Desde que a mediados de 2008 se detectase la presencia de mejillones cebra (Dreissena polymorpha) en el pantano de Ullibarri-Gamboa, la cosa solo ha podido ir a peor. Y tal y como están las cosas no habrá quien pare su expansión por toda la cuenca cantábrica.

SOLD

Cuculus canorus

[order] Cuculiformes | [family] Cuculidae | [latin] Cuculus canorus | [UK] Cuckoo | [FR] Coucou gris | [DE] Kuckuck | [ES] Cuco Europeo | [IT] Cuculo eurasiatico | [NL] Koekoek | [IRL] Cuach

Status: Widespread summer visitor to Ireland from April to August.

Conservation Concern: Green-listed in Ireland. The European population is currently evaluated as secure.

Identification: Despite its obvious song, relatively infrequently seen. In flight, can be mistaken for a bird of prey such as Sparrowhawk, but has rapid wingbeats below the horizontal plane - ie. the wings are not raised above the body. Adult male Cuckoos are a uniform grey on the head, neck, back, wings and tail. The underparts are white with black barring. Adult females can appear in one of two forms. The so-called grey-morph resembles the adult male plumage, but has throat and breast barred black and white with yellowish wash. The rufous-morph has the grey replaced by rufous, with strong black barring on the wings, back and tail. Juvenile Cuckoos resemble the female rufous-morph, but are darker brown above.

Similar Species: Sparrowhawk

Call: The song is probably one of the most recognisable and well-known of all Irish bird species. The male gives a distinctive “wuck-oo”, which is occasionally doubled “wuck-uck-ooo”. The female has a distinctive bubbling “pupupupu”. The song period is late April to late June.

Diet: Mainly caterpillars and other insects.

Breeding: Widespread in Ireland, favouring open areas which hold their main Irish host species – Meadow Pipit. Has a remarkable breeding biology unlike any other Irish breeding species.

Wintering: Cuckoos winter in central and southern Africa.

To minimise the chance of being recognised and thus attacked by the birds they are trying to parasitize, female cuckoos have evolved different guises.

The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. On hatching, the young cuckoo ejects the host's eggs and chicks from the nest, so the hosts end up raising a cuckoo chick rather than a brood of their own. To fight back, reed warblers (a common host across Europe) have a first line of defence: they attack, or ‘mob’, the female cuckoo, which reduces the chance that their nest is parasitized.

To deter the warbler from attacking, the colouring of the grey cuckoo mimics sparrow hawks, a common predator of reed warblers. However, other females are bright rufous (brownish-red). The presence of alternate colour morphs in the same species is rare in birds, but frequent among the females of parasitic cuckoo species. The new research shows that this is another cuckoo trick: cuckoos combat reed warbler mobbing by coming in different guises.

In the study, the researchers manipulated local frequencies of the more common grey colour cuckoo and the less common (in the United Kingdom) rufous colour cuckoo by placing models of the birds at neighbouring nests. They then recorded how the experience of watching their neighbours mob changed reed warbler responses to both cuckoos and a sparrow hawk at their own nest.

They found that reed warblers increased their mobbing, but only to the cuckoo morph that their neighbours had mobbed. Therefore, as one cuckoo morph increases in frequency, local host populations will become alerted specifically to that morph. This means the alternate morph will be more likely to slip past host defences and lay undetected. This is the first time that ‘social learning’ has been documented in the evolution of mimicry as well as the evolution of different observable characteristics - such as colour - in the same species (called polymorphism).

From the University of Cambridge “When mimicry becomes less effective, evolving to look completely different can be a successful trick. Our research shows that individuals assess disguises not only from personal experience, but also by observing others. However, because their learning is so specific, this social learning then selects for alternative cuckoo disguises and the arms race continues.”.

“It’s well known that cuckoos have evolved various egg types which mimic those of their hosts in order to combat rejection. This research shows that cuckoos have also evolved alternate female morphs to sneak through the hosts' defenses. This explains why many species which use mimicry, such as the cuckoo, evolve different guises.”

Femme Hmong Noir dans une rue de Sapa, nord du Vietnam

Avec la ligne de train et désormais l'autoroute la reliant à Hanoï, Sapa est devenue une destination touristique très fréquentée et a beaucoup perdu de son charme, même si les promenades dans les rizières alentour restent bien agréables. On y croise cependant de pittoresques personnages telle cette femme souriante dans son costume Hmong Noir

Avec les Dao Rouge, les Hmong Noir constituent l'une des ethnies les mieux représentées dans la région de Sapa.

Les Hmong encore appelés Méo, ou Miao , sont originaires des régions montagneuses du sud de la Chine (principalement la province du Guizhou), où ils sont encore présents ainsi qu'au nord du Viêt Nam et du Laos.

Le souci de préserver leur identité culturelle et leur indépendance les ont amenés à s'engager dans divers conflits. Au XXe siècle, en particulier, ils aidèrent les Français pendant la guerre d'Indochine puis les Américains pendant la la guerre du Vietnam. A l’avènement des régimes communistes dans ces pays un nombre important de Hmong se sont réfugiés dans des pays d'accueil, principalement les États-Unis, la France et l'Australie. Mais la majeure partie d’entre eux vit encore en Asie du Sud-Est

Les Hmongs sont animistes ou chrétiens. La langue hmong appartient à la famille des langues hmong-mien, encore appelée « miao-yao »

Les costumes traditionnels de cette ethnie sont très polymorphes mais ils ont en commun la richesse du décor brodé bien que celui de cette femmes Hmong Noir soit très sobre.

The butterflies of North America

Philadelphia :American Entomological Society,1868-1872.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56524519

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558065

s0254 4422 Brock14A2B Bäder I. Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon Vierzehnte vollständig neubearbeitete Auflage. Baths I.

1. Frigidarium der Thermen des Caracalla zu Rom; Rekonstruktion von Viollet-Le-Duc.

2. Tepidarium der 1824 ausgegrabenen Thermen zu Pompeji. 3. Türkisches Bad (Bruckbad) zu Ofen.

4. Badezimmer der Fugger zu Augsburg.

5. Marmorbad in der Aue bei Cassel.

Bad (Balneum), im engern Sinne die Eintauchung des Körpers oder einzelner Teile desselben in eine tropfbare Flüssigkeit; im weitern Sinne auch das Eintauchen in Dämpfe sowie in festere Stoffe (Moor, Sand u. s. w.); auch bezeichnet man die Anwendung strömender oder fallender Flüssigkeiten auf den Körper als B. (Douche). Ebenso heißen danach Ort und Anstalten mit den zum Baden nötigen Stoffen und Vorrichtungen kurz B.

In kulturgeschichtlicher Beziehung betrachtet, bat das Baden jederzeit auf das allgemeine gesellschaftliche Dasein einen besondern Einfluß geübt. Bei den Völkern des Orients war es eng mit dem Kultus verknüpft, indem man durch die körperliche Reinigung auch eine sittliche Reinheit andeuten wollte. Die alten Juden waren durch religiöse Vorschriften verpflichtet zu baden, und sie betrachteten die Reinigungsbäder nach gewissen körperlichen Funktionen, Berührungen und Krankheiten als wichtige rituelle Handlungen. Bei den Griechen werden schon zur Zeit Homers den ankommenden Freunden und Gästen warme B. bereitet. Der Grieche lagerte sich nicht zum Mahl, bevor er sich nicht gebadet, und sein Hausbad befand sich im Innern des Hauses. Auch mit religiösen Handlungen stand bei den Griechen das B. in Verbindung, so mit den Vorbereitungen zum Opfern, zum Empfange der Orakelsprüche, zur Hochzeit u. s. w. Auch benutzten schon die Griechen die beißen Quellen oder Thermen als Heilbäder. Die Männer badeten in Griechenland gemeinschaftlich; daß es auch für die Frauen öffentliche B. gab, ist wahrscheinlich.

Bei den Römern kamen die warmen B. (thermae) erst später in Aufnahme, wurden aber dann außerordentlich beliebt, obschon zuletzt der allgemeine Luxus den eigentlichen Zweck des B. mehr und mehr in den Hintergrund drängte, so daß die öffentlichen B. wesentlich als allgemeine Vergnügungsorte betrachtet wurden. Die meisten derselben wurden zur Zeit vor und unter den Kaisern Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, Caracalla, Diocletian u. s. w. erbaut. In Rom allein gab es deren über 800. Ihrer Einrichtung (s. unten) nach ähnelten sie dem heutigen türk. und russ. Bade. Durch eine leichte Bewegung zum B. vorbereitet, ging man zuerst in das Auskleidezimmer, dann in das Wärmzimmer, wo man sich mit Öl salbte, und dies ward auch während des B. wiederholt. Demnächst wurde der Körper mit Striegeln (strigilis) behandelt, worauf man sich in das Wärmzimmer begab, um entweder nur zu schwitzen, oder auch das heiße Wasserbad zu gebrauchen. War dieses vorüber, so ließ man sich mit kaltem Wasser übergießen und ging dann sogleich in das kalte B., um durch dieses die erschlaffte Haut wieder zu stärken, worauf der Körper nochmals mit Öl gesalbt wurde. Die öffentlichen B. für Frauen waren von gleicher Einrichtung und wurden fleißig auch von den vornehmsten Frauen besucht. Übrigens badeten diese wie die Männer gemeinschaftlich. Der Unsitte, daß Männer und Frauen zusammen badeten, wird auch von den alten Schriftstellern gedacht, wie denn überhaupt in späterer Zeit die B. Orte der Schwelgerei jeder Art wurden.

Vgl. Wichelhausen, über die B. des Altertums (Mannh. u. Heidelb. 1851); Confeld, Das altröm. B. und seine Bedeutung für die Heilkunde (Darmst. 1863); Guhl und Koner, Das Leben der Griechen und Römer (5. Aufl., Berl. 1882).

Die Völker des Islams haben das B. vollständig in ihre Sitten und Gebräuche aufgenommen. Der Islam schreibt seinen Bekennern sorgfältige Beobachtung der körperlichen Reinlichkeit und zu diesem Zwecke wiederholte tägliche Waschungen vor. Gewisse Umstände und Zeiten veranlassen noch außerdem vorschriftsmäßig sowohl Männer wie Frauen zum Gebrauch des B. Die Araber brachten die Vorliebe für reich ausgestattete B. mit nach Spanien. Die christl. Spanier verurteilten aber diese ihnen fremde Sitte und zerstörten nach Vertreibung der Araber die maurischen B. Die Einrichtung der B. ist bei den Völkern des Orients, bei den Persern, Türken, in Syrien, Ägypten u. s. w. fast eine gleiche. Der Badende entkleidet sich, wickelt sich in wollene Decken, zieht, um sich gegen die Hitze des Fußbodens zu schützen, hölzerne Pantoffeln an und begiebt sich in das Badezimmer. Hier dringt bald ein allgemeiner Schweiß durch die Haut, der mit kaltem Wasser abgewaschen wird. Hierauf wird der Körper mit wollenen Tüchern gerieben und mit einer der Haut zuträglichen Seife oder Salbe bestrichen. Gewöhnlich wird damit noch die Operation des Knetens (Massierens) verbunden, die der Badewärter an dem Badenden vollzieht. Darauf reibt er mit einem Tuche von grober Wolle den ganzen Körper, reibt mit Bimsstein die harte Haut auf den Füßen ab, salbt den Badenden mit Seife und Wohlgerüchen, und endigt damit, daß er ihm den Bart und die Haare abschert. Nach dem B., welches etwa dreiviertel Stunde dauert, ruht man in einem kühlern Zimmer auf einem Lager aus. - Freunde von B. jeder Art, von Dampf-, See- und warmen B. sind die Japaner, bei denen beide Geschlechter jeden Alters in öffentlichen Badeanstalten zusammen baden.

In Deutschland, Frankreich und England waren öffentliche Badeanstalten lange Zeit unbekannt. Erst als während der Kreuzzüge die Abendländer mit den Sitten der Morgenländer bekannt wurden, entstanden in Deutschland öffentliche Badestuben. Diese wurden bald beliebt, so daß es herkömmlich wurde, am Vorabend hoher Kirchenfeste, vor der Hochzeit, dem Ritterschlage und andern Feierlichkeiten ein B. zu nehmen; Handwerksgesellen wurden jeden Sonnabend von einem Badejungenchor durch Beckenmusik zum B. eingeladen. Die Fürsten machten die Badestuben zu einträglichen Regalien und verliehen den Städten das Recht, städtische Badestuben einzurichten, die verpachtet oder in Erblehn gegeben wurden. In ihnen fand man Schwitzbäder, in denen der Körper des Badenden durch Badediener kunstgemäß mit Badequasten, Seife u. s. w. gereinigt wurde. Nach und nach bildete sich die Zunft und das Gewerbe der Bader (s. d.) und Barbiere (s. d.) aus. Der deutsche Bürger und selbst die Bauern legten sich auch in ihren eigenen Häusern ein «Badestüblein» an, das gewissermaßen den Salon des Hauses bildete; hier badete und trank man mit guten Freunden. Im 12. Jahrh, kamen in Deutschland auch Dampfbäder auf. Noch mehr aber hob sich der allgemeine Badegebrauch im Mittelalter bei dem Umsichgreifen des Aussatzes. Mildthätige Personen stifteten zu jener Zeit für Arme Freibäder, sog. Seelenbäder. Allein die größere Ausbreitung des Aussatzes und der Syphilis mit der vermehrten Gefahr der Ansteckung, der mehr und mehr ins Volk übergehende Gebrauch der leinenen Leibwäsche und Veränderungen in den bitten und Gewohnheiten, besonders auch die vielfach mit ihnen verknüpfte Liederlichkeit verursachten, daß sich der Besuch der öffentlichen Badestuben allmählich verminderte. Ärzte, Geistliche und Regierungen traten schon im Anfang des 17. Jahrh, gegen dieselben auf, und das Volk entwöhnte sich der Sitte des häufigen Badens. Dagegen kam dann der Besuch der Wildbäder und der Mineralwässer als Vergnügungsorte, die sog. Badefahrten, in Deutschland in Aufnahme. In Frankreich fand das Baden in öffentlichen Anstalten sowie in Heilquellen oder Thermen schon mit der Herrschaft der Römer Eingang, und blieb daselbst mehr oder weniger heimisch. Karl d. Gr. brachte seinerzeit besonders die warmen B. in Aachen in Aufnahme. Später war Baden im Aargau einer der berühmtesten Badeorte. Im Mittelalter wurden Dampfbäder (étuves, lat. stufa) von der Zunft der Bader (estuveurs) gehalten. Der Humanist Johann Franz Poggio Bracciolini aus Florenz (1380-1459) stellt in einem Briefe die geselligen Freuden Badens weit über jene der antiken B. von Puteoli. Das Leben in den B. war im Mittelalter und in den nächsten Zeiten darauf ein freies, unbefangenes und zum Teil lockeres. Beide Geschlechter besuchten einander in den B., man trank, sang und musizierte darin und tanzte nachher. Nachdem in Deutschland, und zum großen Teil auch anderwärts, das Baden als Volksgebrauch fast ganz aufgehört, kamen zu Anfang des 18. Jahrh. von England aus kalte und Seebäder wiederum in Aufnahme. Reisende Ärzte machten auf die dortigen Badeanstalten aufmerksam, und so erstanden namentlich infolge der Ermahnung der Ärzte Halm, Marcard, Ferro, Hufeland u. s. w. in den civilisierten Ländern Europas wiederum zahlreiche Badeanstalten. Doch erst im 19. Jahrh. begann das Badewesen durch Einführung öffentlicher Badeanstalten wieder einen wirklichen Aufschwung zu nehmen. Ebenso war es erst dem 19. Jahrh. vorbehalten, Wert und Bedeutung der Mineralbäder für die Heilkunde in wissenschaftlichem Sinne zu bearbeiten (s. Mineralwässer und Balneographie).

Vgl. Zappert, Über das mittelalterliche Badewesen (im «Archiv für Kunde österr. Geschichtsquellen», Bd. 21, Wien 1859).

In hygieinischer Beziehung sind die B. von der größten Bedeutung. Man hat sie hinsichtlich ihres Zwecks in Reinigungs- und Heilbäder eingeteilt. Sie zerfallen in allgemeine oder ganze B. (Vollbäder), bei denen der ganze Körper in die Flüssigkeit eintaucht, und in partielle oder örtliche B. (Sitz-, Fuß-, Arm-, Handbäder u. dgl.). Ihre Wirkungen auf den menschlichen Körper hängen ab von den Bestandteilen des B. und deren Menge, der Dauer und Gebrauchsweise, vorzugsweise aber von dem Grade der Wärme oder Kälte. Die Wasserbäder reinigen die Haut von Schmutz und Hauttalg, fördern durch Aufweichen die Abstoßung der obersten Hautschichten und hierdurch die Verjüngung der Haut selbst. Ferner kommt der Effekt der verminderten Ausdünstung und der Verschiedenheit des Drucks von außen zur Geltung, da das Wasser 700-mal dichter ist als das Medium der Luft. Die Frage, ob im Wasserbade eine Aufsaugung und Aufnahme des Wassers sowie der im Wasser gelösten Bestandteile in den Körper stattfindet, ist noch immer als eine offene zu betrachten; die Absorption kann gewiß nur eine geringe sein, da man beobachtet hat, daß nach dem B. nicht eine Vermehrung, sondern eine Verminderung des Körpergewichts eintritt, sei es durch Abgabe von Stoffen durch die Haut, sei es durch Vermehrung der Lungenthätigkeit. Man unterscheidet hinsichtlich der Temperatur das kalte B. bis 15° R., das kühle B. 16 bis 22° R., das lauwarme B. 23 bis 27° R., das warme B. 27 bis 30° R. und das heiße B. von 30° R. und darüber.

Das kalte B. vermindert je nach der Heftigkeit und Plötzlichkeit der Abkühlung die Blutwärme, vermehrt die Kohlensäureausscheidung, verlangsamt den Puls- und Herzschlag sowie die Atmung, während die Reizbarkeit der Haut zwar anfangs erhöht, dann aber vermindert und nach beendetem B. wiederum gehoben wird; die Haut verliert ihren Blutreichtum, indem sich die kleinen Blutgefäße zusammenziehen, die innern Organe mehr mit Blut füllen. Bald nach den: kalten B. tritt wieder erhöhte Körpertemperatur, verstärkter Blutstrom nach der Haut, im Nerven- und Muskelsystem das Gefühl der Erfrischung, der Elasticität und der Kraft ein; mit der erhöhten Wärmeproduktion ist eine allgemeine Reaktion und eine nicht geringe Anregung des Stoffwechsels verbunden. Bei öfterer Wiederholung ist das kalte B. das vorzüglichste Mittel, durch welches die Haut geübt werden kann, Temperaturwechsel zu ertragen. Deshalb wird es vorzugsweise solchen Personen angeraten, welche an einer Neigung zu Erkältungskrankheiten, zu Rheumatismen und Katarrhen leiden. Da sich nach jedem kalten B. der Umsatz der Stoffe neu belebt, so benutzt man das wiederholte kalte B. auch dazu, die Ernährung des Körpers zu verbessern, fehlerhafte Blutmischungen und sogar krankhafte Veränderungen einzelner Organe zu beseitigen. Nachteilig wirkt das kalte B. bei großer Blutarmut, hochgradiger Nervosität, Herzkrankheiten und Schwächezuständen der verschiedensten Art. Am häufigsten benutzt man die kalten B. in Form der Flußbäder und der B. im Schwimmbassin, die stets von kurzer Dauer, d. h. höchstens 5, 10 bis 15 Minuten, und mit Schwimmbewegungen verbunden sein sollen; vorher lasse man den Körper abtrocknen und abkühlen, nach dem B. reibe man den Körper trocken, kleide sich rasch an und mache sich alsbald Bewegung; die beste Zeit für Flußbäder ist etwas vor dem Frühstück oder vor Sonnenuntergang. Kurze Zeit nach dem Essen, insbesondere nach einer reichlichen Mahlzeit, zu baden vermeide man, bade aber auch nicht des Morgens, ohne etwas gegessen zu haben. Die Seebäder (s. d.) wirken ebenfalls als kalte B., doch kommt bei ihnen auch Wellenschlag und Salzgehalt des Wassers zur Wirkung. Zur Herabsetzung der übermäßig erhöhten Körpertemperatur wendet man kalte und kühle B. bei schweren fieberhaften Krankheiten mit außerordentlich günstigem Erfolg an; durch die energische Anwendung kalter B. ist namentlich die Mortalitätsziffer der typhösen Fieber beträchtlich herabgesetzt worden. (S. Kaltwasserkur.)

Bei den lauwarmen B. ist jene Reizung der Empfindungsnerven der Haut nicht wahrzunehmen, die Reinigung der Haut geht durch sie unter schnellerer Beseitigung der Oberhauttrümmer, welche die Hautfunktion hemmen, besser von statten; der gelindere Reiz erweckt in den Muskeln eine angenehme Empfindung, und nach ihrem Gebrauche schwindet das Gefühl der Ermüdung. Man wendet die lauwarmen B. an zur Beruhigung und Beseitigung schmerzhafter Nervenleiden; sie bekommen schwächlichen, zarten und in hohem Grade zu Erkältungen geneigten Personen am besten. Warme Wasserbäder haben vorzüglich die Erweichung der Haut zur Beförderung der Ausdünstung und Abschälung zum Zwecke und finden deshalb ihre Anwendung bei Krankheiten, wo durch diese Wirkung eine Heilung erzielt werden soll, besonders bei Hautkrankheiten. Sie steigern aber auch die organischen Funktionen und den Stoffwechsel, ohne daß ein heftiger Reiz eine starke Reaktion verlangt; und indem sie den Wärmeverlust vermindern, stimmen sie die normale ausgleichende Reaktion herab, sie wirken somit beruhigend, weshalb man sich ihrer bei krampfhaften Affektionen und bei erhöhter Nervenreizbarkeit mit Vorteil bedient; doch beschleunigen sie auch schließlich den Blutkreislauf in der Haut und in den der Wärme zugänglichen Teilen und fördern durch Erweiterung der Gefäße die Aufsaugung krankhafter Stoffe im Körper. Hierauf beruht ihre wohlthätige Wirkung bei Rheumatismus und Gicht. Die warmen B. dürfen jedoch nicht zu oft angewendet werden, weil die Haut sonst zu sehr erschlafft und für äußere Einwirkungen zu empfänglich gemacht wird, weshalb auch unmittelbar nach dem jedesmaligen Gebrauche die Haut vorsichtig vor Kälte zu schützen ist, wenn man nicht vorzieht, die Haut durch eine kalte Übergießung am Schlüsse des B. zu kräftigen.

Ähnliche Wirkungen wie die warmen B., nur in erhöhtem Grade, besitzt das allgemeine Wasserdampfbad, von welchem nicht nur die ganze äußere Oberfläche des Körpers, sondern auch die innere Auskleidung der Respirationsorgane berührt wird. Dasselbe fördert die Abschälung der Haut und die Abschleimung der Schleimhäute sowie die Schweißabsonderung sehr bedeutend und ist eins der wichtigsten Zerteilungs- und Heilungsmittel bei gichtischen und rheumatischen Übeln, Nervenschmerzen, alten Katarrhen u. s. w. (S. Dampfbad.) Man hat nicht bloß Dampfbäder in eigens dazu hergerichteten Badestuben, sondern man erfand auch tragbare Apparate (unter anderm: Ricklis «Bettdampfbad», Triest 1861), bei welchen man aus einer mit Wasser gefüllten kupfernen Blase, die durch Weingeist erhitzt wird, den Dampf erzeugt. Die einfachsten Vorrichtungen derart sind die sogenannten engl. Spiritusdampfbäder, bei welchen die mit einer wollenen Decke umhüllte Person auf einem Stuhle über einer Spirituslampe sitzt. Ferner hat man Dampf nicht bloß von Wasser, sondern auch von verschiedenen Stoffen, z. B. von Schwefel, Terpentin, Fichten- und Kiefernadelextrakt, angewendet. (S. hierüber unten die Rauchbäder.) Ähnlich wirkt das B. in heißer trockn er Luft, bei dem der reichlich ausgeschiedene Schweiß die obern Hautschichten aufweicht, der Körper eine große Menge von Flüssigkeit durch die Haut ausscheidet, dem Blute viel Wasser entzogen und manche krankhafte Ablagerung im Körper durch Aufsaugung beseitigt wird. Daher wird auch das heiße Luftbad zur Kur bei Gicht, Rheumatismus und allgemeinen Blutkrankheiten empfohlen. Hierzu benutzt man vor allem das Irisch-Römische Bad (s. d.), doch auch die natürlichen Höhlen mit heißer Luft, z. B. die Grotte von Monsummano (s. d.). In neuerer Zeit hat man begonnen, komprimierte Luft zu Heilzwecken anzuwenden. Der Kranke weilt hierbei längere Zeit in einem sog. pneumatischen Kabinett, in einem Raume, in welchem die Luft durch Maschinen einem langsam steigenden, später (bei 300 mm) gleichbleibenden Druck ausgesetzt wird. Für diese sog. pneumatischen B. hat man besondere transportable Apparate konstruiert (s. Komprimierte Luft). Schließlich werden von manchen die sog. elektrischen B. gegen Neurasthenie und andere Nervenleiden empfohlen. (S. Elektrotherapie.)

Hinsichtlich der örtlichen oder Teilbäder gilt im allgemeinen die Regel, daß heißes Wasser das Blut nach dem von ihm umgebenen Teile zieht, kaltes hingegen es von dem bezüglichen Teile verdrängt. Daher wendet man heiße Fuß- und Handbäder an, um den Blutandrang vom Gehirn und von den Lungen nach den Extremitäten hinzuleiten. Kalte Sturz-, Tropf-, Regen- und Staubbäder werden angewendet, um das Blut aus gewissen Teilen (besonders aus dem Kopfe, z. B. bei manchen Geisteskrankheiten) zu vertreiben und die erweiterten Gefäßchen wieder zusammenzuziehen, sind daher Zerteilungsmittel bei Entzündungen. Doch bewirkt auch das Eintauchen in kaltes Wasser in der Nachwirkung stärkern Blutzudrang nach den eingetauchten Teilen. Sehr energisch wirken die Douchebäder. Ein mehr oder weniger starker Wasserstrahl wird hierbei auf einen Punkt des Körpers geleitet, wo er Belebung, Zerteilung, aber auch bei Übermaß Entzündung und Geschwulst hervorbringen kann. Man benutzt diese B. besonders bei Affektionen des Nervensystems und krankhaften Ablagerungen, als aufsteigende Douche bei Hämorrhoiden, Gebärmutterkrankheiten, Störungen der Menstruation, Leukorrhöe, Stuhlverstopfung, und als schottische Douche (abwechselnd heiß und kalt) gegen Lähmungen. (S. Douche.)

Die Dauer aller dieser B. ist gewöhnlich keine lange; sie werden meist nur 10 Minuten bis eine halbe Stunde, höchstens eine ganze Stunde lang angewendet, während man ehedem viel länger in den B. zu verweilen gewohnt war. In neuerer Zeit hat man indes vielfach mit Vorteil permanente Warmwasserbäder angewendet, bei welchen der Kranke tage-, ja wochenlang im Wannenbade zubringen muß zur Linderung der Schmerzen, Verminderung des Fiebers und Förderung des Heilungsprozesses. Dieselben sind insbesondere bei ausgebreiteten Verbrennungen und manchen hartnäckigen Hautkrankheiten nützlich. Auch örtlich, d.h. nur für einzelne Körperteile, wendet man solche permanente B. insbesondere bei eingewachsenen Nägeln, Fußgeschwüren, nach Operationen u. s. w. an.

Die medizinischen B., denen man mineralische oder vegetabilische Stoffe beigemischt hat, standen früher bei den Ärzten in größerm Ansehen als jetzt, wo die physiol. Schule ihre Kraft und Wirkungsweise genauer geprüft und auf ein richtigeres Maß zurückgeführt hat. Die Haut ist für das Eindringen fremder Körper allerdings nur in sehr beschränktem Grade zugänglich. Zwar noch bis vor kurzem hielt man dieses Organ für dasjenige, durch welches man Arzneimittel in größerer Menge dem Körper bequem einzuverleiben im stände sei, indem es zur Aufnahme dieser Stoffe eine verhältnismäßig große Oberfläche darbietet. Allein die jüngsten Untersuchungen haben gelehrt, daß eine Absorption salziger, im B. aufgelöster Stoffe, wenn sie stattfindet, nur gering sein kann; viele Ärzte sind jetzt sogar der Meinung, daß die Wirkung salzhaltiger B. sich besser auf mechan. als auf chem. Weise erklären lasse; sie behaupten, daß der Reiz des Salzwassers auf die Haut ein mächtigerer Faktor dieser Wirkung sei als die chemische, durch die aufgenommenen Salzbestandteile bedingte Umwandlung des Blutes. Dies betrifft die Würdigung der B. hinsichtlich ihres Gehalts an Eisen, Kalk, Glauber-, Bittersalz, Natron, Jod, Brom, Arsenik und Kochsalz. Dagegen steht die Aufsaugung der im B. befindlichen Gase unzweifelhaft fest, indem beispielsweise Schwefelwasserstoffgas, Kohlensäure, überhaupt flüchtige Stoffe durch die Haut in das Blut übergehen, somit auch in demselben eine chem. Wirkung entfalten können. Von den arzneilichen B. werden am häufigsten benutzt: alkalische B. oder Laugenbäder (150-500 g rohe Pottasche oder 250-1000 g Soda zum Vollbade), Ameisenbäder (1-2 kg zerquetschte Ameisen in einem leinenen Beutel gebrüht und dem B. zugesetzt), aromatische B. (150-500 g aromatische Kräuter auf das Vollbad), Baldrianbäder (Aufguß von 250-500 g Baldrianwurzel auf das Vollbad), Chlorkalkbäder (250-500 g Chlorkalk zu einem Vollbad), Eisenbäder (30-60 g reines Eisenvitriol und 120 g gereinigte Pottasche, oder 30 g reines Eisenvitriol, 60 g Kochsalz und 90 g doppeltkohlensaures Natron auf das Vollbad), Fichtennadelbäder (Aufguß von 2-5 kg Fichten- oder Kiefernadeln oder Zusatz von 150 bis 500 g Fichtennadelextrakt zu einem Vollbad), Jodbäder (in Holzwannen, 10-15 g Jod mit 20-30 g Jodkalium in 1 kg Wasser gelöst und dem Vollbad zugesetzt; die Wanne ist während des Badens zu bedecken, um das Einatmen der Joddämpfe zu verhüten), Kleienbäder (1-3 kg Weizenkleie werden in einem leinenen Beutel eine halbe Stunde lang mit 4-8 l Wasser gekocht und dann dem Vollbad zugesetzt), Leimbäder (½-1 kg Tierleim oder Gelatine in Wasser gelöst als Zusatz zu einem Vollbad), Malzbäder (Abkochung von 1-3 kg Gerstenmalz in 4-6 l Wasser auf das Vollbad), Mineralsäurebäder (in Holzwannen, 50-120 g Scheidewasser oder je 30-60 g Salz- und Salpetersäure auf das Vollbad), moussierende B. oder Kohlensäurebäder (200 g doppeltkohlensaures Natron und nach dessen vollständiger Lösung beim Besteigen der Wanne 200 g rohe Salzsäure unter Umrühren dem Vollbad zugesetzt), Schwefelbäder (in Holzwannen, 50-150 g Schwefelkalium auf das Vollbad), Seifenbäder (100-250 g geschabte weiße Kaliseife oder 60-100 g Seifenspiritus auf das Vollbad), Senfbäder (2 g Senföl in 25 g Spiritus gelöst auf das Vollbad), Solbäder (6-8 kg Koch- oder Seesalz, oder 2-5 kg Koch- oder Seesalz mit 2 kg Mutterlaugensalz auf das Vollbad), Sublimat- oder Quecksilberchloridbäder (in Holzwannen, 3-10 g Quecksilberchlorid in 50-200 g Wasser gelöst auf das Vollbad), Tanninbäder (10-50 g Tannin in 200 g Wasser gelöst auf das Vollbad), Walnußblätterbäder (Abkochung von ½-1 kg frischer Walnußblätter auf das Vollbad). Kochsalzhaltige B. wirken außerordentlich belebend und kräftigend auf die Haut und namentlich auf das Drüsensystem und bilden deshalb ein souveränes Heilmittel gegen alle skrofulösen Haut- und Drüsenkrankheiten. (S. Solbäder.) Auch dem Wasser, welches man als Dampf auf den Körper einwirken läßt, hat man mit gutem Erfolg Arzneistoffe zugesetzt, die natürlich flüchtiger Natur sein müssen. Hieran schließen sich die sog. Rauchbäder oder medikamentösen Räucherungen, in denen der ganze Körper oder einzelne Teile desselben, mit Ausschluß des Kopfes, mit Dämpfen in Berührung gebracht werden, die man durch vollständige oder teilweise Verflüchtigung trockner Arzneistoffe erzeugt. Angewendet werden hierzu harzige aromatische Substanzen, Weihrauch, Myrrhe, Benzoe, Bernstein, auch Schwefel, Zinnober und Quecksilber. Die größte Vorsicht ist bei den Rauchbädern von Schwefel und Quecksilber nötig, weil sie leicht gefährliche Zufälle herbeiführen. Die Anwendung muß in einem sog. Räucherungskasten geschehen, in welchem nur der bestimmte Körperteil mit den Dämpfen eingeschlossen wird, damit die Respirationsorgane nicht belästigt werden. Am beliebtesten sind jetzt die Fichten- oder Kiefernadeldampfbäder (bei Rheumatismen u. s. w.). Seit früher Zeit benutzt man übrigens zu ähnlichem Zwecke die in manchen Gegenden aus vulkanischem Boden aufsteigenden heißen Dämpfe, z. B. in der Nähe von Pozzuoli bei Neapel.

Ein eigentümliches Dunstbad sind die sog. Animalischen Bäder (s. d.), welche schon den Alten bekannt waren und besonders bei Lähmungen großen Ruf hatten. Von Gasbädern sind besonders die von Schwefelwasserstoffgas (Schwefelbäder) und die von kohlensaurem Gas gebräuchlich, namentlich an gewissen Heilquellen. Das Schwefelwasserstoffgas, in geringer Quantität der atmosphärischen Luft beigemischt, stimmt die Reizbarkeit der Luftwege herab und mäßigt die Beschwerden bei manchen Atmungskrankheiten. In stärkerer Quantität mit der Haut in Berührung gebracht, leistet es bei Hautkrankheiten, Rheumatismus, Syphilis, Lähmungen und chronischen Metallvergiftungen treffliche Dienste. Das kohlensaure Gas wirkt lebhaft erregend auf die Haut und das Nervensystem, fördert den Monatsfluß und wird besonders in Form von Halbbädern an manchen Kurorten, z. B. in Ems und Vichy, häufig gebraucht. B. in festweichen Substanzen sind die Moorbäder (s. d.), auch Schlammbäder genannt. Unter die B. in festen Stoffen rechnet man das Schneebad, das Erdbad, das Sandbad, das Aschenbad (s. d.) und das Laubbad. Das Schneebad wendet man an, um Erfrorene wieder ins Leben zurückzurufen; man umgiebt den ganzen Körper mit Schnee und bringt diesen durch äußere Wärme zum Schmelzen. Das Erdbad, das Eingraben oder Bedecken des ganzen Körpers, ausschließlich des Kopfes, mit frischer Erde, wird bei Scheintod nach dem Blitzschlage angewendet. Bei den nassen warmen Sandbädern (Arenationen) wird der Badende in Gruben eingegraben; man gebrauchte sie ehemals als Volksmittel bei Wiederbelebung Ertrunkener. Trockne Sandbäder, mäßig erwärmt, gebraucht man zur Schwitzkur bei Gicht, Rheumatismen, Brightscher Nierenkrankheit, Metallvergiftung u. s. w. in den Anstalten zu Dresden (Dr. Flemming), Köstritz (Dr. Sturm), Berka; hier giebt man Sandbäder von 47 bis 50° C. oder 38 bis 40° N. und von der Dauer von 25 bis 45 Minuten. Der trockne Sand wird auf heißen Eisenplatten erwärmt, und eine Sandschicht von 10 bis 12 cm auf die Extremitäten und die Beckengegend und 1 cm stark auf den Unterleib gedeckt. Allgemeine oder örtliche Laubbäder werden bereitet aus trocknen Birken-, Ellern-, Kiefern- und andern Blättern, mit denen man den kranken Teil überschüttet. Sie sind Volksmittel gegen Wassersucht und wirken kräftig schweißtreibend. Angewandt werden schließlich einfache Luft- und Sonnenbäder, wobei sich der an allgemeiner Blutarmut und Schwäche leidende Kranke entkleidet in einer Hängematte der vollen Einwirkung der atmosphärischen (Berg-) Luft und des Sonnenlichts aussetzt.

Litteratur. Unter den Schriften, welche sich im allgemeinen über Baden und B. (mit Ausschluß der Mineralquellen und Kaltwasserheilanstalten) verbreiten, sind hervorzuheben: Marcard, Über die Natur und Gebrauch der B. (Hannov. 1793); Speyer, Ideen über die Natur und Anwendungsart natürlicher und künstlicher B. (Jena 1805): Kausch, Über die B. (Lpz. 1806); Bischoff, Über das Bedürfnis von B. (Bonn 1843); Meißner, Abhandlung über die B. (Lpz. 1832): Bell, A treatise on baths (2. Aufl., Philad. 1859): Lersch, Geschichte der Balneologie u. s. w. (Würzb. 1863): ders., Polymorphe Balneologie: eine Abhandlung über Sand-, Moor-, Schlamm- und Kiefernadelbäder u. s. w. (Erlangen 1871); Wilson, Modern hydropathy (5. Aufl., Lond. 1871); Rahn, Bäderkunde und Bäderbeilkunde (Sangerh. 1874); Holm, Die Technik des Badens. Anleitung zum Gebrauche von B. (Wiesb. 1887); Lassar, Die Kulturaufgabe der Volksbäder (Berl. 1889). (S. auch Balneographie.)

Bäder oder Badeanstalten als besondere Gebäude wurden zu allen Zeiten, je nach der Art des Badens, mit größerm oder geringerm Aufwande errichtet. In der griechischen Zeit waren die B. mit Palästen und Gymnasien verbunden, wie es u. a. die aus der hellenistischen Periode erhaltene Anlage in Olympia veranschaulicht. Außer den Ankleidezimmern (Apodyteria) und den Räumen, die zur Einreibung mit Öl dienten (Elaeothesia), bestand das eigentliche B. in dem Lakonikon oder Schwitzbad, einem Gemach mit Bänken, das mittels Röhren mit dem Hypokauston, einem großen Ofen, in Verbindung stand, sowie aus dem trocknen Schwitzzimmer (Pyriateria), wo das Schwitzen bloß durch Erhitzung der Luft bewirkt wurde. Die öffentlichen B. der Römer hießen Thermen (Thermae) und waren reicher ausgestattet als die griechischen. Zu einer Therme gehörte 1) das Hypocaustum oder Heizzimmer im Kellergeschoß zur Erwärmung sowohl der Badezimmer als auch des Badewassers; 2) das Apodyterium oder Auskleidezimmer; 3) das Frigidarium, ein Zimmer mit einem Bassin zum kalten B.; 4) das Tepidarium, ein Raum mit mäßig trockner Wärme, das sowohl zum Baden im lauwarmen Wasser wie zur Vorbereitung auf die höhere Temperatur des nächsten Zimmers, wohl auch zum Einsalben des Körpers gedient haben mag; 5) das Caldarium für das warme B. Getrennt davon und nicht notwendig zum B. gehörig ist 6) das Laconicum, das trockne Schwitzbad, auch Sudatorium genannt. Dieser Raum, dessen Fußboden auf kleinen Pfeilern ruhte, die auf dem mit Ziegeln überdeckten Hypocaustum aufstanden, war so eingerichtet, daß sich in ihm die Hitze vom Hypocaustum aus nach allen Richtungen hin verbreiten konnte, denn sowohl der Fußboden als auch die Seitenwände waren hohl und ließen beiße Luft durch. In den Badezimmern befanden sich Bassins zur Aufnahme des Wassers, an den Wänden befanden sich Bänke, die im Caldarium amphitheatralisch erhöht waren, um den Badenden die Wahl zwischen der höhern Temperatur des obern Zimmerteils und der mäßigern des untern Raums zu gestatten. Letzteres Zimmer enthielt auch noch ein Becken (labrum) von mehrern Metern im Durchmesser, das mit kaltem Wasser gefüllt war. Mit diesen wesentlichen Teilen eines B. standen gewöhnlich noch in Verbindung ein Unctuarium, d. h. ein Zimmer zum Salben des Körpers, außerdem oft Gärten, bedeckte Spazierwege, Säle zum Spielen u. s. w. Dem entsprechend wachsen die B. aus dem Bedürfnis dienenden Gebäuden zu mächtigen Prachtanlagen empor. Zu Rom legte zuerst, zur Zeit des Augustus, Agrippa auf dem Marsfelde Thermen zu unentgeltlicher Benutzung an; nach ihm Nero, dessen Thermen Alexander Severus erneuerte. Dann baute Titus auf dem Esquilin seine großen Thermen, denen Trajan kleinere hinzufügte. Große und prächtige Thermen errichtete Caracalla (s. Tafel: Bäder I, Fig. 1) in dem Stadtteil Piscina publica, die wieder von denen des Diocletian auf dem östlichsten Teile des Quirinals überboten wurden. Die letzten in Rom errichteten Thermen waren die des Konstantin auf dem westlichsten Teile des Quirinals. Die erheblichsten Überreste stammen von den Thermen des Titus, Caracalla und Diocletian. Der Hauptsaal der letztern bildet jetzt nach öftern Umgestaltungen die Kirche Sta. Maria degli Angeli; der berühmte Kuppelbau des Pantheons gehörte zu den Thermen des Agrippa; die des Caracalla bildeten ein Geviert von etwa 400 m und enthielten großartige Säle, Schwimmbassins, Vorzimmer u. s. w. Für die Kenntnis der innern Einrichtung dieser Anlagen sind die drei wohlerhaltenen Thermengebäude von Pompeji, von denen das Innere eines Tepidariums Taf. I, Fig. 2 abgebildet ist, von großer Bedeutung. Auch in den Provinzen finden sich zahlreiche Reste von Thermen: so in Frankreich, England, den Rhein-, Mosel- und Neckargegenden (Badenweiler, Trier u. a.), in den Donauprovinzen (Ofen, Deutsch-Altenburg), Afrika, Kleinasien u. s. w.

Vgl. Palladio, Les thermes des Romains (Vicenza 1785); Blouet, Restauration des thermes d'Antonin Caracalla à Rome (Par. 1828); Overbeck, Pompeji (4. Aufl., Lpz. 1884); Marquardt und Mommsen, Handbuch der röm. Altertümer, Bd. 7: «Das Privatleben der Römer» (2. Aufl., ebd. 1886); J. Durm, Die Baukunst der Römer (im «Handbuch der Architektur», Bd. 2, Darmst. 1885); Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums, Bd. 3 (Münch. 1888).

Bei den Orientalen sind die B. (arab. Hamam) aus Stein gebaut, die Badezimmer haben Fußböden von Marmor, der von unten erhitzt wird, und Röhren in den Wänden leiten die Wärme nach allen Seiten. Zum Teil sind auch diese B. mit großer Pracht ausgestattet, namentlich in Damaskus und Kairo. Ein merkwürdiges Beispiel bietet das von Pascha Mustafa Sokoli 1570-77 errichtete, 1880 erneuerte Bruckbad in Ofen (s. Taf. I, Fig. 3) mit einer 10 m im Durchmesser weiten, das Becken überdeckenden Kuppel. Während größere, technisch und künstlerisch durchgeführte B. im Mittelalter nicht entstanden, wendete sich die Renaissance ihrem Schmucke wieder zu. Berühmt waren die Badestuben der Fugger in Augsburg (s. Taf. I, Fig. 4). Im 17. und 18. Jahrh. wurden die fürstlichen B. Gegenstand monumentaler Ausgestaltung. Die Badenburg im Park zu Nymphenburg bei München, das Marmorbad in der Aue bei Cassel (s. Taf. I, Fig. 5), mit reichem plastischem Schmuck von Pierre Francois Monnot (geb. zu Besançon 1600, gest. zu Rom 1730), das B. Lazienki bei Warschau u. a. sind hervorragende Beispiele hierfür.

In neuerer Zeit wurde der Baukunst die Aufgabe gestellt, dem gesteigerten Bedürfnis entsprechende Anlagen zu schaffen. In England entstand 1842 die erste öffentliche Badeanstalt in Liverpool, der bald andere in London folgten. In den fünfziger Jahren wurden zu den Wannenbädern, die bisher in diesen Anstalten allein üblich waren, die Schwimmbäder und seit 18556 (zuerst zu St. Ann's Hill, Irland) die Dampfbäder hinzugefügt. In Deutschland gingen Wien (Dianabad, erbaut 1842 von Förster und Etzel, im Winter Tanzlokal) und Hamburg mit der Errichtung großer Warmwasser-Schwimmbäder voraus. Die Privatindustrie hat sich der Anlage von Badeanstalten überall bemächtigt. Fast jede größere Stadt besitzt mehrere wohleingerichtete Badeanstalten. Frankreich steht in dieser Beziehung andern Ländern nach. Die Anstalt «Le Hammam» zu Paris ist die einzige, die als glänzend eingerichtet zu bezeichnen wäre. London besitzt neben zahlreichen öffentlichen B. vielleicht die am besten eingerichteten, in denen für ein einfaches B. freilich bis 5 M. berechnet wird. In Wien ist das Römische B. (1872-73 erbaut von Klauß und Groß, Kosten über 2½ Mill. M.) eine mustergültige Anlage. Berlin besitzt mehrere treffliche Anstalten dieser Art.

Als Beispiel einer solchen stellt Taf. II, Fig. 10 u. 11 das Quirinusbad zu Aachen dar, in welchem neben den Speise-, Lese- und Wartezimmern sich in einer stattlichen Halle 19 Einzelbäder und 4 Schwitzbäder finden. An diese legt sich die Schwimmhalle mit ihren Entkleidungszellen. Besondere B. für Frauen, breite Treppen, ein Fahrstuhl u. a. schließen sich den Haupträumen an. Die obern Geschosse des Vorderhauses dienen Hotelzwecken. Eine Badezelle aus dem Kaiserbad zu Aachen (s. Taf. II, Fig. 9) zeigt die reicher entwickelte Anlage, eine solche aus der Solbadeanstalt zu Donaueschingen (s. Taf. II, Fig. 3) die mittlere Ausdehnung, wie denn dieses ganze B. (s. Taf. II, Fig. 1-3) mit seinen 18 Badezellen den Typus eines kleinern Heilbades vergegenwärtigt. Endlich wurde die Arbeiterbadeanstalt zu Leinhausen bei Hannover (f. Taf. II, Fig. 6-8), ein mit beschränkten Mitteln ausgeführter Bau, dargestellt, bei welchem neben 4 Zellen mit Wannen, zwei für das Dampfbad und einer für Brause noch ein größerer Waschraum vorhanden ist.

In den Einrichtungen für Fluß- und Seebäder sind große Fortschritte zu verzeichnen. Erstere bestehen aus festen oder schwimmenden Badeanstalten, meist leichten Holzbauten, die ein großes Bassin umschließen und von Kabinen (zum Auskleiden bestimmten Kammern) umgeben sind. Offene B. nennt man solche, die gegen das Wasser zu den Schwimmern freie Bahn lassen. Solche sind vorzugsweise an der See geboten. Während man an den Meeren mit starker Ebbe und Flut Badekarren gebraucht (auf Räder gestellte Kabinen, die bis zur gehörigen Tiefe ins Meer hinausgefahren werden), hat man an der Ostsee und am Mittelmeere stehende Anlagen bevorzugt und zum Teil mit großem Aufwand hergerichtet (in Heringsdorf, Triest u. a. O.). Als typische Anlage ist auf Taf. II, Fig. 4 u. 5 die Badeanstalt in der Außenalster bei Hamburg dargestellt, welche in den Pavillons offene Hallen mit Sitzbänken und Kleiderbaken, in den Zwischenflügeln Ankleidezimmer und die Verwaltungsräume enthält.

Vgl. Ofthoff, B. und Badeanstalten der Neuzeit (Lpz. 1887); Stübben, öffentliche Badeanstalten, in der «Baukunde des Architekten», Bd. 2 (Berl. 1884); G. Charles, Appareils balnéaires (Par. 1875): R. Schultze, Bau und Betrieb von Volksbadeanstalten (Bonn 1893); Vetter, Moderne B. (Stuttg. 1894).

Bad, im chemischen Laboratorium eine Vorrichtung zum Übertragen gleichmäßiger Wärme an zu erwärmende Körper, die zum Digerieren, Destillieren, Verdampfen und Trocknen dient. Je nach dem die Wärme übertragenden Medium unterscheidet man Wasser-, Sand-, Öl-, Paraffin-, Metall-, Dampf-, Luftbäder (s. die einzelnen Artikel). Zur Erhaltung einer konstanten Temperatur in durch Gas geheizten B. bedient man sich der Thermostaten (s. d.).

Badachschan, Alpenland in Turkestan, zu Afghanistan gehörig, zwischen dem Hindukusch und der Krümmung, welche der Amu-darja mit seinem südl. Quellflusse, dem Pändsch, bildet, erstreckt sich von 36 bis 38° nördl. Br. und 69° 30' bis 72° östl. L. von Greenwich und wird vom Kutscha-darja und seinen vielen Zuflüssen durchströmt. Im O. grenzt es an die Landschaften Wachan (oberes Thal des Pändsch, afghanisch), Schignan und Roschan, im N. an Kuljab und Darwas (die letztern 4 Länder gehören zu Buchara), im S. an Kafiristan. B. ist berühmt durch gesundes Klima, liebliche Thäler und Bäche, durch Früchte, Blumen und Nachtigallen, besonders durch seine frühern Rubingruben in den niedrigern Bergen nahe am Fluß; die Rubine finden sich in einer weißen Erde drusenartig in Krystallmassen eingelagert. Das höhere Gebirge liefert Eisen, Salz, Schwefel und viel Lapis Lazuli. Letzterer bildet Adern von bedeutender Mächtigkeit in einem grauen Muttergestein. Die Einwohner des Landes sind persisch sprechende Schiiten, Tadschik, Usbeken und sunnitische Araber, gelten als ungemein gesellig und gastfrei und werden auf 100000 Seelen geschätzt. Der wichtigste Industriezweig ist Eisengießerei; der Handel wird namentlich von den Afghanen betrieben. Die Hauptstadt Faisabad am Kutscha war durch die Eroberungszüge des Chans von Kundus sehr verödet und durch Erdbeben 1832 verwüstet worden, hat sich aber wieder erholt. Die Bevölkerung treibt Eisenindustrie und Massenfabrikation, namentlich auch Handel mit geraubten Sklaven und mit Pferden. Im SO. von ihr liegt der Ort Dscherm, mit 1500 E., früher Hauptstadt. Der westlich von Faisabad gelegene Ort Rustak ist der Haupthandelsplatz des Landes und Knotenpunkt der Straßen von Kaschgar, Tschitral, Faisabad, Chulm, Balch und Kuljab.

Vgl. General report of the great trigonometrical survey of India (Dehra-Dun 1871); Wood, A journey to the source of the river oxus (Lond. 1872).

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558165

A butterfly is an insect of the order Lepidoptera. Like all Lepidoptera, butterflies are notable for their unusual life cycle with a larval caterpillar stage, an inactive pupal stage, and a spectacular metamorphosis into a familiar and colourful winged adult form. Most species are day-flying so they regularly attract attention. The diverse patterns formed by their brightly coloured wings and their erratic yet graceful flight have made butterfly watching a hobby.

Butterflies comprise the true butterflies (superfamily Papilionoidea), the skippers (superfamily Hesperioidea) and the moth-butterflies (superfamily Hedyloidea). Butterflies exhibit polymorphism, mimicry and aposematism. Some migrate over long distances. Some butterflies have evolved symbiotic and parasitic relationships with social insects such as ants. Butterflies are important economically as agents of pollination. In addition, a few species are pests, because they can damage domestic crops and trees in their larval stage.

Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts.

There are three notably diffrent morphalogicaly or visually spacific populations developing of Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia or SFGS fromed over time and separated by development and microclimate. Polymorphism is natural as adaptation or genetic variation and variety of forms as a population living in a varied environment. Population #1 in the east pensula along from the historic land records of San bruno and San Francisco fresh water swamp that is currently streets and houses is beage and red the microclimate is warmer and dryer yellower vegatation then other two locations. Population #2 (in above picture), lives in the mountain forest marshes and has clean striped with orange with blue stripes and green on head. Populations #3 is found along the coast with cool and overcast skies it has the most stable green microclimate yearly It has formed or rather it has a red and blue, green colors and some brokend black stripes near head. The #2 location of the SFGS is smallest of populations with numbers less then two dozen it lives in the area. Once thought to be common in the slag ponds along the fault prior to filling them in for human development in the early 1900. This population has clean even unbroken black stripes with orange stripes instead of the red from the coast and a orange /green head. Thats my theory on their physiological color change and geographic variation in bio polymorpism.

This population of this endangered snake will sadly be first to be lost, due to the integration of Ts. infernalis from along the south of their location and human development from the north.

Ipê Amarelo, Tabebuia [chrysotricha or ochracea].

Ipê-amarelo em Brasília, Brasil.

This tree is in Brasília, Capital of Brazil.

Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Trumpet tree" redirects here. This term is occasionally used for the Shield-leaved Pumpwood (Cecropia peltata).

Tabebuia

Flowering Araguaney or ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia chrysantha) in central Brazil

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots

(unranked): Asterids

Order: Lamiales

Family: Bignoniaceae

Tribe: Tecomeae

Genus: Tabebuia

Gomez

Species

Nearly 100.

Tabebuia is a neotropical genus of about 100 species in the tribe Tecomeae of the family Bignoniaceae. The species range from northern Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina and central Venezuela, including the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Well-known common names include Ipê, Poui, trumpet trees and pau d'arco.

They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 3–7 leaflets.

Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescentThe fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerous—in some species winged—seeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy.

Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ipê wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.

Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ipé grown in India, where it is not native.

Lapacho teaThe bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ipê (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia)

Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.

Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ipê tree.

Tabebuia alba

Tabebuia anafensis

Tabebuia arimaoensis

Tabebuia aurea – Caribbean Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia bilbergii

Tabebuia bibracteolata

Tabebuia cassinoides

Tabebuia chrysantha – Araguaney, Yellow Ipê, tajibo (Bolivia), ipê-amarelo (Brazil), cañaguate (N Colombia)

Tabebuia chrysotricha – Golden Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose – Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)

A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.

Tabebuia dubia

Tabebuia ecuadorensis

Tabebuia elongata

Tabebuia furfuracea

Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos

Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.

Tabebuia haemantha

Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo – tajy

Tabebuia heterophylla – roble prieto

Tabebuia heteropoda

Tabebuia hypoleuca

Tabebuia impetiginosa – Pink Ipê, Pink Lapacho, ipê-cavatã, ipê-comum, ipê-reto, ipê-rosa, ipê-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peúva, piúva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"

Tabebuia incana

Tabebuia jackiana

Tabebuia lapacho – lapacho amarillo

Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]

Tabebuia ochracea

Tabebuia oligolepis

Tabebuia pallida – Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia platyantha

Tabebuia polymorpha

Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) – Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate

A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela

Tabebuia roseo-alba – White Ipê, ipê-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco

Tabebuia serratifolia – Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ipê-roxo (Brazil)

Tabebuia shaferi

Tabebuia striata

Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith

Tabebuia umbellata

Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo

Ipê-do-cerrado

Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

Ipê-do-cerrado

Classificação científica

Reino: Plantae

Divisão: Magnoliophyta

Classe: Magnoliopsida

Subclasse: Asteridae

Ordem: Lamiales

Família: Bignoniaceae

Género: Tabebuia

Espécie: T. ochracea

Nome binomial

Tabebuia ochracea

(Cham.) Standl. 1832

Sinónimos

Bignonia tomentosa Pav. ex DC.

Handroanthus ochraceus (Cham.) Mattos

Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson

Tabebuia hypodictyon A. DC.) Standl.

Tabebuia neochrysantha A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. heteropoda (A. DC.) A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. neochrysantha (A.H. Gentry) A.H. Gentry

Tecoma campinae Kraenzl.

ecoma grandiceps Kraenzl.

Tecoma hassleri Sprague

Tecoma hemmendorffiana Kraenzl.

Tecoma heteropoda A. DC.

Tecoma hypodictyon A. DC.

Tecoma ochracea Cham.

Ipê-do-cerrado é um dos nomes populares da Tabebuia ochracea (Cham.) Standl. 1832, nativa do cerrado brasileiro, no estados de Amazonas, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Paraná.

Está na lista de espécies ameaçadas do estado de São Paulo, onde é encontrda também no domínio da Mata Atlântica[1].

Ocorre também na Argentina, Paraguai, Bolívia, Equador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, El Salvador, Guatemala e Panamá[2].

Há uma espécie homônima descrita por A.H. Gentry em 1992.

Outros nomes populares: ipê-amarelo, ipê-cascudo, ipê-do-campo, ipê-pardo, pau-d'arco-do-campo, piúva, tarumã.

Características

Altura de 6 a 14 m. Tronco tortuso com até 50 cm de diâmetro. Folhas pilosas em ambas as faces, mais na inferior, que é mais clara.

Planta decídua, heliófita, xerófita, nativa do cerrado em solos bem drenados.

Floresce de julho a setembro. Os frutos amadurecem de setembro a outubro.

FloresProduz grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em menos de 90 dias após coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978). As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%. As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 72 000 sementes em cada quilo.

O desenvolvimento da planta é rápido.

Como outros ipês, a madeira é usada em tacos, assoalhos, e em dormentes e postes. Presta-se também para peças torneadas e instrumento musicais.

Tabebuia alba (Ipê-Amarelo)

Texto, em português, produzido pela Acadêmica Giovana Beatriz Theodoro Marto

Supervisão e orientação do Prof. Luiz Ernesto George Barrichelo e do Eng. Paulo Henrique Müller

Atualizado em 10/07/2006

O ipê amarelo é a árvore brasileira mais conhecida, a mais cultivada e, sem dúvida nenhuma, a mais bela. É na verdade um complexo de nove ou dez espécies com características mais ou menos semelhantes, com flores brancas, amarelas ou roxas. Não há região do país onde não exista pelo menos uma espécie dele, porém a existência do ipê em habitat natural nos dias atuais é rara entre a maioria das espécies (LORENZI,2000).

A espécie Tabebuia alba, nativa do Brasil, é uma das espécies do gênero Tabebuia que possui “Ipê Amarelo” como nome popular. O nome alba provém de albus (branco em latim) e é devido ao tomento branco dos ramos e folhas novas.

As árvores desta espécie proporcionam um belo espetáculo com sua bela floração na arborização de ruas em algumas cidades brasileiras. São lindas árvores que embelezam e promovem um colorido no final do inverno. Existe uma crença popular de que quando o ipê-amarelo floresce não vão ocorrer mais geadas. Infelizmente, a espécie é considerada vulnerável quanto à ameaça de extinção.

A Tabebuia alba, natural do semi-árido alagoano está adaptada a todas as regiões fisiográficas, levando o governo, por meio do Decreto nº 6239, a transformar a espécie como a árvore símbolo do estado, estando, pois sob a sua tutela, não mais podendo ser suprimida de seus habitats naturais.

Taxonomia

Família: Bignoniaceae

Espécie: Tabebuia Alba (Chamiso) Sandwith

Sinonímia botânica: Handroanthus albus (Chamiso) Mattos; Tecoma alba Chamisso

Outros nomes vulgares: ipê-amarelo, ipê, aipê, ipê-branco, ipê-mamono, ipê-mandioca, ipê-ouro, ipê-pardo, ipê-vacariano, ipê-tabaco, ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-dourado, ipê-da-serra, ipezeiro, pau-d’arco-amarelo, taipoca.

Aspectos Ecológicos

O ipê-amarelo é uma espécie heliófita (Planta adaptada ao crescimento em ambiente aberto ou exposto à luz direta) e decídua (que perde as folhas em determinada época do ano). Pertence ao grupo das espécies secundárias iniciais (DURIGAN & NOGUEIRA, 1990).

Abrange a Floresta Pluvial da Mata Atlântica e da Floresta Latifoliada Semidecídua, ocorrendo principalmente no interior da Floresta Primária Densa. É característica de sub-bosques dos pinhais, onde há regeneração regular.

Informações Botânicas

Morfologia

As árvores de Tabebuia alba possuem cerca de 30 metros de altura. O tronco é reto ou levemente tortuoso, com fuste de 5 a 8 m de altura. A casca externa é grisáceo-grossa, possuindo fissuras longitudinais esparas e profundas. A coloração desta é cinza-rosa intenso, com camadas fibrosas, muito resistentes e finas, porém bem distintas.

Com ramos grossos, tortuosos e compridos, o ipê-amarelo possui copa alongada e alargada na base. As raízes de sustentação e absorção são vigorosas e profundas.

As folhas, deciduais, são opostas, digitadas e compostas. A face superior destas folhas é verde-escura, e, a face inferior, acinzentada, sendo ambas as faces tomentosas. Os pecíolos das folhas medem de 2,5 a 10 cm de comprimento. Os folíolos, geralmente, apresentam-se em número de 5 a 7, possuindo de 7 a 18 cm de comprimento por 2 a 6 cm de largura. Quando jovem estes folíolos são densamente pilosos em ambas as faces. O ápice destes é pontiagudo, com base arredondada e margem serreada.

As flores, grandes e lanceoladas, são de coloração amarelo-ouro. Possuem em média 8X15 cm.

Quanto aos frutos, estes possuem forma de cápsula bivalvar e são secos e deiscentes. Do tipo síliqua, lembram uma vagem. Medem de 15 a 30 cm de comprimento por 1,5 a 2,5 cm de largura. As valvas são finamente tomentosas com pêlos ramificados. Possuem grande quantidade de sementes.

As sementes são membranáceas brilhantes e esbranquiçadas, de coloração marrom. Possuem de 2 a 3 cm de comprimento por 7 a 9 mm de largura e são aladas.

Reprodução

A espécie é caducifólia e a queda das folhas coincide com o período de floração. A floração inicia-se no final de agosto, podendo ocorrer alguma variação devido a fenômenos climáticos. Como a espécie floresce no final do inverno é influenciada pela intensidade do mesmo. Quanto mais frio e seco for o inverno, maior será a intensidade da florada do ipê amarelo.

As flores por sua exuberância, atraem abelhas e pássaros, principalmente beija-flores que são importantes agentes polinizadores. Segundo CARVALHO (2003), a espécie possui como vetor de polinização a abelha mamangava (Bombus morio).

As sementes são dispersas pelo vento.

A planta é hermafrodita, e frutifica nos meses de setembro, outubro, novembro, dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro, dependendo da sua localização. Em cultivo, a espécie inicia o processo reprodutivo após o terceiro ano.

Ocorrência Natural

Ocorre naturalmente na Floresta Estaciobal Semidecicual, Floresta de Araucária e no Cerrado.

Segundo o IBGE, a Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandw. é uma árvore do Cerrado, Cerradão e Mata Seca. Apresentando-se nos campos secos (savana gramíneo-lenhosa), próximo às escarpas.

Clima

Segundo a classificação de Köppen, o ipê-amarelo abrange locais de clima tropical (Aw), subtropical úmido (Cfa), sutropical de altitude (Cwa e Cwb) e temperado.

A T.alba pode tolerar até 81 geadas em um ano. Ocorre em locais onde a temperatura média anual varia de 14,4ºC como mínimo e 22,4ºC como máximo.

Solo

A espécie prefere solos úmidos, com drenagem lenta e geralmente não muito ondulados (LONGHI, 1995).

Aparece em terras de boa à média fertilidade, em solos profundos ou rasos, nas matas e raramente cerradões (NOGUEIRA, 1977).

Pragas e Doenças

De acordo com CARVALHO (2003), possui como praga a espécie de coleópteros Cydianerus bohemani da família Curculionoideae e um outro coleóptero da família Chrysomellidae. Apesar da constatação de elevados índices populacionais do primeiro, os danos ocasionados até o momento são leves. Nas praças e ruas de Curitiba - PR, 31% das árvores foram atacadas pela Cochonilha Ceroplastes grandis.

ZIDKO (2002), ao estudar no município de Piracicaba a associação de coleópteros em espécies arbóreas, verificou a presença de insetos adultos da espécie Sitophilus linearis da família de coleópteros, Curculionidae, em estruturas reprodutivas. Os insetos adultos da espécie emergiram das vagens do ipê, danificando as sementes desta espécie nativa.

ANDRADE (1928) assinalou diversas espécies de Cerambycidae atacando essências florestais vivas, como ingazeiro, cinamomo, cangerana, cedro, caixeta, jacarandá, araribá, jatobá, entre outras como o ipê amarelo.

A Madeira

A Tabebuia alba produz madeira de grande durabilidade e resistência ao apodrecimento (LONGHI,1995).

MANIERI (1970) caracteriza o cerne desta espécie como de cor pardo-havana-claro, pardo-havan-escuro, ou pardo-acastanhado, com reflexos esverdeados. A superfície da madeira é irregularmente lustrosa, lisa ao tato, possuindo textura media e grã-direita.

Com densidade entre 0,90 e 1,15 grama por centímetro cúbico, a madeira é muito dura (LORENZI, 1992), apresentando grande dificuldade ao serrar.

A madeira possui cheiro e gosto distintos. Segundo LORENZI (1992), o cheiro característico é devido à presença da substância lapachol, ou ipeína.

Usos da Madeira

Sendo pesada, com cerne escuro, adquire grande valor comercial na marcenaria e carpintaria. Também é utilizada para fabricação de dormentes, moirões, pontes, postes, eixos de roda, varais de carroça, moendas de cana, etc.

Produtos Não-Madeireiros

A entrecasca do ipê-amarelo possui propriedades terapêuticas como adstringente, usada no tratamento de garganta e estomatites. É também usada como diurético.

O ipê-amarelo possui flores melíferas e que maduras podem ser utilizadas na alimentação humana.

Outros Usos

É comumente utilizada em paisagismo de parques e jardins pela beleza e porte. Além disso, é muito utilizada na arborização urbana.

Segundo MOREIRA & SOUZA (1987), o ipê-amarelo costuma povoar as beiras dos rios sendo, portanto, indicado para recomposição de matas ciliares. MARTINS (1986), também cita a espécie para recomposição de matas ciliares da Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, abrangendo alguns municípios das regiões Norte, Noroeste e parte do Oeste do Estado do Paraná.

Aspectos Silviculturais

Possui a tendência a crescer reto e sem bifurcações quando plantado em reflorestamento misto, pois é espécie monopodial. A desrrama se faz muito bem e a cicatrização é boa. Sendo assim, dificilmente encopa quando nova, a não ser que seja plantado em parques e jardins.

Ao ser utilizada em arborização urbana, o ipê amarelo requer podas de condução com freqüência mediana.

Espécie heliófila apresenta a pleno sol ramificação cimosa, registrando-se assim dicotomia para gema apical. Deve ser preconizada, para seu melhor aproveitamento madeireiro, podas de formação usuais (INQUE et al., 1983).

Produção de Mudas

A propagação deve realizada através de enxertia.

Os frutos devem ser coletados antes da dispersão, para evitar a perda de sementes. Após a coleta as sementes são postas em ambiente ventilado e a extração é feita manualmente. As sementes do ipê amarelo são ortodoxas, mantendo a viabilidade natural por até 3 meses em sala e por até 9 meses em vidro fechado, em câmara fria.

A condução das mudas deve ser feita a pleno sol. A muda atinge cerca de 30 cm em 9 meses, apresentando tolerância ao sol 3 semanas após a germinação.

Sementes

Os ipês, espécies do gênero Tabebuia, produzem uma grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em poucos dias após a sua coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978).

As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A quebra natural leva cerca de 3 meses e a quebra na câmara leva 9 meses. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%.

As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 87000 sementes em cada quilo.

Preço da Madeira no Mercado

O preço médio do metro cúbico de pranchas de ipê no Estado do Pará cotado em Julho e Agosto de 2005 foi de R$1.200,00 o preço mínimo, R$ 1509,35 o médio e R$ 2.000,00 o preço máximo (CEPEA,2005).

Atacamite Crystals surrounded by quartz in the main image. Green Atacamite Crystals between Selenite (gypsum) crystals at the lower left area.

Sample: Provided by Mr. Carlos Aracena Olmedo and Mr. Claudio Canut de Bon Urrutia (SONAMI Director, La Serena)

Location: Ignacio de Domeyko Mineralogy Museum of The University of La Serena.

La Serena -IV Region - Chile

Atacamite is a copper halide mineral: a copper(II) chloride hydroxide with formula Cu2Cl(OH)3.

It was first described for deposits in the Atacama Desert of Chile in 1801.

Atacamite is polymorphous with botallackite, clinoatacamite, and paratacamite. Atacamite is a comparatively rare mineral, formed from primary copper minerals in the oxidation or weathering zone of arid climates. It has also been reportedas a volcanic sublimate from fumarole deposits, as sulfide alteration products in black smokers and as alteration of ancient bronze and copper artefacts. It occurs in association with cuprite, brochantite, linarite, caledonite, malachite, chrysocolla and its polymorphs.

It has been shown that atacamite is a component of the jaws of some Glycera species

An Instantiation is a concept in Object Oriented Programming (OOP) - You can create an object with a set of properties that are defined by a Class in a program. When you create a member of a class, it is the instantiation (i.e. realization or creation) of a specific object of that class.

Object (computer science)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In computer science, an object is a location in memory having a value and possibly referenced by an identifier. An object can be a variable, a data structure, or a function. In the class-based object-oriented programming paradigm, "object" refers to a particular instance of a class where the object can be a combination of variables, functions, and data structures. In relational database management, an object can be a table or column, or an association between data and a database entity (such as relating a person's age to a specific person).[1]

Contents [hide]

1 Object-based languages

2 Object-oriented programming

3 Specialized objects

4 Distributed objects

5 Objects and the Semantic Web

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

Object-based languages[edit]

Main article: Object-based language

An important distinction in programming languages is the difference between an object-oriented language and an object-based language. A language is usually considered object-based if it includes the basic capabilities for an object: identity, properties, and attributes. A language is considered object-oriented if it is object-based and also has the capability of polymorphism and inheritance. Polymorphism refers to the ability to overload the name of a function with multiple behaviors based on which object(s) are passed to it. Conventional message passing discriminates only on the first object and considers that to be "sending a message" to that object. However, some OOP languages such as Flavors and the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) enable discriminating on more than the first parameter of the function.[2] Inheritance is the ability to subclass an object class, to create a new class that is a subclass of an existing one and inherits all the data constraints and behaviors of its parents but also changes one or more of them.[3][4]

Object-oriented programming[edit]

Main article: Object-oriented programming

Object-Oriented programming is an approach to designing modular reusable software systems. The object-oriented approach is fundamentally a modelling approach.[5] The object-oriented approach is an evolution of good design practices that go back to the very beginning of computer programming. Object-orientation is simply the logical extension of older techniques such as structured programming and abstract data types. An object is an abstract data type with the addition of polymorphism and inheritance.

Rather than structure programs as code and data an object-oriented system integrates the two using the concept of an "object". An object has state (data) and behavior (code). Objects can correspond to things found in the real world. So for example, a graphics program will have objects such as circle, square, menu. An online shopping system will have objects such as shopping cart, customer, product,. The shopping system will support behaviors such as place order, make payment, and offer discount. The objects are designed as class hierarchies. So for example with the shopping system there might be high level classes such as electronics product, kitchen product, and book. There may be further refinements for example under electronic products: CD Player, DVD player, etc. These classes and subclasses correspond to sets and subsets in mathematical logic.[6][7]

Specialized objects[edit]

An important concept for objects is the design pattern. A design pattern provides a reusable template to address a common problem. The following object descriptions are examples of some of the most common design patterns for objects.[8]

Function object: an object with a single method (in C++, this method would be the function operator, "operator()") that acts much like a function (like a C/C++ pointer to a function).

Immutable object: an object set up with a fixed state at creation time and which does not change afterward.

First-class object: an object that can be used without restriction.

Container: an object that can contain other objects.

Factory object: an object whose purpose is to create other objects.

Metaobject: an object from which other objects can be created (Compare with class, which is not necessarily an object)

Prototype: a specialized metaobject from which other objects can be created by copying

God object: an object that knows too much or does too much. The God object is an example of an anti-pattern.

Singleton object: An object that is the only instance of its class during the lifetime of the program.

Filter object

Distributed objects[edit]

Main article: Distributed object

The object-oriented approach is not just a programming model. It can be used equally well as an interface definition language for distributed systems. The objects in a distributed computing model tend to be larger grained, longer lasting, and more service-oriented than programming objects.

A standard method to package distributed objects is via an Interface Definition Language (IDL). An IDL shields the client of all of the details of the distributed server object. Details such as which computer the object resides on, what programming language it uses, what operating system, and other platform specific issues. The IDL is also usually part of a distributed environment that provides services such as transactions and persistence to all objects in a uniform manner. Two of the most popular standards for distributed objects are the Object Management Group's CORBA standard and Microsoft's DCOM.[9]

In addition to distributed objects, a number of other extensions to the basic concept of an object have been proposed to enable distributed computing:

Protocol objects are components of a protocol stack that enclose network communication within an object-oriented interface.

Replicated objects are groups of distributed objects (called replicas) that run a distributed multi-party protocol to achieve high consistency between their internal states, and that respond to requests in a coordinated way. Examples include fault-tolerant CORBA objects.

Live distributed objects (or simply live objects)[10] generalize the replicated object concept to groups of replicas that might internally use any distributed protocol, perhaps resulting in only a weak consistency between their local states.

Some of these extensions, such as distributed objects and protocol objects, are domain-specific terms for special types of "ordinary" objects used in a certain context (such as remote invocation or protocol composition). Others, such as replicated objects and live distributed objects, are more non-standard, in that they abandon the usual case that an object resides in a single location at a time, and apply the concept to groups of entities (replicas) that might span across multiple locations, might have only weakly consistent state, and whose membership might dynamically change.

Objects and the Semantic Web[edit]

The Semantic Web is essentially a distributed objects framework. Two key technologies in the Semantic Web are the Web Ontology Language (OWL) and the Resource Description Framework (RDF). RDF provides the capability to define basic objects—names, properties, attributes, relations—that are accessible via the Internet. OWL adds a richer object model, based on set theory, that provides additional modeling capabilities such as multiple inheritance.

OWL objects are not like standard large grained distributed objects accessed via an Interface Definition Language. Such an approach would not be appropriate for the Internet because the Internet is constantly evolving and standardization on one set of interfaces is difficult to achieve. OWL objects tend to be similar to the kind of objects used to define application domain models in programming languages such as Java and C++.

However, there are important distinctions between OWL objects and traditional object-oriented programming objects. Where as traditional objects get compiled into static hierarchies usually with single inheritance, OWL objects are dynamic. An OWL object can change its structure at run time and can become an instance of new or different classes.

Another critical difference is the way the model treats information that is currently not in the system. Programming objects and most database systems use the "closed-world assumption". If a fact is not known to the system that fact is assumed to be false. Semantic Web objects use the open world assumption, a statement is only considered false if there is actual relevant information that it is false, otherwise it is assumed to be unknown, neither true nor false.

OWL objects are actually most like objects in artificial intelligence frame languages such as KL-ONE and Loom.

The following table contrasts traditional objects from Object-Oriented programming languages such as Java or C++ with Semantic Web Objects:[11][12]

OOP ObjectsSemantic Web Objects

Classes are regarded as types for instances.Classes are regarded as sets of individuals.

Instances can not change their type at runtime.Class membership may change at runtime.

The list of classes is fully known at compile-time and cannot change after that.Classes can be created and changed at runtime.

Compilers are used at build-time. Compile-time errors indicate problems.Reasoners can be used for classification and consistency checking at runtime or build-time.

Classes encode much of their meaning and behavior through imperative functions and methods.Classes make their meaning explicit in terms of OWL statements. No imperative code can be attached.

Instances are anonymous insofar that they cannot easily be addressed from outside of an executing program.All named RDF and OWL resources have a unique URI under which they can be referenced.

Closed world: If there is not enough information to prove a statement true, then it is assumed to be false.Open world: If there is not enough information to prove a statement true, then it may be true or false.[13]

Aragonite from Morocco.

A mineral is a naturally-occurring, solid, inorganic, crystalline substance having a fairly definite chemical composition and having fairly definite physical properties. At its simplest, a mineral is a naturally-occurring solid chemical. Currently, there are over 6100 named and described minerals - about 200 of them are common and about 20 of them are very common. Mineral classification is based on anion chemistry. Major categories of minerals are: elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, and silicates.

The carbonate minerals all contain one or more carbonate (CO3-2) anions.

Aragonite has the same chemistry as calcite - it is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). However, aragonite has a different molecular structure - the atoms are packed differently. Different minerals having the same chemical formula are called "polymorphs" (another good example is graphite and diamond - both are carbon, C).

Unlike calcite, aragonite forms crystals in the orthorhombic class. Many aragonite crystals are acicular (needle-like) or pseudohexagonal. The latter is the result of six orthorhombic prisms growing parallel to each other. The sample seen here is a radiating cluster of pseudohexagonal, cyclic-twinned aragonite masses.

Aragonite is slightly harder than calcite, at H=3.5 to 4, occurs in many colors, and easily bubbles in acid. Aragonite is a little bit heavier than calcite, due to closer packing of atoms.

Most modern seashells and coral skeletons are composed of the aragonite. Whitish-colored lime sand beaches in the world are aragonitic. Occasionally, "whitings" are seen in shallow, warm ocean environments. Whitings (cloudy, milky seawater) turn out to have numerous tiny, hair-like needles of aragonite.

In the rock record, aragonitic or aragonite-rich sediments convert to calcite over time. Cenozoic-aged carbonate sedimentary rocks are often aragonitic. Mesozoic- and Paleozoic-aged carbonates are almost always calcitic. Many ancient fossils have had their aragonitic shells dissolved away. Ancient shells that were originally calcitic are often still well preserved.

Locality: Tazouta, southeast of Sefrou & southeast of Fez, Middle Atlas Mountains, northern Morocco

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Photo gallery of aragonite:

www.mindat.org/gallery.php?min=307

[order] Cuculiformes | [family] Cuculidae | [latin] Cuculus canorus | [UK] Cuckoo | [FR] Coucou gris | [DE] Kuckuck | [ES] Cuco Europeo | [IT] Cuculo eurasiatico | [NL] Koekoek | [IRL] Cuach

Measurements

spanwidth min.: 54 cm

spanwidth max.: 60 cm

size min.: 32 cm

size max.: 36 cm

Breeding

incubation min.: 11 days

incubation max.: 12 days

fledging min.: 17 days

fledging max.: 17 days

broods 15

eggs min.: 1

eggs max.: 25

Status: Widespread summer visitor to Ireland from April to August.

Conservation Concern: Green-listed in Ireland. The European population is currently evaluated as secure.

Identification: Despite its obvious song, relatively infrequently seen. In flight, can be mistaken for a bird of prey such as Sparrowhawk, but has rapid wingbeats below the horizontal plane - ie. the wings are not raised above the body. Adult male Cuckoos are a uniform grey on the head, neck, back, wings and tail. The underparts are white with black barring. Adult females can appear in one of two forms. The so-called grey-morph resembles the adult male plumage, but has throat and breast barred black and white with yellowish wash. The rufous-morph has the grey replaced by rufous, with strong black barring on the wings, back and tail. Juvenile Cuckoos resemble the female rufous-morph, but are darker brown above.

Similar Species: Sparrowhawk

Call: The song is probably one of the most recognisable and well-known of all Irish bird species. The male gives a distinctive “wuck-oo”, which is occasionally doubled “wuck-uck-ooo”. The female has a distinctive bubbling “pupupupu”. The song period is late April to late June.

Diet: Mainly caterpillars and other insects.

Breeding: Widespread in Ireland, favouring open areas which hold their main Irish host species – Meadow Pipit. Has a remarkable breeding biology unlike any other Irish breeding species.

Wintering: Cuckoos winter in central and southern Africa.

To minimise the chance of being recognised and thus attacked by the birds they are trying to parasitize, female cuckoos have evolved different guises.

The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. On hatching, the young cuckoo ejects the host's eggs and chicks from the nest, so the hosts end up raising a cuckoo chick rather than a brood of their own. To fight back, reed warblers (a common host across Europe) have a first line of defence: they attack, or ‘mob’, the female cuckoo, which reduces the chance that their nest is parasitized.

To deter the warbler from attacking, the colouring of the grey cuckoo mimics sparrow hawks, a common predator of reed warblers. However, other females are bright rufous (brownish-red). The presence of alternate colour morphs in the same species is rare in birds, but frequent among the females of parasitic cuckoo species. The new research shows that this is another cuckoo trick: cuckoos combat reed warbler mobbing by coming in different guises.

In the study, the researchers manipulated local frequencies of the more common grey colour cuckoo and the less common (in the United Kingdom) rufous colour cuckoo by placing models of the birds at neighbouring nests. They then recorded how the experience of watching their neighbours mob changed reed warbler responses to both cuckoos and a sparrow hawk at their own nest.

They found that reed warblers increased their mobbing, but only to the cuckoo morph that their neighbours had mobbed. Therefore, as one cuckoo morph increases in frequency, local host populations will become alerted specifically to that morph. This means the alternate morph will be more likely to slip past host defences and lay undetected. This is the first time that ‘social learning’ has been documented in the evolution of mimicry as well as the evolution of different observable characteristics - such as colour - in the same species (called polymorphism).

From the University of Cambridge “When mimicry becomes less effective, evolving to look completely different can be a successful trick. Our research shows that individuals assess disguises not only from personal experience, but also by observing others. However, because their learning is so specific, this social learning then selects for alternative cuckoo disguises and the arms race continues.”.

“It’s well known that cuckoos have evolved various egg types which mimic those of their hosts in order to combat rejection. This research shows that cuckoos have also evolved alternate female morphs to sneak through the hosts' defenses. This explains why many species which use mimicry, such as the cuckoo, evolve different guises.”

sur souches ou bois mort, souvent en touffes, ce champignon commun mais polymorphe peut se rencontrer du printemps aux premières gelées. Chapeau de 2-5 (7) cm, conique puis s'étalant en conservant habituellement un mamelon. Cuticule brillante puis mate, striée, blanchâtre, grisâtre ou brun-grisâtre, plus sombre au centre. Lames adnées, souvent interveinées à leur base, blanches puis rosées. Stipe grisâtre, lisse à base poilue.

Mycena galericulata (Scopoli) S.F. Gray, 1821 = Agaricus conicus W. Hudson, 1778 = Agaricus crispus Batsch, 1783 = Agaricus galericulatus Scopoli, 1772 = Agaricus galericulatus var. albidus Persoon, 1801 = Agaricus radicatellus Peck, 1878 = Agaricus rugosus Fries, 1838 = Agaricus sudorus Fries, 1838 = Collybia rugulosiceps Kauffman, 1926 = Mycena berkeleyi Massee, 1893 = Mycena galericulata var. albida (Persoon) Roussel, 1806 = Mycena galericulata var. carneifolia Gillet = Mycena galericulata var. fulva Gillet = Mycena galericulata var. fulvella Saccardo = Mycena galericulata var. livida (Albertini & Schweinitz) Gillet = Mycena galericulata var. rugosa (Bulliard) Fries = Mycena galericulata var. spadicea Gillet = Mycena longipes (Murrill) Murrill, 1916 = Mycena radicatella (Peck) Saccardo, 1887 = Mycena rugosa Quélet, 1872 = Mycena rugulosiceps (Kauffman) A.H. Smith, 1937 = Mycena sudora (Fries) Gillet, 1876 = Mycena sudora var. alba Gillet = Prunulus galericulatus (Scopoli) Murrill, 1916 = Prunulus longipes Murrill, 1916 = Prunulus radicatellus (Peck) Murrill, 1916 = Stereopodium galericulatum (Scopoli) anon., la mycène en casque ou mycène casquée, mycène à bonnet.

Beija-flor Tesoura (Eupetomena macroura) - Swallow-tailed-Hummingbird

A text In English:

The Swallow-tailed Hummingbird, so called from its forked tail, is one of the largest hummingbirds in cities and gardens, but it also occurs in gallery forests, bushy pastures and edges of woods or coppices. It is green, except for the blue head and upper breast, turning to iridescent purple according to the direction of light; it has dark wings and a heavy black bill. The tail is dark blue with the external feathers longer than central ones. It is very aggressive and attacks other hummingbirds that dare to visit flowers in certain trees. Where the flowers are available for many months, the individual is fiercely territorial, but generally needs to search soon for other flowering plants. It flies to catch small insets on or under leaves in the gallery forests or woodlands. The female builds a small cup-shaped nest saddled on a branch, not far from the main trunk in the shade of leaves. Perched on favorite branches, the male can utter long but low chirps. Once in a while, it interrupts these singing sessions to feed, and flies back for more song or to clean the plumage. They occur from the Guianas and Amazon River to Paraguay and southeastern Peru. They can get along with partially deforested zones, but may disappear with intensive agriculture and with the development of treeless cities.

Um texto em Português:

Beija-flor Tesoura (Eupetomena macroura), fotografado em Brasília-DF, Brasil.

Eupetomena macroura (Gmelin, 1788): tesoura; swallow-tailed hummingbird c.

Destaca-se das espécies estudadas pelo maior porte e pela cauda comprida e bifurcada, o que lhe valeu o nome popular. Como é comum entre os beija-flores, é uma espécie agressiva que disputa com outras o seu território e fontes de alimento.

Nidificação: o ninho, em forma de tigela, é assentado numa forquilha de arbusto ou árvores, a cerca de 2 a 3 m do solo. O material utilizado na construção é composto por fibras vegetais incluindo painas, musgos e liquens, aderidos externamente com teias de aranhas.

Hábitat: capoeiras, cerrados, borda de matas e jardins.

Tamanho: 17,0 cm

A SEGUIR UM TEXTO ENCONTRADO E REPRODUZIDO DO ENDEREÇO nationalgeographic.abril.uol.com.br/ng/edicoes/83/reporta... DA NATIONAL GEOGRAFIC:

Prodígios da micro-engenharia, os beija-flores são os campeões dos pesos-leves entre as aves

Uma faísca safira, um frêmito de asas, e o minúsculo pássaro - ou seria um inseto? - some como miragem fugaz. Reaparece instantes depois, agora num ângulo melhor. É pássaro mesmo, um dervixe do tamanho do meu polegar com asas que batem 80 vertiginosas vezes por segundo, produzindo um zumbido quase inaudível. As penas da cauda, à guisa de leme, delicadamente direcionam o vôo em três direções. Ele fita a trombeta de uma vistosa flor alaranjada e do bico fino como agulha projeta uma língua delgada feito linha. Um raio de Sol ricocheteia de suas penas iridescentes. A cor refletida deslumbra como uma pedra preciosa contra uma janela ensolarada. Não admira que os beija-flores sejam tão queridos e que tanta gente já tenha tropeçado ao tentar descrevê-los. Nem mesmo circunspectos cientistas resistem a termos como "belo", "magnífico", "exótico".

Surpresa maior é o fato de o aparentemente frágil beija-flor ser uma das mais resistentes criaturas do reino animal. Cerca de 330 espécies prosperam em ambientes diversos, muitos deles brutais: do Alasca à Argentina, do deserto do Arizona à costa de Nova Scotia, da Amazônia à linha nevada acima dos 4,5 mil metros nos Andes (misteriosamente, essas aves só são encontradas no Novo Mundo).

"Eles vivem no limite do que é possível aos vertebrados, e com maestria", diz Karl Schuchmann, ornitólogo do Instituto Zoológico Alexander Koenig e do Fundo Brehm, na Alemanha. Schuchmann ouviu falar de um beija-flor que viveu 17 anos em cativeiro. "Imagine a resistência de um organismo de 5 ou 6 gramas para viver tanto tempo!", diz ele espantado. Em média, o minúsculo coração de um beija-flor bate cerca de 500 vezes por minuto (em repouso!). Assim, o desse pequeno cativo teria batido meio bilhão de vezes, quase o dobro do total de uma pessoa de 70 anos.

Mas esses passarinhos são duráveis apenas em vida. Quando morrem, seus ossos delicados e ocos quase nunca se fossilizam. Daí o assombro causado pela recente descoberta de um amontoado de fósseis de aves que talvez inclua um beija-flor ancestral de 30 milhões de anos. Como os beija-flores modernos, os espécimes fósseis tinham o bico longo e fino e os ossos superiores das asas mais curtos, terminando em uma saliência arredondada que talvez lhes permitisse fazer a rotação na articulação do ombro e parar no ar.

A outra surpresa foi o local do achado: no sul da Alemanha, longe do território dos beija-flores atuais. Para alguns cientistas, essa descoberta mostra que já existiram beija-flores fora das Américas, mas se extinguiram. Ou quem sabe os fósseis não fossem de beija-flor. Os céticos, entre eles Schuchmann, afirmam que muitas vezes, ao longo da evolução, outros grupos de aves adquiriram características semelhantes às do beija-flor. Os verdadeiros beija-flores, diz Schuchmann, evoluíram nas florestas do leste do Brasil, onde competiam com insetos pelo néctar das flores.

"O Brasil foi o laboratório do protótipo", diz o ornitólogo. "E o modelo funcionou." O beija-flor tornou-se a obra-prima da microengenharia da natureza. Aperfeiçoou sua habilidade de parar no ar há dezenas de milhões de anos para competir por parte das flores do Novo Mundo.

"Eles são uma ponte entre o mundo das aves e o dos insetos", diz Doug Altshuler, da Universidade da Califórnia em Riverside. Altshuler, que estuda o vôo dos beija-flores, examinou os movimentos das asas do pássaro. Observou que, nele, os impulsos elétricos propulsores dos músculos das asas lembram mais os dos insetos que os das aves. Talvez por isso o beija-flor produza tanta energia por batida de asas: mais, por unidade de massa, que qualquer outro vertebrado. Altshuler também analisou os trajetos neurais do beija-flor, que funcionam com a mesma vertiginosa velocidade encontrada nas aves mais ágeis, como seu primo mais próximo, o andorinhão. "São incríveis; uns pequenos Frankesteins", compara.

Certamente eles sabem intimidar: grama por grama, talvez sejam os maiores confrontadores da natureza. "O vocabulário do beija-flor deve ser 100% composto de palavrões", graceja Sheri Williamson, naturalista do Southeastern Arizona Bird Observatory. A agressão do beija-flor nasce de ferozes instintos territoriais moldados à necessidade de sugar néctar a cada poucos minutos. Os beija-flores competem desafiando e ameaçando uns aos outros. Postam-se face a face no ar, rodopiam, mergulham na direção da grama e voam de ré, em danças de dominância que terminam tão subitamente quanto começam.

O melhor lugar para vermos tais batalhas é nas montanhas, especialmente no Equador, em que ricos ecossistemas se apresentam em suas várias altitudes. Sheri supõe que o sentido norte-sul das cordilheiras americanas também crie rotas favoráveis à migração para onde haja constante suprimento de flores. O que contrasta, diz ela, com as barreiras naturais que se estendem de leste a oeste na África, como o Saara e o Mediterrâneo.

Algumas espécies de beija-flor, porém, adaptaram-se a atravessar vastidões planas, onde o alimento é escasso. Antes de sua intrépida migração da primavera para os Estados Unidos e o Canadá, os beija-flores-de-garganta-vermelha reúnem-se no México e empanturram-se de insetos e néctar. Armazenam gordura e duplicam de peso em uma semana. Em seguida, atravessam o golfo do México, voando 800 quilômetros sem escalas por 20 horas, até a costa distante.

A região próxima à linha do equador é um reino de beija-flores. Quem sai do aeroporto de Quito, no Equador, pode ser logo saudado por um cintilante beija-flor-violeta, com pintura de guerra de manchas púrpura iridescentes nos lados da face. A leste da cidade, nas cabeceiras da bacia Amazônica, o beija-flor-bico-de-espada esvoaça na mata portando o bico mais longo de todas as aves em proporção a seu tamanho: mais de metade do comprimento total do animal. Nas encostas do Cotopaxi, um vulcão ao sul de Quito, o beija-flor-do-chimborazo foi avistado acima dos 4,5 mil metros. Ali ele passa a noite entorpecido em cavernas, pois desacelera seu ritmo metabólico o suficiente para não morrer de fome antes de amanhecer. Mais tarde, aquecido pelo Sol, ele recomeça a se alimentar.

"Quem estuda beija-flores fica irremediavelmente enfeitiçado", diz Sheri Williamson. "São criaturinhas sedutoras. Tentei resistir, mas agora tenho sangue de beija-flor correndo nas veias."

Canon EOS Digital D50

Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Trumpet tree" redirects here. This term is occasionally used for the Shield-leaved Pumpwood (Cecropia peltata).

Tabebuia

Flowering Araguaney or ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia chrysantha) in central Brazil

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots

(unranked): Asterids

Order: Lamiales

Family: Bignoniaceae

Tribe: Tecomeae

Genus: Tabebuia

Gomez

Species

Nearly 100.

Tabebuia is a neotropical genus of about 100 species in the tribe Tecomeae of the family Bignoniaceae. The species range from northern Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina and central Venezuela, including the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Well-known common names include Ipê, Poui, trumpet trees and pau d'arco.

They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 3–7 leaflets.

Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescentThe fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerous—in some species winged—seeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy.

Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ipê wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.

Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ipé grown in India, where it is not native.

Lapacho teaThe bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ipê (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia)

Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.

Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ipê tree.

Tabebuia alba

Tabebuia anafensis

Tabebuia arimaoensis

Tabebuia aurea – Caribbean Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia bilbergii

Tabebuia bibracteolata

Tabebuia cassinoides

Tabebuia chrysantha – Araguaney, Yellow Ipê, tajibo (Bolivia), ipê-amarelo (Brazil), cañaguate (N Colombia)

Tabebuia chrysotricha – Golden Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose – Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)

A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.

Tabebuia dubia

Tabebuia ecuadorensis

Tabebuia elongata

Tabebuia furfuracea

Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos

Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.

Tabebuia haemantha

Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo – tajy

Tabebuia heterophylla – roble prieto

Tabebuia heteropoda

Tabebuia hypoleuca

Tabebuia impetiginosa – Pink Ipê, Pink Lapacho, ipê-cavatã, ipê-comum, ipê-reto, ipê-rosa, ipê-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peúva, piúva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"

Tabebuia incana

Tabebuia jackiana

Tabebuia lapacho – lapacho amarillo

Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]

Tabebuia ochracea

Tabebuia oligolepis

Tabebuia pallida – Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia platyantha

Tabebuia polymorpha

Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) – Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate

A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela

Tabebuia roseo-alba – White Ipê, ipê-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco

Tabebuia serratifolia – Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ipê-roxo (Brazil)

Tabebuia shaferi

Tabebuia striata

Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith

Tabebuia umbellata

Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo

Ipê-do-cerrado

Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

Ipê-do-cerrado

Classificação científica

Reino: Plantae

Divisão: Magnoliophyta

Classe: Magnoliopsida

Subclasse: Asteridae

Ordem: Lamiales

Família: Bignoniaceae

Género: Tabebuia

Espécie: T. ochracea

Nome binomial

Tabebuia ochracea

(Cham.) Standl. 1832

Sinónimos

Bignonia tomentosa Pav. ex DC.

Handroanthus ochraceus (Cham.) Mattos

Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson

Tabebuia hypodictyon A. DC.) Standl.

Tabebuia neochrysantha A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. heteropoda (A. DC.) A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. neochrysantha (A.H. Gentry) A.H. Gentry

Tecoma campinae Kraenzl.

ecoma grandiceps Kraenzl.

Tecoma hassleri Sprague

Tecoma hemmendorffiana Kraenzl.

Tecoma heteropoda A. DC.

Tecoma hypodictyon A. DC.

Tecoma ochracea Cham.

Ipê-do-cerrado é um dos nomes populares da Tabebuia ochracea (Cham.) Standl. 1832, nativa do cerrado brasileiro, no estados de Amazonas, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Paraná.

Está na lista de espécies ameaçadas do estado de São Paulo, onde é encontrda também no domínio da Mata Atlântica[1].

Ocorre também na Argentina, Paraguai, Bolívia, Equador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, El Salvador, Guatemala e Panamá[2].

Há uma espécie homônima descrita por A.H. Gentry em 1992.

Outros nomes populares: ipê-amarelo, ipê-cascudo, ipê-do-campo, ipê-pardo, pau-d'arco-do-campo, piúva, tarumã.

Características

Altura de 6 a 14 m. Tronco tortuso com até 50 cm de diâmetro. Folhas pilosas em ambas as faces, mais na inferior, que é mais clara.

Planta decídua, heliófita, xerófita, nativa do cerrado em solos bem drenados.

Floresce de julho a setembro. Os frutos amadurecem de setembro a outubro.

FloresProduz grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em menos de 90 dias após coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978). As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%. As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 72 000 sementes em cada quilo.

O desenvolvimento da planta é rápido.

Como outros ipês, a madeira é usada em tacos, assoalhos, e em dormentes e postes. Presta-se também para peças torneadas e instrumento musicais.

Tabebuia alba (Ipê-Amarelo)

Texto, em português, produzido pela Acadêmica Giovana Beatriz Theodoro Marto

Supervisão e orientação do Prof. Luiz Ernesto George Barrichelo e do Eng. Paulo Henrique Müller

Atualizado em 10/07/2006

O ipê amarelo é a árvore brasileira mais conhecida, a mais cultivada e, sem dúvida nenhuma, a mais bela. É na verdade um complexo de nove ou dez espécies com características mais ou menos semelhantes, com flores brancas, amarelas ou roxas. Não há região do país onde não exista pelo menos uma espécie dele, porém a existência do ipê em habitat natural nos dias atuais é rara entre a maioria das espécies (LORENZI,2000).

A espécie Tabebuia alba, nativa do Brasil, é uma das espécies do gênero Tabebuia que possui “Ipê Amarelo” como nome popular. O nome alba provém de albus (branco em latim) e é devido ao tomento branco dos ramos e folhas novas.

As árvores desta espécie proporcionam um belo espetáculo com sua bela floração na arborização de ruas em algumas cidades brasileiras. São lindas árvores que embelezam e promovem um colorido no final do inverno. Existe uma crença popular de que quando o ipê-amarelo floresce não vão ocorrer mais geadas. Infelizmente, a espécie é considerada vulnerável quanto à ameaça de extinção.

A Tabebuia alba, natural do semi-árido alagoano está adaptada a todas as regiões fisiográficas, levando o governo, por meio do Decreto nº 6239, a transformar a espécie como a árvore símbolo do estado, estando, pois sob a sua tutela, não mais podendo ser suprimida de seus habitats naturais.

Taxonomia

Família: Bignoniaceae

Espécie: Tabebuia Alba (Chamiso) Sandwith

Sinonímia botânica: Handroanthus albus (Chamiso) Mattos; Tecoma alba Chamisso

Outros nomes vulgares: ipê-amarelo, ipê, aipê, ipê-branco, ipê-mamono, ipê-mandioca, ipê-ouro, ipê-pardo, ipê-vacariano, ipê-tabaco, ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-dourado, ipê-da-serra, ipezeiro, pau-d’arco-amarelo, taipoca.

Aspectos Ecológicos

O ipê-amarelo é uma espécie heliófita (Planta adaptada ao crescimento em ambiente aberto ou exposto à luz direta) e decídua (que perde as folhas em determinada época do ano). Pertence ao grupo das espécies secundárias iniciais (DURIGAN & NOGUEIRA, 1990).

Abrange a Floresta Pluvial da Mata Atlântica e da Floresta Latifoliada Semidecídua, ocorrendo principalmente no interior da Floresta Primária Densa. É característica de sub-bosques dos pinhais, onde há regeneração regular.

Informações Botânicas

Morfologia

As árvores de Tabebuia alba possuem cerca de 30 metros de altura. O tronco é reto ou levemente tortuoso, com fuste de 5 a 8 m de altura. A casca externa é grisáceo-grossa, possuindo fissuras longitudinais esparas e profundas. A coloração desta é cinza-rosa intenso, com camadas fibrosas, muito resistentes e finas, porém bem distintas.

Com ramos grossos, tortuosos e compridos, o ipê-amarelo possui copa alongada e alargada na base. As raízes de sustentação e absorção são vigorosas e profundas.

As folhas, deciduais, são opostas, digitadas e compostas. A face superior destas folhas é verde-escura, e, a face inferior, acinzentada, sendo ambas as faces tomentosas. Os pecíolos das folhas medem de 2,5 a 10 cm de comprimento. Os folíolos, geralmente, apresentam-se em número de 5 a 7, possuindo de 7 a 18 cm de comprimento por 2 a 6 cm de largura. Quando jovem estes folíolos são densamente pilosos em ambas as faces. O ápice destes é pontiagudo, com base arredondada e margem serreada.

As flores, grandes e lanceoladas, são de coloração amarelo-ouro. Possuem em média 8X15 cm.

Quanto aos frutos, estes possuem forma de cápsula bivalvar e são secos e deiscentes. Do tipo síliqua, lembram uma vagem. Medem de 15 a 30 cm de comprimento por 1,5 a 2,5 cm de largura. As valvas são finamente tomentosas com pêlos ramificados. Possuem grande quantidade de sementes.

As sementes são membranáceas brilhantes e esbranquiçadas, de coloração marrom. Possuem de 2 a 3 cm de comprimento por 7 a 9 mm de largura e são aladas.

Reprodução

A espécie é caducifólia e a queda das folhas coincide com o período de floração. A floração inicia-se no final de agosto, podendo ocorrer alguma variação devido a fenômenos climáticos. Como a espécie floresce no final do inverno é influenciada pela intensidade do mesmo. Quanto mais frio e seco for o inverno, maior será a intensidade da florada do ipê amarelo.

As flores por sua exuberância, atraem abelhas e pássaros, principalmente beija-flores que são importantes agentes polinizadores. Segundo CARVALHO (2003), a espécie possui como vetor de polinização a abelha mamangava (Bombus morio).

As sementes são dispersas pelo vento.

A planta é hermafrodita, e frutifica nos meses de setembro, outubro, novembro, dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro, dependendo da sua localização. Em cultivo, a espécie inicia o processo reprodutivo após o terceiro ano.

Ocorrência Natural

Ocorre naturalmente na Floresta Estaciobal Semidecicual, Floresta de Araucária e no Cerrado.

Segundo o IBGE, a Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandw. é uma árvore do Cerrado, Cerradão e Mata Seca. Apresentando-se nos campos secos (savana gramíneo-lenhosa), próximo às escarpas.

Clima

Segundo a classificação de Köppen, o ipê-amarelo abrange locais de clima tropical (Aw), subtropical úmido (Cfa), sutropical de altitude (Cwa e Cwb) e temperado.

A T.alba pode tolerar até 81 geadas em um ano. Ocorre em locais onde a temperatura média anual varia de 14,4ºC como mínimo e 22,4ºC como máximo.

Solo

A espécie prefere solos úmidos, com drenagem lenta e geralmente não muito ondulados (LONGHI, 1995).

Aparece em terras de boa à média fertilidade, em solos profundos ou rasos, nas matas e raramente cerradões (NOGUEIRA, 1977).

Pragas e Doenças

De acordo com CARVALHO (2003), possui como praga a espécie de coleópteros Cydianerus bohemani da família Curculionoideae e um outro coleóptero da família Chrysomellidae. Apesar da constatação de elevados índices populacionais do primeiro, os danos ocasionados até o momento são leves. Nas praças e ruas de Curitiba - PR, 31% das árvores foram atacadas pela Cochonilha Ceroplastes grandis.

ZIDKO (2002), ao estudar no município de Piracicaba a associação de coleópteros em espécies arbóreas, verificou a presença de insetos adultos da espécie Sitophilus linearis da família de coleópteros, Curculionidae, em estruturas reprodutivas. Os insetos adultos da espécie emergiram das vagens do ipê, danificando as sementes desta espécie nativa.

ANDRADE (1928) assinalou diversas espécies de Cerambycidae atacando essências florestais vivas, como ingazeiro, cinamomo, cangerana, cedro, caixeta, jacarandá, araribá, jatobá, entre outras como o ipê amarelo.

A Madeira

A Tabebuia alba produz madeira de grande durabilidade e resistência ao apodrecimento (LONGHI,1995).

MANIERI (1970) caracteriza o cerne desta espécie como de cor pardo-havana-claro, pardo-havan-escuro, ou pardo-acastanhado, com reflexos esverdeados. A superfície da madeira é irregularmente lustrosa, lisa ao tato, possuindo textura media e grã-direita.

Com densidade entre 0,90 e 1,15 grama por centímetro cúbico, a madeira é muito dura (LORENZI, 1992), apresentando grande dificuldade ao serrar.

A madeira possui cheiro e gosto distintos. Segundo LORENZI (1992), o cheiro característico é devido à presença da substância lapachol, ou ipeína.

Usos da Madeira

Sendo pesada, com cerne escuro, adquire grande valor comercial na marcenaria e carpintaria. Também é utilizada para fabricação de dormentes, moirões, pontes, postes, eixos de roda, varais de carroça, moendas de cana, etc.

Produtos Não-Madeireiros

A entrecasca do ipê-amarelo possui propriedades terapêuticas como adstringente, usada no tratamento de garganta e estomatites. É também usada como diurético.

O ipê-amarelo possui flores melíferas e que maduras podem ser utilizadas na alimentação humana.

Outros Usos

É comumente utilizada em paisagismo de parques e jardins pela beleza e porte. Além disso, é muito utilizada na arborização urbana.

Segundo MOREIRA & SOUZA (1987), o ipê-amarelo costuma povoar as beiras dos rios sendo, portanto, indicado para recomposição de matas ciliares. MARTINS (1986), também cita a espécie para recomposição de matas ciliares da Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, abrangendo alguns municípios das regiões Norte, Noroeste e parte do Oeste do Estado do Paraná.

Aspectos Silviculturais

Possui a tendência a crescer reto e sem bifurcações quando plantado em reflorestamento misto, pois é espécie monopodial. A desrrama se faz muito bem e a cicatrização é boa. Sendo assim, dificilmente encopa quando nova, a não ser que seja plantado em parques e jardins.

Ao ser utilizada em arborização urbana, o ipê amarelo requer podas de condução com freqüência mediana.

Espécie heliófila apresenta a pleno sol ramificação cimosa, registrando-se assim dicotomia para gema apical. Deve ser preconizada, para seu melhor aproveitamento madeireiro, podas de formação usuais (INQUE et al., 1983).

Produção de Mudas

A propagação deve realizada através de enxertia.

Os frutos devem ser coletados antes da dispersão, para evitar a perda de sementes. Após a coleta as sementes são postas em ambiente ventilado e a extração é feita manualmente. As sementes do ipê amarelo são ortodoxas, mantendo a viabilidade natural por até 3 meses em sala e por até 9 meses em vidro fechado, em câmara fria.

A condução das mudas deve ser feita a pleno sol. A muda atinge cerca de 30 cm em 9 meses, apresentando tolerância ao sol 3 semanas após a germinação.

Sementes

Os ipês, espécies do gênero Tabebuia, produzem uma grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em poucos dias após a sua coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978).

As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A quebra natural leva cerca de 3 meses e a quebra na câmara leva 9 meses. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%.

As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 87000 sementes em cada quilo.

Preço da Madeira no Mercado

O preço médio do metro cúbico de pranchas de ipê no Estado do Pará cotado em Julho e Agosto de 2005 foi de R$1.200,00 o preço mínimo, R$ 1509,35 o médio e R$ 2.000,00 o preço máximo (CEPEA,2005).

(field of view ~7.4 centimeters across)

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Igneous rocks form by the cooling and crystallization of hot, molten rock (magma and lava). If this happens at or near the land surface, or on the seafloor, they are extrusive igneous rocks. If this happens deep underground, they are intrusive igneous rocks. Most igneous rocks have a crystalline texture, but some are clastic, vesicular, frothy, or glassy.

Obsidian is readily identifiable. It is a glassy-textured, extrusive igneous rock. Obsidian is natural glass - it lacks crystals, and therefore lacks minerals. Obsidian is typically black in color, but most obsidians have a felsic to intermediate chemistry. Felsic igneous rocks are generally light-colored, so a felsic obsidian seems a paradox. Mafic obsidians are scarce, but they are also black and glassy. Obsidian is sometimes referred to "glassy rhyolite".

Obsidian is an uncommon rock, but can be examined at several famous localities in America, such as Obsidian Cliff at the Yellowstone Hotspot (northwestern Wyoming, USA) and Big Obsidian Flow at the Newberry Volcano (central Oregon, USA).

Obsidian is moderately hard and has a conchoidal fracture (smooth and curved fracture surface), with sharp broken edges. Freshly-broken obsidian has the sharpest edges of any material known, natural or man-made (as seen under a scanning electron microscope).

Obsidian forms two ways: 1) very rapid cooling of lava, which prevents the formation of crystals; 2) cooling of high-viscosity lava, which prevents easy movement of atoms to form crystals. An example of obsidian that formed the first way is along the margins of basaltic lava flows at Kilaeua Volcano (Hawaii Hotspot, central Pacific Ocean). The obsidian sample seen here formed the second way.

Obsidian is unstable on geologic time scales - it will slowly convert to material that is not obsidian. A partially-converted obsidian is a distinctive rock called snowflake obsidian. The black portions of the rock seen here are rhyolitic obsidian (glass). The white patches ("snowflakes") are devitrification spots composed of cristobalite (SiO2, a polymorph of quartz).

Locality: unrecorded / undisclosed, but possibly from Twin Peaks, Utah, USA

The Arkadi Monastery situated on the island of Crete doesn’t solely belong to this island; it belongs to Greece, Europe and to all five continents – to the whole world.

It is one of the Eastern Orthodox Monasteries underlining the catholicity and universality of the Church. Each year the Monastery receives and hosts many visitors and pilgrims from all over the world, from distant civilizations. Here are blended many languages, cultures, traditions, history and polymorphism. Nothing from the above can impede the faith unity, the catholicity of the orthodox spirit, the universality of the ecclesiastical testimony.

The Arkadi Monastery has a unique natural beauty, a prestigious history, numerous legends deeply rooted in the time, heirlooms and thesaurus richness. Possibly because the old is livelier than the new, and the modern is often more mature than the aged. Each pilgrim and visitor feels something which is exclusively his, personal, original in his experiential and spiritual experience.

www.youtube.com/watch?v=StVV7mZ3cfQ

Exp. Aug 15, 2009 #369

Speckled Wood, Pararge aegeria.

Description:

The Speckled Wood is a common species found in woodland and scrub where dappled sunlight and areas of lush grass grow in damper areas. The male will often be seen perched with wings wide open in areas of sunlight chasing intruders and females which wander by. Both male and female butterflies feed on honeydew in tree tops only occsionally being seen feeding on flowers.

A butterfly is an insect of the order Lepidoptera. Like all Lepidoptera, butterflies are notable for their unusual life cycle with a larval caterpillar stage, an inactive pupal stage, and a spectacular metamorphosis into a familiar and colourful winged adult form. Most species are day-flying so they regularly attract attention. The diverse patterns formed by their brightly coloured wings and their erratic yet graceful flight have made butterfly watching a hobby.

Habitat:

The Speckled Wood breeds in woodland habitats lanes and tracks between tall hedgerows parks, gardens, and scrub. It seems to prefer slightly damp areas where there is tall grass and some dappled shade.

Where to see the Speckled Wood in UK

The Speckled Wood has spread since the 1920s following a contraction in its range during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It continued to spread during the 1980's and 90's recolonizing many areas in eastern and northern England and Scotland where it continues to spread northwards as a response to global warming.

Butterflies comprise the true butterflies (superfamily Papilionoidea), the skippers (superfamily Hesperioidea) and the moth-butterflies (superfamily Hedyloidea). Butterflies exhibit polymorphism, mimicry and aposematism. Some migrate over long distances. Some butterflies have evolved symbiotic and parasitic relationships with social insects such as ants. Butterflies are important economically as agents of pollination. In addition, a few species are pests, because they can damage domestic crops and trees in their larval stage.

Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts.

Gemeine Akelei - Wald - Akelei ( Blume flower fleur ) mit violetter Blüte am B.ahnhof in Kerzers im Kanton Freiburg - Fribourg der Schweiz

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Gemeine Akelei ( Aquilegia vulgaris )

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Systematik

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- Ordnung : Hahnenfußartige ( Ranunculales )

- Familie : Hahnenfußgewächse ( Ranunculaceae )

- Unterfamilie : Isopyroideae

- Tribus : Isopyreae

- Gattung : Akeleien ( Aquilegia )

- Art : Gemeine Akelei

- Wissenschaftlicher Name : Aquilegia vulgaris L.

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Die Gemeine Akelei ( Aquilegia vulgaris ), auch Wald - Akelei / Waldakalei genannt, ist

eine Pflanzen-Art aus der Familie der Hahnenfußgewächse ( Ranunculaceae ).

Die Gemeine Akelei wurde im Mittelalter und der frühen Neuzeit in vielfältiger Form in der

Medizin verwendet. Aufgrund der ihr zugeschriebenen Symbolik ist sie außerdem auf zahl-

reichen mittelalterlichen Tafelgemälden zu finden.

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Namensherkunft

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Die Herkunft des Namens „Akelei“ wird unterschiedlich gedeutet.

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Die meisten Autoren, so auch das Herkunftswörterbuch des Duden führen die deutsche

Bezeichnung „Akelei“ auf das lateinische Wort „aquila“ = A.dler zurück, da der Sporn ähn-

lich gekrümmt ist wie der S.chnabel und die Krallen eines A.dlers. Andere Autoren wie

etwa Esth er Gallwitz verweisen darauf, dass der Pflanzenname erstmalig von Hildegard

von Bingen überliefert ist. Diese verwendet den althochdeutschen Namen „aglaia“ oder

„agleya“. Eine Ableitung dieses Wortes vom indogermanischen „ak“, welches „spitz“

oder „scharf“ bedeutet ist dabei möglich. Angeblich habe erst Albertus Magnus den Bezug

des Wortes zu „aquila“ gebildet.

In anderen Sprachen wird auf die Ähnlichkeit des Honigblatts zu einer T.aube angespielt.

So wird im englischsprachigen Raum die Akelei als „Columbine Flower“ bezeichnet. Auch

manche deutsche Volksnamen spielen auf die Ähnlichkeit der fünf Blütenblätter zu fünf im

Kreis sitzenden Vögeln an: So wird die Blume je nach Region auch „Taubenblume“,

„Tauberln“ oder „Fünf Vögerl zusamm“ genannt.

Der Volksmund bezeichnet die Akelei auch als „Elfenhandschuh“ und „Frauenhandschuh“,

als „Kapuzinerhütli“ oder „Pfaffenkäpple“. Auf die ihr zugeschriebenen liebesfördernden

Wirkungen spielen die volkstümlichen Bezeichnungen „Venuswagen“ und der in der

Schweiz gebräuchliche Name „Schlotterhose“ an.

.

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Beschreibung

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.

.

Die Gemeine Akelei ist eine kurzlebige, mehrjährige, krautige Pflanze, die Wuchshöhen

zwischen 30 und 60 Zentimetern erreicht, etwa 45 cm breit wird und über ein kräftiges

Rhizom verfügt. In der Mitte der lockeren Blattrosette wachsen lange, reichverzweigte

Stängel, an deren Blütenzweigen die gespornten glockenförmigen Blüten sitzen.

Die Laubblätter der Gemeinen Akelei sind bläulich-grün. Sie sind in drei gestielte Blättchen

gefiedert, die wiederum in drei Lappen eingeschnitten und am Rand gekerbt sind. Die grund-

ständigen Blätter sind lang gestielt, weiter oben am Stängel nimmt die Stiellänge ab und die

Blättchen werden länglich oval und ganzrandig. Bald nach der Blütezeit zieht sich die Pflanze

mit welkenden Blättern und Stängeln auf das Rhizom zurück.

Die Blüten erscheinen in der Zeit von Mai bis Juni und haben einen Durchmesser von drei

bis fünf Zentimetern. Sie haben fünf kronblattartige Perigonblätter, die jeweils 1,5 bis 2,5 cm

lang und 1,0 bis 1,5 cm breit sind. Die fünf Nektarblätter neigen sich glockenartig und tragen

am Grunde Nektardrüsen. Die Blüten sind überwiegend blau gefärbt; gelegentlich treten

jedoch auch bei der Wildform weiße, rotviolette oder blaue Blüten mit weißem Rand auf. Die

blaue Farbe geht auf das Anthocyanidin Delphinidin zurück.

Sie bilden aus jedem einzelnen, freien Fruchtblatt die für Hahnenfußgewächse typischen

Balgfrüchte. Während die Blüten nach unten gerichtet waren, stehen die Balgfrüchte auf-

recht und enthalten die bis zu 2,5 mm langen, schwarz glänzenden Samen.

Die als Gartenpflanze kultivierten Sorten der Gemeinen Akelei gibt es neben dem dunklen

Blau der Wildform auch mit weißen, rosa, roten und purpurnen Blüten. Strahlend weiße

Blüten hat beispielsweise die Sorte 'Nivea'. Daneben gibt es auch Zuchtformen der Ge-

meinen Akelei, die zweifarbig sind, und solche mit gefüllten Blüten. Zu den von der Royal

Horticultural Society empfohlenen Akelei-Sorten gehört beispielsweise die Zuchtform

'Nora Barlow', die pomponförmige gefüllte und altrosa und weiß gefärbte Blüten hat.

.

.

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Fortpflanzung

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.

Bestäubung

.

.

Bestäubt werden die Akeleien nur von Insekten mit ausreichend langem R.üssel, etwa H.ummel-

arten. Ein solcher Rüssel ist notwendig, um den am Grund der Sporne der Honigblätter ausge-

schiedenen Nektar zu erreichen. Angelockt werden die H.ummeln durch die Farbe der Blütenblätter

sowie durch den Duft. Die I.nsekten halten sich mit den Vorderbeinen am Rand der Kronblätter

fest und dringen mit ihrem K.opf in den lang ausgezogenen Sporn ein.

Die Akelei gehört zu den Pflanzen, bei denen Staub- und Fruchtblätter zu unterschiedlichen Zeit-

punkten reifen. Über diesen Mechanismus stellen die Pflanzen sicher, dass die Narben der

Blüte durch den Pollen einer anderen Pflanze bestäubt werden. Als sogenannte vormännliche

Pflanze ( Proterandrie ) reifen bei der Akelei zuerst die Staubblätter. Daher wird, solange die

Blüte sich noch in ihrem vormännlichen Stadium befindet, der Hinterleib der H.ummeln mit

Pollen eingestäubt. Sind die Blüten bereits älter und damit weiblich, nehmen die dann reifen

Narben den Pollen auf, den die H.ummeln von anderen Akeleipflanzen mitbringen.

Kurzrüsselige H.ummeln beißen gelegentlich den Sporn der Akelei von außen an und holen

sich den Nektar, ohne dabei die Blüte zu bestäuben. Ist das Loch vorhanden, finden sich auch

bald B.ienen ein, die gleichfalls als „Nektardiebe“ den Nektar aufnehmen, ohne eine Bestäub-

ung vorzunehmen.

.

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Verbreitung des Samens

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.

.

Die Gemeine Akelei nutzt mehrere Mechanismen zur Ausbreitung ihrer Diasporen. Sie zählt

sowohl zu den sogenannten Austrocknungsstreuern, als auch zu den W.ind- und Tierstreuern.

Mit dem Verblühen der Blüten bilden sich die nach oben gerichteten Balgfrüchte aus, die

auf den verlängerten elastischen Fruchtstielen sitzen. Während des im Juli beginnenden

Reifungsprozesses dieser Balgfrüchte trocknen die Fruchtwände aus, und durch diesen

Trocknungsprozess öffnen sich die Balgfrüchte ruckartig entlang ihrer längsverlaufenden

Bauchnaht. Dabei werden die jeweils oberen Samen fortgeschleudert. Dieser Mechanismus

wird als Austrocknungsstreuung bezeichnet. Typischer ist jedoch, dass die Samen der Ge-

meinen Akelei durch W.ind oder T.iere verstreut werden. Der Wind löst die Samen aus den

geöffneten Früchten und trägt sie mit sich fort. Bei T.ieren verhaken sich die Balgfrüchte mit

ihren behaarten Oberflächen für einen kurzen Moment im F.ell der T.iere, um bei der Ablösung

vom T.ierfell ruckartig wieder nach oben zu schnellen. Dieser Rückstoß bewirkt, dass die Samen

aus der Balgfrucht herausgeschleudert werden ( sogenannte Semachorie ).

.

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Verbreitung und Unterarten

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.

.

Die Gemeine Akelei ist in ganz W.est-, M.ittel- und S.üdeuropa verbreitet, in E.ngland ursprünglich

wohl nur in den Kalkgebieten S.üdenglands, in S.kandinavien bis etwa 66° n. Br., in D.änemark

wahrscheinlich nur auf B.ornholm ursprünglich, sonst verwildert, auch für S.kandinavien ist nur

von einer Verwilderung auszugehen, im östlichen b.altischen Gebiet aber spontan, in R.ussland

meist verwildert, sowie weiterhin die H.ochgebirge der M.aghreb-L.änder N.ordafrikas. Im ge-

mäßigten A.sien und C.hina wird die gemeine Akelei von verwandten Arten abgelöst.

.

.

Die Art hat nach Angaben im Atlas Florae Europaeae vier Unterarten:

.

.

- Aquilegia vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris

- Aquilegia vulgaris L. subsp. dichroa (Freyn) T.E.Díaz

- Aquilegia vulgaris L. subsp. nevadensis (Boiss. & Reut.) T.E.Díaz

- Aquilegia vulgaris L. subsp. paui (Font Quer) O.Bolòs & Vigo

.

.

Daneben sind bei der polymorphen Art zahlreiche Varietäten beschrieben worden. Zu den nah

verwandten Arten des europäischen vulgaris - Komplexes gehören noch die Dunkle Akelei

( Aquilegia nigricans ) mit dunkel blauvioletten Blüten aus O.st und S.üdosteuropa, sowie die

Schwarze oder Schwarzviolette Akelei ( Aquilegia atrata ). Letztere hat braunviolette / braun-

purpurne, selten weiße Blüten und ist in den Kalk - Alpen, dem Alpenvorland und der S.chwä-

bischen Alb zu finden.

.

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Standort

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.

Die Art kommt zerstreut in kraut- und grasreichen, meist lichten E.ichen- und B.uchen - Misch-

wäldern ( Fagetalia- oder Quercetalia pubescenis-Gesellschaften; schwache Querco-Fagetea-

Klassencharakterart ) vor, ferner im Randbereich von Hecken, auf Trocken- und Halbtrocken-

rasen sowie im Saumbereich von Wiesen, so im Geranion sanguinei und selten in Mesobrom-

ion-, Glatthaferwiesen ( Arrhenatheretalia- ) oder in Thlaspietalia - Gesellschaften. Die Stand-

orte befinden sich auf sommerwarmen, mäßig trockenen bis frischen, nährstoff- und basen-

reichen, gern kalkhaltigen, mild - mäßig - sauer - humosen, lockeren, steinigen, sandigen

oder reinen Lehmböden; es handelt sich um eine Mullbodenpflanze. Je sonniger der Standort

ist, desto frischer sollte der Boden sein.

Häufige Begleitpflanzen der Gemeinen Akelei sind die S.tinkende N.ieswurz und das L.eber-

b.lümchen.

.

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Bestand und Bedrohung

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.

.

In einigen deutschen Bundesländern gilt die Gemeine Akelei als in ihrem Bestand gefährdet,

in B.randenburg gilt sie sogar als ausgestorben. Das Pflücken, Ausgraben oder Besitzen wild-

wachsender Akeleien ist generell untersagt, ebenso wie ihre Standorte oder Bestände nicht

betreten werden sollen. Alle Akeleien sind „besonders geschützt“ nach dem Bundesnatur-

schutzgesetz ( Bundesartenschutzverordnung ). Sie wurde 1985 in Deutschland als eine der

ersten Pflanzen zur Blume des Jahres gekürt.

In einigen Landschaften haben sich die Pflanzen in neuer Zeit wieder ausgebreitet, was zum

Teil auf die Verschleppung von Samen zurückgeführt wird. Zu Lebensraumverlusten kommt

es, wenn weit auseinander stehende Laubholzbestände in Nadelholzreinkulturen umge-

wandelt oder wenn Magerwiesen aufgeforstet werden.

Die Gemeine Akelei verträgt eine einmalige Mahd sehr gut. Wird dagegen an ihren Stand-

orten häufiger gemäht oder intensiver geweidet, wächst sie nicht mehr nach.

.

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Verwendung als Gartenpflanze

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Die Akelei ist wahrscheinlich seit dem späten Mittelalter eine Zierpflanze europäischer Gärten.

Da Herbarien erst ab dem 17. Jahrhundert angelegt wurden und erste botanische Bücher erst

im 16. Jahrhundert geschrieben wurden, lässt sich ein genaueres Datum nicht bestimmen.

Einen der ältesten Hinweise auf eine Verwendung der Akelei als Zierpflanze liefert dagegen

die mittelalterliche Kunst. Auf dem um 1410 entstandenen „Paradiesgärtlein“ eines unbe-

kannten oberrheinischen Meisters, das sich heute im Frankfurter Museum Städel befindet, ist

neben zahlreichen anderen Zierpflanzen auch eine Akelei zu erkennen. Auch Hieronymus Bock

berichtet 1539 in seinem „ Kreutterbuch “ von einer „ Agleyblume “, die häufig angebaut wird:

„Das Agleykraut wachßt gemeinlich in unsern Landen in den Gärten. Man findts aber auch in

den Wäldern die inn der höhe ligen.“

Leonhard Fuchs berichtete bereits 1543, dass neben Pflanzen mit der üblichen blau gefärbten

Blüte auch schon solche mit weißen oder rötlichen bekannt seien. Gefüllte Sorten werden erst-

mals 1561 beschrieben, und im Hortus Eystettensis wurden 1613 zwölf kultivierte Formen der

Gemeinen Akelei genannt.

Die pflegeleichte Gemeine Akelei, die allerdings schon um 1900 als altmodische Blume galt,

ist heute noch häufig in Gärten zu finden. Sie gedeiht besonders gut an lichten bis halbschattigen

Stellen im Garten, die einen humosen Boden aufweisen, und wird häufig mit Farnen und

Anemonen kombiniert.

Genauso häufig wie die Gemeine Akelei findet man jedoch in europäischen Gärten lang-

spornige Akeleisorten. Diese sind nicht auf die Gemeine Akelei zurückzuführen. Es handelt

sich meistens um Hybriden nordamerikanischer Akeleiarten, die nach 1800 zunehmend in

Europa eingeführt wurden.

.

.

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Die Akelei in der Heilkunst

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.

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Inhaltsstoffe

.

.

Alle bisher untersuchten Aquilegia Arten enthalten ein Nitrilglykosid, eine cyanogene, krebser-

regende, Blausäure-Glykosid Verbindung, die insbesondere in den Samen enthalten ist. Daher

sind die Pflanzen giftverdächtig. Neben Isochinolinalkaloiden wie beispielsweise Magnoflorin

und Berberidin sind in den Samenim weiteren Fette und Lipase gespeichert. Der Verzehr von

20 Gramm der bitter schmeckenden Blätter führt bereits zu leichten Vergiftungserscheinungen.

Zu den Symptomen einer solchen Vergiftung gehören Übelkeit, Erbrechen, Durchfall, Atemnot,

Herzbeschwerden und Benommenheit. Als Behandlungsmaßnahmen bei einer Vergiftung

durch versehentlichen Verzehr kommen vor allem das Auslösen von Erbrechen und die Ein-

nahme von Aktivkohle in Betracht.

Die in der Gemeinen Akelei enthaltenen Isochinolinalkaloide sind starke Reizgifte. Sie können

auf der Haut Brennen, Rötung, Blasenbildung und eventuell sogar die Entstehung von Nekrosen

auslösen.

.

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Historische Verwendung

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.

.

Die Verwendung der Akelei ist für das Altertum wegen der Namensunsicherheit unklar. Um

1460 wird urkundlich auf die Kultur der Akelei hingewiesen. Daher ist sie wohl schon relativ

früh gegen allerlei Krankheiten verwendet worden. Insbesondere sollte sie Wunden, Aus-

schläge, Geschwüre und Krebs heilen. Mit dem ausgehenden Mittelalter und in der Renais-

sancezeit steigerte sich offenbar ihre Verwendung, und zwar als Aphrodisiakum.

Im Mittelalter zählte die Akelei in Europa wohl zu den bekannten Heilmitteln da schon Hildegard

von Bingen die Gemeine Akelei als Heilpflanze erwähnt.

Während heute Gartenbücher davor warnen, dass Akelei giftige Verbindungen enthält, schreibt

Tabernaemontanus in seinem 1588 erschienen New Kreuterbuch:

Wiewohl nun dieses Gewöchs bey unsern Medicis sehr wenig oder gar nicht im Gebrauch/

so ist doch rathsamer dass es auch vor anderen frembden Gewächsen seinen Platz in der

Apotheken habe / sintemal es ein nützliches und heylsames Kraut ist/ und beyde jnnerlich

und eusserlich ... sehr nützlich zu gebrauchen.

Als innerliche Anwendung empfiehlt Tabernaemontanus das Mittel gegen Potenzstörungen.

In dem 1606 erschienenen medizinischen Werk Horn des heyls Menschlicher Blödigkeit oder

Kreutterbuch nach rechter Art der Himmlischen Einfließungen beschrieben durch Philomusum

Anonymum werden bereits 273 Anwendungsmöglichkeiten der Akeleipflanze beschrieben.

Unter anderem heißt es: ...es ist gut hitzigen Leuten, die gerne zürnen. Alle Teile der Pflanze

wurden als Heilmittel gegen Skorbut und Gelbsucht und bei Leber- und Gallenleiden und

Magenbeschwerden benutzt. Der scharfe Saft der Blätter sollte Wunden heilen, und man

glaubte, dass die Pflanze junge Paare vor bösem Zauber schützte.

In der Volksmedizin wurde die Akelei nur gelegentlich verwendet. Typische Anwendungsbe-

reiche waren Menstruationsbeschwerden, Augenerkrankungen, Hals- und Rachenentzündungen

sowie Gallenbeschwerden. Der Saft der im Mörser zerstoßenen Blätter sollte gegen Grind und

Hautausschläge helfen und – wenn er in Fisteln geträufelt wurde – deren Abheilung bewirken.

In einigen Gegenden des Siegerlandes wurde die Akelei im Frühjahr gesammelt und als Wild-

gemüse gegen Krebs gegessen. Die getrockneten, gepulverten Blätter waren auch einer der

wesentlichen Bestandteil einer im Dillkreis verwendeten Krebsarznei – wirksam war sie aller-

dings nur, wenn man die Pflanze schweigend gesammelt hatte. Die giftigen Wirkstoffe der

Samen wurden außerdem früher gegen äußere Körperparasiten eingesetzt. Ein Sud der

Samen sollte beispielsweise gegen Läuse helfen.

.

.

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Heutige Verwendung in der Heilkunst

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.

.

Akelei wird heute noch in der Homöopathie verwendet, wo die Pflanze ähnlich wie früher in

der Volksmedizin bei Menstruationsbeschwerden, Nervosität, Schwächezuständen und

Hautkrankheiten eingesetzt wird. Ansonsten findet die Akelei in der modernen Pflanzenheil-

kunde keine Verwendung mehr. Heute stehen die Pharmakologen auf dem Standpunkt, dass

die in der Akelei enthaltenen krebserregenden Glykoside in ihrer chemischen Struktur noch

unvollständig bekannt sind. Generell schätzt man die Gemeine Akelei als eine Pflanze ein,

die nicht mehr von medizinischem Interesse ist, da für ihre möglichen Einsatzgebiete andere

und wirkungsvollere Wirkstoffe zur Verfügung stehen.

.

.

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Die Akelei in der Kunst

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.

.

Die Akelei erscheint als Sinnbild auf vielen mittelalterlichen Tafelbildern. Esther Gallwitz, die

ein ganzes Buch den auf den Gemälden des Frankfurter Städel dargestellten Pflanzen ge-

widmet hat, schreibt dazu:

Die Akelei ist die „gotische“ Pflanze. Sowohl ihre Symbolik wie Zahlenmystik und Geometrie

fordern zu abstrahierenden Darstellungen heraus. Da ist zuerst das zweimal dreigeteilte Blatt

an den Blütentrieben, dann aber das grundständige Blatt, das dreimal dreigeteilt ist, und also

aus siebenundzwanzig kleinen rundlichen Blättern ein gleichseitiges Dreieck in einem Kreis

ergibt. Dieser Dreiteilung verbindet sich zum Symbol der göttlichen Dreifaltigkeit.

Die Akelei erscheint bereits in der Buchmalerei ab dem 14. Jahrhundert sehr häufig. Häufig

verweist die Abbildung der Akelei auf Bescheidenheit und Demut der Maria. Auf dem Genter

Altar der Gebrüder van Eyck steht sie für die Demut Christi. Der mittelhochdeutsche Pflanzen-

name Ageleie wurde infolge der Ähnlichkeit möglicherweise auf die kabbalistischen Ligatur

AGLA bezogen, die häufig auf Amuletten und Ringen angebracht wurde und dem Psalm 88, 53

Der Herr sei gepriesen in Ewigkeit, Amen entspricht.

Die Darstellung der Blume Akelei dürfte als demütige Lobpreisung und Anrufung Christi zu

deuten sein, was auch ihre häufige Anbringung neben anbetenden Stiftern und Heiligen erklärt.

Als Hinweis auf die Demut Christi kommt die Akelei auch in den folgenden Gemälden vor:

.

.

- Hugo van der Goes, Sündenfall, W.ien, KHM

- Lucas Cranach d.J., Allegorie der Erlösung, Weimar, S.tadtk.irche

- Unbekannter Meister, Einhornjagd, E.rfurt, D.om

- Hugo van der Goes, Portinari-Altar, U.ffizien

.

.

Nicht selten wird die Akelei auch auf die Demut Mariens bezogen. Das Pflanzensymbol weist

dabei auch auf die wunderbare Mutterschaft Marias hin. Die Akelei mit ihren entfernt tauben-

förmigen Blütenblättern symbolisiert auch den Heiligen Geist. Im Wallraf - Richartz - Museum,

K.öln hängt ein Triptychon mit der Anbetung der Könige, auf deren Mitteltafel ein Strauß mit

sieben Akelei - Blüten auftaucht. Der unbekannte mittelalterliche Maler hat die Blüten in die

Nähe des weiter links befindlichen Taubensymbols gerückt, die sieben Blüten symbolisieren

damit auch die „sieben Gaben des Heiligen Geistes“ und verweisen auf die „sieben Schmerzen

Mariens“. Damit leiten sie auf die Kreuzigungsdarstellung auf dem rechten Flügel des Triptychons

hin. Als Hinweis auf die sieben Gaben des Heiligen Geists sind auch die aufgeblühten sieben

Akeleien zu verstehen, die auf Hugo van der Goes Portinari Altar neben dem Jesuskind stehen.

Nach Marianne Beuchert steht die Zahl sieben hier auch für die sieben Kardinaltugenden des

Geistes: Weisheit, Verstand, Rat, Stärke, Erkenntnis, Frömmigkeit und Furcht des Herrn

(Jesaja 11,2).

Nach Marianne Beuchert bleibt es ungewiss, ob das Dreiblattornament der g.otischen K.irchen-

fenster sich von der Akeleiblatt oder vom Kleeblatt ableitet.

Offenbar angeregt durch den volkstümlichen italienischen Namen „Amor nascosto“ (=Geheime

Liebe) haben vor allem italienische Maler die Akelei in einem etwas anderen Zusammenhang

gedeutet. Auf dem "Frauenporträt „La Colombine“ von Francesco Melzi, das sich heute in der

Eremitage von Sankt Petersburg befindet, ist die Akelei Sinnbild für eine heimliche Liebe und

Verführung. Auf Melzis Bild ist eine verführerische schöne Frau mit entblößter Brust zu sehen,

die in ihrer Hand eine Akelei mit einer geöffneten Blüte und zwei hängenden Knospen hält. Im

Bildhintergrund rankt ein efeublättriges Leinkraut (Cymbalaria muralis) an der Wand entlang.

Dieses Leinkraut wird im Code Rinio als umbilicus veneris, also als Nabel der Venus be-

zeichnet. Von der Kunstwissenschaft wird das Bild daher als Darstellung einer geheimen Liebe

(„amor nascosto“) gedeutet.

Eine ähnliche Bedeutung hat die Akelei auf dem im Louvre befindlichen Bildnis der Margherita

Gonzaga von Pisanello. Auch Leonardo da Vinci malte die Gemeine Akelei neben Bacchus, und

auf einer nicht erhaltenen Zeichnung, deren Kopie in der Bibliothek von Schloss Windsor aufbe-

wahrt wird, zeigt er Akelei neben Leda mit ihren Kindern.

Die Kunst nach dem 16. Jahrhundert hat die mittelalterlich-religiöse als auch die spätere sex-

uelle Symbolik der Akelei zunehmend vergessen. Die Akelei erscheint in späteren Jahr-

hunderten nur noch selten und hier meist in profanen Stillleben.

Die Akelei im Aberglauben [Bearbeiten]Lange vor dem Christentum galt die zarte Blüte als

Aphrodisiakum der Männer. In Europa waren vor allem die Samen Bestandteil vieler Hexen-

salben. Doch auch die Meskaki-Indianer Nordamerikas kochten aus Ginseng, Glimmererde,

Schlangenfleisch, Gelatine und Akelei einen Liebestrank.

Im Altertum glaubte man, Löwen fräßen die Akelei im Frühling, um ihre Körperkräfte zu steigern.

Botaniker nannten die Blume demzufolge Herba Leonis.

Im Volksglauben gilt ein aus der Akelei bereiteter Trank als wirksam gegen die durch Zauberei

bewirkte Impotenz:

So einem Mann seine Krafft genommen und durch Zauberey oder andere Hexenkunst zu den

ehelichen Werken unvermöglich worden war der trinck stätig von dieser Wurtzel und dem

Samen er genieset und kompt wieder zurecht empfahl Tabernaemontanus in seinem Kräuter-

buch von 1613. Hilfreich sollte es auch sein, wenn das Membrum virile mit dem Absud der

Akelei gewaschen wurde. Auch in Fruchtbarkeitsritualen spielte es eine Rolle, denn gegen

die Unfruchtbarkeit sollte man sie ins Bettstroh legen.

Nach dem Handwörterbuch des Deutschen Aberglaubens geht allerdings der Einsatz von

Akelei als Potenzmittel eher auf gelehrte literarische Überlieferung (Tabernaemontanus

und Matthioli, 1563) zurück als auf einen deutschen Volksaberglauben.

.

.

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Die Akelei in der Symbolsprache

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.

.

Deutlicher noch als bei anderen Pflanzensymbolen sind die symbolischen Bedeutungen

der Gemeinen Akelei gegensätzlich. Auf der einen Seite interpretierte man den gesenkten,

nickenden Blütenkopf als Zeichen für Demut. Man sah darin auch die Sorgen der Jungfrau

Maria symbolisiert, da man in dem französischen Namen Ancholie die Verkürzung von

Melancholie sah. In der Renaissance zählte die Akelei zu den Begräbnispflanzen. Gleich-

zeitig symbolisierte die Akelei Sexualkraft, Unbeständigkeit oder auch den verlassenen Lieb-

haber. Einer jungen Frau im 17. Jahrhundert einen Akeleistrauß zu schenken, galt aufgrund

der Symbolik der Pflanze als unschicklich.

.

.

.

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( VorlageGemeinAkelei VorlageWaldAkelei Blume Blumen Flower Flowers Flora Natur

Nature Flor Fleur Blomman Kukka Цветочные Wilde Wild AlbumBlumenderSchweiz )

.

.

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A.usf.lug mit den E.ltern zum N.iederr.ieds.taus.ee am Dienstag den 03. Mai 2011

.

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NIF

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558211

The Danaid Eggfly (Hypolimnas misippus) is a widespread species of nymphalid butterfly. It is well known for polymorphism and mimicry. This mimics the Plain Tiger, Danaus chrysippus to avoid being eaten.

It can be distinguished from the Plain Tiger by the single black spot on its hind wing as opposed to three or four spots on the Plain Tiger and by comparing the pattern of their wing margins.

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558381

Illustration for a comparative ecophylogenetic analysis of local myrmecofaunas, based on r/K selection theory and intra / interspecific parabiosis / lestobiosis, particularly focused on allochthonous and invasive species.

[Hypoponera Santschi 1938: 154+†1 (IT: 4+†0) spp]

[Ponerini: 45 gg, 1,294 spp; Ponerinæ: 2 tbb, 60 gg, 1,426 spp]

Conspecific parapatric ☿, sx side.

Para/lestobiotic of L. lasioides. Cfr. notes¹ over the above image.

Like other species in the H. punctuatissima group, H. eduardi produces ☿-♀ or ♃ (ergatoid) intercastes as well as alate ♀ and its dimorphic ♂♂ consist of an alate and an ergatoid form. ♃♀♀ have distinctly larger eyes than ☿☿ (ca 20–30 ommatidia) and ♃♂♂ have small eyes (7–8 ommatidia), reduced mandibles and 13-segmented antennæ. The polymorphism of both ♀♀ and ♂♂, and the reproductive biology of H. eduardi have been documented by Le Masne (1956). He referred to ☿-♀ intercastes as major ☿☿, following Forel (1894) and also noted the presence of a less numerous caste intermediate between ☿☿ and intercastes that he termed "media ☿☿". All Hypoponera are thought to be predators of small arthropods but published details about their diet are sparse. A lack of information about other aspects of their biology is also typical for most species.

NOTES

1. 49b: Mandible triangular to elongate-triangular, masticatory margin sometimes edentate, usually with several to many teeth.

57b: Maxillary palp with 0-1 segments.

57b: Subpetiolar process in profile rounded to acutely angulate posteroventrally but never with a pair of teeth; an anterior fenestra or thin-spot usually absent but present in some spp.

55b: Petiole (A2) in profile an erect scale or node. Prora present on 1st gastral sternite below helcium. Postsclerites of 2nd gastral segment (A4 posterior to gastral constriction) not cylindrical, in profile as high as long or nearly so, at most only slightly longer than 1st segment.

52b: Gaster (A3-A7) in lateral & dorsal view with a distinct impression between presclerites & postsclerites of 2nd gastral segment (A4) that appears as a girdling constriction of gaster.

REFERENCES

S. Cantone 2018: Winged ants - queen.

S. Mammola & al. 2017: Invertebrata epi/hypogean survey.

M.K.L. Wong & B. Guénard 2017: Subterranean ants.

C.A. Schmidt & S.O. Shattuck 2014: Ponerinæ classification.

C.A. Schmidt 2013: Ponerinæ phylogeny.

R. Pacheco & H.L. Vasconcelos 2012: SPT.

F.A. Schmidt & R.R.C. Solar 2010: Hypogæic pitfall traps.

C.A. Schmidt 2009: Ponerinæ taxonomic revision, pp. 106-111.

K.T. Ryder Wilkie & al. 2007: Biodiversity below ground.

antmaps.org • subterranean sampling • US20090031611A1

The viviparous lizard or common lizard, Zootoca vivipara (formerly Lacerta vivipara), is a Eurasian lizard. It lives farther north than any other species of non-marine reptile, and most populations are viviparous (giving birth to live young), rather than laying eggs as most other lizards do. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Zootoca.[3]

Zootoca vivipara can be seen in a variety of different colors. Female Zootoca vivipara undergo color polymorphism (biology) more commonly than males. A female lizard's display differs in ventral coloration, ranging from pale yellow to bright orange and a mixed coloration. There have been many hypothesis for the genetic cause of this polymorphic coloration. These hypothesis test for coloration due to thermoregulation, predator avoidance, and social cues, specifically sexual reproduction. Through an experiment conducted by Vercken et al., color polymorphism in viviparous lizard is caused by social cues, rather than the other hypotheses. More specifically, the ventral coloration that is seen in female lizards is associated with patterns of sexual reproduction and sex allocation.[4]

.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviparous_lizard

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558367

Gentiana is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the Gentian family (Gentianaceae), tribe Gentianeae and monophyletic subtribe Gentianinae. This a large genus, with about 400 species.

This is a cosmopolitan genus, occurring in alpine habitats of temperate regions of Asia, Europe and the Americas. Some species also occur in northwest Africa, eastern Australia and New Zealand. They consist of annual, biennial and perennial plants. Some are evergreen, others are not.

Gentians have opposite leaves that are sometimes arranged in a basal rosette, and trumpet-shaped flowers that are usually deep blue or azure, but may vary from white, creamy and yellow to red. Many species also show considerable polymorphism with respect to flower color. Typically, blue-flowered species predominate in the Northern Hemisphere, with red-flowered species dominant in the Andes (where bird pollination is probably more heavily favored by natural selection). White-flowered species are scattered throughout the range of the genus but dominate in New Zealand. All gentian species have terminal tubular flowers and most are pentamerous, i.e. with 5 corolla lobes (petals), and 5 sepals, but 4-7 in some species. The style is rather short or absent. The corolla shows folds (= plicae) between the lobes. The ovary is mostly sessile and has nectary glands.

Gentians are fully hardy and like full sun or partial shade, and neutral to acid soil that is rich in humus and well drained. They are popular in rock gardens.

According to Pliny the Elder, Gentian is an eponym of Gentius (180-168 BC), the King of Illyria, said to have discovered its healing properties. Some species are of medicinal use and their roots were harvested for the manufacture of tonic liquor, for instance in France "Suze" or similar liquors. Gentian is also used as a flavouring, for example in bitters, and the soft drink "Moxie" which contains "Gentian Root Extractives"

La Genziana (Gentiana) è un genere di piante della famiglia delle Gentianaceae, che comprende circa 400 specie.

Questo genere si trova un po' ovunque nell'habitat alpino delle regioni temperate dell'Asia, dell'Europa e del continente americano. Alcune specie si trovano anche nell'Africa nord-occidentale, nell'Australia orientale ed in Nuova Zelanda. Si tratta di piante annuali, biennali e perenni. Alcune sono sempreverdi, altre no. Sul versante italiano delle Alpi sono presenti diverse specie, che fioriscono durante l'estate. Sono quasi tutte "specie protette". Alcune specie si trovano anche sugli Appennini.

I fiori sono a forma di imbuto; il colore è più comunemente azzurro o blu scuro, ma può variare dal bianco, avorio e giallo al rosso. Le specie col fiore di colore blu predominano nell'emisfero settentrionale, quelle col fiore rosso sulle Ande; le specie a fiore bianco sono più rare, ma più frequenti in Nuova Zelanda.

Le genziane crescono su terreni acidi o neutri, ricchi di humus e ben drenati; si possono trovare in luoghi pienamente o parzialmente soleggiati.

Fonte : Vikipedia

A text In English:

The Swallow-tailed Hummingbird, so called from its forked tail, is one of the largest hummingbirds in cities and gardens, but it also occurs in gallery forests, bushy pastures and edges of woods or coppices. It is green, except for the blue head and upper breast, turning to iridescent purple according to the direction of light; it has dark wings and a heavy black bill. The tail is dark blue with the external feathers longer than central ones. It is very aggressive and attacks other hummingbirds that dare to visit flowers in certain trees. Where the flowers are available for many months, the individual is fiercely territorial, but generally needs to search soon for other flowering plants. It flies to catch small insets on or under leaves in the gallery forests or woodlands. The female builds a small cup-shaped nest saddled on a branch, not far from the main trunk in the shade of leaves. Perched on favorite branches, the male can utter long but low chirps. Once in a while, it interrupts these singing sessions to feed, and flies back for more song or to clean the plumage. They occur from the Guianas and Amazon River to Paraguay and southeastern Peru. They can get along with partially deforested zones, but may disappear with intensive agriculture and with the development of treeless cities.

Um texto em Português:

Beija-flor Tesoura (Eupetomena macroura), fotografado em Brasília-DF, Brasil.

Eupetomena macroura (Gmelin, 1788): tesoura; swallow-tailed hummingbird c.

Destaca-se das espécies estudadas pelo maior porte e pela cauda comprida e bifurcada, o que lhe valeu o nome popular. Como é comum entre os beija-flores, é uma espécie agressiva que disputa com outras o seu território e fontes de alimento.

Nidificação: o ninho, em forma de tigela, é assentado numa forquilha de arbusto ou árvores, a cerca de 2 a 3 m do solo. O material utilizado na construção é composto por fibras vegetais incluindo painas, musgos e liquens, aderidos externamente com teias de aranhas.

Hábitat: capoeiras, cerrados, borda de matas e jardins.

Tamanho: 17,0 cm

A SEGUIR UM TEXTO ENCONTRADO E REPRODUZIDO DO ENDEREÇO nationalgeographic.abril.uol.com.br/ng/edicoes/83/reporta... DA NATIONAL GEOGRAFIC:

Prodígios da micro-engenharia, os beija-flores são os campeões dos pesos-leves entre as aves

Uma faísca safira, um frêmito de asas, e o minúsculo pássaro - ou seria um inseto? - some como miragem fugaz. Reaparece instantes depois, agora num ângulo melhor. É pássaro mesmo, um dervixe do tamanho do meu polegar com asas que batem 80 vertiginosas vezes por segundo, produzindo um zumbido quase inaudível. As penas da cauda, à guisa de leme, delicadamente direcionam o vôo em três direções. Ele fita a trombeta de uma vistosa flor alaranjada e do bico fino como agulha projeta uma língua delgada feito linha. Um raio de Sol ricocheteia de suas penas iridescentes. A cor refletida deslumbra como uma pedra preciosa contra uma janela ensolarada. Não admira que os beija-flores sejam tão queridos e que tanta gente já tenha tropeçado ao tentar descrevê-los. Nem mesmo circunspectos cientistas resistem a termos como "belo", "magnífico", "exótico".

Surpresa maior é o fato de o aparentemente frágil beija-flor ser uma das mais resistentes criaturas do reino animal. Cerca de 330 espécies prosperam em ambientes diversos, muitos deles brutais: do Alasca à Argentina, do deserto do Arizona à costa de Nova Scotia, da Amazônia à linha nevada acima dos 4,5 mil metros nos Andes (misteriosamente, essas aves só são encontradas no Novo Mundo).

"Eles vivem no limite do que é possível aos vertebrados, e com maestria", diz Karl Schuchmann, ornitólogo do Instituto Zoológico Alexander Koenig e do Fundo Brehm, na Alemanha. Schuchmann ouviu falar de um beija-flor que viveu 17 anos em cativeiro. "Imagine a resistência de um organismo de 5 ou 6 gramas para viver tanto tempo!", diz ele espantado. Em média, o minúsculo coração de um beija-flor bate cerca de 500 vezes por minuto (em repouso!). Assim, o desse pequeno cativo teria batido meio bilhão de vezes, quase o dobro do total de uma pessoa de 70 anos.

Mas esses passarinhos são duráveis apenas em vida. Quando morrem, seus ossos delicados e ocos quase nunca se fossilizam. Daí o assombro causado pela recente descoberta de um amontoado de fósseis de aves que talvez inclua um beija-flor ancestral de 30 milhões de anos. Como os beija-flores modernos, os espécimes fósseis tinham o bico longo e fino e os ossos superiores das asas mais curtos, terminando em uma saliência arredondada que talvez lhes permitisse fazer a rotação na articulação do ombro e parar no ar.

A outra surpresa foi o local do achado: no sul da Alemanha, longe do território dos beija-flores atuais. Para alguns cientistas, essa descoberta mostra que já existiram beija-flores fora das Américas, mas se extinguiram. Ou quem sabe os fósseis não fossem de beija-flor. Os céticos, entre eles Schuchmann, afirmam que muitas vezes, ao longo da evolução, outros grupos de aves adquiriram características semelhantes às do beija-flor. Os verdadeiros beija-flores, diz Schuchmann, evoluíram nas florestas do leste do Brasil, onde competiam com insetos pelo néctar das flores.

"O Brasil foi o laboratório do protótipo", diz o ornitólogo. "E o modelo funcionou." O beija-flor tornou-se a obra-prima da microengenharia da natureza. Aperfeiçoou sua habilidade de parar no ar há dezenas de milhões de anos para competir por parte das flores do Novo Mundo.

"Eles são uma ponte entre o mundo das aves e o dos insetos", diz Doug Altshuler, da Universidade da Califórnia em Riverside. Altshuler, que estuda o vôo dos beija-flores, examinou os movimentos das asas do pássaro. Observou que, nele, os impulsos elétricos propulsores dos músculos das asas lembram mais os dos insetos que os das aves. Talvez por isso o beija-flor produza tanta energia por batida de asas: mais, por unidade de massa, que qualquer outro vertebrado. Altshuler também analisou os trajetos neurais do beija-flor, que funcionam com a mesma vertiginosa velocidade encontrada nas aves mais ágeis, como seu primo mais próximo, o andorinhão. "São incríveis; uns pequenos Frankesteins", compara.

Certamente eles sabem intimidar: grama por grama, talvez sejam os maiores confrontadores da natureza. "O vocabulário do beija-flor deve ser 100% composto de palavrões", graceja Sheri Williamson, naturalista do Southeastern Arizona Bird Observatory. A agressão do beija-flor nasce de ferozes instintos territoriais moldados à necessidade de sugar néctar a cada poucos minutos. Os beija-flores competem desafiando e ameaçando uns aos outros. Postam-se face a face no ar, rodopiam, mergulham na direção da grama e voam de ré, em danças de dominância que terminam tão subitamente quanto começam.

O melhor lugar para vermos tais batalhas é nas montanhas, especialmente no Equador, em que ricos ecossistemas se apresentam em suas várias altitudes. Sheri supõe que o sentido norte-sul das cordilheiras americanas também crie rotas favoráveis à migração para onde haja constante suprimento de flores. O que contrasta, diz ela, com as barreiras naturais que se estendem de leste a oeste na África, como o Saara e o Mediterrâneo.

Algumas espécies de beija-flor, porém, adaptaram-se a atravessar vastidões planas, onde o alimento é escasso. Antes de sua intrépida migração da primavera para os Estados Unidos e o Canadá, os beija-flores-de-garganta-vermelha reúnem-se no México e empanturram-se de insetos e néctar. Armazenam gordura e duplicam de peso em uma semana. Em seguida, atravessam o golfo do México, voando 800 quilômetros sem escalas por 20 horas, até a costa distante.

A região próxima à linha do equador é um reino de beija-flores. Quem sai do aeroporto de Quito, no Equador, pode ser logo saudado por um cintilante beija-flor-violeta, com pintura de guerra de manchas púrpura iridescentes nos lados da face. A leste da cidade, nas cabeceiras da bacia Amazônica, o beija-flor-bico-de-espada esvoaça na mata portando o bico mais longo de todas as aves em proporção a seu tamanho: mais de metade do comprimento total do animal. Nas encostas do Cotopaxi, um vulcão ao sul de Quito, o beija-flor-do-chimborazo foi avistado acima dos 4,5 mil metros. Ali ele passa a noite entorpecido em cavernas, pois desacelera seu ritmo metabólico o suficiente para não morrer de fome antes de amanhecer. Mais tarde, aquecido pelo Sol, ele recomeça a se alimentar.

"Quem estuda beija-flores fica irremediavelmente enfeitiçado", diz Sheri Williamson. "São criaturinhas sedutoras. Tentei resistir, mas agora tenho sangue de beija-flor correndo nas veias."

Canon EOS 50D

www.flickr.com/map/?&fLat=-15.827534&fLon=-47.928...

Ipê Amarelo, Tabebuia [chrysotricha or ochracea].

Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Trumpet tree" redirects here. This term is occasionally used for the Shield-leaved Pumpwood (Cecropia peltata).

Tabebuia

Flowering Araguaney or ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia chrysantha) in central Brazil

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots

(unranked): Asterids

Order: Lamiales

Family: Bignoniaceae

Tribe: Tecomeae

Genus: Tabebuia

Gomez

Species

Nearly 100.

Tabebuia is a neotropical genus of about 100 species in the tribe Tecomeae of the family Bignoniaceae. The species range from northern Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina and central Venezuela, including the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Well-known common names include Ipê, Poui, trumpet trees and pau d'arco.

They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 3–7 leaflets.

Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescentThe fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerous—in some species winged—seeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy.

Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ipê wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.

Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ipé grown in India, where it is not native.

Lapacho teaThe bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ipê (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia)

Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.

Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ipê tree.

Tabebuia alba

Tabebuia anafensis

Tabebuia arimaoensis

Tabebuia aurea – Caribbean Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia bilbergii

Tabebuia bibracteolata

Tabebuia cassinoides

Tabebuia chrysantha – Araguaney, Yellow Ipê, tajibo (Bolivia), ipê-amarelo (Brazil), cañaguate (N Colombia)

Tabebuia chrysotricha – Golden Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose – Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)

A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.

Tabebuia dubia

Tabebuia ecuadorensis

Tabebuia elongata

Tabebuia furfuracea

Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos

Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.

Tabebuia haemantha

Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo – tajy

Tabebuia heterophylla – roble prieto

Tabebuia heteropoda

Tabebuia hypoleuca

Tabebuia impetiginosa – Pink Ipê, Pink Lapacho, ipê-cavatã, ipê-comum, ipê-reto, ipê-rosa, ipê-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peúva, piúva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"

Tabebuia incana

Tabebuia jackiana

Tabebuia lapacho – lapacho amarillo

Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]

Tabebuia ochracea

Tabebuia oligolepis

Tabebuia pallida – Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia platyantha

Tabebuia polymorpha

Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) – Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate

A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela

Tabebuia roseo-alba – White Ipê, ipê-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco

Tabebuia serratifolia – Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ipê-roxo (Brazil)

Tabebuia shaferi

Tabebuia striata

Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith

Tabebuia umbellata

Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo

Ipê-do-cerrado

Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

Ipê-do-cerrado

Classificação científica

Reino: Plantae

Divisão: Magnoliophyta

Classe: Magnoliopsida

Subclasse: Asteridae

Ordem: Lamiales

Família: Bignoniaceae

Género: Tabebuia

Espécie: T. ochracea

Nome binomial

Tabebuia ochracea

(Cham.) Standl. 1832

Sinónimos

Bignonia tomentosa Pav. ex DC.

Handroanthus ochraceus (Cham.) Mattos

Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson

Tabebuia hypodictyon A. DC.) Standl.

Tabebuia neochrysantha A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. heteropoda (A. DC.) A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. neochrysantha (A.H. Gentry) A.H. Gentry

Tecoma campinae Kraenzl.

ecoma grandiceps Kraenzl.

Tecoma hassleri Sprague

Tecoma hemmendorffiana Kraenzl.

Tecoma heteropoda A. DC.

Tecoma hypodictyon A. DC.

Tecoma ochracea Cham.

Ipê-do-cerrado é um dos nomes populares da Tabebuia ochracea (Cham.) Standl. 1832, nativa do cerrado brasileiro, no estados de Amazonas, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Paraná.

Está na lista de espécies ameaçadas do estado de São Paulo, onde é encontrda também no domínio da Mata Atlântica[1].

Ocorre também na Argentina, Paraguai, Bolívia, Equador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, El Salvador, Guatemala e Panamá[2].

Há uma espécie homônima descrita por A.H. Gentry em 1992.

Outros nomes populares: ipê-amarelo, ipê-cascudo, ipê-do-campo, ipê-pardo, pau-d'arco-do-campo, piúva, tarumã.

Características

Altura de 6 a 14 m. Tronco tortuso com até 50 cm de diâmetro. Folhas pilosas em ambas as faces, mais na inferior, que é mais clara.

Planta decídua, heliófita, xerófita, nativa do cerrado em solos bem drenados.

Floresce de julho a setembro. Os frutos amadurecem de setembro a outubro.

FloresProduz grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em menos de 90 dias após coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978). As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%. As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 72 000 sementes em cada quilo.

O desenvolvimento da planta é rápido.

Como outros ipês, a madeira é usada em tacos, assoalhos, e em dormentes e postes. Presta-se também para peças torneadas e instrumento musicais.

Tabebuia alba (Ipê-Amarelo)

Texto, em português, produzido pela Acadêmica Giovana Beatriz Theodoro Marto

Supervisão e orientação do Prof. Luiz Ernesto George Barrichelo e do Eng. Paulo Henrique Müller

Atualizado em 10/07/2006

O ipê amarelo é a árvore brasileira mais conhecida, a mais cultivada e, sem dúvida nenhuma, a mais bela. É na verdade um complexo de nove ou dez espécies com características mais ou menos semelhantes, com flores brancas, amarelas ou roxas. Não há região do país onde não exista pelo menos uma espécie dele, porém a existência do ipê em habitat natural nos dias atuais é rara entre a maioria das espécies (LORENZI,2000).

A espécie Tabebuia alba, nativa do Brasil, é uma das espécies do gênero Tabebuia que possui “Ipê Amarelo” como nome popular. O nome alba provém de albus (branco em latim) e é devido ao tomento branco dos ramos e folhas novas.

As árvores desta espécie proporcionam um belo espetáculo com sua bela floração na arborização de ruas em algumas cidades brasileiras. São lindas árvores que embelezam e promovem um colorido no final do inverno. Existe uma crença popular de que quando o ipê-amarelo floresce não vão ocorrer mais geadas. Infelizmente, a espécie é considerada vulnerável quanto à ameaça de extinção.

A Tabebuia alba, natural do semi-árido alagoano está adaptada a todas as regiões fisiográficas, levando o governo, por meio do Decreto nº 6239, a transformar a espécie como a árvore símbolo do estado, estando, pois sob a sua tutela, não mais podendo ser suprimida de seus habitats naturais.

Taxonomia

Família: Bignoniaceae

Espécie: Tabebuia Alba (Chamiso) Sandwith

Sinonímia botânica: Handroanthus albus (Chamiso) Mattos; Tecoma alba Chamisso

Outros nomes vulgares: ipê-amarelo, ipê, aipê, ipê-branco, ipê-mamono, ipê-mandioca, ipê-ouro, ipê-pardo, ipê-vacariano, ipê-tabaco, ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-dourado, ipê-da-serra, ipezeiro, pau-d’arco-amarelo, taipoca.

Aspectos Ecológicos

O ipê-amarelo é uma espécie heliófita (Planta adaptada ao crescimento em ambiente aberto ou exposto à luz direta) e decídua (que perde as folhas em determinada época do ano). Pertence ao grupo das espécies secundárias iniciais (DURIGAN & NOGUEIRA, 1990).

Abrange a Floresta Pluvial da Mata Atlântica e da Floresta Latifoliada Semidecídua, ocorrendo principalmente no interior da Floresta Primária Densa. É característica de sub-bosques dos pinhais, onde há regeneração regular.

Informações Botânicas

Morfologia

As árvores de Tabebuia alba possuem cerca de 30 metros de altura. O tronco é reto ou levemente tortuoso, com fuste de 5 a 8 m de altura. A casca externa é grisáceo-grossa, possuindo fissuras longitudinais esparas e profundas. A coloração desta é cinza-rosa intenso, com camadas fibrosas, muito resistentes e finas, porém bem distintas.

Com ramos grossos, tortuosos e compridos, o ipê-amarelo possui copa alongada e alargada na base. As raízes de sustentação e absorção são vigorosas e profundas.

As folhas, deciduais, são opostas, digitadas e compostas. A face superior destas folhas é verde-escura, e, a face inferior, acinzentada, sendo ambas as faces tomentosas. Os pecíolos das folhas medem de 2,5 a 10 cm de comprimento. Os folíolos, geralmente, apresentam-se em número de 5 a 7, possuindo de 7 a 18 cm de comprimento por 2 a 6 cm de largura. Quando jovem estes folíolos são densamente pilosos em ambas as faces. O ápice destes é pontiagudo, com base arredondada e margem serreada.

As flores, grandes e lanceoladas, são de coloração amarelo-ouro. Possuem em média 8X15 cm.

Quanto aos frutos, estes possuem forma de cápsula bivalvar e são secos e deiscentes. Do tipo síliqua, lembram uma vagem. Medem de 15 a 30 cm de comprimento por 1,5 a 2,5 cm de largura. As valvas são finamente tomentosas com pêlos ramificados. Possuem grande quantidade de sementes.

As sementes são membranáceas brilhantes e esbranquiçadas, de coloração marrom. Possuem de 2 a 3 cm de comprimento por 7 a 9 mm de largura e são aladas.

Reprodução

A espécie é caducifólia e a queda das folhas coincide com o período de floração. A floração inicia-se no final de agosto, podendo ocorrer alguma variação devido a fenômenos climáticos. Como a espécie floresce no final do inverno é influenciada pela intensidade do mesmo. Quanto mais frio e seco for o inverno, maior será a intensidade da florada do ipê amarelo.

As flores por sua exuberância, atraem abelhas e pássaros, principalmente beija-flores que são importantes agentes polinizadores. Segundo CARVALHO (2003), a espécie possui como vetor de polinização a abelha mamangava (Bombus morio).

As sementes são dispersas pelo vento.

A planta é hermafrodita, e frutifica nos meses de setembro, outubro, novembro, dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro, dependendo da sua localização. Em cultivo, a espécie inicia o processo reprodutivo após o terceiro ano.

Ocorrência Natural

Ocorre naturalmente na Floresta Estaciobal Semidecicual, Floresta de Araucária e no Cerrado.

Segundo o IBGE, a Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandw. é uma árvore do Cerrado, Cerradão e Mata Seca. Apresentando-se nos campos secos (savana gramíneo-lenhosa), próximo às escarpas.

Clima

Segundo a classificação de Köppen, o ipê-amarelo abrange locais de clima tropical (Aw), subtropical úmido (Cfa), sutropical de altitude (Cwa e Cwb) e temperado.

A T.alba pode tolerar até 81 geadas em um ano. Ocorre em locais onde a temperatura média anual varia de 14,4ºC como mínimo e 22,4ºC como máximo.

Solo

A espécie prefere solos úmidos, com drenagem lenta e geralmente não muito ondulados (LONGHI, 1995).

Aparece em terras de boa à média fertilidade, em solos profundos ou rasos, nas matas e raramente cerradões (NOGUEIRA, 1977).

Pragas e Doenças

De acordo com CARVALHO (2003), possui como praga a espécie de coleópteros Cydianerus bohemani da família Curculionoideae e um outro coleóptero da família Chrysomellidae. Apesar da constatação de elevados índices populacionais do primeiro, os danos ocasionados até o momento são leves. Nas praças e ruas de Curitiba - PR, 31% das árvores foram atacadas pela Cochonilha Ceroplastes grandis.

ZIDKO (2002), ao estudar no município de Piracicaba a associação de coleópteros em espécies arbóreas, verificou a presença de insetos adultos da espécie Sitophilus linearis da família de coleópteros, Curculionidae, em estruturas reprodutivas. Os insetos adultos da espécie emergiram das vagens do ipê, danificando as sementes desta espécie nativa.

ANDRADE (1928) assinalou diversas espécies de Cerambycidae atacando essências florestais vivas, como ingazeiro, cinamomo, cangerana, cedro, caixeta, jacarandá, araribá, jatobá, entre outras como o ipê amarelo.

A Madeira

A Tabebuia alba produz madeira de grande durabilidade e resistência ao apodrecimento (LONGHI,1995).

MANIERI (1970) caracteriza o cerne desta espécie como de cor pardo-havana-claro, pardo-havan-escuro, ou pardo-acastanhado, com reflexos esverdeados. A superfície da madeira é irregularmente lustrosa, lisa ao tato, possuindo textura media e grã-direita.

Com densidade entre 0,90 e 1,15 grama por centímetro cúbico, a madeira é muito dura (LORENZI, 1992), apresentando grande dificuldade ao serrar.

A madeira possui cheiro e gosto distintos. Segundo LORENZI (1992), o cheiro característico é devido à presença da substância lapachol, ou ipeína.

Usos da Madeira

Sendo pesada, com cerne escuro, adquire grande valor comercial na marcenaria e carpintaria. Também é utilizada para fabricação de dormentes, moirões, pontes, postes, eixos de roda, varais de carroça, moendas de cana, etc.

Produtos Não-Madeireiros

A entrecasca do ipê-amarelo possui propriedades terapêuticas como adstringente, usada no tratamento de garganta e estomatites. É também usada como diurético.

O ipê-amarelo possui flores melíferas e que maduras podem ser utilizadas na alimentação humana.

Outros Usos

É comumente utilizada em paisagismo de parques e jardins pela beleza e porte. Além disso, é muito utilizada na arborização urbana.

Segundo MOREIRA & SOUZA (1987), o ipê-amarelo costuma povoar as beiras dos rios sendo, portanto, indicado para recomposição de matas ciliares. MARTINS (1986), também cita a espécie para recomposição de matas ciliares da Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, abrangendo alguns municípios das regiões Norte, Noroeste e parte do Oeste do Estado do Paraná.

Aspectos Silviculturais

Possui a tendência a crescer reto e sem bifurcações quando plantado em reflorestamento misto, pois é espécie monopodial. A desrrama se faz muito bem e a cicatrização é boa. Sendo assim, dificilmente encopa quando nova, a não ser que seja plantado em parques e jardins.

Ao ser utilizada em arborização urbana, o ipê amarelo requer podas de condução com freqüência mediana.

Espécie heliófila apresenta a pleno sol ramificação cimosa, registrando-se assim dicotomia para gema apical. Deve ser preconizada, para seu melhor aproveitamento madeireiro, podas de formação usuais (INQUE et al., 1983).

Produção de Mudas

A propagação deve realizada através de enxertia.

Os frutos devem ser coletados antes da dispersão, para evitar a perda de sementes. Após a coleta as sementes são postas em ambiente ventilado e a extração é feita manualmente. As sementes do ipê amarelo são ortodoxas, mantendo a viabilidade natural por até 3 meses em sala e por até 9 meses em vidro fechado, em câmara fria.

A condução das mudas deve ser feita a pleno sol. A muda atinge cerca de 30 cm em 9 meses, apresentando tolerância ao sol 3 semanas após a germinação.

Sementes

Os ipês, espécies do gênero Tabebuia, produzem uma grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em poucos dias após a sua coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978).

As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A quebra natural leva cerca de 3 meses e a quebra na câmara leva 9 meses. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%.

As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 87000 sementes em cada quilo.

Preço da Madeira no Mercado

O preço médio do metro cúbico de pranchas de ipê no Estado do Pará cotado em Julho e Agosto de 2005 foi de R$1.200,00 o preço mínimo, R$ 1509,35 o médio e R$ 2.000,00 o preço máximo (CEPEA,2005).

Under Dew is Life

Description: Picture taken in a pet shop. No product nor the fish were acquired or bought, and the picture I took was merely for educational purposes in benefit of the species depicted.

They are also known as lowland cichlid, pearlscale cichlid, Texas blue or green Texas cichlid.

This is a Herichthys carpintis of the variation "Short Body" commonly known as Texas Short Body and belongs in the superclass Osteichthyes, class Actinopterygii, subclass Neopterygii, superorder Acanthopterygii, order Perciformes (Cichliformes?), suborder Labroidei, family Cichlidae, subfamily Cichlasomatinae and tribe Heroini. Bear in mind that this taxonomy was very confusing and there may be mistakes, not to mention that I skipped plenty of subdivisions within Neopterygii to make this shorter. If you saw any mistakes, please warn me so I can change this text accordingly. All I ask is for you to provide a reliable source to your correction of my mistake. "Guesses" or speculations won't make me immediately change the text, but are welcome.

Apparently, the subject portrayed is a male but through a picture it's hard to tell with 100% precision. Some females look a lot like the males, with many being mistaken for each other. The differentiation is more reliable by annalyzing the behaviour or through the observation of the sexual and excretory organs through a process called "venting" after the subject reaches sexual maturity. In general, the males are larger than the females and display a characteristic black spot on the center of the dorsal fin, but this can't be used to differentiate the sex of these fishes with 100% reliability.

Herichthys carpintis can be found in harder waters with a pH of 7,5 to 9 and temperatures between 18ºC and 28ºC, which varies with the seasons. They can also inhabit transparent waters with visibility inferior to 1 meter.

Sexual maturity is reached after the fish reaches around 10cm. They will try to reproduce as soon as the sexual maturity is achieved and will search for a smooth surface to lay the eggs. More than 800 eggs can be laid. The offspring are transferred between sites in crevices multiple times by the female to fend off predators. Both the males and the females will guard the offsprings for around 8 weeks.

This species is somewhat aggressive and are known to provoke problems with other creatures even when they are bigger than them, which may result in the death of the Herichthys carpintis, although this behaviour is more often seen when they are under captivity.

They are omnivorous and feed on debris, vegetable matter (they are diggers and will uproot vegetation), other fishes, small insects, gastropods, and so on.

This species is polymorphic, meaning they can present various patterns depending on their zone of distribution, which includes the Eastern coast of Mexico, until the Rio Soto La Marina to the North, and to the South until the Panuco's River Bay, Laguna de Tamiahua. They have been introduced in many places.

They live around 8 years under captivity. This expectancy is usually halved in nature. The individual portrayed measured approximately 13 or 14cm in length and approximately 9cm in height.

Sources:

www.ciclideos.com/herichthys-carpintis-f195.html

www.aquarismopaulista.com/texas-blue-herichthys-carpintis/

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)

www.seriouslyfish.com/species/herichthys-carpintis/

PROJECT NOAH (Português): www.projectnoah.org/spottings/1400149398

Canon EOS 50D, Canon EF 100-400mm f/4,5-5,6 L IS USM, development in Lightroom.

Photographed on a birdwatchers' boat trip to the Farne Islands, Northumberland.

Uria aalge - Common Guillemot (Common Murre) - Trottellumme - Zeekoet - Guillemot de Troïl - Arao común - Uria - Sillgrissla - Lomvie - Nurzyk zwyczajny - . . .

Wikipedia (edited): "The common murre or common guillemot (Uria aalge) is a large auk. It has a circumpolar distribution, occurring in low-Arctic and boreal waters in the North Atlantic and North Pacific. It spends most of its time at sea, only coming to land to breed on rocky cliff shores or islands.

Guillemots are fast in direct flight but are not very agile. They can manoeuvre better underwater, where they typically dive to depths of 30–60m. They breed in colonies at high densities; nesting pairs may be in bodily contact with their neighbours. They make no nest; their single egg is incubated on a bare rock ledge on a cliff face.

Some individuals in the North Atlantic, known as "bridled guillemots", have a white ring around the eye extending back as a white line. This is not a distinct subspecies, but a polymorphism that becomes more common the farther north the birds breed."

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farne_Islands

www.inaturalist.org/taxa/4519-Uria-aalge

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_murre

Détail de la façade de la Philharmonie de Paris

La Philharmonie est un équipement novateur à plus d’un titre. D’un point de vue strictement architectural tout d’abord, tant le projet de Jean Nouvel ne ressemble à rien de connu dans le paysage urbain. Un bâtiment minéral aux allures de butte, situé dans le parc de la Villette, et dont il sera même possible de parcourir le toit ! Par ses dimensions comme par ses matériaux (des façades en fonte d’aluminium et en inox brillant), cet édifice s’inscrit fièrement dans la modernité. extraits du site officiel

Malgré cette autosatisfaction sur la créativité de l'architecte star français, on constate aisément que le bâtiment de la Philharmonie (non terminé ce 18 janvier 2015) écrase totalement l'ancienne Cité de la musique conçue avec beaucoup plus de raffinement et de finesse architecturale par Christian de Portzampac.

Quant aux Folies de Bernard Tschumi, situées dans le parc à proximité de la Philharmonie, elles disparaissent dans la masse et semblent reléguées au rang de maisons des gardiens !

Les dimensions de la Philharmonie, grise et lourde, sont inutilement imposantes, car elles dépassent largement celles de la grande salle de concert qu'elle abrite. Le mur-rideau qui donne cette impression de massivité n'a, à ma connaissance, qu'une fonction de belvédère accessible aux visiteurs pour admirer le parc et la banlieue environnante dont on peut pourtant douter de l'intérêt exceptionnel.

Cet ensemble architectural nouveau ressemble à un château médiéval construit sur une butte dominant un village. Au-delà de son rôle défensif, la taille du château avait aussi à cette époque la fonction de rappeler à la population la puissance du pouvoir dont elle dépendait. Il semble en être de même du bâtiment de Jean Nouvel.

Le service de communication de la Philharmonie écrit candidement que le bâtiment de Jean Nouvel ne cherche pas à dominer le site, et que cet édifice s’inscrit dans le contexte urbain et architectural, dialoguant avec les autres architectes du site.

On peut vraiment douter d'une telle affirmation contredite par le bon sens, tant ce manque d'équilibre entre les volumes architecturaux, proches les uns des autres, saute aux yeux.

Il existe heureusement des raisons de se réjouir de l'ouverture de la Philharmonie car la salle de concert est très réussie et les espaces éducatifs sont vastes et diversifiés ; cet équipement, qui a coûté très cher aux contribuables français, contribuera heureusement à mieux satisfaire la demande sociale vis à vis de la musique qui s'exprime largement en Ile-de-France. Mais une fois de plus, il est situé à Paris, et renforce encore la centralisation culturelle de notre pays.

Enfin, l'appellation "Cité de la musique" qui pourtant traduisait bien le caractère original et polymorphe du site de la Villette disparaît au profit de Philharmonie 1 pour le bâtiment de Jean Nouvel et Philharmonie 2 pour celui de Christian de Portzampac (le conservatoire reste distinct).

C'est le souci de rivaliser avec Berlin ou Rome qui a, paraît-il, prévalu afin de montrer qu'enfin Paris était doté de la salle symphonique qui lui manquait, comme l'a affirmé Pierre Boulez durant des décennies !

Le site de la Philharmonie de Paris

www.philharmoniedeparis.fr/fr/batiments/le-nouveau-batiment

The Danaid Eggfly (Hypolimnas misippus), is a medium sized butterfly (with a wingspan of about 70-85 mm) belong to family Nymphalidae. It is well known for polymorphism and mimicry. The Upperside of male is velvety dark brownish black, with two oval white patches, one on the forewing and the other on the hind wing. There is another smaller white patch below the apex of the forewing. These pitches are surrounded by blue or violet rings which extends towards the center of the white patches. The underside has a beautiful golden brown color, with white bands and spots on each wing. The underside wings have black wavy margins with white spots. The female of the species mimics the plain tiger. It's also known as the Diadem or False Tiger.

Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cianite

Em inglês:

From Wikipedia.

Kyanite, whose name derives from the Greek word kyanos, meaning blue, is a typically blue silicate mineral, commonly found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites and/or sedimentary rock. Kyanite is a diagnostic mineral of the Blueschist Facies of metamorphic rocks.

Kyanite is a member of the aluminosilicate series, which includes the polymorph andalusite and the polymorph sillimanite. Kyanite is strongly anisotropic, in that its hardness varies depending on its crystallographic direction. While this is a feature of almost all minerals, in kyanite this anisotropism can be considered an identifying characteristic.

Kyanite is used primarily in refractory and ceramic products, including porcelain plumbing fixtures and dinnerware. It is also used in electrical insulators and abrasives. An interesting property of kyanite is that it undergoes an irreversible expansion when fired at high temperature. Kyanite has also been used as a gemstone, though this use is limited by its anisotropism and perfect cleavage. Finally, as with most minerals, kyanite is a collector's mineral.

Kyanite is usually found in association with its polymorphs, as well as other silicate minerals. These include:

*andalusite, Al2SiO5

*sillimanite, Al2SiO5

*quartz, SiO2

*staurolite, Fe2Al9Si4O22(OH)2

*micas, AB2-3(X, Si)4O10(O,F,OH)2

*garnets, A3B2(SiO4)3

Kyanite has several alternative names, including disthene, munkrudite and cyanite. White-grey kyanite is also called rhaeticite.

kyanite from the mine at Mt. Willis is transported by train on the Buckingham Branch Railroad.]]

Kyanite's elongated, columnar crystals are usually a good first indication of the mineral, as well as its color (when the specimen is blue). Associated minerals are useful as well, especially the presence of the polymorphs or staurolite, which occur frequently with kyanite. However, the most useful characteristic in identifying kyanite is its anisotropism. If one suspects a specimen to be kyanite, verifying that it has two distinctly different hardnesses on perpendicular axes is a key to identification.

Category:Gemstones

Category:Aluminium minerals

Category:Nesosilicates

de:Kyanit

et:Küaniit

es:Cianita

eo:Kianito

hr:Kianit

it:Cianite

he:??????

hu:Kianit

nl:Kyaniet

ja:???

pl:Dysten

pt:Cianite

ru:??????

sk:Kyanit

fi:Kyaniitti

sv:Kyanit

Em português:

A cianite ou cianita ou ainda distena , cujo nome (cianite) deriva do grego kyanos, que significa azul.O nome "distena" deriva do grego "stenos" que significa "dureza", apontando para um mineral com 2 medidas de dureza. A cianite é um mineral de silicato tipicamente azul. É geralmente encontrado em pegmatitos metamórficos ou rochas sedimentares ricos em alumínio.

A cianite é um membro da família dos aluminossilicatos, que inclui minerais polimórficos como a andaluzite e a silimanite. A cianite é um mineral fortemente anisotrópico. Na escala de Mohs, a sua dureza varia, dependendo da direção cristalográfica. Este é uma característica de quase todos os minerais, mas o anisotropismo da cianite pode considerar-se um traço identificativo.

Usa-se principalmente em produtos refractários e cerâmicos, incluindo porcelana. Utiliza-se na fabricação de utensílios de electricidade. A cianite também pode ser usada como pedra preciosa graças ao seu anisotropismo, que a dota de brilho. É importante também para os coleccionadores de minerais, já que devido à sua escassez é muito procurada por estes. A importância deste mineral é latente, já que inclusive, uma companhia, a Kyanite Mining Corporation dedica-se exclusivamente à sua extracção e refinamento.

Normalmente, este mineral ocorre associado aos seus polimorfos bem como a outros silicatos, incluindo:

* andaluzite, Al2SiO5

* silimanite, Al2SiO5

* quartzo, SiO2

* estaurolite, Fe2Al9Si4O22(OH)2

* micas, AB2-3(X, Si)4O10(O,F,OH)2

* granadas, A3B2(SiO4)3

Seus cristais colunares são normalmente um bom começo para identificar o espécimen de cianite. Sua cor (quando é azul) a define também perfeitamente. Outra característica é que pode estar misturada com minerais polimórficos ou com estaurolite. No entanto, a característica mais útil para sua identificação é o seu forte anisotropismo.

I love the interspecies variation you can see in this huddle of shieldbugs, I dont know if these are adults or still have some growing left to do but I think its awesome that they all have a different pattern. I dont know what causes this, whether its polymorphism or some other factor(s)?

EDIT: I think I figured out the species... Spotted Shield Bug (Pachycoris torridus)

FR Marchantie protée - EN Star-headed liverwort

Marchantia polymorpha subsp. polymorpha L. (colonie)

Enrochement de fleuve canalisé (alt. 80 m)

Godinne (province de Namur, Wallonie, Belgique)

Indigène (Holarctique)

The Hominidae, whose members are known as the great apes or hominids, are a taxonomic family of primates that includes eight extant species in four genera: Pongo (the Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutan); Gorilla (the eastern and western gorilla); Pan (the chimpanzee and the bonobo); and Homo, of which only modern humans (Homo sapiens) remain.

Numerous revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to change over time. The original meaning of "hominid" referred only to humans (Homo) and their closest extinct relatives. However, by the 1990s humans, apes, and their ancestors were considered to be "hominids".

The earlier restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees (Pan). The current meaning of "hominid" includes all the great apes including humans. Usage still varies, however, and some scientists and laypersons still use "hominid" in the original restrictive sense; the scholarly literature generally shows the traditional usage until the turn of the 21st century.

Within the taxon Hominidae, a number of extant and extinct genera are grouped with the humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas in the subfamily Homininae; others with orangutans in the subfamily Ponginae (see classification graphic below). The most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera. Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae (the gibbons), perhaps 15 to 20 million years ago.

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and the other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that nonhuman great apes are persons and should be given basic human rights. Twenty-nine countries have instituted research bans to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.

Evolution

See also: Human evolution

Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)

In the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, there were many species of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa; the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils from 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest Old World monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million years ago are Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa.

At sites far distant from East Africa, the presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids, that is, non-monkey primates, of middle Miocene age—Otavipithecus from cave deposits in Namibia, and Pierolapithecus and Dryopithecus from France, Spain and Austria—is further evidence of a wide diversity of ancestral ape forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene. The most recent of these far-flung Miocene apes (hominoids) is Oreopithecus, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago.

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae), the "lesser apes", diverged from that of the great apes some 18–12 million years ago, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) diverged from the other great apes at about 12 million years. There are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a still-unknown South East Asian hominoid population; but fossil proto-orangutans, dated to around 10 million years ago, may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus fossils found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas (genus Gorilla), and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to humans. Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation—rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone—and sampling bias probably contribute most to this problem.

Other hominins probably adapted to the drier environments outside the African equatorial belt; and there they encountered antelope, hyenas, elephants and other forms becoming adapted to surviving in the East African savannas, particularly the regions of the Sahel and the Serengeti. The wet equatorial belt contracted after about 8 million years ago, and there is very little fossil evidence for the divergence of the hominin lineage from that of gorillas and chimpanzees—which split was thought to have occurred around that time. The earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 Ma) and Orrorin tugenensis (6 Ma), followed by Ardipithecus (5.5–4.4 Ma), with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus.

Taxonomy

Further information: Human taxonomy

Terminology

Humans are one of the four extant hominid genera.

The classification of the great apes has been revised several times in the last few decades; these revisions have led to a varied use of the word "hominid" over time. The original meaning of the term referred to only humans and their closest relatives—what is now the modern meaning of the term "hominin". The meaning of the taxon Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a modern usage of "hominid" that includes all the great apes including humans.

A number of very similar words apply to related classifications:

A hominoid, sometimes called an ape, is a member of the superfamily Hominoidea: extant members are the gibbons (lesser apes, family Hylobatidae) and the hominids.

A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the great apes: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans.

A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae: gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans (excludes orangutans).

A hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini: chimpanzees and humans.

A homininan, following a suggestion by Wood and Richmond (2000), would be a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini: that is, modern humans and their closest relatives, including Australopithecina, but excluding chimpanzees.

A human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies.

Extant and fossil relatives of humans

Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their (extinct) close relatives, with the other great apes (that is, the orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees) all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that definition eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species (the chimpanzees) proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, the use of Pongidae to be restricted to just one closely related grouping. Thus, many biologists now assign Pongo (as the subfamily Ponginae) to the family Hominidae. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings according to the modern understanding of human and great ape relationships.

Humans and close relatives including the tribes Hominini and Gorillini form the subfamily Homininae (see classification graphic below). (A few researchers go so far as to refer the chimpanzees and the gorillas to the genus Homo along with humans.) But, those fossil relatives more closely related to humans than the chimpanzees represent the especially close members of the human family, and without necessarily assigning subfamily or tribal categories.

Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family include Gigantopithecus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Kenyanthropus, and the australopithecines Australopithecus and Paranthropus.

The exact criteria for membership in the tribe Hominini under the current understanding of human origins are not clear, but the taxon generally includes those species that share more than 97% of their DNA with the modern human genome, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple cultures beyond their 'local family' or band. The theory of mind concept—including such faculties as empathy, attribution of mental state, and even empathetic deception—is a controversial criterion; it distinguishes the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity after about four years of age, whereas it has not been proven (nor has it been disproven) that gorillas or chimpanzees ever develop a theory of mind. This is also the case for some New World monkeys outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys.

However, even without the ability to test whether early members of the Hominini (such as Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Orangutans have shown the development of culture comparable to that of chimpanzees, and some say the orangutan may also satisfy those criteria for the theory of mind concept. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of great ape personhood.

See also: List of hominoids

There are eight living species of great ape which are classified in four genera. The following classification is commonly accepted:

Family Hominidae: humans and other great apes; extinct genera and species excluded

Subfamily Ponginae

Tribe Pongini

Genus Pongo

Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus

Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus

Pongo pygmaeus morio

Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii

Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii

Tapanuli orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis

Subfamily Homininae

Tribe Gorillini

Genus Gorilla

Western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla

Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla

Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli

Eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei

Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei

Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri

Tribe Hominini

Subtribe Panina

Genus Pan

Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes

Central chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes

Western chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus

Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes ellioti

Eastern chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii

Bonobo, Pan paniscus

Subtribe Hominina

Genus Homo

Human, Homo sapiens

Anatomically modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens

Fossil

In addition to the extant species and subspecies, archaeologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists have discovered and classified numerous extinct great ape species as below, based on the taxonomy shown.

Tribe Lufengpithecini †

Lufengpithecus

Lufengpithecus lufengensis

Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis

Lufengpithecus hudienensis

Meganthropus

Meganthropus palaeojavanicus

Tribe Sivapithecini†

Ankarapithecus

Ankarapithecus meteai

Sivapithecus

Sivapithecus brevirostris

Sivapithecus punjabicus

Sivapithecus parvada

Sivapithecus sivalensis

Sivapithecus indicus

Gigantopithecus

Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis

Gigantopithecus blacki

Gigantopithecus giganteus

Tribe Pongini

Khoratpithecus†

Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis

Khoratpithecus piriyai

Khoratpithecus chiangmuanensis

Pongo (orangutans)

Pongo hooijeri†

Subfamily Homininae

Tribe Dryopithecini †

Kenyapithecus

Kenyapithecus wickeri

Danuvius

Danuvius guggenmosi

Pierolapithecus

Pierolapithecus catalaunicus

Udabnopithecus

Udabnopithecus garedziensis

Ouranopithecus

Ouranopithecus macedoniensis

Otavipithecus

Otavipithecus namibiensis

Morotopithecus (placement disputed)

Morotopithecus bishopi

Oreopithecus (placement disputed)

Oreopithecus bambolii

Nakalipithecus

Nakalipithecus nakayamai

Anoiapithecus

Anoiapithecus brevirostris

Hispanopithecus

Hispanopithecus laietanus

Hispanopithecus crusafonti

Dryopithecus

Dryopithecus wuduensis

Dryopithecus fontani

Dryopithecus brancoi

Dryopithecus laietanus

Dryopithecus crusafonti

Rudapithecus

Rudapithecus hungaricus

Samburupithecus

Samburupithecus kiptalami

Tribe Gorillini

Chororapithecus † (placement debated)

Chororapithecus abyssinicus

Tribe Hominini

Subtribe Panina

Subtribe Hominina

Graecopithecus †

Graecopithecus freybergi

Sahelanthropus†

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Orrorin†

Orrorin tugenensis

Ardipithecus†

Ardipithecus ramidus

Ardipithecus kadabba

Kenyanthropus†

Kenyanthropus platyops

Praeanthropus†

Praeanthropus bahrelghazali

Praeanthropus anamensis

Praeanthropus afarensis

Australopithecus†

Australopithecus africanus

Australopithecus garhi

Australopithecus sediba

Australopithecus deyiremeda

Paranthropus†

Paranthropus aethiopicus

Paranthropus robustus

Paranthropus boisei

Homo – close relatives of modern humans

Homo gautengensis† (also classified as H. habilis)

Homo rudolfensis† (membership in Homo uncertain)

Homo habilis† (membership in Homo uncertain)

Homo naledi†

Dmanisi Man, Homo georgicus† (thought by some to be an early subspecies of Homo erectus)

Homo ergaster† (considered by some to be an early subspecies of Homo erectus)

Homo erectus†

Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis †

Java Man, Homo erectus erectus †

Lantian Man, Homo erectus lantianensis †

Nanjing Man, Homo erectus nankinensis †

Peking Man, Homo erectus pekinensis †

Solo Man, Homo erectus soloensis †

Tautavel Man, Homo erectus tautavelensis †

Yuanmou Man, Homo erectus yuanmouensis †

Flores Man or Hobbit, Homo floresiensis†

Homo luzonensis †

Homo antecessor† (thought by some to be a late H. erectus or early H. heidelbergensis)

Homo heidelbergensis† (also classified as H. sapiens heidelbergensis)

Homo cepranensis† (also classified as H. heidelbergensis)

Homo helmei† (also classified as late H. heidelbergensis or early H. sapiens)

Homo tsaichangensis† (thought by some to be a subspecies of H. erectus or a Denisovan)

Denisovans (scientific name not yet assigned)†

Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis† (sometimes called Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)

Homo rhodesiensis† (thought by some to be an African subspecies of H. heidelbergensis or an early H. sapiens)

Modern human, Homo sapiens (sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens)

Homo sapiens idaltu†

Archaic Homo sapiens†

Description

The great apes are tailless primates, with the smallest living species being the bonobo at 30 to 40 kilograms (66 to 88 lb) in weight, and the largest being the eastern gorillas, with males weighing 140 to 180 kilograms (310 to 400 lb). In all great apes, the males are, on average, larger and stronger than the females, although the degree of sexual dimorphism varies greatly among species. Hominid teeth are similar to those of the Old World monkeys and gibbons, although they are especially large in gorillas. The dental formula is

2.1.2.3

2.1.2.3

. Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for their size than those of other apes, which may be an adaptation to not only having supplanted with extensive tool use the role of jaws in hunting and fighting, but also eating cooked food since the end of the Pleistocene.

Behavior

Although most living species are predominantly quadrupedal, they are all able to use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and, in some cases, for tool use. They build complex sleeping platforms, also called nests, in trees to sleep in at night, but chimpanzees and gorillas also build terrestrial nests, and gorillas can also sleep on the bare ground.

All species are omnivorous, although chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruit. When gorillas run short of fruit at certain times of the year or in certain regions, they resort to eating shoots and leaves, often of bamboo, a type of grass. Gorillas have extreme adaptations for chewing and digesting such low-quality forage, but they still prefer fruit when it is available, often going miles out of their way to find especially preferred fruits. Humans, since the Neolithic revolution, have consumed mostly cereals and other starchy foods, including increasingly highly processed foods, as well as many other domesticated plants (including fruits) and meat.

Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and require care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for eight to thirteen years in most species (longer in orangutans and humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.

Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of around five to ten individuals, although much larger groups are sometimes noted. Chimpanzees live in larger groups that break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. When small groups of female chimpanzees go off in separate directions to forage for fruit, the dominant males can no longer control them and the females often mate with other subordinate males. In contrast, groups of gorillas stay together regardless of the availability of fruit. When fruit is hard to find, they resort to eating leaves and shoots.

This fact is related to gorillas' greater sexual dimorphism relative to that of chimpanzees; that is, the difference in size between male and female gorillas is much greater than that between male and female chimpanzees. This enables gorilla males to physically dominate female gorillas more easily. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, the groups include at least one dominant male, and young males leave the group at maturity.

Legal status

Main articles: Great ape personhood, Great Ape Project, and Countries banning non-human ape experimentation

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and the other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that nonhuman great apes are persons and, per the Declaration on Great Apes, should be given basic human rights. In 1999, New Zealand was the first country to ban any great ape experimentation, and now 29 countries have currently instituted a research ban to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.

On 25 June 2008, the Spanish parliament supported a new law that would make "keeping apes for circuses, television commercials or filming" illegal. On 8 September 2010, the European Union banned the testing of great apes.

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558097

Snowflake obsidian (7.7 centimeters across at its widest; the bluish coloration shown above is an artifact of reflecting scanner light)

Igneous rocks form by the cooling & crystallization of hot, molten rock (magma & lava). If this happens at or near the land surface, or on the seafloor, they are extrusive igneous rocks. If this happens deep underground, they are intrusive igneous rocks. Most igneous rocks have a crystalline texture, but some are clastic, vesicular, frothy, or glassy.

Obsidian is an easily recognizable igneous rock. It is a glassy-textured, extrusive igneous rock. Obsidian is a natural glass - it lacks crystals, and therefore lacks minerals. Obsidian is typically black in color, but most obsidians have a felsic chemistry. Felsic igneous rocks are generally light-colored, so a felsic obsidian seems a paradox. Mafic obsidians are scarce, but they have the same appearance.

Obsidian is an uncommon rock, but can be examined at several famous localities in America, such as Obsidian Cliff at the Yellowstone Hotspot (northwestern Wyoming, USA) and Big Obsidian Flow at the Newberry Volcano (central Oregon, USA).

Obsidian is moderately hard, has conchoidal fracture (smooth and curved fracture surface), and has exceedingly sharp edges. Freshly-broken obsidian has the sharpest edges of any material known, natural or man-made (as seen under a scanning electron microscope).

Obsidian forms two ways: 1) very rapid cooling of lava, which prevents the formation of crystals; 2) cooling of high-viscosity lava, which prevents easy movement of atoms to form crystals. An example of obsidian that formed the first way is along the margins of basaltic lava flows at Kilaeua Volcano (Hawaii Hotspot, central Pacific Ocean). The obsidian sample shown above formed the second way.

Obsidian is unstable on geologic time scales. Eventually, obsidian will convert on its own to a finely-crystalline mass. A partially-converted obsidian is an attractive rock called snowflake obsidian. The black portions of the rock shown above are rhyolitic obsidian (glass). The white patches are devitrification spots composed of cristobalite (SiO2, a polymorph of quartz).

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558111

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558221

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558371

Great news! I will be attending Dollsrendezvous Show Poupées in Paris in representation of Aileendoll!

Bonnes nouvelles! Je participerai Dollsrendezvous à Paris en représentation de Aileendoll!

Notición! Voy a atender el Dollsrendezvous en Paris en representación de Aileendoll!

Here is the list of dolls that will be available in the booth:

Voici la liste des poupées qui seront disponibles sur le stand:

La lista de muñecas que estarán en el stand:

- 1 Dragon Seed (green skin)(blank)

- 1 Dragon Rot (pink skin)(blank)

- 1 Dragon Ashes (grey skin)(Aileendoll make-up)

- 1 Dragon Lapis (blue skin)(Aileendoll make-up)

- 1 Dragon Shy (yellow skin)(blank)

- 1 Pico Dragon Violet (violet skin)(Custom make-up)

- 1 Sleeping Cyclops Camellia (cream skin)(blank)

- 1 Polymorph Rot (cream skin)(blank)

- Extra Polymorph wings and horns

Come by to say hello :D!!!

Venez dire bonjour:D!!!

Pasaros a saludar :D!!!

Cuculus canorus

[order] Cuculiformes | [family] Cuculidae | [latin] Cuculus canorus | [UK] Cuckoo | [FR] Coucou gris | [DE] Kuckuck | [ES] Cuco Europeo | [IT] Cuculo eurasiatico | [NL] Koekoek | [IRL] Cuach

Status: Widespread summer visitor to Ireland from April to August.

Conservation Concern: Green-listed in Ireland. The European population is currently evaluated as secure.

Identification: Despite its obvious song, relatively infrequently seen. In flight, can be mistaken for a bird of prey such as Sparrowhawk, but has rapid wingbeats below the horizontal plane - ie. the wings are not raised above the body. Adult male Cuckoos are a uniform grey on the head, neck, back, wings and tail. The underparts are white with black barring. Adult females can appear in one of two forms. The so-called grey-morph resembles the adult male plumage, but has throat and breast barred black and white with yellowish wash. The rufous-morph has the grey replaced by rufous, with strong black barring on the wings, back and tail. Juvenile Cuckoos resemble the female rufous-morph, but are darker brown above.

Similar Species: Sparrowhawk

Call: The song is probably one of the most recognisable and well-known of all Irish bird species. The male gives a distinctive “wuck-oo”, which is occasionally doubled “wuck-uck-ooo”. The female has a distinctive bubbling “pupupupu”. The song period is late April to late June.

Diet: Mainly caterpillars and other insects.

Breeding: Widespread in Ireland, favouring open areas which hold their main Irish host species – Meadow Pipit. Has a remarkable breeding biology unlike any other Irish breeding species.

Wintering: Cuckoos winter in central and southern Africa.

To minimise the chance of being recognised and thus attacked by the birds they are trying to parasitize, female cuckoos have evolved different guises.

The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. On hatching, the young cuckoo ejects the host's eggs and chicks from the nest, so the hosts end up raising a cuckoo chick rather than a brood of their own. To fight back, reed warblers (a common host across Europe) have a first line of defence: they attack, or ‘mob’, the female cuckoo, which reduces the chance that their nest is parasitized.

To deter the warbler from attacking, the colouring of the grey cuckoo mimics sparrow hawks, a common predator of reed warblers. However, other females are bright rufous (brownish-red). The presence of alternate colour morphs in the same species is rare in birds, but frequent among the females of parasitic cuckoo species. The new research shows that this is another cuckoo trick: cuckoos combat reed warbler mobbing by coming in different guises.

In the study, the researchers manipulated local frequencies of the more common grey colour cuckoo and the less common (in the United Kingdom) rufous colour cuckoo by placing models of the birds at neighbouring nests. They then recorded how the experience of watching their neighbours mob changed reed warbler responses to both cuckoos and a sparrow hawk at their own nest.

They found that reed warblers increased their mobbing, but only to the cuckoo morph that their neighbours had mobbed. Therefore, as one cuckoo morph increases in frequency, local host populations will become alerted specifically to that morph. This means the alternate morph will be more likely to slip past host defences and lay undetected. This is the first time that ‘social learning’ has been documented in the evolution of mimicry as well as the evolution of different observable characteristics - such as colour - in the same species (called polymorphism).

From the University of Cambridge “When mimicry becomes less effective, evolving to look completely different can be a successful trick. Our research shows that individuals assess disguises not only from personal experience, but also by observing others. However, because their learning is so specific, this social learning then selects for alternative cuckoo disguises and the arms race continues.”.

“It’s well known that cuckoos have evolved various egg types which mimic those of their hosts in order to combat rejection. This research shows that cuckoos have also evolved alternate female morphs to sneak through the hosts' defences. This explains why many species which use mimicry, such as the cuckoo, evolve different guises.”

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558053

Dark blue anatase with rutile inclusions from the station platform at Tan-y-grisiau, Blaenau Ffestiniog, Wales. Two polymorphs.

The associated card describing this specimen lists it as "crystals coated with calcite on limestone." Looking around the interweb it may be that the crystals are calcite rather than "coated with", but maybe that wasn't known when the item was acquired. It comes from Alston in Cumbria, which is south-east of Carlisle and situated in the Pennines.

Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Polymorphs are the various forms or crystal structures that can be created from the mineral. Aragonite and vaterite are the other polymorphs of this mineral but they both change to calcite in a matter of days or less.

Calcite is perhaps one of the oldest names for a mineral. It was given its name by Gaius Plinius Secundus, better-known as Pliny the Elder, in 79 AD. The name comes from Calx, which was Latin for lime.

A very common and widespread mineral with highly variable forms and colours, calcite is best recognised by its relatively low hardness and its high reactivity with even weak acids, such as vinegar.

Over 800 forms of calcite crystals have been identified. Ancient Egyptians carved many items out of calcite, relating it to their goddess Bast, whose name contributed to the term alabaster because of the close association. In the 21st century, experiments have been conducted to use calcite for a cloak of invisibility!

The specimen seen above can be found in the Minerals section of the Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London. It is about 75cm on its long axis.

The Lizard (Cornish: An Lysardh) is a peninsula in southern Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The most southerly point of the British mainland is near Lizard Point at SW 701115; Lizard village, also known as The Lizard, is the most southerly on the British mainland, and is in the civil parish of Landewednack, the most southerly parish. The valleys of the River Helford and Loe Pool form the northern boundary, with the rest of the peninsula surrounded by sea. The area measures about 14 by 14 miles (23 km × 23 km). The Lizard is one of England's natural regions and has been designated as a National Character Area 157 by Natural England. The peninsula is known for its geology and for its rare plants and lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB).

The Lizard's coast is particularly hazardous to shipping and the seaways round the peninsula were historically known as the "Graveyard of Ships" (see below). The Lizard Lighthouse was built at Lizard Point in 1752 and the RNLI operates The Lizard lifeboat station.

Etymology

The name "Lizard" is most probably a corruption of the Cornish name "Lys Ardh", meaning "high court"; it is purely coincidental that much of the peninsula is composed of serpentinite-bearing rock. The peninsula's original name may have been the Celtic Bridanoc, from Britannakon ("the "British one"), preserved in the name of the former village of Predannack, now site of Predannack Airfield.

History

There is evidence of early habitation with several burial mounds and stones. Part of the peninsula is known as the Meneage (land of the monks).

Helston, the nearest town to the Lizard peninsula, is said to have once headed the estuary of the River Cober, before it was cut off from the sea by Loe Bar in the 13th century. It is speculated that Helston was once a port, but no records exist. Geomorphologists believe the bar was most likely formed by rising sea levels, after the last ice age, blocking the river and creating a barrier beach. The beach is formed mostly of flint and the nearest source is found offshore under the drowned terraces of the former river that flowed between England and France, and now under the English Channel. The medieval port of Helston was at Gweek, possibly from around 1260 onwards, on the Helford river which exported tin and copper. Helston was believed to be in existence in the sixth century, around the River Cober (Dowr Kohar). The name comes from the Cornish "hen lis" or "old court" and "ton" added later to denote a Saxon manor; the Domesday Book refers to it as Henliston (which survives as the name of a road in the town). It was granted its charter by King John in 1201. It was here that tin ingots were weighed to determine the duty due to the Duke of Cornwall when a number of stannary towns were authorised by royal decree.

The royal manor of Winnianton, which was held by King William I at the time of the Domesday Book (1086), was also the head manor of the hundred of Kerrier and the largest estate in Cornwall. It was assessed as having fifteen hides before 1066. At the time of Domesday there was land for sixty ploughs, but in the lord's land there were two ploughs and in the lands held by villeins twenty-four ploughs. There were twenty-four villeins, forty-one freedmen, thirty-three smallholders and fourteen slaves. There was 6 acres (24,000 m2), eight square leagues of pasture and half a square league of woodland. The livestock was fourteen unbroken mares, three cattle and one hundred and twenty-eight sheep (in total 145 beasts); its value was £12 annually. 11 of the hides were held by the Count of Mortain and there is more arable and pasture and 13 more persons are recorded: Rinsey, Trelowarren, Mawgan-in-Meneage and seventeen other lands are also recorded under Winnianton.

Mullion has the 15th century church of St Mellanus, and the Old Inn from the 16th century. The harbour was completed in 1895 and financed by Lord Robartes of Lanhydrock as a recompense to the fishermen for several disastrous pilchard seasons.

The small church of St Peter in Coverack, built in 1885 for £500, has a serpentinite pulpit.

The Great Western Railway operated a road motor service to The Lizard from Helston railway station. Commencing on 17 August 1903, it was the first successful British railway-run bus service and was initially provided as a cheaper alternative to a proposed light railway.

The Solar eclipse of 11 August 1999 departed the UK mainland from the Lizard.

The transatlantic record run of the unaccompanied one hand sailor Thomas Coville within less than 5 days in his sailboat Sodebo Ultim from New York, USA, to Europe landed here on 15 July 2017.

Nautical

The Lizard has been the site of many maritime disasters. It forms a natural obstacle to entry and exit of Falmouth and its naturally deep estuary. At Lizard Point stands the Lizard Lighthouse. In fact, the light was erected by Sir John Killigrew by his own expense: It was built at the cost of "20 nobles a year" for 30 years, but it caused an uproar over the following years, as King James I considered charging vessels to pass. This caused so many problems that the lighthouse was demolished, but was successfully rebuilt in 1751 by order of Thomas Fonnereau and remains almost unchanged today. Further east lie The Manacles, near Porthoustock: 1+1⁄2 square miles (4 km2) of jagged rocks just beneath the waves.

In 1721 the Royal Anne Galley, an oared frigate, was wrecked at Lizard Point. Of a crew of 185 only three survived; lost was Lord Belhaven who was en route to take up the Governorship of Barbados.

A 44-gun frigate, HMS Anson, was wrecked at Loe Bar in 1807. Although it wrecked close to shore, many lost their lives in the storm. This inspired Henry Trengrouse to invent the rocket-fired line, later to become the Breeches buoy.

The transport ship Dispatch ran aground on the Manacles in 1809 on its return from the Peninsular War, losing 104 men from the 7th Hussars. The following day, with local villagers still attempting a rescue, the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Primrose hit the northern end of these rocks. The only survivor of its 126 officers, men and boys was a drummer boy.

5 Sept 1856 the Cherubim and Ocean Home collided off Lizard Point

The SS Mohegan, a 6,889 GRT passenger liner, also hit the Manacles in 1898 with the loss of 106 lives.

The American passenger liner Paris was stranded on the Manacles in 1899, with no loss of life.

The biggest rescue in the RNLI's history was 17 March 1907 when the 12,000-tonne liner SS Suevic hit the Maenheere Reef near Lizard Point in Cornwall. In a strong gale and dense fog RNLI lifeboat volunteers rescued 456 passengers, including 70 babies. Crews from the Lizard, Cadgwith, Coverack and Porthleven rowed out repeatedly for 16 hours to rescue all of the people on board. Six silver RNLI medals were later awarded, two to Suevic crew members.

The Battle at the Lizard, a naval battle, took place off The Lizard on 21 October 1707.

Smuggling was a regular, and often necessary, way of life in these parts, despite the efforts of coastguards or "Preventive men". In 1801, the king's pardon was offered to any smuggler giving information on the Mullion musket men involved in a gunfight with the crew of HM Gun Vessel Hecate.

Avionic

In the First World War a Naval Air Station was established at Bonython, flying mainly blimps used for spotting U-boats. One was sunk and several probably damaged by bombs dropped by the blimps. The airfield site is now occupied by the wind farm.

RAF Predannack Down (see Predannack Airfield) was a Second World War airbase, from which Coastal Command squadrons flew anti-submarine sorties into the Bay of Biscay as well as convoy support in the western English Channel. The runways still exist and the site is used by a local Air Cadet Volunteergliding Squadron 626VGS and as an emergency/relief base for RNAS Culdrose (HMS Seahawk).

RNAS Culdrose is Europe's largest helicopter base, and currently hosts the Training and Operational Conversion Unit operating the EH101 "Merlin" helicopter. It is also the home base for Merlin Squadrons embarked upon Royal Navy warships, the Westland Sea King airborne early warning (AEW) variant helicopter, a Search And Rescue (Sea King, again) helicopter flight, and some BAe Hawk T.1 trainer jets used for training purposes by the Royal Navy. The base also operates some other types of fixed wing aircraft for calibration and other training purposes. As befits the base's name, a non-flying example of a Hawker Sea Hawk forms the main gate guardian static display. RNAS Culdrose is a major contributor to the economy of The Lizard area.

Political

The Lizard peninsula is in the St Ives parliamentary constituency (which comprises the whole of the former district of Penwith and the southern part of the former district of Kerrier). However, the parishes northeast of the Helford River are in Camborne and Redruth parliamentary constituency

To the north, The Lizard peninsula is bordered by the civil parishes of Breage, Porthleven, Sithney, Helston, Wendron, Gweek and – across the Helford River – by Constantine, Kerrier and Mawnan.

The parishes on the peninsula proper are (west to east):

Northern parishes:

Gunwalloe

Cury

Mawgan-in-Meneage

St Martin-in-Meneage

Manaccan

St Anthony-in-Meneage

Southern parishes:

Mullion

Grade-Ruan

St Keverne

Landewednack

The Lizard's political history includes the 1497 Cornish rebellion which began in St Keverne. The village blacksmith Michael Joseph (Michael An Gof in Cornish, meaning blacksmith) led the uprising, protesting against the punitive taxes levied by Henry VII to pay for the war against the Scots. The uprising was routed on its march to London and the two leaders, Michael Joseph and Thomas Flamank, were subsequently hanged, drawn and quartered.

Technological

Titanium was discovered here by the Reverend William Gregor in 1791.

In 1869, John Pender formed the Falmouth Gibraltar and Malta Telegraph company, intending to connect India to England with an undersea cable. Although intended to land at Falmouth, the final landing point was Porthcurno near Land's End.

In 1900 Guglielmo Marconi stayed the Housel Bay Hotel in his quest to locate a coastal radio station to receive signals from ships equipped with his apparatus. He leased a plot "in the wheat field adjoining the hotel" where the Lizard Wireless Telegraph Station still stands today. Recently restored by the National Trust, it looks as it did in January 1901, when Marconi received the distance record signals of 186 miles (299 km) from his transmitter station at Niton, Isle of Wight. The Lizard Wireless Station is the oldest Marconi station to survive in its original state, and is located to the west of the Lloyds Signal Station in what appears to be a wooden hut. On 12 December 1901 Poldhu Point was the site of the first trans Atlantic, wireless signal radio communication when Marconi sent a signal to St John's, Newfoundland. The technology is one of the key advances to the development of radio, television, satellites and the internet.

A radar station called RAF Dry Tree was built during World War II. The site was later chosen for the Telstar project in 1962; its rocky foundations, clear atmosphere and extreme southerly location being uniquely suitable. This became the Goonhilly satellite earth station, now owned by Goonhilly Earth Station Ltd. Some important developments in television satellite transmission were made at Goonhilly station. A wind farm exists near to the Goonhilly station site.

Geology

Known as the Lizard Complex, the peninsula's geology is the best preserved example of an exposed ophiolite in the United Kingdom.

An ophiolite is a suite of geological formations which represent a slice through a section of ocean crust (including the upper level of the mantle) thrust onto the continental crust.

The Lizard formations comprise three main units; the serpentinites, the "oceanic complex" and the metamorphic basement. The serpentinite contains significant samples of the serpentine polymorph lizardite, which were named after the Lizard complex in 1955.

Ecology

Several nature sites exist on the Lizard Peninsula; Predannack nature reserve, Mullion Island, Goonhilly Downs, and the Cornish Seal Sanctuary at Gweek. An area of the Lizard covering 16.62 square kilometres (6.42 sq mi) is designated a national nature reserve because of its coastal grasslands and heaths and inland heaths. The peninsula contains 3 main Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), both noted for their endangered insects and plants, as well as their geology. The first is East Lizard Heathlands SSSI, the second is Caerthillian to Kennack SSSI and the third is West Lizard SSSI, of which the important wetland, Hayle Kimbro Pool, forms a part of.

The area is also home to one of England's rarest breeding birds — the Cornish chough. This species of corvid is distinctive due to its red beak and legs and haunting "chee-aw" call. Choughs were extinct in Cornwall but returned naturally in 2001 and began breeding on Lizard in 2002 following a concerted effort by the National Trust, English Nature and the RSPB.

The Lizard contains some of the most specialised flora of any area in Britain, including many Red Data Book plant species. Of particular note is the Cornish heath, Erica vagans, that occurs in abundance here, but which is found nowhere else in Britain. There are more than 600 species of flowering plants on the Lizard, nearly a quarter of all UK species. The reason for this richness is partly because of the many different and unusual Lizard rocks on the Lizard Peninsula. But above all, it is a coming together of multiple factors: a very mild maritime climate, but one prone to gales and salt winds; waterlogged and boggy soils, but ones that often parch and dry out in the summer; soils of greatly contrasting fertility and pH; and lastly man's influence. Any single factor taken on its own would influence the flora; taken together, they combine, overlap and interact. Contrasting plant communities grow side-by-side in a mosaic that changes within a few metres but also changes markedly over time with the cycle of heath fires. It's not so much that conditions are ideal for growth, but that there is such a variety of different, difficult conditions. Each habitat, with its own combination of factors, attracts its own specialist plants. It is also one of the few places where the rare formicine ant, Formica exsecta, (the narrow-headed ant), can be found.

Portrayal in literature, film and music

Daphne du Maurier based many novels on this part of Cornwall, including Frenchman's Creek.

The Lizard was featured on the BBC television programme Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the South West, and on the BBC series Coast.

In James Clavell's novel Shōgun, ship's pilot Vasco Rodrigues challenges John Blackthorne to recite the latitude of the Lizard to verify that Blackthorne is the Pilot of the Dutch vessel Erasmus.

The Jennifer McQuiston 2015 novel The Spinster's Guide to Scandalous Behavior is set primarily in the fictional village Lizard Bay on the Lizard in the mid-nineteenth century.

In the television adaptation of "Horatio Hornblower", an order is given to "Weather the Lizard" in the episode Hornblower:Mutiny.

"Lizard Point" is also a track on the 1982 album Ambient 4: On Land released by Brian Eno.

The book series "Fenton House" by Ben Cheetham is set on the Lizard Peninsula.

The butterflies of North America

Boston :Houghton, Mifflin,1884.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/56558239