View allAll Photos Tagged pigmentation
Very rarely, the Bengal Tiger produces white specimens. The earliest recordings of sightings of white tigers date from the mid 16th century, but only a dozen sightings have been noted in the last 100 years. The last wild white tiger was sighted in 1951! White tigers are neither a separate sub species nor albino, but instead have reduced pigmentation. White tigers are produced when two carriers of the recessive gene, who may not necessarily be white themselves, breed. This condition is known as leucism.
SRI LANKA, Sigiriya, Sep 04, 2010 – There has been a huge media frenzy recently over the pigmentation of some of the famous fescos in Sigiriya. When I visited the rock, the over 1500 year old frescos appeared to be in far better shape than what was reported in the media. There was no indication of massive pigmentation or discolouration. (Amantha Perera/Perambara)
Leucistic Mallard duck
* Leucism is a condition in which there is partial loss of pigmentation in an animal resulting in white, pale, or patchy ...
El ánade real o adulón / Mallard Duck (Anas platyrhynchos) es una especie de ave anseriforme de la familia Anatidae. Es un #pato de superficie común y muy extendido. Habita áreas de temperatura templada de Norteamérica, Europa y Asia. También frecuenta Centroamérica y el Caribe. Probablemente es el más conocido de todos los patos.
El macho tiene la cabeza verde azulada, pico amarillo, pecho pardo o castaño, collar blanco, cuerpo gris y popa negra. La hembra es de colores más apagados en pardo oscuro, se parece a otros patos (sobre todo al ánade friso), pero su mayor tamaño, el color anaranjado y oscuro en el pico y el espejuelo azul y blanco son característicos. Ambos sexos tienen espejuelos azul-morado.
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The #mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) is a large wading bird of the family #Anatidae #Anseriformes. It is a common duck and widespread surface. It inhabits warm temperate areas of North America, Europe and Asia. Also frequents Central America and the Caribbean. Probably the best known of all ducks.
The male has bluish green head, yellow beak, brown or chestnut breast, white necklace, gray body and black stern. The female is duller colors in dark brown, other ducks (especially the Gadwall), but its larger size, the color orange and dark blue beak and white speculum and looks are characteristic. Both sexes have blue-purple glasses.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Aves
Order:Anseriformes
Family:Anatidae
Genus:Anas
Species:A. platyrhynchos
Binomial name
Anas platyrhynchos
my back has uneven pigmentation now, as sometimes happens with erythroderma. a big mole has disappeared too, (see flic.kr/p/b5VpKv) as have all the birthmarks i've had all my life on my chest! (14/3/18. & they never came back - not a single one of them)
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Hyaluronic Acid Serum : myorganiczone.com/product/hyaluronic-acid-serum/ is extremely efficient at attracting and retaining moisture. Hyaluronic acid is found naturally within our skin. It helps replenish the skin’s lost moisture in order to promote a healthy look and feel. Hyaluronic Acid Serum is made with high quality, all natural ingredients and is an affordable way to use as a skin moisturizer. Due to its unique formula, this serum has anti-aging and anti-wrinkle properties. It works to soften and reduce small lines on the skin as well as helping with tissue repair and skin tone. Since it soaks into skin quickly, it is extremely effective at retaining moisture in the deeper layers of the skin.
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Jovees Essence of Saffron Anti-Pigmentation Blemish This exclusive broad-spectrum Anti-Pigmentation & Blemish cream contains Lavender, Apricot, Sage and Rosemary along with unique blend of herbs & botanical extracts help refine skin tone, minimize pigmentation marks & clear blemishes while delivering requisite moisture to the skin. It also helps improve skin's clarity and reduce the appearance of skin discolorations.This exclusive broad-spectrum Anti-Pigmentation & Blemish cream contains Lavender, Apricot, Sage and Rosemary along with unique blend of herbs & botanical extracts.
Humpback Whales: Black & White
Please don't copy this image without my written permission.
© 2015 All rights reserved: john c. bruckman @ innereye photography
COOL FACTS:
•Males sing complex songs on wintering grounds in Hawaii that can last up to 20 minutes and be heard 20 miles (30 km) away!
•In the Pacific, humpbacks migrate seasonally from Alaska to Hawaii--they can complete the 3,000-mile (4,830 km) trip in as few as 36 days!
•Humpback whales are well known for their long pectoral fins, which can be up to 15 feet (4.6 m) in length. Their scientific name, Megaptera novaeangliae, means "big-winged New Englander" as the New England population was the one best known to Europeans. These long fins give them increased maneuverability; they can be used to slow down or even go backwards.
•Several hunting methods involve using air bubbles to herd, corral, or disorient fish. One highly complex variant, called "bubble netting" is unique to humpbacks. This technique is often performed in groups with defined roles for distracting, scaring, and herding before whales lunge at prey corralled near the surface.
•Their body coloration is primarily dark grey, but individuals have a variable amount of white on their pectoral fins and belly. This variation is so distinctive that the pigmentation pattern on the undersides of their "flukes" is used to identify individual whales, similar to a human fingerprint.
•Humpback whales are the favorite of whale watchers, as they frequently perform aerial displays, such as breaching (jumping out of the water), or slapping the surface with their pectoral fins, tails, or heads.
•Humpback whales travel great distances during their seasonal migration, the farthest migration of any mammal. The longest recorded migration was 5,160 miles (8,300 km); seven animals, including a calf, completed this trek from Costa Rica to Antarctica.
•Also on wintering grounds, males sing complex songs that can last up to 20 minutes and be heard 20 miles (30 km) away. A male may sing for hours, repeating the song several times. All males in a population sing the same song, but that song continually evolves over time. Humpback whale singing has been studied for decades, but scientists still understand very little about its function.
Source: www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/whales/humpback-whal...
Just to warn you, there's going to be a lot of Late Spider shots coming, I had four separate visits to several sites during the third week in June.
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Monday 19th June 2023
Monday.
Back to work.
Sigh.
Double sigh.
All vacations have to end sometimes, I know, but even still, with this it means that I now have to wait until Christmas without a day off, with the exception of the late summer bank holiday.
And it was sunny outside. All I wanted to do was to get out and do anything other than work.
But we have to earn a crust.
Jools was up at five, and as usual bustling about and almost ready to leave for the factory at six, and having made me a coffee too.
THe cats were all settled back down, like we've never been away, so I could listen to a podcast before work, set up the big screen and then sit and try to remember what my work password was.
I did remember, and once logged in, little point in doing much as Windows updates would surely soon be required.
I find that my travel expenses have been rejected, again.
Sigh.
And so back in the saddle like I've ever been away, whilst the rest of the company is on the slow down before the start of summer holidays at the end of next week.
I work through until have three, then think about going for a walk, though it was cloudy again, and by back suggested it wasn't a good idea. So, I put in my ear buds and listened to a podcast whilst looking at the garden, and before long it was dinner time.
Just salad and Jersey Royals for us, and no wine or beer for me, as I had decided, against my better judgement, to look for an orchid.
Not just any orchid. A rare and unusual one.
Blah.
Blah.
Blah.
So it was, I found myself standing at the gate to a little known site, looking at the herd of cattle that have just been introduced, and the bank of spikes behind.
I climb in, and the cows are interested, two even follow me up a while, but give up.
I look at spike after spike, but fail to see what I was looking for.
I climbed over the down to where there is another site, but got lost, and found myself on a steep bank with brambles and four feet high grass. I fell over numerous times, but got myself back, all now hot and bothered.
One final look at the spikes I did find. Nothing there, so I drove back home certain not to watch the football as England were playing their last game of the season against Macedonia.
Back home I did some stuff on the computer, but once the 5th goal went in, I joined Scully on the sofa to watch the last half hour as England made hay and won 7 (seven) - 0.
Picture of the day is our garden Pyramidal Orchid, this year with a second spike.
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Classed as Vulnerable in the Red List of threatened orchids, the Late Spider-orchid is one of Britain's rarest orchids. It is now restricted to a few sites in Kent, where many of the plants are protected by cages to prevent damage by grazing animals and other predators. Like its close relative the Bee Orchid Ophrys apifera, Ophrys fuciflora has evolved to mimic the form of a pollinating insect, and this facilitates pollination. Interestingly, the particular species of bees that pollinate Late Spider-orchids on mainland Europe do not occur in the UK, and so what little pollination takes place here must be facilitated by other insects, possibly small beetles. Seed-set is very low, and the likely factor which saves the small populations of Late Spider-orchids in Kent is that fully developed plants live for a long time and therefore only a small number of new plants are required annually in order to keep the population stable. The Late Spider-orchid flowers from late May to late July. Ophrys fuciflora is widespread in other parts of Europe from France eastwards to Romania and south to Italy.
Plant: 5-30cm.
Leaves: 3-5 lanceolate leaves form a basal rosette of which the lower leaves lie flat on the ground. They are greenish-grey and prominantly veined. There are 2-3 smaller, more pointed leaves higher up and loosely sheathing the stem.
Bracts: lanceolate and grey-green.
Flowers: the sepals vary in colour from pale- to dark pink with a prominent green 'rib' on their outer surfaces, and they are green-veined on the inner surface. The triangular petals are much smaller than the sepals and sometimes have dark reddish swellings (auricles) towards the base. The lip is a rich velvety dark brown and its shape is noticeably square. Square 'shoulders' at the base of the lip vary in size and are often hairy. The speculum (mirror), which is extremely variable in colour and patterning, radiates from a semi-circular 'necklace' that surrounds the column.
The Late Spider-orchid belongs to the Ophrys genus. Its Latin name derives from the words 'focus' and 'flos' meaning 'bee-flowered'.
There are no subspecies, but there is such considerable range of colour and patterning of the lip as to invite numerous suggested variations, notably Ophrys fuciflora var. flavescens which lacks colour pigmentation and has white sepals and petals, a greenish lip with very faint markings. Two hybrids are recorded, Ophrys x albertiana is a hybrid with the Bee Orchid Ophrys apifera, while Ophrys x obscura is a hybrid with the Early Spider-orchid Ophrys sphegodes.
www.hardyorchidsociety.org.uk/hos%201012/orchidphotos/oph...
Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758 - northern raven (photo by Mary Ellen St. John).
Jays, crows, and ravens (Family Corvidae) have the largest body sizes of any passerine bird group in the world. Corvid passerine birds are omnivorous, aggressive, usually gregarious, have harsh calls, powerful beaks, and limited to no sexual dimorphism. These birds typically have bristles covering the nostrils along the upper proximal portions of the beak.
This is a northern raven. Ravens are much bigger than crows, up to 26 inches long. These intelligent birds feed on insects, mice & rats, & may take young birds & weak or injured animals. They have learned to hang around where humans congregate, collecting food scraps. They are commonly seen in the parks of western America. The shades of metallic blue color in the feathers of the northern raven shown above is due to diffraction of light rather than pigmentation.
The northern raven occupies a variety of habitats in much of North America, Eurasia, and northern Africa.
Classification: Animalia, Chordata, Vertebrata, Aves, Passeriformes, Corvidae
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Birds are small to large, warm-blooded, egg-laying, feathered, bipedal vertebrates capable of powered flight (although some are secondarily flightless). Many scientists characterize birds as dinosaurs, but this is consequence of the physical structure of evolutionary diagrams. Birds aren’t dinosaurs. They’re birds. The logic & rationale that some use to justify statements such as “birds are dinosaurs” is the same logic & rationale that results in saying “vertebrates are echinoderms”. Well, no one says the latter. No one should say the former, either.
However, birds are evolutionarily derived from theropod dinosaurs. Birds first appeared in the Triassic or Jurassic, depending on which avian paleontologist you ask. They inhabit a wide variety of terrestrial and surface marine environments, and exhibit considerable variation in behaviors and diets.
1. COVER TATTOOS BY USING PROPER CLOTHES
This way is the simplest and obvious choice. If you pick the right clothing, you may easily conceal your tattoo in areas such as the lower back, stomach, chest, thighs, and shoulders.
Wear a high-neck or crew-neck top, high-waist pants, and undershirts if you have a tattoo on your chest or lower back.
Some fashion brands provide a sleeve cover-up that matches your skin tone if you have a sleeve tattoo. These are useful as a fast fix if you’re in a rush, and no one will realize that you have a tattoo.
ry not to wear tight clothes. Allowing your new tattoo to breathe is one of the essential things you can do to ensure a smooth recovery. As you might expect, tight clothes inhibit this from happening and, as a result, can cause harm to your tattoo.
You are also exposing your tattoo to many dangers, such as infections caused by moisture ( from sweat). Instead of wearing tight clothing, choose loose clothing, ideally made of cotton, to allow your new piece to breathe and recover correctly.
2. COVER A NEW TATTOO BY USING MAKEUP
If covering your tattoo with clothes isn’t an option, you should conceal it with makeup, especially in the summer. Many concealers and foundations are efficient in concealing blemishes and scars. Those with strong coverage can also conceal dark-colored tattoos.
Make sure your tattoo isn’t too new – wait a few weeks after getting it before wearing makeup. Fresh tattoos are sensitive and easily infected, not to mention that healing tattoos require breathing. Also, it seems to be a bad idea to use anything that might clog your pores and interfere with the pigmentation of your tattoo.
After you’ve ensured that your tattoo has healed, select a concealer labeled ‘high coverage’ or ‘color-correcting.’ It’s best if your concealer is several shades lighter than your skin.
These concealers and foundations provide complete coverage, which aids in the concealment of acne-related blemishes and scars. In addition, they will help you conceal your tattoo and prevent the dark color from coming through.
These steps are necessary to follow when covering your tattoo with makeup:
First, use a makeup sponge or brush to apply a layer of concealer to your tattoo.
Blot or dab the tattoo area rather than rub it to get the most out of the product.
Allow it to dry.
Apply the foundation in the same way as you applied the concealer. This time, be sure that it precisely matches your skin tone.
Apply a few dabs with your fingertips to further blend the edges.
To get a matt look, cover the tattoo area with translucent powder. If you keep it shiny, it will stand out against the rest of your skin tone.
Check the tattoo area with your fingertips to check if the product is set in place.
Source: www.bangbangtattoo.com/how-to-cover-a-new-tattoo-for-work/
Astyanax fasciatus (Cuvier, 1819) (or Astyanax mexicanus (De Filippi, 1853), depending on one's taxonomic preferences) - Mexican blind cavefish from southern Mexico (captive, Newport Aquarium, Newport, Kentucky, USA).
Many caves are known to have blind fish in subterranean bodies of water. Members of several unrelated families have become blind cavefish. This is the Mexican blind cavefish, Astyanax fasciatus (sensu lato), which has been recorded from throughout Central America. It completely lacks eyes (eyes are useless in a permanently dark environment) and also has no pigmentation (hence the pinkish color from blood). However, this species does still possess the genes for eyes. Why? It’s ancestors did have eyes - they’ve been lost through evolution. This is the ultimate fate for all vestigial organs. However, the genes for lost structures are often retained for long geologic intervals of time (for example, chickens still have genes that code for teeth, despite the lack of teeth in chicken beaks).
New info. - recent published research has determined that young cavefish of this species do have functioning eyes and have a light-sensitive area in their brains. The eyes degenerate with ontogeny, as does the light-sensitive area in the brain. The adults have zero light sensing ability.
Classification: Animalia, Chordata, Vertebrata, Actinopterygii, Cypriniformes, Characoidei, Characidae
June was a hectic month, and now that most of the Svalbard shots have been posted, I can post shots from the days following our return, which may feature a LOT of orchids.
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So, after the best part of five weeks doing little else than take photographs, I decided to spend Saturday painting the shed.
No I didn't, I went out orchiding.
Or did once we went to Tesco for the remainder of the shopping.
Another glorious warm day, that would be very good for photography,I thought.
Home for coffee and fruit for breakfast, before I packed my camera and headed to the Medway towns to meet up with two other people from my orchid group to hunt down some super rare orchids.
But then, they always are.
I drove up the A2/M2 to Chatham, turned off, and in a quiet residential area, I found Ian parked, so I pulled up behind him. Graham soon arrived too, and so we got out and set out down a narrow alleyway between the houses, into woodland behind.
Orchids are variable. Even the most common ones can produce spikes that are as rare as the rarest orchid species. And as all species can produce spikes with little or no pigmentation, they can also produce spikes with hyper-pigmentation.
Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. rhodochila, or a hyper-coloured Common Spotted Orchid. And in a colony where most spikes had strongly marked lips, there were four that really stood out, as the rings and dots had been covered by pigmantation, and the lips were a solid block of colour. I mean, I had seen shots of these, but to see them in person was something else.
We all took lots of shots, and then Graham said, I know of a colony of Lesser Butterfly orchids, would you like to see them?
We would.
The Lesser Butterfly at Barham have died out, and the ones at Stockbury seem to have had their flowers deliberately picked off this year, so another colony would be great to know about.
We drove in convoy for half an hour, met up in a pub car park, then drove in Graham's car to the end of a quiet, little used lane. A six-foot-sixer, Tony! And we set out on foot, a mile up the lane to a gate, where climbed over.
A car went by.
"What are you doing?"
We explained about the LBO and how rare they were and we knew they were in the wood. The gamekeeper knew about them too, and was happy to let us go, and if someone stopped us again, we could mention his name to say we had his blessing. We also said we would tell no one about the site.
We climbed over a fence into the wood, and shortly afterwards we saw the first of about twenty spikes, one measuring in at 68cm tall, and one that had a clear green colour to it.
We took shots of them all, though the humidity was getting to me, fogging the viewfinder and by glasses. Sometimes at the same time.
We walked back to the car, then droove back to the pub, so that we could go our separate ways. My plan was to head back to Dover, to call in at the council offices to see if the unusually marked Bee Orchid was showing.
It was, and had only just opened as the pollina had only just dropped and had not been visited by an insect yet.
I got shots, one of which came out rather well, even if i say so myself.
Then back home for a drink, then a bacon butty and a brew.
Phew, it was a scorcher.
I reviewed shots through the afternoon before we had Caprese again with the leftover bread from the day before.
Life was good.
We listened to Craig in the evening before heading up to bed at half eight.
Phew.
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Unlike the Lesser Butterfly-orchid which is classified as vulnerable, the Greater Butterfly-orchid is found locally throughout the UK and Ireland although its numbers are in steep decline due to habitat destruction, agricultural pollution and the replacement of ancient woodlands with conifer plantations. Both species flower between late May and early July and can, occasionally, be found flowering together. Superficially the two species are remarkably similar and the easiest way to determine which of the two species you have found is to inspect the pollinia (pollen-bearing structures) at close quarters. In the case of the Lesser Butterfly-orchid the pollinia are parallel, whereas those of the Greater Butterfly-orchid are clearly separated but lean inwards towards the tops. Platanthera chlorantha grows in a number of habitats from open meadows to ancient woodland edges, but generally prefers chalk-based substrates. In Europe the plants can be found from Scandinavia and the Baltic States in the north to the Mediterranean region in the south.
Plant: 20 to 45cm tall, occasionally to 65cm; stem pale green, somewhat triangular and ribbed towards the top.
Leaves: 2 pale green and shiny, oval-to-elliptical situated at the base of the stem.
Bracts: 1 to 6 small pointed bracts on the stem.
Flowers: Between 10 and 40 held in a lax spike. The nature of the inflorescence is apparently affected by light, with those in more open and sunny positions tending to be more compact. The sepals are white darkening to green at the tips. The upper sepals form a loose hood over the long, narrow lip of the flower, which is mainly cream but greener towards the tip.
The specific name chlorantha means green. The two platanthera species that appear in the UK are genetically very close, suggesting that separation of the two species was relatively recent.
The hybrid between Lesser Butterfly-orchid Platanthera bifolia and Greater Butterfly-orchid Platanthera chlorantha - Platanthera x hybrida - is rare but sometimes occurs where the two species flower together.
www.hardyorchidsociety.org.uk/hos%201012/orchidphotos/pla...
From the "Cosmic FX" line
The appearance and color of the polish depends on the lighting and how your hands are positioned. You can really see the green on my index finger. I left the photo large so if you want to open the largest version, you can see the pigmentation and depth. I love this color.
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Santeva Miraclemud Mask contains POWERFUL skin brightening ingredients that can cause a tingly sensation once you first apply, the sensation will subside within a few mins of wearing the mask. The sensation is normal because of the lactic acid, kojic acid and glycolic acid
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INGREDIENTS: MINERAL OIL, GLYCERIN, ETHYLHEXYL, ISOPALMITATE, GOLD, LACTIC ACID, DIMETHICONE, PROPYLENE, GLYCOL, ARBUTIN, CARICA PAPAYA (PAPAYA) FRUIT EXTRACT, NIACINAMIDE, CETEARYL GLUCOSIDE, SEA SALT EXTRACT, SEAT SILT EXTRACT, TITANIUM DIOXIDE, KOJIC DIPALMITATE, 3-o-ETHYL ASCORBIC ACID, GLYCOLIC ACID, LACTIC ACID, TOCOPHERYL ACETATE, ALUMINA MAGNESIUM, METASILICATE, XANTHAN GUM, DIMETHICON, DIMETHICONOL, MENTHA ARVENSIS LEAF OIL, SODIUM HYALURONATE
HOW TO USE: Apply a thin layer to clean skin. Leave on for 5 - 20 minutes. Remove with water. For optimal results, use as a full face mask 1-5x a week.
This mask contains strong ingredients that you should use as directed. If irritation occurs, limit frequency of use and if persists, discontinue use and consult a physician. Avoid eye area. Use a sunscreen and limit sun exposure while using and the week after
The blond fur seal has a condition called leucism that results in reduced pigmentation.
At St. Andrews Bay, South Georgia.
The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), also known simply as the peregrine, and historically as the duck hawk in North America, is a cosmopolitan bird of prey (raptor) in the family Falconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head. The peregrine is renowned for its speed. It can reach over 320 km/h (200 mph) during its characteristic hunting stoop (high-speed dive), making it the fastest member of the animal kingdom. According to a National Geographic TV program, the highest measured speed of a peregrine falcon is 389 km/h (242 mph). As is typical for bird-eating (avivore) raptors, peregrine falcons are sexually dimorphic, with females being considerably larger than males.
The peregrine's breeding range includes land regions from the Arctic tundra to the tropics. It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth, except extreme polar regions, very high mountains, and most tropical rainforests; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent is New Zealand. This makes it the world's most widespread raptor and one of the most widely found wild bird species. In fact, the only land-based bird species found over a larger geographic area owes its success to human-led introduction; the domestic and feral pigeons are both domesticate forms of the rock dove, which are a major prey species for Eurasian Peregrine populations. Due to their prevalence over most other bird species in cities, feral pigeons support many peregrine populations as a staple food source, especially in urban settings.
The peregrine is a highly successful example of urban wildlife in much of its range, taking advantage of tall buildings as nest sites and an abundance of prey such as pigeons and ducks. Both the English and scientific names of this species mean "wandering falcon", referring to the migratory habits of many northern populations. Experts recognize 17 to 19 subspecies, which vary in appearance and range; disagreement exists over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon is represented by two subspecies of Falco peregrinus or is a separate species, F. pelegrinoides. The two species' divergence is relatively recent, during the time of the last ice age, therefore the genetic differential between them (and also the difference in their appearance) is relatively tiny. They are only about 0.6–0.8% genetically differentiated.
Although its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the peregrine will sometimes hunt small mammals, small reptiles, or even insects. Reaching sexual maturity at one year, it mates for life and nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges or, in recent times, on tall human-made structures. The peregrine falcon became an endangered species in many areas because of the widespread use of certain pesticides, especially DDT. Since the ban on DDT from the early 1970s, populations have recovered, supported by large-scale protection of nesting places and releases to the wild.
The peregrine falcon is a well-respected falconry bird due to its strong hunting ability, high trainability, versatility, and availability via captive breeding. It is effective on most game bird species, from small to large. It has also been used as a religious, royal, or national symbol across multiple eras and areas of human civilization.
Description
Falco peregrinus. Royal National Park, New South Wales, Australia
The peregrine falcon has a body length of 34 to 58 cm (13–23 in) and a wingspan from 74 to 120 cm (29–47 in). The male and female have similar markings and plumage but, as with many birds of prey, the peregrine falcon displays marked sexual dimorphism in size, with the female measuring up to 30% larger than the male. Males weigh 330 to 1,000 g (12–35 oz) and the noticeably larger females weigh 700 to 1,500 g (25–53 oz). In most subspecies, males weigh less than 700 g (25 oz) and females weigh more than 800 g (28 oz), and cases of females weighing about 50% more than their male breeding mates are not uncommon. The standard linear measurements of peregrines are: the wing chord measures 26.5 to 39 cm (10.4–15.4 in), the tail measures 13 to 19 cm (5.1–7.5 in) and the tarsus measures 4.5 to 5.6 cm (1.8–2.2 in).
The back and the long pointed wings of the adult are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies" below); the wingtips are black. The white to rusty underparts are barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black. The tail, coloured like the back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow, and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "moustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat. The cere is yellow, as are the feet, and the beak and claws are black. The upper beak is notched near the tip, an adaptation which enables falcons to kill prey by severing the spinal column at the neck. An immature bird is much browner, with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere and orbital ring.
A study shows that their black malar stripe exists to reduce glare from solar radiation, allowing them to see better. Photos from The Macaulay Library and iNaturalist showed that the malar stripe is thicker where there is more solar radiation. That supports the solar glare hypothesis.
Taxonomy and systematics
Falco peregrinus was first described under its current binomial name by English ornithologist Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 work Ornithologia Britannica. The scientific name Falco peregrinus is a Medieval Latin phrase that was used by Albertus Magnus in 1225. Peregrinus is Latin, meaning "one from abroad" or "coming from foreign parts". It is likely the name was used as juvenile birds were taken while journeying to their breeding location (rather than from the nest), as falcon nests are often difficult to get at. The Latin term for falcon, falco, is related to falx, meaning "sickle", in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight.
The peregrine falcon belongs to a genus whose lineage includes the hierofalcon and the prairie falcon (F. mexicanus). This lineage probably diverged from other falcons towards the end of the Late Miocene or in the Late Pliocene, about 3–8 million years ago (mya). As the peregrine-hierofalcon group includes both Old World and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in western Eurasia or Africa. Its relationship to other falcons is not clear, as the issue is complicated by widespread hybridization confounding mtDNA sequence analyses. One genetic lineage of the saker falcon (F. cherrug) is known to have originated from a male saker ancestor producing fertile young with a female peregrine ancestor, and the descendants further breeding with sakers.
Today, peregrines are regularly paired in captivity with other species such as the lanner falcon (F. biarmicus) to produce the "perilanner", a somewhat popular bird in falconry as it combines the peregrine's hunting skill with the lanner's hardiness, or the gyrfalcon to produce large, strikingly coloured birds for the use of falconers. As can be seen, the peregrine is still genetically close to the hierofalcons, though their lineages diverged in the Late Pliocene (maybe some 2.5–2 mya in the Gelasian).
Subspecies
Numerous subspecies of Falco peregrinus have been described, with 19 accepted by the 1994 Handbook of the Birds of the World, which considers the Barbary falcon of the Canary Islands and coastal North Africa to be two subspecies (pelegrinoides and babylonicus) of Falco peregrinus, rather than a distinct species, F. pelegrinoides. The following map shows the general ranges of these 19 subspecies.
A map of the world, green shows on several continents, but there are also several big bare spots marked with E for extinct
Breeding ranges of the 19 subspecies
Falco peregrinus anatum, described by Bonaparte in 1838, is known as the American peregrine falcon or "duck hawk"; its scientific name means "duck peregrine falcon". At one time, it was partly included in leucogenys. It is mainly found in the Rocky Mountains. It was formerly common throughout North America between the tundra and northern Mexico, where current reintroduction efforts are being made to restore the population. Most mature anatum, except those that breed in more northern areas, winter in their breeding range. Most vagrants that reach western Europe seem to belong to the more northern and strongly migratory tundrius, only considered distinct since 1968. It is similar to the nominate subspecies but is slightly smaller; adults are somewhat paler and less patterned below, but juveniles are darker and more patterned below. Males weigh 500 to 700 g (1.1–1.5 lb), while females weigh 800 to 1,100 g (1.8–2.4 lb). It has become extinct in eastern North America and populations there are hybrids as a result of reintroductions of birds from elsewhere.
Falco peregrinus babylonicus, described by P.L. Sclater in 1861, is found in eastern Iran along the Hindu Kush and the Tian Shan to the Mongolian Altai ranges. A few birds winter in northern and northwestern India, mainly in dry semi-desert habitats. It is paler than pelegrinoides and somewhat similar to a small, pale lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus). Males weigh 330 to 400 grams (12 to 14 oz), while females weigh 513 to 765 grams (18.1 to 27.0 oz).
Falco peregrinus brookei, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the Mediterranean peregrine falcon or the Maltese falcon. It includes caucasicus and most specimens of the proposed race punicus, though others may be pelegrinoides (Barbary falcons), or perhaps the rare hybrids between these two which might occur around Algeria. They occur from the Iberian Peninsula around the Mediterranean, except in arid regions, to the Caucasus. They are non-migratory. It is smaller than the nominate subspecies and the underside usually has a rusty hue. Males weigh around 445 g (0.981 lb), while females weigh up to 920 g (2.03 lb).
Falco peregrinus calidus, described by John Latham in 1790, it was formerly called leucogenys and includes caeruleiceps. It breeds in the Arctic tundra of Eurasia from Murmansk Oblast to roughly Yana and Indigirka Rivers, Siberia. It is completely migratory and travels south in winter as far as South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. It is often seen around wetland habitats. It is paler than the nominate subspecies, especially on the crown. Males weigh 588 to 740 g (1.296–1.631 lb), while females weigh 925 to 1,333 g (2.039–2.939 lb).
Falco peregrinus cassini, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the austral peregrine falcon. It includes kreyenborgi, the pallid falcon, a leucistic colour morph occurring in southernmost South America, which was long believed to be a distinct species. Its range includes South America from Ecuador through Bolivia, northern Argentina and Chile to Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands. It is non-migratory. It is similar to the nominate subspecies, but slightly smaller with a black ear region. The pallid falcon morph kreyenborgi is medium grey above, has little barring below and has a head pattern like the saker falcon (Falco cherrug), but the ear region is white.
Falco peregrinus ernesti, described by Sharpe in 1894, is found from the Sunda Islands to the Philippines and south to eastern New Guinea and the nearby Bismarck Archipelago. Its geographical separation from nesiotes requires confirmation. It is non-migratory. It differs from the nominate subspecies in the very dark, dense barring on its underside and its black ear coverts.
Falco peregrinus furuitii, described by Momiyama in 1927, is found on the Izu and Ogasawara Islands south of Honshū, Japan. It is non-migratory. It is very rare and may only remain on a single island. It is a dark form, resembling pealei in colour, but darker, especially on the tail.
Falco peregrinus japonensis, described by Gmelin in 1788, includes kleinschmidti, pleskei, and harterti, and seems to refer to intergrades with calidus. It is found from northeast Siberia to Kamchatka (though it is possibly replaced by pealei on the coast there) and Japan. Northern populations are migratory, while those of Japan are resident. It is similar to the nominate subspecies, but the young are even darker than those of anatum.
Falco peregrinus macropus, described by Swainson in 1837, is the Australian peregrine falcon. It is found in Australia in all regions except the southwest. It is non-migratory. It is similar to brookei in appearance, but is slightly smaller and the ear region is entirely black. The feet are proportionally large.
Falco peregrinus madens, described by Ripley and Watson in 1963, is unusual in having some sexual dichromatism. If the Barbary falcon (see below) is considered a distinct species, it is sometimes placed therein. It is found in the Cape Verde Islands and is non-migratory; it is also endangered, with only six to eight pairs surviving. Males have a rufous wash on the crown, nape, ears and back; the underside is conspicuously washed pinkish-brown. Females are tinged rich brown overall, especially on the crown and nape.
Falco peregrinus minor, first described by Bonaparte in 1850. It was formerly often known as perconfusus. It is sparsely and patchily distributed throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa and widespread in Southern Africa. It apparently reaches north along the Atlantic coast as far as Morocco. It is non-migratory and dark-coloured. This is the smallest subspecies, with smaller males weighing as little as approximately 300 g (11 oz).
Falco peregrinus nesiotes, described by Mayr in 1941, is found in Fiji and probably also Vanuatu and New Caledonia. It is non-migratory.
Falco peregrinus pealei, described by Ridgway in 1873, is Peale's falcon and includes rudolfi. It is found in the Pacific Northwest of North America, northwards from Puget Sound along the British Columbia coast (including the Haida Gwaii), along the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the far eastern Bering Sea coast of Russia, and may also occur on the Kuril Islands and the coasts of Kamchatka. It is non-migratory. It is the largest subspecies and it looks like an oversized and darker tundrius or like a strongly barred and large anatum. The bill is very wide. Juveniles occasionally have pale crowns. Males weigh 700 to 1,000 g (1.5–2.2 lb), while females weigh 1,000 to 1,500 g (2.2–3.3 lb).
Falco peregrinus pelegrinoides, first described by Temminck in 1829, is found in the Canary Islands through North Africa and the Near East to Mesopotamia. It is most similar to brookei, but is markedly paler above, with a rusty neck, and is a light buff with reduced barring below. It is smaller than the nominate subspecies; females weigh around 610 g (1.34 lb).
Falco peregrinus peregrinator, described by Sundevall in 1837, is known as the Indian peregrine falcon, black shaheen, Indian shaheen or shaheen falcon. It was formerly sometimes known as Falco atriceps or Falco shaheen. Its range includes South Asia from across the Indian subcontinent to Sri Lanka and southeastern China. In India, the shaheen falcon is reported from all states except Uttar Pradesh, mainly from rocky and hilly regions. The shaheen falcon is also reported from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It has a clutch size of 3 to 4 eggs, with the chicks fledging time of 48 days with an average nesting success of 1.32 chicks per nest. In India, apart from nesting on cliffs, it has also been recorded as nesting on man-made structures such as buildings and cellphone transmission towers.[36] A population estimate of 40 breeding pairs in Sri Lanka was made in 1996. It is non-migratory and is small and dark, with rufous underparts. In Sri Lanka this species is found to favour the higher hills, while the migrant calidus is more often seen along the coast.
Falco peregrinus peregrinus, the nominate (first-named) subspecies, described by Tunstall in 1771, breeds over much of temperate Eurasia between the tundra in the north and the Pyrenees, Mediterranean region and Alpide belt in the south. It is mainly non-migratory in Europe, but migratory in Scandinavia and Asia. Males weigh 580 to 750 g (1.28–1.65 lb), while females weigh 925 to 1,300 g (2.039–2.866 lb). It includes brevirostris, germanicus, rhenanus and riphaeus.
Falco peregrinus radama, described by Hartlaub in 1861, is found in Madagascar and the Comoros. It is non-migratory.
Falco peregrinus submelanogenys, described by Mathews in 1912, is the Southwest Australian peregrine falcon. It is found in southwestern Australia and is non-migratory.
Falco peregrinus tundrius, described by C.M. White in 1968, was at one time included in leucogenys. It is found in the Arctic tundra of North America to Greenland, and migrates to wintering grounds in Central and South America. Most vagrants that reach western Europe belong to this subspecies, which was previously considered synonymous with anatum. It is the New World equivalent to calidus. It is smaller and paler than anatum; most have a conspicuous white forehead and white in ear region, but the crown and "moustache" are very dark, unlike in calidus. Juveniles are browner and less grey than in calidus and paler, sometimes almost sandy, than in anatum. Males weigh 500 to 700 g (1.1–1.5 lb), while females weigh 800 to 1,100 g (1.8–2.4 lb). Despite its current recognition as a valid subspecies, a population genetic study of both pre-decline (i.e., museum) and recovered contemporary populations failed to distinguish genetically the anatum and tundrius subspecies.
Barbary falcon
Main article: Barbary falcon
The Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the peregrine falcon that inhabits parts of North Africa; namely, from the Canary Islands to the Arabian Peninsula. There is discussion concerning the taxonomic status of the bird, with some considering it a subspecies of the peregrine falcon and others considering it a full species with two subspecies (White et al. 2013). Compared to the other peregrine falcon subspecies, Barbary falcons sport a slimmer body and a distinct plumage color pattern. Despite numbers and range of these birds throughout the Canary Islands generally increasing, they are considered endangered, with human interference through falconry and shooting threatening their well-being. Falconry can further complicate the speciation and genetics of these Canary Islands falcons, as the practice promotes genetic mixing between individuals from outside the islands with those originating from the islands. Population density of the Barbary falcons on Tenerife, the biggest of the seven major Canary Islands, was found to be 1.27 pairs/100 km², with the mean distance between pairs being 5869 ± 3338 m. The falcons were only observed near large and natural cliffs with a mean altitude of 697.6 m. Falcons show an affinity for tall cliffs away from human-mediated establishments and presence.
Barbary falcons have a red neck patch, but otherwise differ in appearance from the peregrine falcon proper merely according to Gloger's rule, relating pigmentation to environmental humidity. The Barbary falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings like fulmars sometimes do; this also occurs in the peregrine falcon, but less often and far less pronounced. The Barbary falcon's shoulder and pelvis bones are stout by comparison with the peregrine falcon and its feet are smaller. Barbary falcons breed at different times of year than neighboring peregrine falcon subspecies, but they are capable of interbreeding. There is a 0.6–0.7% genetic distance in the peregrine falcon-Barbary falcon ("peregrinoid") complex.
Ecology and behaviour
The peregrine falcon lives mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, coastlines, and increasingly in cities. In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Only populations that breed in Arctic climates typically migrate great distances during the northern winter.
The peregrine falcon reaches faster speeds than any other animal on the planet when performing the stoop, which involves soaring to a great height and then diving steeply at speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), hitting one wing of its prey so as not to harm itself on impact. The air pressure from such a dive could possibly damage a bird's lungs, but small bony tubercles on a falcon's nostrils are theorized to guide the powerful airflow away from the nostrils, enabling the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure. To protect their eyes, the falcons use their nictitating membranes (third eyelids) to spread tears and clear debris from their eyes while maintaining vision. The distinctive malar stripe or 'moustache', a dark area of feathers below the eyes, is thought to reduce solar glare and improve contrast sensitivity when targeting fast moving prey in bright light condition; the malar stripe has been found to be wider and more pronounced in regions of the world with greater solar radiation supporting this solar glare hypothesis. Peregrine falcons have a flicker fusion frequency of 129 Hz (cycles per second), very fast for a bird of its size, and much faster than mammals. A study testing the flight physics of an "ideal falcon" found a theoretical speed limit at 400 km/h (250 mph) for low-altitude flight and 625 km/h (388 mph) for high-altitude flight. In 2005, Ken Franklin recorded a falcon stooping at a top speed of 389 km/h (242 mph).
The life span of peregrine falcons in the wild is up to 19 years 9 months. Mortality in the first year is 59–70%, declining to 25–32% annually in adults. Apart from such anthropogenic threats as collision with human-made objects, the peregrine may be killed by larger hawks and owls.
The peregrine falcon is host to a range of parasites and pathogens. It is a vector for Avipoxvirus, Newcastle disease virus, Falconid herpesvirus 1 (and possibly other Herpesviridae), and some mycoses and bacterial infections. Endoparasites include Plasmodium relictum (usually not causing malaria in the peregrine falcon), Strigeidae trematodes, Serratospiculum amaculata (nematode), and tapeworms. Known peregrine falcon ectoparasites are chewing lice, Ceratophyllus garei (a flea), and Hippoboscidae flies (Icosta nigra, Ornithoctona erythrocephala).
In the Arctic Peregrine falcons chasing away small rodent predators from their nesting territory and Rough-legged Buzzards (Buteo lagopus) could use these hot spots as a nesting territory.
Feeding
The peregrine falcon's diet varies greatly and is adapted to available prey in different regions. However, it typically feeds on medium-sized birds such as pigeons and doves, waterfowl, gamebirds, songbirds, parrots, seabirds, and waders. Worldwide, it is estimated that between 1,500 and 2,000 bird species, or roughly a fifth of the world's bird species, are predated somewhere by these falcons.The peregrine falcon preys on the most diverse range of bird species of any raptor in North America, with over 300 species and including nearly 100 shorebirds. Its prey can range from 3 g (0.11 oz) hummingbirds (Selasphorus and Archilochus ssp.) to the 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) sandhill crane, although most prey taken by peregrines weigh between 20 g (0.71 oz) (small passerines) and 1,100 g (2.4 lb) (ducks, geese, loons, gulls, capercaillies, ptarmigans and other grouse). Smaller hawks (such as sharp-shinned hawks) and owls are regularly predated, as well as smaller falcons such as the American kestrel, merlin and, rarely, other peregrines.
In urban areas, where it tends to nest on tall buildings or bridges, it subsists mostly on a variety of pigeons. Among pigeons, the rock or feral pigeon comprises 80% or more of the dietary intake of peregrines. Other common city birds are also taken regularly, including mourning doves, common wood pigeons, common swifts, northern flickers, common starlings, American robins, common blackbirds, and corvids such as magpies, jays or carrion, house, and American crows. Coastal populations of the large subspecies pealei feed almost exclusively on seabirds. In the Brazilian mangrove swamp of Cubatão, a wintering falcon of the subspecies tundrius was observed successfully hunting a juvenile scarlet ibis.
Among mammalian prey species, bats in the genera Eptesicus, Myotis, Pipistrellus and Tadarida are the most common prey which taken at night. Though peregrines generally do not prefer terrestrial mammalian prey, in Rankin Inlet, peregrines largely take northern collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) along with a few Arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii). Other small mammals including shrews, mice, rats, voles, and squirrels are more seldom taken. Peregrines occasionally take rabbits, mainly young individuals and juvenile hares. Additionally, remains of red fox kits and adult female American marten were found among prey remains. Insects and reptiles such as small snakes make up a small proportion of the diet, and salmonid fish have been taken by peregrines.
The peregrine falcon hunts most often at dawn and dusk, when prey are most active, but also nocturnally in cities, particularly during migration periods when hunting at night may become prevalent. Nocturnal migrants taken by peregrines include species as diverse as yellow-billed cuckoo, black-necked grebe, virginia rail, and common quail. The peregrine requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water, marshes, valleys, fields, and tundra, searching for prey either from a high perch or from the air. Large congregations of migrants, especially species that gather in the open like shorebirds, can be quite attractive to a hunting peregrine. Once prey is spotted, it begins its stoop, folding back the tail and wings, with feet tucked. Prey is typically struck and captured in mid-air; the peregrine falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it with the impact, then turns to catch it in mid-air. If its prey is too heavy to carry, a peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there. If they miss the initial strike, peregrines will chase their prey in a twisting flight.
Although previously thought rare, several cases of peregrines contour-hunting, i.e., using natural contours to surprise and ambush prey on the ground, have been reported and even rare cases of prey being pursued on foot. In addition, peregrines have been documented preying on chicks in nests, from birds such as kittiwakes. Prey is plucked before consumption. A 2016 study showed that the presence of peregrines benefits non-preferred species while at the same time causing a decline in its preferred prey. As of 2018, the fastest recorded falcon was at 242 mph (nearly 390 km/h). Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and at Oxford University used 3D computer simulations in 2018 to show that the high speed allows peregrines to gain better maneuverability and precision in strikes.
Reproduction
The peregrine falcon is sexually mature at one to three years of age, but in larger populations they breed after two to three years of age. A pair mates for life and returns to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives. The male passes prey it has caught to the female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons.
During the breeding season, the peregrine falcon is territorial; nesting pairs are usually more than 1 km (0.62 mi) apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs. The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within a breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two up to seven in a 16-year period.
The peregrine falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges. The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added. Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation. South-facing sites are favoured. In some regions, as in parts of Australia and on the west coast of northern North America, large tree hollows are used for nesting. Before the demise of most European peregrines, a large population of peregrines in central and western Europe used the disused nests of other large birds. In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as nest sites. In many parts of its range, peregrines now also nest regularly on tall buildings or bridges; these human-made structures used for breeding closely resemble the natural cliff ledges that the peregrine prefers for its nesting locations.
The pair defends the chosen nest site against other peregrines, and often against ravens, herons, and gulls, and if ground-nesting, also such mammals as foxes, wolverines, felids, bears, wolves, and mountain lions. Both nests and (less frequently) adults are predated by larger-bodied raptorial birds like eagles, large owls, or gyrfalcons. The most serious predators of peregrine nests in North America and Europe are the great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl. When reintroductions have been attempted for peregrines, the most serious impediments were these two species of owls routinely picking off nestlings, fledglings and adults by night. Peregrines defending their nests have managed to kill raptors as large as golden eagles and bald eagles (both of which they normally avoid as potential predators) that have come too close to the nest by ambushing them in a full stoop. In one instance, when a snowy owl killed a newly fledged peregrine, the larger owl was in turn killed by a stooping peregrine parent.
The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the Northern Hemisphere, and from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere, although the Australian subspecies macropus may breed as late as November, and equatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December. If the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, the female usually lays another clutch, although this is extremely rare in the Arctic due to the short summer season. Generally three to four eggs, but sometimes as few as one or as many as five, are laid in the scrape. The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings. They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female, with the male also helping with the incubation of the eggs during the day, but only the female incubating them at night. The average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledge is about 1.5, due to the occasional production of infertile eggs and various natural losses of nestlings.
After hatching, the chicks (called "eyases") are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet. The male (called the "tiercel") and the female (simply called the "falcon") both leave the nest to gather prey to feed the young. The hunting territory of the parents can extend a radius of 19 to 24 km (12 to 15 mi) from the nest site. Chicks fledge 42 to 46 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months.
Relationship with humans
The peregrine falcon is a highly admired falconry bird, and has been used in falconry for more than 3,000 years, beginning with nomads in central Asia. Its advantages in falconry include not only its athleticism and eagerness to hunt, but an equable disposition that leads to it being one of the easier falcons to train. The peregrine falcon has the additional advantage of a natural flight style of circling above the falconer ("waiting on") for game to be flushed, and then performing an effective and exciting high-speed diving stoop to take the quarry. The speed of the stoop not only allows the falcon to catch fast flying birds, it also enhances the falcon's ability to execute maneuvers to catch highly agile prey, and allows the falcon to deliver a knockout blow with a fist-like clenched talon against game that may be much larger than itself.
Additionally the versatility of the species, with agility allowing capture of smaller birds and a strength and attacking style allowing capture of game much larger than themselves, combined with the wide size range of the many peregrine subspecies, means there is a subspecies suitable to almost any size and type of game bird. This size range, evolved to fit various environments and prey species, is from the larger females of the largest subspecies to the smaller males of the smallest subspecies, approximately five to one (approximately 1500 g to 300 g). The males of smaller and medium-sized subspecies, and the females of the smaller subspecies, excel in the taking of swift and agile small game birds such as dove, quail, and smaller ducks. The females of the larger subspecies are capable of taking large and powerful game birds such as the largest of duck species, pheasant, and grouse.
Peregrine falcons handled by falconers are also occasionally used to scare away birds at airports to reduce the risk of bird-plane strikes, improving air-traffic safety. They were also used to intercept homing pigeons during World War II.
Peregrine falcons have been successfully bred in captivity, both for falconry and for release into the wild. Until 2004 nearly all peregrines used for falconry in the US were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the US Endangered Species Act was enacted and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list in 1999. The successful recovery program was aided by the effort and knowledge of falconers – in collaboration with The Peregrine Fund and state and federal agencies – through a technique called hacking. Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2004, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.
The development of captive breeding methods has led to peregrines being commercially available for falconry use, thus mostly eliminating the need to capture wild birds for support of falconry. The main reason for taking wild peregrines at this point is to maintain healthy genetic diversity in the breeding lines. Hybrids of peregrines and gyrfalcons are also available that can combine the best features of both species to create what many consider to be the ultimate falconry bird for the taking of larger game such as the sage-grouse. These hybrids combine the greater size, strength, and horizontal speed of the gyrfalcon with the natural propensity to stoop and greater warm weather tolerance of the peregrine.
Decline due to pesticides
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species over much of its range because of the use of organochlorine pesticides, especially DDT, during the 1950s, '60s, and '70s. Pesticide biomagnification caused organochlorine to build up in the falcons' fat tissues, reducing the amount of calcium in their eggshells. With thinner shells, fewer falcon eggs survived until hatching. In addition, the PCB concentrations found in these falcons is dependent upon the age of the falcon. While high levels are still found in young birds (only a few months old) and even higher concentrations are found in more mature falcons, further increasing in adult peregrine falcons. These pesticides caused falcon prey to also have thinner eggshells (one example of prey being the Black Petrels). In several parts of the world, such as the eastern United States and Belgium, this species became extirpated (locally extinct) as a result. An alternate point of view is that populations in the eastern North America had vanished due to hunting and egg collection. Following the ban of organochlorine pesticides, the reproductive success of Peregrines increased in Scotland in terms of territory occupancy and breeding success, although spatial variation in recovery rates indicate that in some areas Peregrines were also impacted by other factors such as persecution.
Recovery efforts
Peregrine falcon recovery teams breed the species in captivity. The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with a hand puppet mimicking a peregrine's head, so they cannot see to imprint on the human trainers. Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced, forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is called hacking back to the wild. To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to acclimate itself to its future environment.
Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful. The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully. The peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list on 25 August 1999.
Some controversy has existed over the origins of captive breeding stock used by the Peregrine Fund in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to the extirpation of the eastern population of Falco peregrinus anatum, the near-extirpation of anatum in the Midwest and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock, the inclusion of non-native subspecies was justified to optimize the genetic diversity found within the species as a whole.
During the 1970s, peregrine falcons in Finland experienced a population bottleneck as a result of large declines associated with bio-accumulation of organochloride pesticides. However, the genetic diversity of peregrines in Finland is similar to other populations, indicating that high dispersal rates have maintained the genetic diversity of this species.
Since peregrine falcon eggs and chicks are still often targeted by illegal poachers, it is common practice not to publicize unprotected nest locations.
Current status
Populations of the peregrine falcon have bounced back in most parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, there has been a recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. The RSPB estimated that there were 1,402 breeding pairs in the UK in 2011. In Canada, where peregrines were identified as endangered in 1978 (in the Yukon territory of northern Canada that year, only a single breeding pair was identified), the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada declared the species no longer at risk in December 2017.
Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in the west and north, and nest in some urban areas, capitalising on the urban feral pigeon populations for food. Additionally, falcons benefit from artificial illumination, which allows the raptors to extend their hunting periods into the dusk when natural illumination would otherwise be too low for them to pursue prey. In England, this has allowed them to prey on nocturnal migrants such as redwings, fieldfares, starlings, and woodcocks.
In many parts of the world peregrine falcons have adapted to urban habitats, nesting on cathedrals, skyscraper window ledges, tower blocks, and the towers of suspension bridges. Many of these nesting birds are encouraged, sometimes gathering media attention and often monitored by cameras.
In England, peregrine falcons have become increasingly urban in distribution, particularly in southern areas where inland cliffs suitable as nesting sites are scarce. The first recorded urban breeding pair was observed nesting on the Swansea Guildhall in the 1980s. In Southampton, a nest prevented restoration of mobile telephony services for several months in 2013, after Vodafone engineers despatched to repair a faulty transmitter mast discovered a nest in the mast, and were prevented by the Wildlife and Countryside Act – on pain of a possible prison sentence – from proceeding with repairs until the chicks fledged.
In Oregon, Portland houses ten percent of the state's peregrine nests, despite only covering around 0.1 percent of the state's land area.
Cultural significance
Due to its striking hunting technique, the peregrine has often been associated with aggression and martial prowess. The Ancient Egyptian solar deity Ra was often represented as a man with the head of a peregrine falcon adorned with the solar disk, although most Egyptologists agree that it's most likely a Lanner falcon. Native Americans of the Mississippian culture (c. 800–1500) used the peregrine, along with several other birds of prey, in imagery as a symbol of "aerial (celestial) power" and buried men of high status in costumes associating to the ferocity of raptorial birds. In the late Middle Ages, the Western European nobility that used peregrines for hunting, considered the bird associated with princes in formal hierarchies of birds of prey, just below the gyrfalcon associated with kings. It was considered "a royal bird, more armed by its courage than its claws". Terminology used by peregrine breeders also used the Old French term gentil, "of noble birth; aristocratic", particularly with the peregrine.
The peregrine falcon is the national animal of the United Arab Emirates. Since 1927, the peregrine falcon has been the official mascot of Bowling Green State University in Bowling Green, Ohio. The 2007 U.S. Idaho state quarter features a peregrine falcon. The peregrine falcon has been designated the official city bird of Chicago.
The Peregrine, by J. A. Baker, is widely regarded as one of the best nature books in English written in the twentieth century. Admirers of the book include Robert Macfarlane, Mark Cocker, who regards the book as "one of the most outstanding books on nature in the twentieth century" and Werner Herzog, who called it "the one book I would ask you to read if you want to make films", and said elsewhere "it has prose of the calibre that we have not seen since Joseph Conrad". In the book, Baker recounts, in diary form, his detailed observations of peregrines (and their interaction with other birds) near his home in Chelmsford, Essex, over a single winter from October to April.
An episode of the hour-long TV series Starman in 1986 titled "Peregrine" was about an injured peregrine falcon and the endangered species program. It was filmed with the assistance of the University of California's peregrine falcon project in Santa Cruz.
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this photo was taken at the indianapolis zoo butterfly exhibit...we were lucky enuff to watch this little lady emerge from her chrysalis and begin to dry her wings....i was able to get some video of the process, i might upload it later this week, if the mood strikes me...until there, here are some interesting facts about butterflys to further occupy your mind....
-the magnificent color of butterfly wings does not come from pigmentation directly on the wing, but from the tiny scales that hang on the wing like shingles on a house roof. these scales are so small they look like powder when rubbed onto the fingers. ..
-butterflies can only see red, green, and yellow.
-the top butterfly flight speed is 12 miles per hour. Some moths can fly 25 miles per hour!
-butterflies cannot fly if their body temperature is less than 86 degrees
I was taken by a friend to visit the small colony of hyper-chromatic CSOs at the weekend. But in actual fact, most of the other spikes were almost as mad, with bold wonderful dots and swirls on the lips.
Here is a selection:
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So, after the best part of five weeks doing little else than take photographs, I decided to spend Saturday painting the shed.
No I didn't, I went out orchiding.
Or did once we went to Tesco for the remainder of the shopping.
Another glorious warm day, that would be very good for photography,I thought.
Home for coffee and fruit for breakfast, before I packed my camera and headed to the Medway towns to meet up with two other people from my orchid group to hunt down some super rare orchids.
But then, they always are.
I drove up the A2/M2 to Chatham, turned off, and in a quiet residential area, I found Ian parked, so I pulled up behind him. Graham soon arrived too, and so we got out and set out down a narrow alleyway between the houses, into woodland behind.
Orchids are variable. Even the most common ones can produce spikes that are as rare as the rarest orchid species. And as all species can produce spikes with little or no pigmentation, they can also produce spikes with hyper-pigmentation.
Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. rhodochila, or a hyper-coloured Common Spotted Orchid. And in a colony where most spikes had strongly marked lips, there were four that really stood out, as the rings and dots had been covered by pigmantation, and the lips were a solid block of colour. I mean, I had seen shots of these, but to see them in person was something else.
We all took lots of shots, and then Graham said, I know of a colony of Lesser Butterfly orchids, would you like to see them?
We would.
The Lesser Butterfly at Barham have died out, and the ones at Stockbury seem to have had their flowers deliberately picked off this year, so another colony would be great to know about.
We drove in convoy for half an hour, met up in a pub car park, then drove in Graham's car to the end of a quiet, little used lane. A six-foot-sixer, Tony! And we set out on foot, a mile up the lane to a gate, where climbed over.
A car went by.
"What are you doing?"
We explained about the LBO and how rare they were and we knew they were in the wood. The gamekeeper knew about them too, and was happy to let us go, and if someone stopped us again, we could mention his name to say we had his blessing. We also said we would tell no one about the site.
We climbed over a fence into the wood, and shortly afterwards we saw the first of about twenty spikes, one measuring in at 68cm tall, and one that had a clear green colour to it.
We took shots of them all, though the humidity was getting to me, fogging the viewfinder and by glasses. Sometimes at the same time.
We walked back to the car, then droove back to the pub, so that we could go our separate ways. My plan was to head back to Dover, to call in at the council offices to see if the unusually marked Bee Orchid was showing.
It was, and had only just opened as the pollina had only just dropped and had not been visited by an insect yet.
I got shots, one of which came out rather well, even if i say so myself.
Then back home for a drink, then a bacon butty and a brew.
Phew, it was a scorcher.
I reviewed shots through the afternoon before we had Caprese again with the leftover bread from the day before.
Life was good.
We listened to Craig in the evening before heading up to bed at half eight.
Phew.
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The Common Spotted-orchid is one of the few species that are still thriving in Britain despite the ongoing environmental damage and habitat desctruction that has caused so many other orchids to decline. Its secret is an adaptability that enables it to colonise new areas. Few of us can have failed to spot the vast numbers of Dactylorhiza fuchsii on urban roadside verges and roundabouts - this orchid is living among us. It lives up to its common name on both counts: this orchid is indeed common, and its leaves are profusely marked with dark spots and blotches. Although best known from alkaline habitats such as fens, dune slacks, old quarries and lime pits, the Common Spotted-orchid is also tolerant of mildly acidic substrates and so can sometimes be found on heathland among heather. In Britain and Ireland this orchid flowers from mid May to the end of July. On mainland Europe the range of Common Spotted-orchid extends from Scandinavia in the north through central Europe and southwards to the Mediterranean.
Taxonomy & Hybrids
Pollination is highly successful, and a number of insects - particularly beetles - are attracted to the flowers' nectar.
The specific name 'fuchsii' refers to the German botanist Leonard Fuchs.
There is one subspecies found in Britain: Dactylorhiza fuchsii subsp. hebridensis which is found in Scotland, the Outer Hebrides and western Ireland.
There are a number of varieties and hybrids. Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. albiflora has unmarked white flowers and is fairly widespread. Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. alpina has small, darker flowers and is found in Scotland and parts of northern England; it has also been reported from Wales. Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. cornubiensis is a smaller plant with a relatively large infloresence and larger flowers; it is found in Cornwall. Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. albiflora has unmarked white flowers and unspotted leaves; it is widespread but uncommon. Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. okellyii is somewhat contentious: it resembles Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. albiflora but the leaves can be either spotted or unspotted; this variety is thought to be confined to western Ireland, the Isle of Man and parts of Scotland. Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. rhodochila is a widespread but rare hyperchromatic variant with excessive pigmentation; the lips of its flowers are reddish purple with a paler border, and the leaves can have either heavily marked or completely purple leaves.
There are also several hybrids. Dactylorhiza x transiens is the hybrid with Heath Spotted-orchid Dactylorhiza maculata. Dactylorhiza x kernerorum is the hybrid with Early Marsh-orchid Dactylorhiza incarnata. Dactylorhiza x mixtum is a rare hybrid with the Frog Orchid Dactylorhiza viridis. Dactylorhiza x venusta is the hybrid with Northern Marsh-orchid Dactylorhiza purpurella. Dactylorhiza x grandis is the hybrid with Southern Marsh-orchid and is widespread in southern Britain. Dactylorhiza x silvae-gabretae is the hybrid with Narrow-leaved Marsh-orchid Dactylorhiza traunsteinerioides. Dactylorhiza x braunii is the hybrid with Irish Marsh-orchid Dactylorhiza occidentalis and is recorded from County Clare.
There is also an intergeneric hybrid. X Dactylodenia st-quintinii is the hybrid with Fragrant Orchid Gymnadenia conopsea and possibly with Britain's other two Fragrant Orchids.
www.hardyorchidsociety.org.uk/hos%201012/orchidphotos/dac...
Pepperami claims she is vegetarian. Being vegetarian to Pepperami means she doesn't admit to midnight snacking on spicy German meat. Pork meat, specifically. She wears a red suit laced in a substance called Piperine. This chemical stimulates pigmentation in her skin. It also causes a curious reflex action in strangers - a violent, spasmodic expiration of breath through the nose. Pepperami is a walking sneezing bomb!
This is one of 3 fundatrices of Macrosiphum euphorbiae collected on rose in the same location in Douglas Canyon. They show the kind of dark and variable pigmentation common in this species in cold weather.
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The last phase of the diving, for both Humpback and Right Whales fluke, is exposing their tall flukes above the water before going under. Fin and Minke Whales usually dive without exposing their flukes (fluking). The variation, scarring, and white pigmentation pattern on the underside of each Humpback's flukes is as unique as a fingerprint. The pigmentation, irregular knobby trailing edges, and acquired scars are used to identify individuals and prompt names to help researchers distinguish among whales.
The fractional co2 treatment is the advanced version of the traditional co2 laser that would remove the entire layer of the skin’s surface causing delayed recovery. The fractional co2 dot technology keeps skin intact whilst clearing acne scars, pigmentation and sun damage.
www.squidoo.com/attaining-youthfulness-with-laser-skin-ti...
While they mainly feed on ticks and other parasites, that red-bill is not all integral pigmentation! Kartong Sand Mine, Kartong, Western Division, The Gambia.
The white deer of Thoresby Park, Nottinghamshire. The white deer are a natural variation of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which normally have brown coloring. The Seneca White Deer are leucistic, meaning they lack all pigmentation in the hair but have the normal brown-coloured eyes.
The white tiger or bleached tiger is a pigmentation variant of the Bengal tiger, which is reported in the wild from time to time in the Indian states of Assam, West Bengal and Bihar in the Sunderbans region and especially in the former State of Rewa.Such a tiger has the black stripes typical of the Bengal tiger, but carries a white or near-white coat.
The tiger is the largest cat species, most recognizable for their pattern of dark vertical stripes on reddish-orange fur with a lighter underside. The species is classified in the genus Panthera with the lion, leopard, jaguar, and snow leopard.
Just had my passport photo taken, and compared it to the one taken 12 years ago. My hair pigmentation seems to have gone AWOL. This calls to mind the "Just for Men" ad, where the cop says, "this isn't you, this is an older guy!" And he would be right.