Albatros aircraft were brought from Kyrgyzstan.

 

After 1 March 1993 Aviation Service was reformed to the Lithuanian Air Force and Aviation Base was renamed the First Aviation Base of the Lithuanian Air Force. In January 1994 Lithuania officially applied for NATO membership, and the country also looked out for a relatively cheap multi-purpose fighter that would fulfill both air space defence and attack tasks, the latter primarily against potential targets at sea (e. g. fast hoovercraft landing ships operated by the Russian Baltic Fleet).

 

After evaluating several options, the Lithuanian Air Force settled for a surprising aircraft: the venerable MiG-21! After the demise of the Soviet Union, several international companies started to offer conversion and upgrade programs for the widely used tactical fighter, about 5.000 specimen had been built to date. One of the first companies to enter the market was Israel Aircraft Industries: IAI's Lahav Division of (IAI) had developed the so-called MiG-21 2000 upgraded fighter and ground attack version, based on the MiG-21bis and the export MiG-21MF fighter aircraft.

 

The MiG-21 2000 upgrade provided modifications to the cockpit configuration, avionics architecture and weapons systems, enabling the MiG-21 2000 to compete with Western developed fighters like the F-16 and to make the transition to Western standards. The aircraft's original systems and components were retained wherever mission effectiveness was not compromised.

IAI Lahav augmented the original weapons system by introducing an EL/M-2032 radar, developed by IAI Elta Electronic Industries, based in Ashdod. The radar, which uses a low sidelobe planar array antenna and pulse Doppler beam sharpening, provides all-altitude, all-aspect look-up / look-down and shoot-down capability, as well as beyond-visual-range capability. In order to make the radar compatible with Western ordnance, a new armament interface and control unit were added, too, which enabled computerized control and release of weapons, including third and fourth-generation air-to-air missiles and precision-guided munitions of Western and Eastern provenance.

 

This system also gave the pilot the ability to use blind attack as well as continuously computed impact point (CCIP) and dive-toss bombing techniques. CCIP bombing involves the deployment of air-to-ground weapons, using the HUD to indicate the impact point for release of the weapons. Dive-toss bombing involves the release of air-to-ground weapons at the end of a steep dive manoeuver towards the target.

 

The MiG-21 2000 cockpit featured a new pilot-friendly layout that overcame the shortcomings of the original cockpit layout, which was crowded and lacked most of the desired man-machine interface characteristics. It incorporated a head-up display (HUD), eye-level multifunction color displays, hands on throttle and stick control (HOTAS), solid-state charge coupled device (CCD) camera, videotape recorder, and a one-piece windshield.

 

The MiG-21 2000 could be equipped with a display and sight helmet (DASH) system, supplied by Elbit of Haifa, which enabled the pilot to aim the weapons simply by looking at the target. The system worked by measuring the pilot's line of sight relative to the aircraft, and transferred the information to the aircraft's sensors, avionics and weapon systems. The helmet displayed vital information, such as the missile line of sight, missile status, flight information and warning data, on the visor. The DASH helmet allowed the pilot to fly head-up and off-boresight and assisted the pilot to detect, identify and shoot earlier.

 

IAI Lahav's upgrade package could be tailored to meet the customer's specific operational and budgetary requirements - the Lithuanian package included the radar, cockpit and also the DASH update and was rumored to cost around 4 Mio. USD per aircraft, and Lithuania was, together with Romania (where 110 MiG-21 were to be updated), lead customer.

 

As conversion basis, Lithuania purchased fifteen MiG-21 airframes for an unknown sum from the Ukraine, which had inherited a considerable MiG-21 fleet after the demise of the Soviet Union but did not (want to) operate it. The deal included thirteen airworthy MiG-21bis fighters and two MiG-21U trainers with few flying hours on the clocks, and - stripped off any military equipment - the small fleet was gradually transferred as disassembled kits via air ferry in Antonov Airlines An-124 transporters to Aerostar in Romania for conversion, starting in early 1996.

 

The first batch of Lithuanian MiG-21 2000, three fighters and one trainer, arrived in mid-1997 from Bacau on their own power and with civil Ukrainian registrations, and the Lithuanian Air Force’s fighter squadron, the Naikintuvu Eskadra, became ready for service in February 1998.

The rest of the country’s small MiG-21 fleet was delivered in the course of the same year, and these aircraft were semi-officially christened "Globėjas" (Guardian). Since the late Nineties, the Globėjas fighters provide the backbone of Lithuania's air defenses, with aircraft holding Quick Reaction Alert. QRA missions – so-called Alpha Scrambles – have constantly been on the rise thanks to the Russia’s increased aggression towards NATO. The MiG’s have regularly launched to intercept and shadow Russian Air Force Il-20 intelligence gathering aircraft over the Baltic Sea, as well as Tu-16 and Tu-95 patrols and even some Sukhoi Su-27s.

 

Lithuanian pilots use “hit and run” style tactics to deal with air threats, due to the limited range and endurance of their mounts - but this is of little concern due to the country's relatively small size and the defensive nature of the machines' tasks. While the Globėjas lack a beyond-visual range missile, although they could carry one, they have the ability to carry a range of different short-range air-to-air missiles like the Israeli Python III, which Lithuania procured from Rafael in Haifa as primary air-to-air missile.

 

After Lithuania joined NATO organization in 2004, its (alongside Latvia's and Estonia's) air space has been protected by NATO. NATO members provide usually 4 fighter aircraft, based in Lithuania, to police the Baltic States’ airspace, where they support the Lithuanian MiG-21 fleet. The duties rotate between NATO members (which started in March 2004 with Belgium Air Force F-16s) and most NATO members that operate fighters have made temporary deployments to Lithuania.

 

The Lithuanian Globėjas were also in regular demand as a simulated threat, and have gone up against US F-16s, F-15s, F/A-18s and A-10s, as well as the many different European fighter types that frequently rotate into the small country, including the Eurofighter, German F-4F Phantom IIs or French Mirage 2000.

 

Anyway, the Globėjas' airframes sooner or later reached their flying hour limits, and will be phased out towards 2020. As a replacement Lithuania will begin taking delivery of its first batch of ex-Portuguese F-16s in 2016, while the Baltic States are considering in the near future to protect their airspace on their own.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 14.5 [126] m (47 ft 7 in)

Wingspan: 7.154 m (23 ft 6 in)

Height: 4 m (13 ft 6 in)

Wing area: 23.0 m² (247.3 ft²)

Empty weight: 5,846 kg (12,880 lb)

Gross weight: 8,825 kg (19,425 lb)

 

Powerplant:

1× Tumansky R25-300, rated at 40.21 kN (9,040 lbf) thrust dry

and 69.62 kN (15,650 lbf) with afterburner

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 2,175 km/h (1,351.48 mph)

Maximum speed: Mach 2.0

Landing speed: 350 km/h (190 kts)

Range: (internal fuel) 1,210 km (751 miles)

Service ceiling: 17,800 m (58,400 ft)

Rate of climb: 225 m/s (44,280 ft/min)

 

Armament:

1x internal 23 mm GSh-23 cannon

5x hardpoints for a wide range of guided and unguided ordnance of up to 3.310 lb (1.500 kg).

 

In QRA configuration the Lithuanian MiG-21 typically carry two or four Rafal Python III short

range air-to-air missiles and an 800l drop tank on the centerline pylon.

Against ground targets, unguided bombs of up to 1.100 lb (500kg) caliber or unguided rockets

can be carried; alternatively, a Rafael LITENING laser designation pod and three

Griffin Mk. 82 LGBs or a single Mk. 84 LGB can be carried, or optically guided weapons like up

to four AGM-65 Maverick or a single GBU-8.

  

The kit and its assembly:

This kit is the entry for the 2016 "One Week Group Build" at whatifmodelers.com, which ran from 29th of April until 8th May (so, actually nine days...). I had this project earmarked for the recent "Cold War" GB, but it fell outside of the build's time horizon. But despite the dubious kit as basis, I tackled the build since I had anything else already at hand.

 

The basis is the MiG-21-93 demonstrator kit from Ukrainian manufacturer Condor, one of the many reincarnations of the venerable KP MiG-21bis, but with some updates. You get, for instance, engraved, very fine panel lines, some typical details were added like the wraparound windscreen (wrong shape, though) and the radar warning fairing on the fin as well as an extra sprue with modern Russian ordnance – apparently from some other kit!

On the downside, there's overall mediocre fit due to the molds' age, some dubious details (anything appears softened or blurred…) or the simple lack thereof (e. g. there’s no ventral gun fairing at all). But there’s nothing that could not be mended, and after all this is just a whiffy version.

 

Since there was only one week time to build the thing and make beauty pics, the whole project remained close to OOB status, even though a lot of detail changes or additions were made in order to convert the Russian MiG-21-93 into an earlier but similar Israeli MiG-21 2000 derivative.

 

These mods include:

- A Martin Baker ejection seat, with wire trigger handles

- HUD made from clear styrene

- Lowered flaps

- An added jet pipe/interior for the otherwise bleak exhaust (parts from a Kangnam Yak-38)

- Hydraulic pipes on the landing gear, made from very thin wire

- Some more/different blade antennae

- Measuring vanes on the pitot boom

- Different GSh-23 gun fairing, from an Academy MiG-23

- Thinner blast deflector plates under the anti-surge doors

- A pair of Python III AAMs, plus respective launch rails

- Different centerline drop tank, from an F-5E

- Scratched chaff/flare dispensers under the rear fuselage (as carried by the MiG-21 2000 demonstrator)

 

Building the model went straightforward, but it took some putty work to fill some seams, dents and holes all around the kit. Biggest issue was a hole in front of the cockpit screen, where simply not enough styrene had been injected into the mould!

  

Painting and markings:

The Lithuanian Air Force as operator for this build was chosen because it would not only fit into the real world timeline (even though I doubt that there would have been any budget for this aircraft at that time, even if MiG-21s had not been upgraded at all...) and because the potential livery would be very simple: contemporary L-39 trainers, C-27L Spartan as well as some L-410 and Mi-8 transporters carry a uniform, dull grey livery. Why not apply it on an air superiority fighter, too?

 

Finding an appropriate tone was not easy, though. Some sources claim the grey tone to be FS 36306, others refer to FS 36270 or "close to Blue/Grey FS35237", but IMHO none of the cited Federal Standard tones works well. Real world Lithuanian aircraft appear pretty dark and dull, and the color also features a greenish, slate grey hue - it's a unique color indeed.

 

After some trials (and also wishing to avoid mixing) I settled for Humbrol 111 (German Field Grey, a.k.a. Uniform Grey) as basic tone. It's a rather dark choice, but I wanted some good contrast to the national markings. A full wraparound livery appeared a little too dark and boring, so I added light blue wing undersurfaces (Humbrol 115). The kit received a light black in wash and some panel shading, primarily in order to add some life to the otherwise uniform surface.

 

Details were painted according to real world MiG-21 pics: the cockpit became classic teal with light grey instrument panels, plus OOB decals for the dashboard and side consoles. The landing gear struts were painted in a light, metallic grey (Humbrol 127 + 56) while the wells were painted in an odd primer color, a mix of Aluminum, Sand and Olive Drab. Parts of the covers were painted with Humbrol 144 (Blue Grey), seen on a modernized real world MiG-21. The wheel discs became bright green.

 

IAI's MiG-21 2000 demonstrator from 1993 had a black radome (as well as later Romanian LanceR Cs), so I adapted this detail for my build. Other typical di-electric fairings on a MiG-21's hull were painted in slightly darker camouflage colors, while the fin's leading edge became dark grey.

The blast deflector plates received yellow and black warning stripes, and some potentially dangerous parts for the ground crews like the pointed anti-flutter booms were painted red. The Python IIIs were simply painted all-white, mounted on grey launch rails - a harsh contrast to the dull rest of the aircraft.

 

Main markings come from a Blue Rider Publishing aftermarket sheet for modern Lithuanian aircraft. This set also includes the small Air Force crests, which I put on the nose, as well as the typical, blue tactical codes.

The stencils come from the scrap box, the small Lithuanian flag stripes on the tail rudder were created from single decal stripes, a personal addition inspired by Lithuanian C-27J transporters. They add some more color to the otherwise murky Baltic MiG fighter.

The silver ring around the air intake as well as the stripes at the flaps and the rudder were created with simple decal stripes instead of paint.

 

Finally, after I added some graphite soot around the jet exhaust and some panle lines with a pencil (e .g. the blow-in doors and airbrake outlines), the kit was sealed with hardly thinned Revell matt acrylic varnish, trying to create a really dull finish.

  

A tough build, despite being mostly OOB, but the details took their toll. This Baltic MiG does not look flashy, but, with IAI's real world MiG-21 2000 as well as the LanceR conversion for Romania in the Nineties, this one is pretty plausible. And with the simple paint scheme, the MiG-21 looks even pretty chic!

This is the story of my dog. This is a lengthy history. You are more than welcome to read her story, (it is a touching one), but the purpose of this is to get her picture and story immortalized on the internet.

 

Tippi 12/1/1997-6/15/2014

 

AKA Tippi Girl

AKA Tippi Puppy Dog

AKA Tipperino

AKA Tipster

AKA Tipp

 

You often hear it said that a dog is man’s best friend. It doesn’t seem to do this dog justice. How many times have you referred to someone as your “best friend,” and find that you now have lost touch with that individual, or had some falling out, the end result always being that the individual is no longer your best friend, or, (in some cases), a friend of any kind. Tippi was always more than just a friend, and will always be remembered.

 

Her life started out hard. She was born a runt to a German Shepherd, fathered by a Labrador Retriever, into an environment that was not friendly to a dog trying to get a life started. Her first living quarters was a makeshift enclosure outdoors that was able to keep her and her siblings in, but unable to protect them from the elements. One of those elements being abusive neighbor children that threw things like rocks and snowballs at the helpless dogs. Because of this, Tippi was always leery of children.

 

She was eventually moved indoors where she lived in squalor. Due to circumstances that I won’t describe here, the man who owned the dogs, a very close friend, had little choice but to have the dogs in this place. Suffice it to say, however, that he was, at the time, trying very hard to find a new solution.

 

When I first met Tippi, she had barely opened her eyes, living in the conditions that I just described. She took to me immediately. I knew that when I was in a position to do so, I was going to take one of the dogs from the litter as my own, at the very least to get it out of that situation. At that moment, I was undecided as to which one, though I was leaning toward the runt that seemed smarter and calmer than the rest.

 

One of the times that I visited the dogs, my friend called me in to show me that all the dogs from the litter were in one place and he said, “Watch this.” He began to howl, and all the dogs, of course, looked up at him with that sort of confused, head cocked to one side look. One of them, however, began to respond with a noise of its own. It was a cute little, high-pitched, whiny noise but was otherwise obviously a howl. It was Tippi. I knew then that my choice had been made.

 

I had not yet found myself in the position to take on the dog, but I became impatient and decided that then was the time to become a dog owner anyway. I took her in. The conditions that I lived in at the time weren’t spectacular, but they were a far cry better than from where I was taking her. So I brought her into my apartment. An apartment, I might add, that doesn’t allow dogs. With a roommate, I might add, that didn’t care for dogs.

 

This quickly became a challenge.

 

Tippi, not even six months old, had to learn to live by a schedule. She also, for the first time in her life, had to learn that she couldn’t use the floor as a bathroom. She had to eat at the same time, go outside at the same time, and live in my bedroom when I wasn’t there. We lived on the second floor, so she had to go down stairs three times a day, (or any other time in between if she seemed like she needed it), to go outside. Trying to hide the fact that you own a dog isn’t easy when the dog is afraid of stairs and you have to take her down stairs at least three times a day.

 

Needless to say, we were discovered. I had to get rid of Tippi. Luckily, I have about the best parents a man could ever ask for, and they agreed to take my pup into their home until I could change my own living situation. A bond was quickly formed. My parents loved the little pup, and the little pup loved them in return. Any time that my parents or my brother would visit, Tippi was always excited to see them. In the last weeks of her life, Tippi saw my mom and treated her with the same reverence that she did during the time she lived in their house. The love shared by Tippi and my family never faded.

 

When my lease was up, I moved back home for two reasons. First, to take care of my dog. Second, and equally important, to build up some money to marry my girlfriend of four years.

 

I lived with my parents for two years, and during that time, my relationship with my parents grew to what it is today. There is a time that one reaches in life when your parents are no longer your caregivers. They become friends. I also spent those two years bringing Tippi up from a pup into a young dog. There is a time that one reaches with a dog when they are no a longer a responsibility. They also become friends.

 

When those two years were up, I married my wife, and when we returned from our honeymoon, we moved into our new apartment. We brought Tippi into our new home and she went from being a pet to being a family pet. The new mantle suited her well. My wife and Tippi had already formed a bond from the days when Tippi was living in my first apartment, but the two became inseparable when they lived under the same roof. There were many times that I would come home late from pool league to find the two curled up on the couch, or to find my wife asleep in bed with Tippi laying next to her. There were also many times that my wife and I would both be sitting on the couch and Tippi would invariably be laying right there between us. We were a family.

 

During the first year we spent in our apartment, we made the unfortunate discovery that our three year old dog was suffering from the early stages of hip dysplasia. We put her on medication and she seemed to quickly recover.

  

We were already aware of Tippi’s love for toys, but we didn’t realize how much they meant to her until we got into the apartment. Tippi had a basket in the corner of the living room that held all her toys, and we bought her many. She would pull out whatever toy she wanted to play with and we would play with her, and then she would grab another or just stop. She never took her toys and just chewed on them. Of all the toys that she had, never did she destroy one. We also discovered that we could tell her what toy to grab and she would walk over and get that one. She would sometimes sniff the toy that we mentioned, and then grab another. She was just in the mood to play with a different toy, but she could distinguish between her toys by their name. As she grew, she lost interest in her toys, but during the time that we spent in the apartment, they were clearly very important to her.

 

The only time I ever saw Tippi bear her teeth was while we were living in that apartment. Tippi had become accustomed to a backyard in my parents’ home, but had to change her routine once more. She had to learn to go to the bathroom on a leash. At first she rejected the idea. Then we got a retractable leash that gave her fifty feet, and she reluctantly made the compromise. One particular time we were outside, a large golden retriever came running up to me. As far as I knew, the dog was harmless and just wanted to visit, but Tippi wasn’t quite so convinced. When she saw that dog running up to me, she closed that fifty feet in a rush and before the dog could get within ten feet of me, Tippi was there in between me and that dog, snarling and barking. Her hackles were raised, her posture was aggressive and she was making the manliest growls she could muster. The dog tried to sidestep her a few times, but she was there, making warning lunges and snapping her formidable teeth. The dog, which was twice my runt’s size, I might add, eventually lost interest in getting torn up by this insane adversary, and went the opposite direction. Tippi attentively watched the dog until it went out of sight around the corner of another apartment building, then turned around and began licking my face with enthusiasm bordering on urgency. Tippi already had my love, but that day, she gained my respect.

 

During her time in our apartment, my wife and I went on vacation. My brother stayed and watched our apartment as well as Tippi. One night when he was out, lightning struck the building next to ours and burned to the ground. There was a lot of noise and confusion and undoubtedly, for Tippi, the smell of smoke. The firemen wouldn’t let my brother anywhere near our apartment even to get Tippi out. It should be mentioned, at this point, that my brother harbored both a deep love for my dog, and an unshakable intolerance for official authority figures, so the crew’s resolve was certainly tested that night. Poor Tippi had to endure the entire ordeal alone and from that day, was deathly terrified of thunder.

 

After living two years in the apartment, my wife and I decided it was time to become homeowners. Tippi had a backyard again. She could not have been more thrilled. She would spend hours out there with no interest in coming inside. She would spend her time chasing squirrels, barking at anyone who came within her line of sight, and rolling around in anything she could find as long as it smelled absolutely terrible.

 

While inside she liked to lay in front of the back window to keep an eye on her claim, or in a corner of a couch in the basement that she had also claimed as her own. Life for her could not be better. That would not last.

 

About three years after we moved into our house, another situation arrived with a dog that did not have a good life and was either going to be moved to a good home, or she was going to be put to sleep by the dog pound. I am unable to ignore that. We brought in our second dog. We have no idea what kind of dog she was, the previous owners could tell us nothing to make the determination easier. In much the same way, we could only make an educated guess at her age. She was small and long and black and undeniably cute. She was raised by cats so she had some very funny mannerisms for a dog. Her name was Dixie.

 

Dixie quickly took over the house, and for the most part, Tippi allowed it. There were a few activities that Tippi refused to change, though. Like chasing the neighbor dog up and down the fence. When Dixie would try to stop that from happening, Tippi would just knock her down. The other activity that Tippi would not compromise was getting attention from us. She would compete enthusiastically with Dixie for that. Otherwise, Dixie got whatever she wanted.

 

To make matters worse for our poor dog, three years into Dixie’s life, another life entered our home. This one was a little baby that I have come to affectionately know as The Munch. Our daughter. Tippi had no idea what to do with herself. Not only had another dog taken over her house, but now one of those child things was living here. Tippi was curious while The Munch was a baby, but became terrorized when she began to walk. Tippi, who never shook her distrust for children, never actually did warm up to my daughter, always staying just out of arm’s reach. But, adorably, Tippi would walk up and sniff her when she wasn’t looking, or quickly lick her hand while The Munch had her attention elsewhere. We have found Tippi sleeping on the floor in The Munch’s room while The Munch slept, as well as sleeping outside her room when The Munch was staying somewhere else for the night. The first time we left the house and returned without our child, Tippi was clearly distressed. The point being, that our dog was leery of children, but loved our daughter.

 

Unfortunately, three years after The Munch was born, we made the discovery that Dixie had a brain tumor. After six short years of life, Dixie’s condition worsened until she lost all control of her body. We had to mourn the loss of our other runt. Tippi outlived a younger dog, and we feared what effect this would have on her. In many cases, when one dog dies in a two-dog house, the other declines quickly and you end up with a no-dog house. In our case, Tippi came to life. She seemed to find peace in the home again. She laid wherever she wanted to lay, ate whatever she wanted to eat, went wherever she wanted to go, and, yes, was able to chase the neighbor dog up and down the fence without having to knock over another dog. Completely unexpected, but Tippi was glad that, for whatever reason, she had the house to herself again.

 

We can take a hint. We did not replace Dixie.

 

The last four years of Tippi’s life have been relatively uneventful. She became lazier, though she would still jump up and run around when it was time to eat, and for a while still seemed to enjoy going outside and sitting at the top of the deck steps to stare out at her yard for who knows how long. Eventually, though, if she wasn’t eating, she preferred to lay on her favorite bed next to the back door and sleep. The problems with her back legs became more frequent and we knew that our time was running thin.

 

On June 11, 2014, my wife and I left for Schaumburg, Illinois for my first ever LEGO convention. BrickWorld. We arrived and my excitement was at about as high a level as one can expect from a grown man. We were in Schaumburg for less than a day when we received word from one of our best friends that Tippi was having trouble walking. Despite my excitement, I felt so far from home. Although I had made a commitment to not only the gentleman that I was collaborating with but to myself to make this experience the best it could be, my mind was at home. Next to my backdoor. Where I knew my Tippi was lying. I would build and I would set up and I would talk to my fellow builders and the public that walked through to enjoy our wares, but when I was away from anything to keep my mind occupied, I thought of my dog. I had to leave early on the last public day from BrickWorld to rush home to our dog. When we arrived, we found a dog that had lost all use of her back legs and was quickly losing the use of her front legs. She didn’t even lift her head when she saw me.

 

We had been dreading this day. I knew it had arrived.

 

On June 15, 2014, Father’s Day, Tippi died. She lived to be better than 16 years of age. She survived harsh living conditions, a small black terror of a dog, and The Munch. She saw a better life than how she entered the world and made life better for those who knew her. She was loved intensely and loved intensely in return.

 

She will always be remembered.

 

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Soviet Laboratory of High-Speed Automobiles (LSA ChADI, today the Chardiv National Automobile and Highway University) was founded in 1953. One of the laboratory’s founders was Vladimir Nikitin, a famous racer not only inside the Soviet Union but also around the world. The main purpose of Vladimir Nikitin’s of was to build the fastest car in the world. This idea of creating race cars became the purpose of the laboratory and has been continued by students of Nikitin throughout the years, with research and prototypes in various fields of car propulsion.

 

The first car created in LSA by students was ChADI 2 in 1961. The body of the car was made of fiberglass, the first time that this material was used for a car body in the Soviet Union. This technology was improved and later used in mass-produced cars. Another famous LSA car was ChADI 7. To create it, Nikitin and his students used airplane wing elements as car body material and used the engine from a helicopter to power it. The highest speed of ChADI 7 – 400 kilometers per hour – was recorded on an airport runway near Chardiv in 1968, and it was at that time the fastest car in the Soviet Union, setting the national land speed record.

 

After this successful vehicle, Vladimir Nikitin started a new, even more ambitious project: a speed record car with the jet engine from a high performance airplane! The name of this project was ChADI 9, and it was ambitious. This time Nikitin and his team used a Tumansky RD-9 turbojet engine with a dry thrust of 25.5 kN (5,730 lbf), the same engine that powered the supersonic Mikoyan-Gurewich MiG-19 fighter plane. He expected that this needle-shaped car would be able to break the absolute land speed record, which meant supersonic speed at level zero of almost 1.200 kilometers an hour. The car was finished in 1981, but unfortunately ChADI 9 never participated in any race and no official top speed result was ever recorded. This had initially a very practical reason: in the 1980’s there were simply no tires in the USSR that could be safely used at the expected speeds in excess of 400 km/h, and there was furthermore no track long enough for a serious test drive in the Soviet Union! In consequence, ChADI 9 had to be tested on the runway of a military airport in the proximity of Chardiv, outfitted with wheels and tires from a MiG-19, but these were not ideal for prolonged high speeds. Film footage from these tests later appeared in a 1983 movie called “IgLa”.

The Automotive Federation of the United States even invited ChADI 9 to participate in an official record race in the USA, but this did not happen either, this time for political reasons. Nevertheless, the main contribution of this car was gathering experience with powerful jet engines and their operations in a ground vehicle, as well as experience with car systems that could withstand and operate at the expected high levels of speed, and the vehicle was frequently tested until it was destroyed in high speed tests in 1988 (see below).

 

ChADI 9 was not the end of Nikitin’s strife for speed (and the prestige associated with it). The know-how that the design team had gathered in the first years of testing ChADI 9 were subsequentially integrated into the LSA’s ultimate proposal not only to break the national, but also the absolute land speed record: with a new vehicle dubbed ChADI 9-II. This car was a completely new design, and its name was deliberately chosen in order to secure project budgets – it was easier to gain support for existing (and so far successful) projects rather than found new ones and convince superior powers of their value and success potential.

 

ChADI 9-II’s conceptual phase was launched in 1982 and it was basically a scaled-up evolution of ChADI 9, but it featured some significant differences. Instead of the RD-9 turbojet, the new vehicle was powered by a much more potent Tumansky R-25-300 afterburning turbojet with a dry thrust of 40.21 kN (9,040 lbf) and 69.62 kN (15,650 lbf) with full afterburner. This new engine (used and proven in the MiG-21 Mach 2 fighter) had already been thoroughly bench-tested by the Soviet Laboratory of High-Speed Automobiles in 1978, on an unmanned, tracked sled.

However, the development of ChADI 9-II and its details took more than two years of dedicated work by LSA ChADI’s students, and in 1984 the design was finally settled. The new vehicle was much bigger than its predecessor, 44 ft 10 in long, 15 ft 6¾ in wide, and 9 ft 10¾ in high (13.67 m by 4,75 m by 3,02 m), and it weighed around 9,000 lb (4 t). Its construction was based on a steel tube frame with an integrated security cell for the driver and an aluminum skin body, with some fibre glass elements. While ChADI 9’s slender cigar-shaped body with a circular diameter and the tricycle layout were basically retained, the front end of ChADI 9-II and its internal structure were totally different: instead of ChADI 9’s pointed nose, with the cockpit in the front and ahead of the vehicle’s front wheel and a pair of conformal (but not very efficient) side air intakes, ChADI 9-II featured a large, single orifice with a central shock cone. A small raked lower lip was to prevent FOD to the engine and act at the same time as a stabilizing front spoiler. The driver sat under a tight, streamlined canopy, the bifurcated air intake ducts internally flanking the narrow cockpit. Two steerable front wheels with a very narrow track were installed in front of the driver’s compartment. They were mounted side by side on a central steering pylon, which made them look like a single wheel. Behind the cockpit, still flanked by the air ducts, came two fuel tanks and finally, after a chamber where the air ducts met again, the engine compartment. Small horizontal stabilizers under the cockpit, which could be adjusted with the help of an electric actuator, helped keeping the vehicle’s nose section on the ground. Two small air brakes were mounted on the rear fuselage; these not only helped to reduce the vehicle’s speed, they could also be deployed in order to trim the aerodynamic downforce on the rear wheels. The latter ware carried on outriggers for a wide and stable track width and were covered in tight aerodynamic fairings, again made from fibre glass. The outriggers were furthermore swept back far enough so that the engine’s nozzle was placed in front of the rear wheel axis. This, together with a marked “nose-down” stance as well as a single swept fin on the rear above the afterburner nozzle with a brake parachute compartment, was to ensure stability and proper handling at expected speeds far in excess of 600 km/h (372 mph) without the use of the engine’s afterburner, and far more at full power.

 

Construction of ChADI 9-II lasted for more than another year, and in May 1986 the vehicle was rolled out and ready for initial trials at Chardiv, this time on the Chardiv State Aircraft Manufacturing Company’s runway. These non-public tests were successful and confirmed the soundness of the vehicle’s concept and layout. In the course of thorough tests until July 1987, ChADI 9-II was carefully pushed beyond the 400 km/h barrier and showed certain potential for more. This was the point when the vehicle was presented to the public (it could not be hidden due to the noisy trials within Chardiv’s city limits), and for this occasion (and marketing purposes) ChADI 9-II received a flashy livery in silver with red trim around the air intake and long the flanks and was officially christened with the more catchy title “„скорость“” (Skorost = Velocity).

 

Meanwhile, a potential area for serious high-speed trials had been identified with Lake Baskunchak, a salt sea near the Caspian Sea with flat banks that resembled the Bonneville Salt Flats in the USA. Lake Baskunchak became the site of further tests in 1988. Initially scheduled for May-July, the tests had to be postponed by six weeks due to heavy rain in the region, so that the sea would not build suitable dry salt banks for any safe driving tests. In late June the situation improved, and „скорость“ could finally take up its high speed tests.

 

During the following weeks the vehicle was gradually taken to ever higher speeds. During a test run on 8th of September, while travelling at roundabout 640 km/h (400 mph), one of the tail wheel fairings appeared to explode and the ensuing drag differences caused heavy oscillations that ended in a crash at 180 km/h (110 mph) with the vehicle rolling over and ripping the left rear wheel suspension apart.

The driver, LSA student and hobby rally driver Victor Barchenkov, miraculously left the vehicle almost unscathed, and the damage turned out to be only superficial. What had happened was an air pressure congestion inside of the wheel fairing, and the increasing revolutions of the wheels beyond 600 km/h caused small shock waves along the wheels, which eventually blew up the fairing, together with the tire. This accident stopped the 1988 trials, but not the work on the vehicle. Another disaster struck the LSA ChADI team when ChADI 9, which was still operated, crashed in 1988, too, and had to be written off completely.

 

In mid-1989 and with only a single high speed vehicle left, LSA team appeared again with „скорость“ at the shores of Lake Baskunchak – and this time the weather was more gracious and the track could be used from late June onwards. Analyzing last year’s accident and the gathered data, the vehicle had undergone repairs and some major modifications, including a new, anti-corrosive paintjob in light grey with red and white trim.

The most obvious change, though, was a completely re-shaped nose section: the original raked lower air intake lip had been considerably extended by almost 5 feet (the vehicle now had a total length of 49 ft 1 in/14,98 m) in order to enhance the downforce on the front wheels, and strakes along the lower nose ducted the airflow around the front wheels and towards the stabilizing fins. The central shock cone had been elongated and re-contoured, too, improving the airflow at high speeds.

New tireless all-aluminum wheels had been developed and mounted, because pressurized rubber tires, as formerly used, had turned out to be too unstable and unsafe. The central front wheels had received an additional aerodynamic fairing that prevented air ingestion into the lower fuselage, so that steering at high speeds became safer. The aerodynamic rear wheel fairings had by now been completely deleted and spoilers had been added to the rear suspension in order to keep the rear wheel on the ground at high speeds.

 

This time the goal was to push „скорость“ and the national land speed record in excess of 800 km/h (500 mph), and step by step the vehicle’s top speed was gradually increased. On August 15, an officially timed record attempt was made, again with Victor Barchenkov at the steering wheel. The first of the two obligatory runs within an hour was recorded at a very promising 846.961 km/h (526.277 mph), but, at the end of the second run, „скорость“ veered off and no time was measured. Even worse, the vehicle lost its parachute brakes and went out of control, skidding away from the dry race track into Lake Baskunchak’s wet salt sludge, where it hit a ground wave at around 200 mph (320 km/h) and was catapulted through the air into a brine pond where it landed on its right side and eventually sank. Again, pilot Victor Barchenkov remained mostly unharmed and was able to leave the car before it sank – but this fatal crash meant the end of the „скорость“ vehicle and the complete KhAGI 9-II project. Furthermore, the break-up of the Soviet Union at the same time prevented and further developments of high speed vehicles. The whereabouts of the „скорость“ wreck remain unclear, too, since no official attempt had been made to save the vehicle’s remains from Lake Baskunchak’s salt swamps.

  

The kit and its assembly:

This is another contribution to the late 2018 “Racing & Competition Group Build” at whatifmodelers.com. Since I primarily build aircraft in 1:72 scale, building a land speed record (LSR) vehicle from such a basis appeared like a natural choice. A slick streamliner? A rocket-powered prototype with Mach 1 potential? Hmmm… However, I wanted something else than the typical US or British Bonneville Salt Flats contender.

Inspiration struck when I remembered the real world high speed vehicle projects of LSA ChAGI in the former USSR, and especially the ill-fated, jet-powered ChADI 9, which looked a lot like Western, rocket-powered absolute LSR designs like The Blue Flame or Wingfoot Express 2. Another inspiration was a contemporary LSR vehicle called North American Eagle – basically a wingless F-104 Starfighter, put on wheels and sporting a garish, patriotic livery.

 

With this conceptual basis, the MiG-21 was quickly identified as the potential starting basis – but I wanted more than just a Fishbed sans wings and with some bigger wheels attached to it. I nevertheless wanted to retain the basic shape of the aircraft, but change the rest as good as possible with details that I have learned from reading about historic LSR vehicles (a very good source are the books by German author and LSR enthusiast Ferdinand C. W. Käsmann, which have, AFAIK, even been translated into English).

 

At the model’s core is a contemporary KP MiG-21MF, but it’s a hideous incarnation of the venerable Kovozávody Prostějov mold. While the wheels and the dashboard of this kit were surprisingly crisp, the fuselage halves did hardly match each other and some other parts like the landing gear covers could only be described as “blurred blobs”. Therefore it was no shame to slice the kit up, and the resulting kitbash with many donor parts and scratching almost became a necessity.

 

The MiG-21 fuselage and cockpit were more or less retained, the landing gear wells covered and PSR-ed. Fin, spine and the ventral stabilizer were cut away, and the attachment points for the wings and the horizontal stabilizers blended into the rest of the fuselage. Actually, only a few parts from the KP MiG-21 were eventually used.

 

The original shock cone in the air intake was used, but it was set further back into the nose opening – as an attachment point for a new, more organic shock cone which is actually the rear end of a drop tank from an Airfix 1:72 P-61 Black Widow. This detail was inspired by a real world benchmark: Art Arfons’ home-built “Green Monster” LSR car. This vehicle also inspired the highly modified air intake shape, which was scratched from the tail cone from a Matchbox 1:72 Blackburn Buccaneer – the diameter matched well with the MiG-21’s nose! With the new nose, I was able to retain the original MiG-21 layout, yet the shape and the extension forward changed the overall look enough to make it clear that this was not simply a MiG-21 on wheels.

 

With the spine gone, I also had to integrate a different, much smaller canopy, which came from an 1:144 Tornado. The cockpit opening had to be narrowed accordingly, and behind the canopy a new spine fairing was integrated – simply a piece from a streamlined 1:72 1.000 lb bomb plus lots of PSR.

Inside of the cockpit, a simpler seat was used, but the original cockpit tub and the dashboard were retained.

The large MiG-21 fin was replaced with a smaller piece, left over from an Amodel Kh-20 missile, with a scratched brake parachute fairing (cut from sprue material) placed under its rear. The exhaust nozzle was replaced, too, because the fit of the KP MiG-21’s rear end was abysmal. So I cut away a short piece and added an afterburner nozzle from a vintage 1:72 F-100, which fits well. Inside, the part’s rear wall was drilled open and extended inwards with a styrene tube.

 

The wheels of the vehicle come from an 1:72 Hasegawa “Panther with Schmalturm” tank kit – it comes not only with two turrets, but also with a second set of simplified track wheels. These had IMHO the perfect size and shape as massive aluminum wheels for the high speed vehicle.

For the front wheels, I used the thinner outer Panther wheels, and they were put, closely together, onto a central suspension pylon. This received a new “well” in the forward fuselage, with an internal attachment point. In order to streamline the front wheel installation (and also to change the overall look of the vehicle away from the MiG-21 basis), I added a scratched an aerodynamic fairing around it. This was made from tailored styrene strips, which were later filled and blended into the hull with putty.

 

The rear suspension was also fully scratched: the outriggers were made from styrene profiles while the wheel attachments were once part of an 1:35 tank kit suspension – I needed something to hold the three struts per side together. These parts look a bit large, but the vehicle is, after all, a Soviet design, so a little sturdiness may not be wrong, and I simply did not want to stick the wheels directly onto the outriggers. The rear wheels (in this case, the wider inner Panther track wheels with a central hub cover were used) also received a stabilizing notch around the contact surface, in an attempt to make them look slimmer than they actually are.

 

Final touches included the chines under the nose as well as spoilers on the rear suspension (both made from styrene profiles), and I added a pitot made from wire to the original MiG-21 angle of attack sensor fairing.

 

As an addition outside the model itself I also created a display base for the beauty pics, since I did not have anything at hand that would resemble the vastness of a flat and dry salt sea. The base is an 18x12” MDF board, on top of which I added a thin coat of white tile grout (which I normally use as a snow placebo, instead of plaster, which tends to absorb humidity over time and to become yellow). While the stuff was still wet I sprinkled some real salt onto the surface and wetted the whole affair with water sprays – hoping to create a flat yet structured surface with some glitter reflexes. And it actually worked!

  

Painting and markings:

I am not certain how ChADI 9 was painted (I assume overall silver), but I wanted for „скорость“ a little more color. Being a child of the Soviet era, red was a settled design element, but I thought that an all-red vehicle might have looked too cheesy. Other colors I considered were orange or white with blue trim, but did not find them to be appropriate for what I was looking. Eventually, I added some Russian Utilitarianism in the form of light grey for the upper hull (Humbrol 166, RAF Light Aircraft Grey), and the red (Humbrol 19) as a dark contrast around the complete air intake as well as the shock cone (somewhat inspired by the Green Monster #15 LSR vehicle), and then extended backwards into a narrowing cheatline along the flanks, which emphasizes the vehicle’s slender hull. For some more contrast between the two basic tones I later added thin white borders between them created with 2mm white decal stripes from TL Modellbau. Around the hull some bright red (Humbrol 238 Red Arrows Red) highlights as warning signs were added.

 

The vehicle’s afterburner section was painted with Modelmaster Steel Metallizer, the Panther wheels became Aluminum (Revell 99) with a black ink wash. Some black ink was also applied to the jet nozzle, so that the details became more pronounced, and some grinded graphite was used to enhance the burnt metal effect.

 

Since this would rather be an experimental car built and operated by a high school institute, and also operated in the Soviet Union, flashy sponsor markings would not be appropriate. Therefore I created some fictional marking at home with the help of PC software and printed them by myself. These designs included a fictional logo of the ChADI institute itself (created from a car silhouette drawing) and a logo for the vehicle’s title, “„скорость““. The latter was created from the cyrillic lettering, with some additions like the vehicle’s silhouette.

Unfortunately the production process for the home-made decals did not work properly – when coating the prints with gloss acrylic varnish the printer ink started to dissolve, bleeding magenta, so that the decals would look as if there was a red halo or glow around the otherwise black motifs. Thanks to the use of red in the vehicle’s overall design this flaw is not too apparent, so I stuck with the outcome and applied the decals to the car.

Beyond these basic markings, many stencils were added, including dull red inscriptions from an Italeri MiG-37 “Ferret” kit – finally, I found an expedient use for them! The Soviet flags on the fin came from an 1:144 Tu-144 airliner Braz Decal aftermarket sheet.

Finally, some panel lines were drawn onto the hull with a soft pencil and then the model was sealed with Italeri semi-gloss acrylic varnish. Just the black anti-glare panel in front of the windscreen became matt and the metallic rear section was left in “natural” finish.

  

I am very pleased with the outcome – the „скорость“ looks purposeful and does IMHO blend well into the line of spectacular USA and UK jet/rocket car designs that broke the 800 km/h barrier. I also find that, even though the MiG-21 ancestry is certainly there, the vehicle looks different enough so that the illusion that it was designed along the jet fighter’s lines (and not converted from one, like the real world “North American Eagle” which was built from an F-104 Starfighter) works well. I also think that the vehicle’s livery works well – it looks quite retro for a vehicle from the late Eighties, but that just adds to the “Soviet style”. An interesting project, outside of my normal comfort zone. :D

Multi purpose rail - road swing gates in Goolwa. The gates have the railway track permanently closed unless manually opened by train staff to facilate a passage for a train. © Henk Graalman 6407 1984

Multi purpose offshore construction vessel built 1983 BY George Sommers A/S

Conveted 2000 by Ulstein Verft Norway

Length 80.77m x 18m

Gross tons 3349t

Deadweight 2490t

Flag Panama

Registered Panama City

I.M.O. 8205620

CALL SIGN H0B0

Power,twin MAK8M453 @ 3000 bhp each

Owned/managed by Atlantic Marine [Gt.Yarmouth]

Former name[s] RED7 TONJER,NORMAND TONJER.

 

The Nikon 28mm f2 lens from the 1970s on my Nikon F from the 1960s used to take this photo on a Sony a6000 mirror-less camera.

Brooklands, the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit, was built by local landowner Hugh Locke King on his estate at Weybridge in Surrey. Work commenced in late 1906.

 

Locke King was persuaded that, in order for cars to achieve the highest possible speeds, with the greatest possible safety, the 2¾ mile circuit would need to be provided with two huge banked sections nearly 30 ft. high. The track would be 100 ft. wide, made of concrete and a total length of the track was 3¼ miles. This outstanding feat of engineering was built in only nine months and eventually cost nearly 16 million pounds in todays money.

 

In August 1926 the RAC organised the first-ever British Grand Prix, constructing sand chicanes along the Finishing Straight.

 

During WW2 the circuit was used as a extension to the Vickers aircraft factory and devoted to the production of Vickers and Hawker aircraft including Hurricane fighters and Wellington bombers. The track was damaged both to hide its distinctive shape and by bombing raids. By 1949 the cost of reinstating it was too high and ownership was transferred to Vickers.

 

This section of the track is now preserved as part of the Brooklands museum that houses a large collection of cars, aircraft and buses.

  

The Paul Flatbed was actually designed around a case of Pale Ale. Two Chico originals. True love.

Mont-Saint-Michel is one of the most recognized, most visited, and most photographed historical sites in France with over 2.5 million visitors each year. Considering where it's located at the most southern part of Normandy, you have to be going there on purpose to see it! This picture is taken from the B&B farm house where we stayed just across the bay from Mont-Saint-Michel. This field between me and St. Michel is an onion field. If you're a farmer, you may be able to recognize the onion stems in the foreground. This was our view from the bedroom window so we got to watch as it got dark and the lights began to come on, until it was lighted up in a beautiful night time display that I hadn't seen before. From this farm, we were able to walk a short distance to the main street where the free trolley picks people up to transport them across the causeway to a point near the Abbey. The tide was out, but this is one of the highest rising tides in the world and occasionally covers up the causeway. We had thought about staying overnight on the island, but it is very expensive compared to places on the mainland. Plus, some travelers had warned about the difficulty of getting your luggage up to any hotel where you might stay. After going over, we were really glad we hadn't spent the night there as the cobblestones on the narrow walkway, the steep stairs, and long climbs would have been very difficult, although we only carry backpacks.

This place was first consecrated to the ArchAngel Michel (Michael) by the Bishop of Avranche in 708 with the first structure built in 709. Because the Bishop was told by the angel himself to build here, this beautiful place has been a destination for religious pilgrims for well over a thousand years. In fact, it was one of the top pilgrim destinations along with Rome and the famous pilgrimage to Saint Jacques (St. James) de Compostole in Northwestern Spain (also called in Spanish the Camino de Santiago).

 

In 1966, the 1000th year of the Abbey, a monastic order of brothers and sisters ( "Les Fraternités Monastiques de Jerusalem"), moved back into the Abbey and hold services there. We got to attend the 12:15 mass in the Abbey at the very top of the mountain. While there were some simple benches for the visitors, the sisters (in long white robes and hoods) and the brothers all sat on the cold stone floor on their knees, leaning back on their upturned feet, for the entire service. They sang and the homily were beautiful and very moving with the wonderful acoustics, and I felt that it might very well have been just like attending a mass a thousand years ago.

 

As you enter and begin the climb to the top, you go by numerous souvenir shops and restaurants. One thing that was interesting was a note in some of the preparatory research that said that since this was a pilgrimage destination, these souvenir shops have been here since the beginning. Pilgrims would buy a token or medal to show they had been to Mont-Saint-Michel. So while you might at first feel like these tourist shops are all new, it made me see them differently knowing that they've been there since the beginning, but just sell some additional merchandise, to tourists as well as pilgrims that still come here. This is definitely a worthy item for your bucket list (now checked off mine!). Before you go, be sure and read up on the history of the place. We went through the main museum, but there is so much history here that is not self-evident that you need to spend time learning about all of the things that have happened on this rock before you go to truly appreciate how important this place is in French history.

The Tauranga-Mount Maunganui Buses Ltd. (ex Tauranga Bus Services Ltd.) No. 44 captured by Clive Otway in September 1984 was a 1980 Bedford HB216, a Hawke bodied RVL (Ray Vincent Ltd.) with a 40 seat dual purpose body(DP40F) . Later owner was K W Sybers of Auckland (6 April 2009). Was first registered JY6507, 19 November 1980.

Scanned from The Omnibus Magazine, November 1998.

 

Year: 1980

Make: BEDFORD

Model: RVL

Colour: White

Plate: JY6507

Engine No: 61458351

Chassis: 224343

Seats: 41

CC rating: 5,408cc

Fuel Type: LPG

Alternative Fuel Type: LPG

Assembly Type: Unknown

Country of Origin: Not known

Gross Vehicle Mass: 11,000kg

Tare Weight: 5,940kg

Axle Type: 2-Axle

Axles: 2

Wheelbase: 5,486

Front Axle Group Rating: 3,755

Rear Axle Group Rating: 7,710

Registration Status:

Plate: JY6507

Plate Type: Standard

Origin: NZ New

Cause of Latest Registration: New

NZ First Registration: 19 November 1980

Cancellation Date Of Registration: 3 July 2010

Was Registered Overseas? No

www.businfo.nz/index.php?R=14581

 

Clive Otway writes that in 1973, the Tauranga bus business run by Brian Snow (the Snow Group consisting of the Tauranga Bus Service/Mount Buses Ltd./Manurewa Bus Co. [latter purchased October 1967]), was sold to Mr Leo Dromgoole of Auckland who had previously purchased the old-established Mount Ferry Service from the Faulkners.

A new company, "Tauranga-Mount Maunganui Buses Ltd", was formed with Mr Campbell Jamieson as Manager. Fleet livery became red and cream.

 

RVL stands for Ray Vincent Ltd., the dealer who "imported" the chassis. The origins of these chassis are shrouded in mystery.

Officially, these were supposed to be an Indian chassis based on the Bedford SB built under licence to Bedford in India. No one has been able to prove or disprove this. There were strong suspicions in NZ psv circles that they were in fact recycled Bedford SB chassis obtained locally from written off vehicles. Again this remains supposition only - no one has been able to prove this. The insiders' joke is that the "HM" in the chassis number stands for "home made". Certainly I have found no mention of this chassis elsewhere in the world. Some Indian components (eg Brake cylinders) were used but India in the 21st century is the major manufacturer of Bedford SB parts. No doubt these parts where being manufactured in 1979 and 1980 when these chassis where built.

Making me very suspicious of the origin of the vehicles is that Vernon Milne's 35 and Tui 38 have the same chassis number. I can't imagine a real manufacturer making such an error.

Nine were sold. Six are fitted with Hawke ECW style bodies and three sold to Tui Motors had NZMB bodies.

 

TAURANGA BUS SERVICE

By Clive Otway

The main business area of Tauranga developed mainly at the end of a peninsula with early transport to the town being mainly by ship. Residential development gradually spread back down the peninsula on either side of Cameron Road and eventually to the countryside beyond. In more recent times the bridging of the harbour following the earlier building of the causeways to Otumoetai and Maungatapu has meant that the business area, although relatively "confined", is not so isolated with more "through" traffic being generated to the expanding suburbs. The Waikareao Expressway has relieved some congestion along Cameron Road but the further planned arterial routes are desperately needed.

For many years the geographical situation meant that public transport was important particularly to those living further "out" along Cameron Road to the area largely known as Gate Pa and Greerton. The latter has developed as a very important shopping centre since the 1950s. The Racecourse, which is situated in Greerton, is still referred to as the "Gate Pa Course".

Again, in more recent years, it is unfortunate that public transport has not received total support from successive Councils, the word "subsidy" apparently not being considered appropriate. This has resulted in today's public transport being best described as "skeletal".

Nevertheless, the history of the various operators' running what can be loosely described as the "Gate Pa Bus Service" or the "Tauranga Bus Service" is quite interesting and an attempt is made here to provide a limited record.

 

The earliest known operator was W. Herbert, who, in 1919, commenced a thrice daily service (extra on Saturdays) from Tauranga Town to Gate Pa with a Model T Ford bus. By the end of the following years when the service had been extended to Greerton and Hairini, Mr A.W. Oliver had taken over. But within the space of six months Messrs McLamon and West were running the service. They "extended" out to Pyes Pa and instituted a "picture bus" to Hairini.

 

By May 1921, we find that Mr J. Mehrtens had taken over. Operating a Ford bus, he ran to the following timetable:

TAURANGA MOTOR BUS SERVICE

Gate Pa to Tauranga

Gate Pa Depart: Monday, Tuesday; Wednesday, Friday: 0830, 1330, 1645 Thursday, 0830 and 1700.

Saturday: 0830, 1000, 1305, 1415, 1845.

Town Wharf Depart: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday: 1210,1600,1730

Thursday, 1220, 1730.

Saturday, 0930,1210, 1600, 1730,2200.

Bus available for special runs between the regular trips. - J. Mehrtens, Proprietor, Gate Pa.

 

In February 1926, Mr J. Risetto had not only taken over the Tauranga to Chadwick Road, Greerton, service, but was also operating to Welcome Bay. Vehicle used was a 16 passenger Chevrolet but it is believed that a second Chevrolet was also owned. A Mr T. Anquetil was the driver. November 1928 saw a change of ownership with Murgatroyds "Green Bus Service" being on the run. But only for a short time as Mrs H Durham took over managing the service until September 1931 when Mr F. C. Hodgman came on the scene. His "Gate Pa Bus Service" operated a cream coloured Model A Ford bus as well as a Stewart. The timetable provided for six trips a day between Tauranga and the Hospital with some services extending out to Gate Pa.

 

In addition, there was a service from Hairini to the Hospital as well as a once a day service to "Te Puke Road." Following six years of ownership, Mr Hodgman sold to Mr S. Managh whose vehicle was a Stewart with single rear wheels, later fitted with duals. Mr J. Lyons took over in March 1938 with Mr L. G. Hogan taking control in mid-1939. The Stewart was joined by a 24 seater Commer.

The relatively quick turnover of operators was ended when Mr Frank G. Gresham of Greshams Garage Limited, bought the business in July 1942. By this time the Stewart was used mainly as a school bus on the Greerton to Oropi Road. Mr F. C. Hodgman was still in public transport running a taxi. "

The War Years saw a gas producer fitted to the Commer and about this time Mr Gresham was pressed into the Navy. Mrs Gresham took over managing the business as well as driving. Dorothy Papps (later Mrs Musk) also assisted with driving duties. Ron Oliver was the mechanic. A later driver was Gordon Green. Mrs Gresham recalled that besides the normal runs, they were kept very busy by running a "soldiers service" from the Racecourse Camp to Town in 1943, a WTB Bedford was purchased followed soon after by an OLB Bedford. Both 33 seaters, the former had a "sloping rear" whereas the latter had a "square rear". These "Tauranga Bus Service" vehicles, painted blue and white, became fleet numbers 2 and 3.

The War Years of the 1940s and the few years following, were probably the peak of operations so far as passenger loadings were between Tauranga Town and the Hospital (extras on Friday) with four trips extending out to Gate Pa. Nine services were run on Saturday. In addition there was a frequent service to Burrows Street from Town as well as a twice daily (extras on Friday and Saturday) service to Hairini and Maungatapu. The writer recalls that the Friday and Saturday evening picture buses were always well patronised.

 

In late 1946, a new 33 seater DB Bedford was built in Mr Gresham's own garage/workshop situated on the corner of First Avenue and Devonport Road. This vehicle was followed by Nos 5 and 6, also 33 seater Bedfords. These vehicles were named "Tauranga Marlin", "Tauranga Tourist" and "Tauranga Cruiser".

In October 1948 the private company, "Tauranga Bus Service Ltd", was registered with the share capital being held by Mr and Mrs Gresham. That same year, as the result of obtaining a Sightseeing Licence, the firm was advertising two tours operating from Tauranga every Thursday. The morning tour departing at 0930 encompassed the Mission House, Monmouth Redoubt and the Borough area. In the afternoon the tour visited a citrus orchard, a vineyard, the Gate Pa battle site and a Maori pa.

 

Regarding vehicles - in July 1953, the firm took delivery of a very smart looking SB Bedford "Coronation Cruiser" which became No 7 in the fleet. In September 1956 the Company was granted an extension to its Tourist Licence providing for weekly tours during the Summer months to the Chateau, Whakamaru and adjacent areas'.

The year 1957 saw a change of ownership. Two years previously Mr Brian Snow, a farmer of Belk Road, Tauriko, successfully tendered for some outlying school runs. With the addition of further licences, the "Country Bus Service" was joined by Mr C.H.G. Snow, Brian's father. Frank Gresham then offered the Tauranga and Greerton Licences plus the Touring Licence to Brian Snow in consideration for the Snow farm at Tauriko, With the exchange effected, Brian and his wife replaced the Greshams as shareholders and directors of Tauranga Bus Service Ltd.

 

In May 1959, the Maungatapu Causeway was opened providing a much shorter link to the Mount Maunganui area thus allowing the Company to commence a service between Tauranga Town and the "Mount". However, the following month there were differences of opinion between the Company and the Tauranga Council. The Council wished to resite the bus and taxi stands off the main streets in order to provide more parking. The fact that the Council wished to institute a charge to the transport operators for the use of the stands roused the ire of the Company. In a letter to the "Bay of Plenty Times", Brian Snow said that because of the Council's attitude, his firm was unwilling to carry passengers from the Mount to Tauranga. He maintained that the Mount Council was far more cooperative. Notwithstanding this, the Company announced that it was commencing an increased half-hourly service to Greerton and Merivale.

 

Around this time, the firm "Mount Buses Ltd" was purchased from the Faulkners thus giving the Company various routes at the Mount as well as a licence from the Mount to Te Puke. There was also a workers' service from Matapihi to the wharf area.

By July 1960 the Company was considering the curtailment of Sunday services despite strong objections. The Company highlighted its case by using the example of a Sunday service from Mount Maunganui to the Hospital. This had run from mid-December to March and was a complete failure: ten of the twelve trips operated carried no passengers!

Meanwhile the Company's Mount Maunganui to Te Puke Licence had been suspended but in 1963, Tui Motors of Te Puke, was granted a licence to operate from Te Puke to the Mount via Manoeka. Tauranga Bus Service objected to this as they wished to protect their suspended licence which they wished to retain in case circumstances improved. "Hardly a strong case," the Appeal Judge stated but nevertheless the Tui Licence was amended with restrictions between Te Maunga and the Mount.

 

By this time Mrs C.H.G. Snow was managing the business as Brian, desirous of a "change" had moved to Australia. He later shifted to Taihape.

Due" to declining patronage, the Company, in February 1964, increased fares. "we don't want to do this," said Mr Snow senior, "but people don't want to use our buses." He followed this up with an advertisement in the "B.O.P. Times":

"You can help us keep these fare charges down:

- By using our buses.

- By not travelling at peak time where possible.

- By tendering the correct change-thus saving time.

- By refusing rides offered by passing motoristis (It is illegal for a motorist to stop and pick up passengers at a bus stop.)

- Do you know bus travelling is still the safest means of transport anywhere in the world?

- Do you know what it costs to travel by car? It would surprise you.

- Do you know - Land Agents advertise "close to good bus service" if the property advertised is near any of our routes?

- Do you know there have been no fare increases for 5 years and we have had to face 4 wage rises!

- Use the blue and white buses for your City travel and also use our Tourist Licence for your parties and help keep the fare charges down in Tauranga City and Mount Maunganui.

 

In October 1964, the Company took delivery of a new bus. Fleet Number 8 was a 40 seater Bedford imported from the U.K. in "CKO" form and assembled by Onehunga Motor Bodies. Following increasing emphasis on specials.' school work and tours, in 1965 the Company ran its first tour to the South Island.

In August 1966 the "N.Z. Herald" carried a report of an accident to one of the firm's buses. While proceeding from Bethlehem towards Tauranga one Saturday afternoon, the bus was involved in a head-on collision with a truck. The bus veered off the road down a bank, snapping a telegraph pole on the way to ending up in a paddock. It was fortunate for the 22 passengers that the bus didn't overturn. Only three passengers were injured.

 

In October 1967 the Snow Group purchased the Manurewa Bus Co Ltd thus obtaining further licences and with the establishment of an associate Company, "Greerton Bus Service Ltd", the Group held touring licences to cover Tauranga, Hamilton and Auckland airports. The headquarters of "TBS Tours" was at Manurewa.

In February 1970, the "Victor Transport" operation was purchased from Ted Kirk who had bought the business from the Smiths three years previously. This purchase gave the Snow Group additional routes in the Tauranga, Otumoetai, Bethlehem and Te Puna areas as well as acquiring a further nine vehicles.

In 1973, the Tauranga business was sold to Mr Leo Dromgoole of Auckland who had previously purchased the old-established Mount Ferry Service from the Faulkners. A new Company "Tauranga-Mount Maunganui Buses Ltd" was formed with Mr Campbell Jamieson as Manager. Fleet livery became red and cream. Brian Snow's 'TBS Tours Ltd" business continued to operate from Manurewa.

 

At this time the new firm was operating the following passenger services:

1. Tauranga (Town) to Greerton via Courtenay Road and Merivale

2. Tauranga to Greerton via Cameron Road and Hospital

3. Tauranga to Mount Maunganui

4. Tauranga to Otumoetai and Levers Road

5. Tauranga to Bellevue

6. Tauranga to Cambridge Road and Bethlehem

7. Tauranga to Te Puna and Omokoroa

8. Tauranga to Papamoa and Matapihi

 

However, by September 1982, due to falling patronage, the Company was seeking to cut some services. The Licensing Authority declined part of the application but agreed to the deletion of Saturday services. The Mayor of Tauranga stated that the Company should not receive a subsidy but the matter should be kept under review "in the public interest".

By the end of the following month, however, further cuts were announced. Daily trips from the Mount to Tauranga and to Otumoetai were to be severely cut: the runs to Papamoa and Omokoroa to be cancelled: the Merivale and Greerton runs to be merged. The Licensing Authority warned the three Tauranga local bodies that they could be faced with having to run the area's public transport system if the Company was forced to continue dropping services: the Company could no longer sustain a loss of $6000 a month on its urban services.

By September 1983, further cuts such as workers' services were proposed. Mr Jamieson stated that "the Council have told us that Tauranga does not want a bus service. It is a waste of time" While some Council members urged a subsidy the majority were against such a move.

In January 1984, the Company sought to further reduce its services and despite this, the Council declined a request for a Council/Government subsidy to help run the buses. Hardest hit areas would be the Mount and Matua. However a pro-Company councillor said that the Council was guilty of letting the bus service die. In February, the further cuts took effect representing one third of all services.

 

In 1985 the following services were still in operation:

1. City to Hospital, Gate Pa and Merivale

2. City to Greerton via Cameron Road

3. City to Mount Maunganui

4. City to Otumoetai area, Brookfield and Bellevue

5. City to Matua (twice a week)

 

Around this times operations were being conducted under the name of "Bayline Group Ltd": Campbell Jamieson was Managing Director, Terry Parkinson the Company Secretary and Tony Rolleston the fleet supervisor.

In July 1986, newspapers reported that all the City services operated by Bayline "faced the axe." The Company sought to have all its Route Licences revoked. Mr Jamieson said that while other cities supported public transport Tauranga did not.

With the cessation of most services, the sole surviving Bayline route was from the City to the Hospital, Merivale and Greerton. However, one Councillor, Mr Gordon Taylor later re-instituted a service from the City to Otumoetai / Matua / Bellevue and Cambridge Road.

For a time, the Bayline Group operated the Tauranga to Auckland coach service following the withdrawal from that route of the Mainline Company. For a time also, Bayline revived the City to Mount service following the opening of the Harbour Bridge

 

In April 1989, Campbell Jamieson retired from the Bayline Group with Mr Tony Lugg, formerly of Pahiatua Passenger Services, purchasing his shares and becoming Managing Director.

Operating smaller vehicles, the Otumoetai area service, as well as a run to the Mount was eventually taken up by Newloves who also operate between Bayfair and Papamoa.

The City-Greerton service was recently sold to the Ed & Joy Savill - the Savills were formerly with "Black and White Buses" which had been absorbed into the Bayline Group.

 

The Tauranga Public Transport controversy has not ended. In the "NZ Herald" of 29th September 1998, a Bay of Plenty Regional Councillor stated that "a rapidly growing Tauranga needs a public transport system. Calling for urgent action, he said that solving the problem would become more difficult and more expensive the longer it was ignored.

"Tauranga cannot achieve sustainable urban growth without public passenger transport," he said. "An integrated bus system is the simplest, most effective and efficient way of doing this" he continued. The Councillor was critical of the District Council's recent "Strategic Plan" which supported the idea of public transport without being prepared to provide funds. In response the Chairman of the Strategy Committee said it would not be prudent to commit large quantities of ratepayers funds to a public transport system in isolation. "The issue must also include roading, parking and other systems."

And so the familiar theme goes on!

 

For assistance in compiling this article, particular thanks are due to Mr X.D. McKinlay and the late Mrs M.H.M. Gresham. Thanks also to John Herbert, Alan Bellamy, the Tauranga District Museum and others including Tauranga Public Library.

Acknowledgment to the "NZ Herald", "Bay of Plenty Times", "The Bay Sun", "Mount and Papamoa Times", "BOP Mirror" and "PSV Circle". - Sourced from The Omnibus Magazine, November 1998.

  

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Following good performance from the pioneering diesel-hydraulic locomotive the DB Class V 80, the Deutsche Bundesbahn planned in 1953 to build several types of new diesel locomotive, primarily to replace steam powered locomotives.These were: V 60, and V 65, both shunters, the V 65.2, also for shunting as well as light freight trains, the heavy DB Class V 200, for express passenger trains, and the universal V 160 for both freight and passenger work on the main network.

 

The new V 160 class was a central piece in this line-up, because it would replace important steam-powered engines such as the BR 03, BR 23, BR 38.10 (former Prussian P 8 class), BR 39 (ex P 10), BR 50, BR 57 (ex G 10) and BR 78 (ex T 18). Steam heating for passenger coaches was necessary, and a top speed of 120 km/h was specified. Initially, a 1,600 hp powerplant, consisting of two engines of the same type as in the light V 80 was planned, the first newly developed diesel locomotive built for main line service by the Deutsche Bundesbahn (but only built in 10 examples). This dual engine arrangement had already been successfully introduced in the heavy V 200, which was initially powered by two 1,000 hp diesel engines. However, it was soon realized, that, if a single, high-powered engine could be used, weight, complexity and therefore maintenance and other costs would be considerably reduced. The V 160’s design was modified accordingly and a single MTU V16 four-stroke diesel engine was chosen. Both two-axle bogies were powered via drive shafts from a two speed hydraulic drive from Voith, which offered a compromise between the requested high speed for light passenger trains and the alternative reduced second gear with lower top speed, but much higher torque, for freight train service. Gears could only be switched when the locomotive was standing still, though.

 

In the spring of 1956, V 160 development began at Krupp. Welded steel components along with other lightweight materials were used to keep the axle load well below 20t, so that the V 160 could be safely operated on secondary lines. However, in the main production series of locomotives, some of the lighter weight welded construction was abandoned in favor of less expensively produced components - leading to an increase in axle weight from ~18.5 to ~20t, which was still acceptable but lowered overall production costs. This was furthermore not regarded as a major problem since the DB perspectively started to abandon branch lines, switching to more economical diesel multiple units or giving them up altogether towards the Seventies.

 

The first V 160 unit was delivered on 6 August 1960, with eight more following by 1962 from both Krupp and Henschel. These prototype units, due to their rounded, “busty” front end, were later to become unusual amongst the entire V 160 family and earned them the nickname “Lollo” (in allusion to Gina Lollobrigida). A final prototype V 160 010, the tenth, was manufactured by Henschel in 1963 and the first to feature the serial locomotives’ angled front end, which was inspired by the design of the super-heavy V 320 Henschel prototype.

 

Despite the single main engine, the V 160 was still a complex locomotive. In addition to the main engine, the V 160 featured a small, independent auxiliary diesel engine, driving a generator providing the 110 V electrical supply for lighting as well as driving an electric air compressor for the brakes. The steam heating apparatus, sourced from Hagenuk and powered by fuel oil, took up one end of the locomotive, between the engine and drivers cabin. It had the capacity to satisfactorily heat 10 coaches when the outside temperature was -10°C. For passenger train service, most V 160 locomotives were also equipped for push-pull operation, as well as for multiple working, controlled via a 36 pin control cable and respective sockets on the locomotives front ends.

 

The prototypes performed well, and volume production began, numbers V 160 011 to V 160 224 being built between 1964 and 1968 by Krupp, Henschel, KHD, Krauss-Maffei and MaK. The first V 160/216 locomotives entered service on the Hamburg to Lübeck line, working push-pull double decked passenger trains, replacing the BR 38.10 and BR 78 steam engines. The engines were also used on freight workings as well. On push-pull passenger working, the locomotives were sometimes found in the middle of the train - which facilitated easier separation of carriages en route.

 

By the time the 156th example was under completion, the Deutsche Bundesbahn changed its numbering system. From then on, the V 160 class were re-designated as Class (Baureihe = BR) 216, with the individual unit numbering continuing as before. Over the next decade, because of changing requirements – mostly in terms of increased power, speed as well as the requirement for electrical passenger heating – a number of related classes sprang up, the BR 210, 215, 217, 218 and 219. Although some were a little longer and carried additional components (e.g. an auxiliary jet engine), all of them were essentially based on the original V 160 and more than 800 machines of all types were eventually built.

 

Since the 1990s, the Bundesbahn’s BR 216 locomotives scope of work started to shift more on freight than on passenger trains because of the lack of steam-heated passenger stock. From 2000 onwards, the Deutsche Bahn AG’s BR 216 fleet was phased out, with the last locomotive being decommissioned in 2004.

Several locomotives were sold to private operators like rail construction companies and remained in frequent use, and some retired BR 216s were re-built and offered for sale, too. The first in the series of rebuilt Class 216s was called type “DH 1504” and created in 1998 by the firm 'On Rail'. Despite only little external changes, the result was an almost completely new locomotive, only the transmission, bogies and frame were saved from the original locomotive. The original V16 diesel engine with 1,370 kW (1.900 hp), was replaced with a lighter but more powerful 1500 kW (2,085 hp) V12 four-stroke diesel engine, also from MTU. On customer demand, a new electric Webasto heating system could be installed instead of the original steam heating system, making the DH 1504 capable of operating modern passenger trains, and for this purpose the units were also fitted for multiple working as well as for remote control operation (e.g. for shunting). Another option was additional ballast, so that the axle load could be kept at 20 tons for better traction. Otherwise, 18 t axle load was standard for the revamped DH 1504.

 

Since 1998, 6 of these locomotives were re-built for private operators in Germany. By late 2019, three DH 1504 locomotives were in the use of the Osthannoversche Eisenbahnen (OHE), two work for the Niederrheinische Verkehrsbetriebe (NIAG) and one for the Mindener Kreisbahnen (MKB). However, the biggest sales success for OnRail’s modernized BR 216 was the export to Poland, where the PKP (Polskie Koleje Państwowe, Polish State Railways). After its privatization in 2001, the PKP was looking for a low-cost replacement for its last ST-43 Class diesel electric freight locomotives of Romanian origin, which dated back to the 1960ies. Twenty DH 1504 locomotives for mixed duties were built by OnRail between 2001 and 2005 and entered PKP service as Class SU-29 (spalinowa uniwersalna = mixed-traffic diesel locomotive with hydraulic transmission and multiple-unit control). Their initial primary field of duty was the cross-border freight traffic on the east-west relation on the PKP “Polskie line Kolejowe”, the so-called “Niederschlesische Gütermagistrale”. Since 2005, this route had been expanded, electrified and became double-railed, so that the SU-29s gradually took over more and more passenger train duties on non-electrified major lines. The SU-29 machines are expected to remain in PKP service beyond 2030.

  

General characteristics:

Gauge: 1,435 mm (4 ft 8½ in) standard gauge

UIC axle arrangement: B´B´

Overall length: 16,800 mm (52 ft 57⁄8 in)

Pivot distance: 8,600 mm

Bogie distance: 2,800 mm

Wheel diameter (when new): 1000 mm

Fuel supply: 3,800 l

Service weight: 80 t

 

Engine:

MTU 4000R20 V12diesel engine with 1500 kW (2,085 hp) at 1,800 RPM

 

Gearbox:

Voith L821rs 2-speed gearbox

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 120 km/h (75 mph) or 80 km/h (50 mph)

Torque: 235,2 kN

 

The kit and its assembly:

Well, this is a rather unusual what-if “build”, since this not a model kit as such but rather the conversion of a readymade H0 gauge model railway locomotive for the “Back into service” group build at whatifmodelers.com in late 2019.

 

The inspiration was not original, though: some time ago I stumbled across a gift set from the former East-German manufacturer Piko, apparently for the Polish market. It contained a set of double deck passenger wagons, and a (highly simplified, toy-like) German BR 216 in PKP markings. It was called SU-29 and carried a very crude and garish green livery with yellow front ends – inspired by real world PKP diesel locomotives, but… wrong. I found this so bizarre that it stuck in my mind. When I dug a little further, my surprise even grew when I found out that there were other national adaptations of this simple Piko BR 216 (e .g. for Denmark) and that Piko’s competitor Roco offered a similar BR 215 in PKP colors, too! This time, the fictional locomotive was designated SU-47 (which cannot be since this would indicate a locomotive with electric power transmission – poor job!), and it also wore a bright green livery with yellow front markings. Bizarre… And the PKP does NOT operate any BR 216 at all?!

 

However, with the GB topic in mind, I decided to create my own interpretation of this interesting topic – apparently, there’s a market for whiffy model locomotives? The basis became a 2nd hand Märklin 3075 (a BR 216 in the original red DB livery), not a big investment since this is a very common item.

In order to easy painting, the locomotive was disassembled into its major sections and the body stripped of any paint in a one-week bath in oven cleaner foam, a very mild and effective method.

 

The heavy metal chassis was not modified, it just received a visual update (see below).

 

The upper body underwent some cosmetic surgery, though, but nothing dramatic or structural, since the DH 1504 described above only differs in minor external details from the original BR 216. I decided to modify the front ends, especially the lights: Locomotives in PKP service tend to have VERY large lamps, and I tried to incorporate this characteristic feature through masks that were added over the original light conductors, scratched from styrene tube material.

In the course of this facial surgery, the molded handles at the lower front corners were lost. They were later replaced with three-dimensional silver wire, mounted into small holes that were drilled into the hull at the appropriate positions. Fiddly stuff, but I think the effort was worth it.

 

The original vent grills between the lower lamps were sanded away and covers for the multiple working cable adapters on the front ends added – scratched with small styrene profile bits.

For a cleaner, modern look, I removed the original decorative aluminum profile frame around the upper row of cooling louvers. The roof was modified, too: beyond the bigger headlight fairing, the exhaust for the auxiliary diesel engine was removed, as well as the chimney for the old steam heating system. The diesel engine’s exhaust pipes were lengthened (inspired by similar devices carried by DB BR 218), so that the fumes would be deviated away from the locomotive’s hull and the following wagons. Horns and a blade antenna for each driver’s cabin were added, too.

  

Painting and markings:

Both Piko and Roco V 160s in PKP markings look garish – righteously, though, since PKP locomotives used to carry for many years very striking colors, primarily a dark green body with a light green/teal contrast area on the flanks and yellow quick recognition front markings. However, I did not find any of the two model designs convincing, since they rather looked like a simple toy (Piko) or just wrong (Roco, with a surreal grass green contrast tone instead of the pale teal).

 

I rather went for something inspired by real world locomotives, like the PKP’s SU- and SP-45s. The basic design is an upper body with a dark green base (Humbrol 76, Uniform Green) and a pale green-grey area around the upper row of louvres (an individual mix of Humbrol 96 and 78). The kink under the front windows was used for waterline reference, the front section under the windows (in the dark green base) was painted in bright yellow (Humbrol 69) as a high-viz contrast, a typical feature of PKP locomotives. The chassis received a grey-green frame (somewhat visually stretching the locomotive) with bright red (Humbrol 19) headstocks, a nice color contrast to the green body and the yellow bib.

Silver 1.5mm decal stripes (TL Modellbau) were used to create a thin cheatline along and around the whole lower section. At some time I considered another cheatline between the light and dark green, but eventually ignored this idea because it would have looked too retro. The locomotive’s roof became medium grey (Revell 47).

 

The running gear and the tanks between the bogies were painted in very dark grey (Humbrol 67, similar to the original DB livery in RAL 7021) and weathered with a light black ink wash, some thinned Burnt Umbra (simulating dust and rust) plus some light dry-brushing with dark grey that emphasized the surface details. This used look was also taken to the upper body of the locomotive with watercolours (Grey, Black and some Sienna and Burnt Umbra) for a more natural look of daily service – rather subtle, and I emphasized the louvres, esp. on the light background, where they tended to disappear.

 

Individual markings consist of single decal letters in silver and white in various sizes (also TL Modellbau) for the locomotive’s registration code as well as of H0 scale catenary warnings from Nothaft Hobbybedarf, plus some generic stencils from various model decal sheets (incl. Cyrillic stencils from an 1:72 MiG-21 decal sheet…).

 

For a uniform finish I gave the locomotive an overall coat of matt acrylic varnish from the rattle can – it still has a slightly sheen finish and matches well the look of Märklin’s standard rolling stock.

  

A different kind of what-if project, but this has not been my first H0 scale locomotive conversion. The fictional PKP SU-29 looks a bit weird, with the garish paint scheme and the oversized headlights, but this strangeness makes this model IMHO quite convincing. The model is fully functional, even the light works well in the enlarged headlight fairings. Maybe I’ll sell it, since I do not have the appropriate model railway set at hand to effectively use it (which is also the reason for the rather limited scope of pictures of the finished item). And I am curious what people might be willing to pay for such a unique, fictional item?

 

Minimalist photography is an art form that embraces simplicity, focusing on clean lines, negative space, and a limited number of elements to create a powerful visual impact. By removing distractions, this style emphasizes the subject and its relationship to the surrounding space, often evoking a sense of calm, isolation, or introspection. Minimalism relies heavily on composition, light, and contrast, encouraging viewers to appreciate the beauty of subtle details and the emotions they convey. It transforms ordinary scenes into striking works of art by showing how less can indeed be more.

This image is from my collection and was uploaded as part of an archive I created in 2017. The purpose of this archive is to make the photos easier to access, and to share with fellow collectors and photographers.

 

Please be aware that many of these images were scanned as early as twenty-five years ago. There can be blanks in the description & credit lines, however I always try to complete as much detail as possible. Generally speaking, items that are lacking in detail means I do not have the original, just the scan itself. I encourage you to fill in any of the blanks if you know, including the appropriate credit (via the comment field)

 

All images have been collected over the past 40+ years of shooting Kodachrome and digital images, slide purchases and many years of exchanging. I was fortunate enough to trade with some of the best airliner photographers around the world.

 

REGISTRATION : CF-ZST

MFR TYPE & SERIES : Lockheed L188A Electra

MSN : 1128

OPERATOR : Pacific Western

AIRPORT (WHEN KNOWN) : Edmonton YXD

DATE (WHEN KNOWN) : 1971

PHOTOGRAPHER (WHEN KNOWN) : R Stumpf

  

Stagecoach Cumberland Volvo B10M-Jonckheere Modulo step entrance dual purpose bus on Oxford Street in Workington with a 302 Whitehaven to Workington service. This vehicle was new to Lillyhall depot as fleet number 797 'Workington Hall', delivered in non standard 'The Cumbrian Connection' livery, in October 1998.

QUG25008 with COB open top general purpose end discharge containers Forrestfield Joe Moir

Hidalgo County, Texas, USA.

 

Photography has been a bit slow for me lately, but I've discovered a file of Odonate images that I have never shared on Flickr. I am not an expert on ID of Odonata, so input is encouraged if you think my ID is incorrect.

 

The use of any of my photos, of any file size, for any purpose, is subject to approval by me. Contact me for permission. Image files are available upon request. My email address can be found at my Flickr profile page. Or send me a FlickrMail.

Shot with an Argus A from the 1930s a £16 E-Bay bargain and HP5 which expired in 1990, and stand developed in Rodinal 1+100 for 1 hour really enjoyed using this simple camera.

 

In 2022, I returned to Colombia. The main purpose of this trip was to explore the Amazonian rainforest areas near Leticia and then on the Rio Negro. In 2007 I was in the Leticia area on a volunteering project and the 2022 trip gave me the chance to see more of the area.

 

As these are border areas, with the rivers travelled actually being the borders, I also visited / transitted through Brazil, Peru and Venezuela. I will create one master set / album for the entire six week trip, plus separate country albums to help viewers who are interested only in a specific country.

 

I also spent time in Bogota and in the Boyaca region. Overall intinerary: London - Leticia - Bogota - Villavincenzio - Rio Negro - Puerto Inirida - Bogota (incl Nemocon) - Villa de Leyva - Tunja - Bogota - London.

The purpose of this trip was to set up a temporary medical clinic in the rural village of Ekumfi Obidan in Ghana. These people did not have access to modern healthcare. Interestingly enough, Ghana has a fledgling government run universal healthcare system. One must purchase a card every year to be covered. The card costs around the equivalent of U.S. $7 per year, but many of these people still cannot afford that. Throughout our stay, we saw over 700 patients; a large percentage of whom were afflicted by malaria or parasitic worms.

 

Using cars and trucks for publicity purposes has a long tradition.

I found this image as an early example of vehicles as an advertisement object.

This Chevrolet made promotion for Van Nelle Tabak, Rotterdam in the early 1930s.

 

I have no further information about this Chevrolet truck.

 

Picture taken from a photograph found in the book: Lastwagens, Vrachtauto's en Trucks by Martin Wallast, Rijswijk, Elmar, 1986.

 

Amsterdam, Oct. 3, 2019.

 

© 1986/2019 Elmar/Sander Toonen Amsterdam | All Rights Reserved

This is, basically, a throwaway photograph. The subject matter is uninteresting and there's certainly nothing intriguing about how I took the shot. However, there are two very interesting aspects surrounding this photograph that speaks to something I've mentioned before in how Dona and I take pictures.

 

On this trip, Dona and I were purposed to find the tombstone of a famous bluegrass musician, Charlie Poole. His grave is in Rockingham County, a place Dona and I go to repeatedly looking for subjects to photograph. I looked up directions to the cemetery online and we set off.

 

When we got to Eden (Spray) and were following the electronic directions, we came to the end of the line only to discover that the cemetery was nowhere in sight. In our experiences, electronic maps are not as accurate as you would expect them to be. Frustrated, we started traveling the surrounding roads in hopes of coming across the cemetery. After several minutes, I was all for giving up and returning home. Dona, though, is not one to give up once she starts something. So, on we drove looking for the missing cemetery.

 

I've mentioned before on Flickr how the most interesting and meaningful photos Dona and I have ever taken were found when we became lost. There have also been times when we have searched for subjects we knew of but had no clear idea how to find. Then, all of a sudden, we would awkwardly stumble across our destination. We refer to this as being guided by unseen hands. It happens so frequently, more often than not, we purposefully get lost just to see where we'll end up and what we'll find. It almost always turns out to be we find subject matter we never knew existed.

 

On this trip, we decided to backtrack our route in hopes of finding a turnoff we might have missed the first time. We found a place to turn around, a church parking lot. Dona was in the process of turning the car around when in her rear view mirror she spied the sign in the photograph above. Immediately, she brought it to my attention. She parked the car and we walked across the road to explore the Old Spray Cemetery.

 

It appeared to be abandoned. The grave stones were broken and covered with weeds. I had to be careful where I stepped because the area was covered in brambles that tore at my pants.

 

I took my pictures and we left. Incidentally, we did go down the right street that led us to the cemetery where Charlie Poole was buried. But, that is not the story that I want to tell.

 

I belong to a Facebook group of people who lived in Spray at some point in their life. In the mid-sixties, the towns of Spray, Draper and Leaksville were combined into the city of Eden, North Carolina in Rockingham County. This group is comprised of older residents and past residents that post photos and memories of growing up in Spray.

 

I was curious about the Old Spray Cemetery. I had never heard of it before and had never read any comments about it in the group. So, I posted this photograph and asked if anyone knew the history of the place. Yes, people had heard of it. Some people had family buried there. But, over the years, the cemetery had been forgotten. Being a small, Southern community, honoring the dead and the resting place of the dead is an important thing. Immediately, comments were posted about how shameful the cemetery looked. Questions were asked whose responsibility the cemetery was. Someone contacted the City of Eden. They did not own the cemetery. No one claimed ownership. Over the next two or three weeks, the members of the Spray group started a campaign seeking volunteers to go into the cemetery to clean it up. Arrangements were made with the church across the street to allow parking for the volunteers. A date of November 10th is the date for the cleanup. A member of the group took the old sign down, painted it and replaced the letters. The new sign is back in place.

 

All of this came about as a result of Dona and I getting lost trying to find another grave in another cemetery. Judging from the comments I read on the group page, family members were reconnected to memories of passed family members buried here. And, I hope, the efforts of cleanup will be such that this little resting place of loved ones who have passed over will be restored as best as can be to a maintained cemetery.

 

It's funny how those who have passed on can remain with us in our memories and our hearts. I have an aunt that died in infancy and is buried in Danville, Virginia. No marker is on her grave. Over the years, I cannot determine if any family members ever visited her grave after moving to North Carolina shortly after Dorothy's death. Yet, for me, I often think of that small child in her forgotten grave in another state. Does she wonder why her family forgot her? I researched online and found the plot information to locate her grave in the cemetery where she is buried. I don't drive. It's been over two years since I got the info to locate her grave so I could stand where she rests and let her know not everyone forgot about her.

 

Some people think my interest in photographing cemeteries is disrespectful. Some people tell me the past and the people who inhabit it have no bearing on the present. I believe time is a continuum. Much like a river that travels from this place to that, it effects whatever it touches. What went before determines the present just as the present determines the future. I cannot and will not forget my Aunt Dorothy as it appears my family has. Dorothy may not have been around long. But, her death impacted my grandparents' lives more than anyone but them will ever know. No. I do not believe the dead should ever be forgotten.

Mark 32 Mod 4, Dual Purpose 5"/38 caliber twin gun mount for USS intrepid (4 twin mounts fitted).

The FTX Arena (formerly known as American Airlines Arena) is a sports and entertainment multi-purpose arena located in Miami, Florida, along Biscayne Bay. It was constructed beginning in 1998 as a replacement for the Miami Arena and designed by the architecture firms Arquitectonica and 360 Architecture. The arena is home to the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association.

 

The FTX Arena is directly served by the Miami Metrorail at Government Center station via free transfers to Metromover Omni Loop, providing direct service to Freedom Tower and Park West stations. The Arena is also within walking distance from the Historic Overtown/Lyric Theatre Metrorail station.

 

The FTX Arena has 2,105 club seats, 80 luxury suites, and 76 private boxes. The Waterfront Theater is Florida's largest theater which is housed within the arena, that can seat between 3,000 and 5,800. The theater can be configured for concerts, family events, musical theatre, and other stage shows. American Airlines which has a hub at Miami International Airport maintains the FTX Arena Travel Center at the venue.

 

In September 2019, it was reported that the arena would have a new name in 2020. In March 2021, FTX Crypto Exchange, a bitcoin exchange platform, acquired the naming rights to the arena for $135 million. The NBA approved the deal in early April, and the arena was fully renamed FTX Arena in June 2021.

 

Credit for the data above is given to the following websites:

www.emporis.com/buildings/240490/american-airlines-arena-...

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTX_Arena

 

© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.

   

Molong. Population 1,700.

The white European history of Molong began in 1822 when a government stockade was established near the town site as a stopover point for transportation teams going to the early convict settlement at Wellington. A couple of early squatters bought cattle here and in 1826 the government setup a small military and police outpost. Captain Charles Sturt visited Molong in 1828. Charles Sturt arrived as a personal assistant to Governor Ralph Darling of NSW with the expressed purpose of doing some exploration. His exploration expeditions began in 1828 when the Governor appointed him to lead an exploration party along the Macquarie River. Sturt, accompanied by explorer Hamilton Hume (a currency lad), travelled down the Macquarie River from Bathurst until they crossed the marshes before it flows into the Darling River. The first official squatting license in the Molong area was granted in 1832. The town site was gazetted in 1849 but land sales did not began until 1856 with the licensing of the Golden Fleece Hotel and the Freemason’s Hotel. Within a couple of years Molong (a Wiradjuri word for “place of many rocks”) had a Methodist Church (1858), an Anglican Church (1860), an early flourmill, houses, a school and a post service. In the boom years of the 1870s and 1880s many fine stone buildings were erected as farms producing wheat, sheep and wool prospered. Today most of the main street, Bank Street, is classified by the National Trust. Starting at the Railway Station. It was built for the opening of the railway in 1886. It was the rail terminus until 1893. A branch line to Dubbo was built in 1925. There is a gate keeper’s cottage near the level crossing. The railway line is on the main Sydney to Parkes (and Perth) line but passenger services stopped years ago. It is now the town library. A number of the main heritage buildings are:

 

Freemason’s Hotel, built as a single story hotel in 1856. It was rebuilt in 1911 with an upper floor.

Post Office Hotel. This fine structure was built as a hotel in 1872 and is now the Rural Lands Protection Board offices. After it closed as a hotel it became a bank for some years.

National Bank. This was built in 1883 as the Commercial Banking Company of Sydney. Later a NAB bank. It was restored in 1988. It is a superb Italianate or classical revival building with perfect symmetry.

Molong Stores. A fine two storey Italianate style shop and residence. Built in 1876.

Post Office. Despite earlier postal services this grand bank was not built until 1880. The second story was added in 1900 as the Post Master’s residence.

Pioneer Bakery. Next to the Post Office. Another fine old late 19th century shop and residence. Now the Pioneer Bakery. Built around 1895 to 1900.

Telegraph Hotel. Located opposite the Post Office this hotel was built in 1880 the year the telegraph reached Molong. Built with an arched entry to the rear courtyard for coaches and horses. Cast iron lacework veranda and refashioned with roof pediments circa 1910.

Commonwealth Bank. Mediterranean Art Deco style. Built in 1930 by architect E Henderson. Many Art Deco traits including barley twist columns, fan shells over windows, roof parapet with square in fills, curved corner entrance etc.

Cobb and Co Coach House. Located beside the village green is the old Cobb and Co coach house. Their NSW operations were based in Bathurst from 1862. The Molong stage house was on the Bathurst to Bourke route which covered 2,000 miles from the Macquarie River to the Darling River. Horses were changed every 16 miles on these relatively fast moving coaches. The coach house in Molong was built around 1875. When built it was beside the Royal Hotel erected in 1877, a necessary adjunct for travellers to obtain food and sometimes rest. The Royal Hotel burnt down in the 1940s. It is now used by local craft producers with the Bicentennial Embroidered Screen there and a collection of locally spun items.

Old brick cottage now the Market Craft Cottage. Built in 1860 as a Georgian style cottage residence and now a craft shop and Info Centre.

Town Hall. This was built in 1888. After World War One a new foundation stone was added in 1922 stating it was Soldiers Memorial Town Hall. It was designed in Italianate style with many classical features such as Ionic columns, broken triangular pediment above the entrance etc. The new stone project was funded by donations from residents.

Next to the Town Hall is the Anglican Church. The red brick 1905 Anglican Church with the large rose window was built with terracotta roof tiles. Next to it is the original St Johns Anglican Church built in local stone in 1860. It became the church hall in 1905.

Terrace houses. Opposite the old Anglican Church up the hill is a pair of two storey terraces. Built around 1890.

Wesleyan Methodist Church. Just beyond the newish red brick church is the old original 1857 Methodist Church. Built in local rubble with Gothic windows. The earliest church in Molong.

Catholic Church. Turn southwards in Edwards Street to see the two Catholic churched on the next corner. The rough stone church in Gothic style was built in 1880. Right on the corner is the large Gothic church with buttresses, corner turrets, and six section window in the gable and central entrance. It opened in 1916. Return to the Main Street.

A 10 minute walk away at 1 Edward Street is the fine Courthouse (1863) and Police Station (1878).

 

The local museum is housed in the old 1856 Golden Fleece Hotel near the Catholic Church but it is closed for renovations. Amongst its local memorabilia is information about the Fairbridge Farm of Molong. A local farmer and idealist Kingsley Fairbridge ran a boarding and educational establishment for British children bought to NSW as child immigrants. Earlier in 1912 he had started the Society for the furtherance of Child Emigration to the Colonies. They were trained for farm work. The program ran with government assistance from 1938 to the early 1970s. Molong is also a major centre along the Animals on Bikes Trail. This trail is often described as a 120 km trail of Paddock Art depicting amusing sculptures of animals created by local farmers and community members made from obsolete items and yard junk. There are several in Molong at Caldwells Scrap Metal Yard featuring an emu and a frog.

 

Merseyside Police

 

Dept: Special Constabulary

 

Roof Code: 126

 

Role: General Purpose Vehicle

 

Make: Peugeot 308

 

Station: Canning Place HQ

- - - Please note that ALL of my images are "All Rights Reserved" and are posted for educational purposes only. Please do the right thing and contact me in advance if you wish to discuss the use or reuse of my images and provide a link to my originals. I would also ask that I be given a "first look" at any 7Up UnCola billboards or posters before you market them to the general public in return for my extensive investment in time, money and research, including interviewing some of the surviving artists. Thanks, and enjoy. - - -

 

Search "7Up UnCola Billboards" on eBay or Flickr.com if you'd like to learn more about this stunning body of work or acquire originals that might be duplicates to me. I keep the best and sell the rest.

 

9/26/15:

- - - ONE-OF-A-KIND - - -

This is the ONLY KNOWN HARD COPY of this image in ANY size, with the possible exception of the artist's proof. This one just happens to be a gigantic 210 s.f. (21'x10') like the rest of the billboards in my collection.

 

Each of the 12 rainlapped paper panels are 43" wide x 59" tall. This copy is in perfect unused New Old Stock (NOS) MINT condition and needed NO repairs.

 

Kim Whitesides added his signature on the left side of the center 7Up circle.

 

Refer to my other recent post showing a scale model of this billboard image:

www.flickr.com/photos/30559980@N07/21470610579/in/album-7...

 

This is the 4th 21'x10' 7Up UnCola billboard to be displayed in 1969 to introduce the hugely successful "The UnCola" ad campaign to America. The rainlap diagram on the back lists this as [Design] DES 69-4, C-2691. Kim Whitesides also illustrated DES-3 - "Un & Un Is Too" (2 guitar players), along with 2 others that I'm still trying to locate or acquire as of now.

 

The JPG image used to print the color insert in the scale model (other linked photo) came from the artist himself. For more information, refer to my other posts about Kim Whitesides:

www.flickr.com/photos/30559980@N07/8388410836/in/album-72...

www.flickr.com/photos/30559980@N07/8386017983/in/album-72...

www.flickr.com/photos/30559980@N07/8387105130/in/album-72...

 

kimwhitesides.com/

 

In 1969 the seller boldly asked a sign company for whatever they would give him. They just handed him 3 1/3 billboards for free including: "Uncanny In Cans" by John Alcorn, "Un & Un Is Too" by Kim Whitesides, this "Visit Un-derland" by Whitesides and the top left corner of a really trippy "Turn Un" by Pat Dypold.

 

This is #22 in my series of restored (if needed) and posted 7Up UnCola billboards to date. See more of the series in this album:

www.flickr.com/photos/30559980@N07/albums/72157632169912289

 

Contact me if you have a serious interest in acquiring any of my dozen or so duplicate billboards. I'm also interested in trades that will complete my collection.

 

My prices would be FAR more reasonable and come with in-depth accurate research compared to my $15,000 (linen backed) & $12,500 competition:

www.1stdibs.com/furniture/wall-decorations/wallpaper/1969...] - - - ! ! !

www.20thdesign.com/itemdetails.php?id=1834992

 

Vintage duplicate original Billboards and Posters for sale:

www.flickr.com/photos/30559980@N07/albums/72157658672736088

 

There are at least 53 billboard images in the entire body of work spanning from 1969 until the mid-1970's. Only up-and-coming artists of the day were invited to submit designs which were then judged by the client. The J. Walter Thompson [advertising] Co. in Chicago orchestrated the entire ad campaign.

 

Twin copies of this billboard were up BEFORE Woodstock in mid-August of 1969!

 

This image appears to be a slender girl dancing or tiptoeing through the tulips which are common in many of Whiteside illustrations. This also follows falsetto voiced Tiny Tim's "Tiptoe Through The Tulips" done in 1968.

youtu.be/zcSlcNfThUA

If you asked me if you can photograph something you cannot see, I'd respond by saying that for all practical purposes, you cannot. One must be able to see at least some aspect of what they want to photograph. So then perhaps you point to this image and say, "Well surely you couldn't see that, it doesn't exist in such a manner." I would counter by saying of course I saw it, how else could I have photographed it? I mean, what are the odds that I just walked out to the Arc de Triomphe and exposed six frames on my Holga that just so happened to line up in such a way to make this image? Slim to none. Maybe an infinite number of monkeys with an infinite number of cameras photographing forever would eventually stumble across this composition blindly, but I don't own a single monkey, let alone an infinite army of them.

 

Defining sight is tricky, sure. Most of it is done with the eyes, but sight is more than just the focusing of light through the lenses of our eyes. If that was all sight was then nodoby would be color blind and we would see the world upside-down and backwards as the image was projected into our eyes. In fact there is a condition called cortical blindness where one's eyes work perfectly fine but the brain is incapable or receiving or processing the data the eyes and optical nerves send. Furthermore, there is a phenomenon known as blindsight, where cortically blind people are able to react to visual stimuli they cannot consciously see, such as reflexive action or forced guessing.

 

But what does this have to do with photography? So what if sight is a combination of eyes and brain, where do the cameras come in? Well, they don't really, because this isn't really about the cameras, it is about seeing and the difficulty in photographing what one cannot see. Many photographers like to equate photography with shooting guns, so let's run that analogy. Imagine you go hunting. The most commonly practiced method is to stalk an animal until it is sighted and then to close within a reasonable range and shoot it. This method succeeds because you saw the animal, you knew it was there. Imagine stepping into a forest and randomly shooting hoping to hit something through blind luck. It wouldn't work very well at all, would it? In photography we have the term "spray and pray" but in reality, that spray and pray is still directed by sight to some degree, it is never completely blind nor random.

 

I think it is also important to attach importance to the visualization that goes on in your head as being part of sight. Call it seeing with your "mind's eye" if you will. Whatever works for you. Ansel Adams referred to it as pre-visualization - seeing before seeing. It is important to consider this aspect of seeing because while you cannot really train your eyes to accept light differently, you can train your mind to interpret that visual data in different fashions. In that sense - and the key point to this little essay - sight can be treated as a skill, one that CAN be trained, nurtured, expanded and so on and so forth.

 

Sight as a skill should be an important consideration for most photographers. How many photographers stay home in poor weather/light because they cannot "see" any good photos to make out there while other photographers go out knowing what to look for and they tend to find it. The more you can see, the more you can photograph. Of course, you can also opt to wander that forest blindly firing away with your infinite army of monkeys. I imagine at some point you are bound to hit something... eventually.

 

-------- Photographer's note -----------

Wow, this image has such a different feel than what it was like to stand there. This roundabout is sheer organized chaos, in a slightly frightening fashion. What makes it even more hair-raising is that the method for reaching the center of the Arc is through an underground tunnel - one whose presence is not immediately obvious. You stand here long enough and you will see people run across the street through the traffic because they think it is the only way to cross. I saw one father with two young children, a baby, and the baby's stroller actually brave the non-stop flow of traffic to get across. It made my heart lurch up in my throat a brief moment certain I was about to see an awful accident take place when they scampered out into the road. But they made it. The experience made me want to photograph the tunnel under the Arc as part of the whole, but the this isn't possible in a single, straight image. But that was the vision that drew me into making this Holgarama. The result accomplishes those hopes... to a degree. As with most of these Holgaramas, the end result is often at least slightly (and usually severely) different than I initially expected. There are aspects to this idea I wouldn't mind refining and I certainly mind taking another crack at the Arc with my Holga. But any excuse to visit Paris again is a good excuse. ;-)

The Stork II-C was a multi-purpose civilian aircraft derived from a nimble bomber platform that was too late for deployment in the Basin civil war. The arrangement of the pilot's and navigator's compartments were unusual even for contemporary designated civilian aircraft but left the majority of the fuselage's volume usable as one spacious, unobstructed hold.

The plane retained some quirks of it's former military variant. Pilot and navigator could drop their seats and slip down into the fuselage to switch positions if required. Additionally, like on many of Crestland's designs of the era, the rudder and wing layout gave the pilot improved field of view, which occasionally encouraged spritied manouvers even among the airline pilots.

Gradual technical refinements to the powerplants and controls as well as individual structural reeinforcements allowed it to carry impressive loads for it's size and made the Stork II a popular choice, even as the majority of other commercial open-cockpit airliners started to be quickly phased out in the subsequent post-war years.

All-purpose card made from card stock, Okinawa “bingata paper” and Japanese origami paper hand-folded into a paper crane.

 

Size: 10.5 cm x 14.8 cm

 

I chose this quote for the Purposed campaign and edited the photo.

Quote: by Tom Barrett

Photo credit: Morgue File (free image) by www.morguefile.com/creative/hotblack

The purpose here is not to duplicate the original image, from Okinawa Soba's stream, but to generate an animated gif to assist viewing. Unfortunately, animation is not automatic - to animate you must view the image at original resolution (click all sizes) or simply scroll down.

 

Okinawa Soba posted several CC licensed stereoimages by T. Enami documenting life in early 20th century Japan (the Meiji period). The original hand tinted image (circa 1898), presented for parallel viewing and showing a pilgrim walking into the misty forest is one of many remarkable stereo compositions. This animated gif version exploits motion parallax to give a stereo illusion without eyestrain, to see what the photographer envisioned.

 

Animated gif generated with StereoPhotoMaker, a freeware program by Masuji Suto & David Sykes

 

creative commons attribution of Okinawa Soba's original image:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/24443965@N08/ / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

hans-inshan.blogspot.com.es/2015/01/purposes.html

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Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

 

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

 

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

 

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

This MW6G wears the Tilling dual purpose livery for United Counties. Looking very smart with its bi-folding doors.

 

1:76 Scale, OO Gauge.

Coach is by BT Models (Base Toys).

The destination and route number have been changed.

Changing of the guard in this northward view on November 16, 2015, of the NS Marion District, depicts a newly installed signal waiting to be cut over to replace the former PRR position light signals that have served here since the early 1970s. The PL signals were recycled from Pennsylvania during a Penn Central era project to upgrade this line. The purpose of the upgrade was to shift traffic away from the old PRR Panhandle route through Logansport, and reroute it though Elkhart.

INGREDIENTS

1 1/2 cups Pillsbury BEST® All Purpose Flour

1/3 cup Hershey’s® baking cocoa

1 cup packed brown sugar

1 teaspoon baking soda

1/4 teaspoon salt

1/3 cup Crisco® Pure Vegetable Oil

1 cup water

1 tablespoon white vinegar

1/2 teaspoon vanilla

1 EGGLAND’S BEST egg

1 package (8 oz) cream cheese, softened

3/4 cup Jif® Creamy Peanut Butter

1/3 cup granulated sugar

1/3 cup powdered sugar

1/4 cup Reese's® peanut butter chips

1/4 cup Hershey’s® semi-sweet chocolate baking chips

 

DIRECTIONS

1. Heat oven to 350°F. Place paper baking cup in each of 18 regular-size muffin cups.

2. In large bowl, mix flour, cocoa, brown sugar, baking soda and salt. Add oil, water, vinegar and vanilla to flour mixture, stirring just until smooth (do not overmix).

3. In another large bowl, beat egg, cream cheese, peanut butter and granulated sugar with electric mixer on medium speed until smooth. Add powdered sugar; beat until creamy.

4. Spoon 1 level tablespoon chocolate batter into each cup; evenly spread 1 level tablespoon peanut butter filling on top. Repeat layers. Sprinkle with peanut butter chips and chocolate chips.

5. Bake 25 to 30 minutes or until toothpick inserted in center comes out clean (do not overbake). Cool in pan 15 minutes. Remove from pan to cooling rack; cool 15 minutes. Serve warm or cool.

Name: Robert Jackson

Arrested for: not given

Arrested at: North Shields Police Station

Arrested on: 15 April 1907

Tyne and Wear Archives ref: DX1388-1-105-Robert Jackson

 

For an image of his accomplice Margaret Harker see www.flickr.com/photos/twm_news/16822680419/in/album-72157....

 

The Shields Daily News for 22 April 1907 reports:

 

“ROBBERY FROM THE PERSON.

 

At North Shields Police Court today, before Councillor J. Sanderson and Mr G.H. Stansfield, Margaret Harker, Normanby, and Janet Sanderson, Newcastle, were charged on demand with having stolen from the person of Joseph Conaty, 6d and a pot of rum on the 13th inst.

 

Prosecutor, who is a shipwright living at No. 2 Reed Street, stated that at 11.15 pm on the date named he was in Bedford Street, near to the Tiger Stairs, when he was accosted by the two women who asked him to go with them. They went to a room in Liddell Street and after he had given them each 1s they knocked him about, went through his pockets, and took 6d and a pot of rum. Later he was kicked downstairs by a man and upon getting outside he saw some police officers and informed them of what had occurred. PC Graham and Sergt. Wilson spoke to finding one of the women crouching in a recess in the yard of a house in Liddell Street.

 

Accused pleaded not guilty. The magistrates taking into consideration the fact that they had been in custody for some time, committed them only for one day.

 

Margaret Harker, in conjunction with Robert Jackson and Thos. Bell, were charged with loitering in Liddell Street, supposed for the purpose of committing a felony, on the 13th inst. PC Graham and Sergt. Wilson gave evidence in support of the charge. Chief Constable Huish said he had made enquiries concerning the accused and had found that they had all been convicted for larceny. Harker made her 47th appearance, Thos. Bell his 6th appearance and Jackson his 8th appearance. The last named had been imprisoned for shop-breaking and robbery with violence. The charge was stoutly denied by the accused who were each committed to prison for a month with hard labour.”

 

These images are a selection from an album of photographs of prisoners brought before the North Shields Police Court between 1902 and 1916 in the collection of Tyne & Wear Archives (TWA ref DX1388/1).

 

(Copyright) We're happy for you to share this digital image within the spirit of The Commons. Please cite 'Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums' when reusing. Certain restrictions on high quality reproductions and commercial use of the original physical version apply though; if you're unsure please email archives@twmuseums.org.uk.

Like a show dog, I was ‘bred’ for one purpose. Warfare. Show dogs are made to compete in sophisticated dog shows, winning gold medals and trophies for their owners to display proudly. I was made to fight for my country in what remains to be the biggest war to date. In 1942, my life changed forever. Was it for the better? That’s debatable. At the time, I thought it was. Then I was frozen in a block of ice for seventy years, only to wake up to learn that I had lost everything. All my squadmates, my bestfriend and the woman I had fallen in love with.

 

My name is Steve Rogers. I was born in 1918 in a broken household, to an alcoholic father and a sick mother. My dad left us when I was just a kid, so I spent most of my life taking care of my mom until she eventually passed away in ‘39. After I heard that war was being declared on Nazi Germany, I spent the next year-and-a-half trying to enlist, looking for a new place to call my home. Even if the U.S. wasn’t one of the first countries to enter the war, I still signed up, wanting to be one of the first Americans to set foot in Europe when my country did eventually join the fighting.

 

I was continually denied from every recruiting office, due to my poor health (asthma I had been dealing with since I was young, being severely underweight and other health problems that would eventually get cured). Though, one day...a man took notice of my dedication and decided to offer me an option: become a test subject for an experimental program to turn regular men into Super-Soldiers. Dr. Abraham Erskine brought me to a military training ground so I could go through basic training in preparation for the procedure. After months of embarrassing myself in front of the other trainees and almost failing every test I was put through, the day finally came.

 

I was introduced to Howard Stark, Agent Peggy Carter and other people who would either oversee or help with the experiment. After being strapped into the machine, I was exposed to the painful Vita-Rays that would allow me to come out a changed man. At peak physical condition, all my ailments were cured and my height was increased almost a foot, along with my muscle mass growing tenfold. I was then put through more training under the watch of Peggy Carter, which would cause us to form a deep friendship that I still wish had become something more. Next, I was given a special shield made out of the two strongest metals known to man: Vibranium and Adamantium that was developed by Howard Stark. When I was finally ready to enter the field, I was tasked with rescuing a squad of captured soldiers (which would be the first time I ever went to Europe).

 

After the successful mission, I was sent on a few more until I eventually met the boy who would prove to be the most loyal friend I’d ever meet. His name was James Barnes, but he was commonly referred to as ‘Bucky’. I was told that the name came from a boy scout summer camp that he was enrolled in before the war. To this day, I still don’t know how we was discovered but I was originally very opposed with working with him. I tried telling my superior officers that it was morally wrong to bring someone who isn’t even old enough to drive into the war. They responded back with the argument that it was morally wrong to used chlorine gas to kill innocent and helpless citizens, but that didn’t stop the Nazis and that was where that fight ended.

 

The reason this kid was considered so special was because he was given a trace of the serum that made me into who I am before Dr. Erskine was gunned down by an enemy spy on the day that Captain America was born. This helped Bucky when it came to hand-to-hand combat. On top of that, he was naturally skilled with firearms and already an expert spy at age fifteen. Plus, no one would suspect a kid to be a master at espionage when he was sent on super secret missions. Together, Bucky and I were a world-famous duo who ravaged the battlefields of the Nazi controlled countries. Towards the end of the war, we were placed in charge of ‘The Howling Commandos’, a squad of the most skilled soldiers from every Allied country (and the French resistance).

 

We saw our way through too many successful missions to count. We became legends, feared by every enemy soldier who heard of us. Around the same time, the two of us were also placed on a team of other superpowered soldiers that consisted of me, Jim Hammond (‘The Human Torch’), his sidekick ‘Toro’, Namor ‘The Sub-Mariner’ and ‘Union Jack’. We were only sent to deal with Hydra threats (the rogue Nazi science division), so we weren’t as active in the fight as The Commandos.

 

My stellar military career with Bucky and The Commandos came to a sudden end in 1945, when we were sent to aid the rest of my comrades in The Invaders in taking out the Hydra leader, Red Skull. The problem is, he was expecting us. We fought through his fortress and experienced more losses than we could’ve seen: Toro, Gabe Jones, ‘Frenchie’, Union Jack and then Nick Fury Sr. lost his eye (which is ironic, considering his grandson would suffer the same loss decades later). This didn’t stop us, however. Bucky and I were determined to see this through, so we chased Red Skull to a rocket he planned on sending to crash into the U.S. with him still strapped inside. He wanted to die a martyr for Hydra’s final plans of the war.

 

Bucky and I were able to board and hold onto it, as it took off. After attempting to apprehend Red Skull, he escaped at the last minute with an ejector seat, not before setting the rocket to self-destruct, though. That left Bucky and I with an ultimatum: steer the rocket out of the range of any populated area. We were over the Atlantic when we planned on jumping off to safety. Bucky got the arm of his uniform caught in the broken ladder of the rocket, however. We had a quick argument when I refused to leave him behind and he told me that I had to. His last words before he aggressively threw me off the rocket with all his strength were: “The world needs Captain America more than Bucky Barnes.”

 

The rocket exploded while I plummeted towards the freezing water below, which only sent me free falling faster. My shield and I collapsed in the water, quickly becoming submerged and frozen. The last thought I had in my mind was that of my best friend's death. After that, Captain America was another thing lost to time…

 

Until several S.H.I.E.L.D. agents discovered me on a secret expedition. They brought me to the director of the agency, Nick Fury Jr., who thawed me out. He explained to me what had happened and offered me a place among their ranks. I decided to decline, though, to try and carve a path out for myself. After some time spent on my own, I realized that I missed the action I was used to facing on a just about daily basis. So, I suited up and got to work. Until I met Falcon, aka Sam Falcon -- a close friend of mine in the hero community. Together, the two of us joined Tony Star's team, the Avengers, to fight alongside Ant-Man, The Wasp and Iron Man. Formally, the Hulk and, as of recently, a new member: Doctor Strange.

  

- Written by Congo Jack (Kody)

- www.flickr.com/photos/148488947@N04/

I'm always purposeful, even if it doesn't always seem that way.

Trekking in Nepal is part of adventure trekking tourism and Adventure Trekking in Nepal and Trekking in Himalaya. Natures to renew one’s own self regard, to relive oneself, to realize Nepal beauty, to interact with its generous, friendly peoples are highlights of trekking in Nepal. Trekking is one long term activity that draws repeat visitors. So, Nepal is final purpose for trekking. Offers numerous options walking excursion to meet snowy peaks, their foot hills, valleys but however there is amazing for each who hope trek in Nepal hill, mountain area. Typical trekking and hiking in Nepal as unique combination of natural glory, spectacular trekking trips to hard climbing and Everest Base Camp Trek is most rewarding way to skill Nepal natural beautification and cultural array is to walking, trekking, width and the height of country. Trekking is important of travel Nepal for trekking tours Himalaya on description Nepal tour of large range of ecological features for Nepal Travel Holiday. The country nurtures a variety of flora and scenery. Addition to natural atmosphere is rich Himalayan culture. Many of visitor trek to different part of Nepal every year to experience its rustic charm, nature and culture. Most treks through areas between 1000 to 5185m, though some popular parts reach over 5648 meters. Trekking is not climbing, while the climb of Himalayan peaks and enjoy walking holiday in Nepal and trekking tours Nepal might be an attraction for travelers. Every travelers knows for the trekking in Nepal from all over the words an inspiring knowledge. Attraction for your Travel Holiday in Nepal of beauty and its excellent culture.

 

Annapurna trekking www.trekshimalaya.com/annapurna_region.php region of Nepal enjoy with magnificent view close to highest and impressive mountain range in the world. Day exploration in Pokhara and morning morning flight to Jomsom or drive to Besishisahar from Kathmandu begin of trek. High destination, Muktinath 3800m and in generally highest point of whole Annapurna is 5416m. Thorangla la is situated in Buddhist Monastery, an eternal flame, and Hindus Vishnu Tempe of Juwala Mai making it a pilgrimage site for both Hindus and Buddhists and Muktinath is on the way down from popular trekking it call Thorang la pass which is incredible view in Annapurna region. Whenever possible we will arrive at lodging mid-afternoon, which should www.adventurestrekking.com leave plenty time for explore the local villages, enjoy the hot springs at Tatopani, continue to Ghorepani where there is forever the possibility of sunrise hike to Poon Hill for spectacular views of Dhaulagiri, Fishtail, Nilgiri and the Annapurna Himalaya range. Continue on to Birethanti finally between with the Baglung road where we will catch cab to Pokhara, next day drive or fly to Kathmandu.

 

Everest trekking www.trekshimalaya.com/everest_region.php region, although fairly effortless compare to some of other trek, takes you high along trails to Tengboche monastery Everest Solu Khumbu is the district south and west of Mount Everest. It is inhabited by sherpa, cultural group that has achieve fame because of the develop of its men on climbing expeditions. Khumbu is the name of the northern half of this region above Namche, includes highest mountain (Mt. Everest 8848m.) in the world. Khumbu is in part of Sagarmatha National Park. This is a short trek but very scenic trek offers really superb view of the world's highest peaks, including Mt. Everest, Mt. Lhotse, Mt. Thamserku, Mt. Amadablam and other many snowy peaks. Fly from www.adventurestrekking.com Kathmandu to Lukla it is in the Khumbu region and trek up to Namche Bazzar, Tyangboche and into the Khumjung village, a very nice settlement of Sherpas people. This trek introduction to Everest and Sherpa culture with great mountain views, a very popular destination for first time trekkers in Nepal. Justifiably well-known world uppermost mountain (8848m.) and also for its Sherpa villages and monasteries. Few days trek from Lukla on the highland, takes you to the entry to Sagarmatha National Park and town of Namche Bazaar is entrance of Everest Trek. Environment of the towering Himalayas is a very delicate eco-system that is effortlessly put out of balance.

 

Langtang trekking www.trekshimalaya.com/langtang_region.php region mixture of three beautiful trek taking us straight into some of the wildest and most pretty areas of Nepal. Starting from the lovely hill town of Syabrubensi our trek winds during gorgeous rhododendron and conifer forests throughout the Langtang National Park on the way to the higher slopes. Leads up to the high alpine yak pastures, glaciers and moraines around Kyanging. Along this route you will have an chance to cross the Ganja La Pass if possible from Langtang Valley. Trail enters the rhododendron (National flower of Nepal) forest and climbs up to alpine yak pastures at Ngegang (4404m). From Ngegang we make a climb of Ganja La Pass (5122m). We start southwest, sliding www.adventurestrekking.com past Gekye Gompa to reach Tarkeghyang otherwise we take a detour and another unique features of trekking past, the holy lakes of Gosainkund (4300 m.) cross into Helambu via Laurebina to Ghopte (3430 m) and further to Trakegyang. Northern parts of the area mostly fall within the boundaries of Langtang National park.

 

Peak Climbing in Nepal www.trekshimalaya.com/peak_climbing.php is great view of Himalayas and most various geological regions in asia. Climbing of peaks in Nepal is restricted under the rules of Nepal Mountaineering Association. Details www.adventurestrekking.com information and application for climbing permits are available through Acute Trekking. First peak climbing in Nepal by Tenzing Norgey Sherpa and Sir Edmund Hilary on May 29, 1953 to Mt. Everest. Trekking Agency in Nepal necessary member from Nepal Mountaineering Association. Our agency will arrange equipment, guides, high altitude porters, food and all necessary gears for climbing in Nepal. Although for some peaks, you need to contribute additional time, exertion owing to improved elevation and complexity. Climbing peaks is next step beyond simply trekking and basic mountaineering course over snow line with ice axe, crampons, ropes etc under administration and coaching from climbing guide, who have substantial mountaineering knowledge and for your climbing in mountain.

 

Everest Base Camp Trek well noon its spectacular mountain peaks and the devotion and openness of its www.adventurestrekking.com inhabitants, the Everest region is one of the most popular destination for tourists in Nepal. While numerous of the routes through the mountains are difficult, there are plenty places to rest and enjoy a meal along the way. Additionally, don't worry about receiving lost. Just ask a local the way to the next village on your route, and they will direct you. Most Sherpas under the age of fifty can at least understand basic English, and many speak it fluently.

 

Annapurna Base Camp Trek is the major peaks of the western portion of the great Annapurna Himalaya, www.adventurestrekking.com Annapurna South, Fang, Annapurna, Ganagapurna, Annapurna 3 and Machhapuchhare and including Annapurna first 8091 meters are arranged almost exactly in a circle about 10 miles in diameter with a deep glacier enclosed field at the center. From this glacier basin, known as the Annapurna base camp trek (Annapurna sanctuary trek), the Modi Khola way south in a narrow ravine fully 12 thousand ft. deep. Further south, the ravine opens up into a wide and fruitful valley, the domain of the Gurungs. The center and upper portions of Modi Khola offer some of the best short routes for trekking in Nepal and the valley is situated so that these treks can be easily joint with treks into the Kali Gandaki (Kali Gandaki is name of the river in Nepal) region to the west.

 

Upper Mustang Trekking name Make an escapade beginning from world deepest gorge Kaligandaki valley www.adventurestrekking.com into world's highest area of Lo-Mangthang valley that passes through an almost tree-less barren landscape, a steep stony trail up and down hill and panorama views of high Annapurna Himalaya including Nilgiri, Annapurna, Dhaulagiri and numerous other peaks. The trek passes through high peaks, passes, glaciers, and alpine valleys. The thousands years of seclusion has kept the society, lifestyle and heritage remain unaffected for centuries and to this date.

 

Helicopter Tour in Nepal having high mountains and wonderful landscape of countryside but is effortlessly reachable by www.adventurestrekking.com land transport, is known as helicopter tours country. Helicopter services industry in Nepal is now well well-known with many types and categories of helicopters for the fly to different of Nepal. The pilots are very knowledgeable expert with 1000 of flying hours knowledge in Nepal. We have service for helicopter is outstanding reputations and established records for reliable emergency and rescue flight too. Here we would like to offer some of amazing helicopter tour in Himalaya country of Nepal. Further more details information about Nepal tour itinerary for helicopter tour in different part of Nepal contact us without hesitation.

 

Kathmandu Pokhra Tour is an exclusive tour package specially designed for all level travelers. Kathmandu Pokhara tour package www.adventurestrekking.com is effortless tour alternative for Nepal visitors. This tour package vacation the historically significant and ethnically rich capital (Kathmandu ) of Nepal and the most stunning city of world by the nature, Pokhara. Mountain museum and world peace stupa are another charming of Pokhara tour. Pokhara is the center of escapade tourism in Nepal. Package tour to Kathmandu Pokhara is design to discover highlighted areas of Kathmandu and Pokhara valley. Nepal is the country which is socially and geographically different that’s why we powerfully recommend you discover Nepal to visit once in life time. It is hard to explore all Nepal in one Nepal tours trip in this way we design this trip to show you the highlights of Nepal especially in Kathmandu and Pokhara.

 

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