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The development of the embryos is stoped at this stage and it need a cold period before it can continue his development (diapause). The eye pigmentation is restricted to the posterior part of the eyes.

The development of the embryos is stoped at this stage and it need a cold period before it can continue his development (diapause). The eye pigmentation is restricted to the posterior part of the eyes.

a couple of weeks ago merlin had a small puncture mark on his shoulder. we pulled a claw out of it not sure who it belonged to. it seemed to clear up but a dark patch of pigmentation was left. yesterday i noticed his skin had opened up to the size of a 5 cent piece - or a dime. took him to the vet today and when they shaved him they noticed some more suspect tissue which they thought would be safer to remove than to leave not knowing if it would lso turn into an abscess. so here he is with about 8 stitches and a drainage tube in. he is up and about and seems ok at this point.

www.science.org/toc/science/221/4614

 

Science

•Volume 221|

•Issue 4614|

•2 Sep 1983

New mutant tomato. This orange tomato is controlled by a recessive single gene mutation and was recovered as a somatic genetic variant following plant regeneration from cell cultures of the standard red tomato (var. UC828B). This mutation simultaneously alters fruit color, flower color, and leaf pigmentation. Recovery of such single gene mutations is evidence that plant cell culture technology can be used as an important new mutagenic tool. See page 949. [David A. Evans and William R. Sharp, DNA Plant Technology Corporation, Cinnaminson, New Jersey 08077]

View Less

 

Abstract

Plants were regenerated from cultured leaf explants of an inbred variety of Lycopersicon esculentum. Seeds were collected from the regenerated plants and sown in the greenhouse. The resultant plants were then evaluated in the field. Several monogenic mutations segregated in the progeny of regenerated plants. The recovery of single gene mutations is evidence that plant tissue culture can be mutagenic. Complementation tests revealed that one mutation was located on the long arm of chromosome 10.

  

The More You Know 😊

 

The pink colouring of some bush crickets is due to erythrism, an unusual reddish pigmentation that can affect insect. Diet or genetic mutation are two causes of the condition.

le Mascaret, Rixensart

Skin Peels work by removing dead skin cells and encouraging new ones to grow, leading to a fresher, more glowing you. The procedures are used all over the world to treat skin problems such as wrinkles and lines, acne scars, hyper-pigmentation, and sun damage - the results can be life-transforming! Whatever your skin dilemma, there’s sure to be a peel to suit.

  

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The Blue Morpho rhetenor butterflies are the true blue gems of the Neotropical Amazon Rainforest. They are the brightest of the blue morpho butterflies and are absolutely stunning. There are two sub species found under the Morpho rhetenor genus that are the Morpho rhetenor cacica and Morpho rhetenor helena. They was first described by Cramer in 1775.

 

What makes up their blue, iridescent shine is not the pigmentation of the scales on their wings, but rather the result of light diffraction where the light that hits the wings is altered upon reflection resulting in the brilliant blue hue we perceive with our eyes.

 

This beautiful butterfly is also available in Black and Brown framing.

 

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Laguna Colorada (Red Lagoon) is a shallow salt lake in the southwest of the altiplano of Bolivia, within Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve and close to the border with Chile.

 

The lake contains borax islands, whose white color contrasts with the reddish color of its waters, which is caused by red sediments and pigmentation of some algae.

 

Laguna Colorada is one of the Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention signed in 1971.

 

James's Flamingos abound in the area. Also it is possible to find Andean and Chilean flamingos, but in a minor quantity.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

-----

 

We took the backward route from Tupiza northwards to the Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa and further to Salar de Uyuni salt plain; snow-covered volcanoes at the horizon line, red-coloured rocks and sand, colorful lagunas, and slow 4WD journey through the land of thin air - that's Bolivia southern part of Altiplano.

 

Laguna Colorada is most likely the most stunning of the colorful lakes; we spent there a night and thus got a chance for slow silent walks around, admiring its unforgettable stunning beauty...

A bird, colored blue, beak closed, uncertain species, shown possibly perched or possibly rising on a downstroke, on or from rocks placed in a flower bed including wild roses, lilies of genus Pancratium, vetch, and other flowers. Part of the same band as the Monkeys Fresco in the House of the Frescos; hence, also called the Monkeys and Blue Birds Fresco.

From:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Aegean_frescos

 

Overview of rooms in the museum:

The museum, as it is now, is completely renewed. Old information about rooms and their numbers are still not updated, not even in Wikipedia. They mention twenty rooms, and their names, but there are 27 rooms, XXVII

Maybe wiki will update their page soon, as it is in October 2015, it is not updated.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion_Archaeological_Museum

 

~

 

This serial of photos offers an impression of details of the collection with Minoan Art, belonging to the Palace of Knossos. the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion has been completely renewed. Lots of amazing information can be read next to art objects.

 

It is not allowed to use flash when making photos. This, and the many visitors made it hardly possible to make really sharp photos in some seconds.

My camera is a rather cheap one and creates curved lines.

Some photos are not sharp, but I kept them anyway.

Altogether it has been a deeply impressing visit, moving, deeply moving because of the mystical, spiritual, mental and emotional depth of the Art.

The Minoans were utterly creative.

Their art is comparable with our modern art. Their use of colors makes the art characteristic: pastel colors (modest in pigmentation), terra colors, with blue, green and ochre.

 

Often I edited the photos in several ways. Or cropped them, to attract the attention for details.

 

Enjoy the collection of photos. If you want to read more about the Minoans:

www.heraklion-crete.org/archaeological-museum/

   

Numerous changes occur in the body of a pregnant lady, including hyperpigmentation, which is dimming of the skin. This modification is usually noticeable throughout the first trimester. Around 90 percent of expectant women report hyperpigmentation on certain body parts. Majority of future mothers discover their nipple areas and areolas, the area surrounding the nipple area, […]

 

www.gestationaldiabetics.com/pigmentation-during-pregnancy/

The Blue Morpho rhetenor butterflies are the true blue gems of the Neotropical Amazon Rainforest. They are the brightest of the blue morpho butterflies and are absolutely stunning. There are two sub species found under the Morpho rhetenor genus that are the Morpho rhetenor cacica and Morpho rhetenor helena. They was first described by Cramer in 1775.

 

What makes up their blue, iridescent shine is not the pigmentation of the scales on their wings, but rather the result of light diffraction where the light that hits the wings is altered upon reflection resulting in the brilliant blue hue we perceive with our eyes.

 

This beautiful butterfly is also available in Black and White framing.

 

To Order Click Here

•Use premium aloe vera face wash from SarvLiving twice daily

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The color of the wine mainly depends on the color of the drupe of the grape variety. Since pigments are localized in the exocarp (skin) of the grape drupe, not in the juice, the color of the wine depends on the method of vinification and the time the must is in contact with those skins, process called maceration. Teinturier grape is an exception in that it has also a pigmented pulp. The blending of two or more varieties of grapes can explain for the color of certain wines, like the use of Australian Rubired.

 

Red drupe grapes can produce white wine if they are quickly pressed and the juice not allowed to be in contact with the skins. The color is mainly due to plant pigments notably phenolic compounds (anthocyanidins, tannins ...). The color depends on the presence of acids in the wine. It is altered with the wine aging by reaction between the different active molecules present in the wine, these reactions generally giving rise to a browning of the wine, leading from red to a more tawny color. The use of a wooden barrel (generally oak barrels) in aging also affects the color of the wine.

 

Part of the color of a wine can be due to co-pigmentation of anthocyanidins with non pigmented other flavonoids or natural phenols (cofactors or “copigments”).

 

[from the Wiki entry: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_wine ]

One of our commoner (and larger) globular springtails; Dicyrtomina saundersi. An unremarkable photograph, but one that show male characteristics quite well. The multi-barred cross-shaped pigmentation at the rear of the abdoman is characteristic for the species as is a distinct colour change between the second and third antennal segments. This is not apparent in the above image, but could be seen in some others taken at the same time. This individual ~1.6mm long.

 

Canon 5D3 + MP-E 65mm (at 5x) + 1.4x Extender + 36mm extension tube + MT24-EX Flash. Five images (at F5.6) combined using Zerene Stacker.

A fungus (pl.: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

 

A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

 

Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.

 

The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.

 

Etymology

The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel ('mold').

 

The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" (mycologicæ) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville. In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to mycology as the study of fungi.

 

A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular). The term mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora. The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that the phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and funga.

 

Characteristics

 

Fungal hyphae cells

Hyphal wall

Septum

Mitochondrion

Vacuole

Ergosterol crystal

Ribosome

Nucleus

Endoplasmic reticulum

Lipid body

Plasma membrane

Spitzenkörper

Golgi apparatus

 

Fungal cell cycle showing Dikaryons typical of Higher Fungi

Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among the general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around the start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:

 

With other eukaryotes: Fungal cells contain membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and coding regions called exons. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type. They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, which is also found in animals).

With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed organic compounds as energy sources.

With plants: Fungi have a cell wall and vacuoles. They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses) produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have haploid nuclei.

With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria produce the amino acid L-lysine in specific biosynthesis steps, called the α-aminoadipate pathway.

The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like (filamentous) structures called hyphae, which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles—cellular structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and other organic molecules—called the Spitzenkörper. Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells. In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous green algae, grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells. There are also single-celled fungi (yeasts) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi have both hyphal and yeast forms.

In common with some plant and animal species, more than one hundred fungal species display bioluminescence.

Unique features:

 

Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by budding or fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions.

The fungal cell wall is made of a chitin-glucan complex; while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods, fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose.

A whitish fan or funnel-shaped mushroom growing at the base of a tree.

Omphalotus nidiformis, a bioluminescent mushroom

Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.

 

Diversity

Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans, parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling them to propel itself through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.

 

As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2000 with a peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown The following year, 2905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups.

 

Mycology

Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.

 

The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.

 

History

Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy.

 

Morphology

Microscopic structures

Monochrome micrograph showing Penicillium hyphae as long, transparent, tube-like structures a few micrometres across. Conidiophores branch out laterally from the hyphae, terminating in bundles of phialides on which spherical condidiophores are arranged like beads on a string. Septa are faintly visible as dark lines crossing the hyphae.

An environmental isolate of Penicillium

Hypha

Conidiophore

Phialide

Conidia

Septa

Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells.

 

Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla,[63] and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.

 

Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.

 

Macroscopic structures

Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years.

 

The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.

 

Growth and physiology

Time-lapse photography sequence of a peach becoming progressively discolored and disfigured

Mold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.

The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues.[71] The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi).[71] The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes.

 

The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication.

 

Fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.

 

Reproduction

Two thickly stemmed brownish mushrooms with scales on the upper surface, growing out of a tree trunk

Polyporus squamosus

Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.

 

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.

 

Sexual reproduction

See also: Mating in fungi and Sexual selection in fungi

Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of the opposite mating type, whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself.

 

Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).

 

In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division, the formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.

 

Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section).

 

In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.

 

Spore dispersal

The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances.

 

Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.

 

Homothallism

In homothallic sexual reproduction, two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis. Homothallic fungi include species with an Aspergillus-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of the ascomycete genus Cochliobolus, and the ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii. The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction.

 

Other sexual processes

Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.

 

Evolution

In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.

 

The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times.

 

In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae, in the Canadian Arctic, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma).

 

Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.

 

Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary.

 

Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap".

 

Taxonomy

Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.

 

There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants, fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms).

 

The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar, "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and Tedersoo et al. 2018. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances.

 

The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. As of 2019, nine major lineages have been identified: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycotina, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.

 

Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). Previously considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought to be either a basal branch of the Fungi, or a sister group–each other's closest evolutionary relative.

 

The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.

 

The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.

 

The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.

 

Microscopic view of a layer of translucent grayish cells, some containing small dark-color spheres

Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.

Cross-section of a cup-shaped structure showing locations of developing meiotic asci (upper edge of cup, left side, arrows pointing to two gray cells containing four and two small circles), sterile hyphae (upper edge of cup, right side, arrows pointing to white cells with a single small circle in them), and mature asci (upper edge of cup, pointing to two gray cells with eight small circles in them)

Diagram of an apothecium (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.

Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.

 

The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., Neurospora crassa).

 

Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.

 

Fungus-like organisms

Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to an ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy.

 

Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.

 

The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.

 

The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" Rozella, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. Alternatively, Rozella can be classified as a basal fungal group.

 

The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. Many Actinomycetales (Actinomycetota), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.

 

Ecology

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.

 

Symbiosis

Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.

 

With plants

Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.

 

A microscopic view of blue-stained cells, some with dark wavy lines in them

The dark filaments are hyphae of the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala in the intercellular spaces of tall fescue leaf sheath tissue

The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at least 400 million years. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.

 

With algae and cyanobacteria

A green, leaf-like structure attached to a tree, with a pattern of ridges and depression on the bottom surface

The lichen Lobaria pulmonaria, a symbiosis of fungal, algal, and cyanobacterial species

Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.

 

With insects

Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the domatia (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods). Ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi growing in dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.

 

A thin brown stick positioned horizontally with roughly two dozen clustered orange-red leaves originating from a single point in the middle of the stick. These orange leaves are three to four times larger than the few other green leaves growing out of the stick, and are covered on the lower leaf surface with hundreds of tiny bumps. The background shows the green leaves and branches of neighboring shrubs.

The plant pathogen Puccinia magellanicum (calafate rust) causes the defect known as witch's broom, seen here on a barberry shrub in Chile.

 

Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab from a woman with candidiasis, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 µm in diameter.

Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch elm disease, Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, and Phymatotrichopsis omnivora causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as Magnaporthe oryzae, can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including Asterotremella albida, which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead.

 

Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.

 

As targets of mycoparasites

Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal diseases. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses.

 

Communication

Main article: Mycorrhizal networks

There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics.

 

Possible impact on climate

According to a study published in the academic journal Current Biology, fungi can soak from the atmosphere around 36% of global fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions.

 

Mycotoxins

(6aR,9R)-N-((2R,5S,10aS,10bS)-5-benzyl-10b-hydroxy-2-methyl-3,6-dioxooctahydro-2H-oxazolo[3,2-a] pyrrolo[2,1-c]pyrazin-2-yl)-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide

Ergotamine, a major mycotoxin produced by Claviceps species, which if ingested can cause gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations

Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.

 

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human use below.

 

Pathogenic mechanisms

Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1. The response protects U. maydis from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence. Furthermore, U. maydis has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.

 

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.

 

Human use

See also: Human interactions with fungi

Microscopic view of five spherical structures; one of the spheres is considerably smaller than the rest and attached to one of the larger spheres

Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells shown with DIC microscopy

The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms. Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy, with applications under research and development including use for textiles, meat substitution and general fungal biotechnology.

 

Therapeutic uses

Modern chemotherapeutics

Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs.

 

Antibiotics

Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.

 

Other

Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom. Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for therapeutic use and appears to cause global increases in brain network integration. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.

 

Traditional medicine

Upper surface view of a kidney-shaped fungus, brownish-red with a lighter yellow-brown margin, and a somewhat varnished or shiny appearance

Two dried yellow-orange caterpillars, one with a curly grayish fungus growing out of one of its ends. The grayish fungus is roughly equal to or slightly greater in length than the caterpillar, and tapers in thickness to a narrow end.

The fungi Ganoderma lucidum (left) and Ophiocordyceps sinensis (right) are used in traditional medicine practices

Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

 

Cultured foods

Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.

Intensify Facial Discs

*Your weekly wake-up call*

 

How it Works:

Microdermabrasion and enzyme action increase surface cell turnover, prepping the skin and maximizing the effectiveness of the other products in the system. Promotes new collagen production while leaving skin radiant and fresh.

 

How to Use:

Dampen one disc with water and apply to clean face with a gentle, circular motion. Rinse thoroughly with water. Use morning or night. Follow with The Serum.

 

*Intensify Facial Discs have been specially formulated for use one to three times a week, depending on skin type. Delicate skin use once a week or bi-weekly, as tolerated.

 

Key Ingredients:

Bromelain-- A highly concentrated form of pineapple enzyme, eliminates dull skin and clears environmental toxins. Promotes long term healing while leaving skin fresh and luminous.

 

Lactic acid-- A gentle natural exfoliant, helps reduce fine lines, hyper- pigmentation and other signs of aging.

  

Bare x Mainstore

 

1. Rwanda Earring Set:

The Rwanda Earring Set is a stunning collection of handcrafted earrings inspired by the vibrant culture and rich traditions of Rwanda. Each earring showcases exquisite craftsmanship, featuring intricate beadwork and colorful patterns that reflect the country's heritage. Made with meticulous attention to detail, these earrings are not only a fashion statement but also a symbol of cultural appreciation and global connection.

 

2. Sunkissed Blush Kit:

The Sunkissed Blush Kit is a must-have beauty set designed to give you a radiant and sun-kissed glow. This kit includes a selection of warm and flattering blush shades that effortlessly blend onto the skin, adding a natural flush and luminosity to your complexion. Whether you desire a subtle hint of color or a more dramatic pop, the Sunkissed Blush Kit offers versatility and pigmentation, allowing you to achieve the perfect flush for any occasion.

 

3. Guitara Earring Set:

The Guitara Earring Set is a collection of trendy and eye-catching earrings that add a touch of bohemian charm to any outfit. Inspired by the allure of guitar strings, these earrings feature delicate metallic designs, intricate filigree patterns, and whimsical embellishments. Crafted with attention to detail, the Guitara Earring Set is a perfect accessory to express your free-spirited style and make a fashion statement. Whether you're heading to a music festival or a casual gathering, these earrings will effortlessly enhance your ensemble.

 

Taxi: maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Cabala/81/167/549

Modern pigmentation often used artificial substances. The color is blended with oil, usually linseed oil but other sebum may be used as well. Flower Paintings The various sebum dry in a different way, creating various effects.Traditionally, performers combined their own shows from raw pigmentation that they often ground themselves and method. This made mobility difficult and kept most painting activities limited to the studio room. This modified in the delayed Nineteenth century, when oil colour in pipes became accessible.Performers could mix shades easily, which allowed, for the first time, relatively practical plein air (outdoor) painting (a common strategy in France Impressionism).

Oil Paintings For Sale: www.OilPainting-Shop.com

This is a wild turkey, photographed in autumn/ early winter 2009, in Niantic, CT, 06357.

 

Reported to be at least 2 years old. He is distinguishable by his color and his badly healed injured left leg. He has a bad limp and large bump above his ankle.

 

(Location data fudged by 1 mile to protect privacy of homeowner where photo taken)

 

Reported range at least 1/2 mile.

 

Interesting that a bird with compromised camouflage has survived so long in woods that are mostly brown for the hungry part of the year.

 

I believe this is an example of leucism, but don't "know". The bird is NOT an albino, if the not-pink eye, and partial pigmentation is anything to go by.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucism

 

Travels with a flock of ordinary wild turkeys. (Meleagris gallopavo)

 

Wikipedia: Wild turkey

 

There's a useful discussion of color variants from the authoritative Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Tvak Laser Clinic - A leading skin care, hair care and laser clinic in New Delhi offering laser hair removal, acne scar treatment, tattoo removal, prp therapy, laser stretch marks removal, laser pigmentation treatment, Melasma treatment, Hair transplant, Birthmark removal, Skin tags & warts removal, Skin rejuvenation treatment, Under Eye Dark Circle Removal, Dermaroller Treatment, Skin Fairness Treatment, Mole Removal, Dermal Fillers Treatment, botox treatment and all other non-invasive cosmetic procedures. All procedures are done by certified dermatologists Dr. S. K. Kashyap and Dr. Jaishree Noor. Both doctors are having 15+ years experience in clinical and cosmetic dermatology.

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Planta normal, retoños libres, cerca de la planta madre, 1 o 2 retoños, posición vertical; el pseudotallo maduro hasta 5 m de altura, cubierto con vainas foliares viejas de color marrón, color subyacente verde claro con manchas púrpura-negras, ceroso, savia acuosa. Pecíolo de hasta 70 cm, ceroso, márgenes del pecíolo curvados hacia adentro con manchas escasas de color púrpura negruzco, bases del pecíolo aladas y abrazando el pseudotallo, muy ceroso; hábito de la hoja intermedio, lámina de 250 6 60 cm, angostamente elíptica, truncada en el ápice, verde adaxialmente, verde medio abaxialmente, apariencia opaca, superficie parcialmente cubierta con una capa cerosa, bases de las hojas simétricas, ambos lados redondeados y auriculados, nervadura central dorsalmente clara verde, amarillo verdoso ventralmente, con lámina muy corrugada. Inflorescencia primero horizontal y luego cayendo verticalmente hacia abajo, pedúnculo de 45 6 4 cm, muy pubescente con pelos cortos, de color verde claro a negro; 2 brácteas estériles, caducas en la apertura de las primeras flores femeninas; yema femenina lanceolada, de 40 6 15 cm, brácteas rojo-púrpura externamente y crema internamente, a veces cerosas, levemente imbricadas, levantando varias brácteas a la vez, revolutas antes de caer. Flores basales hermafroditas, hasta 11 cm, ovario verde claro, con óvulos en 2 hileras por lóculo, el tépalo compuesto ca. 4,5 cm, con 2 quillas prominentes engrosadas y márgenes hialinos, naranja a amarillo, los lóbulos color naranja; el tépalo libre ca. 3,3 cm, en forma de bote, blanco translúcido con quilla engrosada y lóbulo naranja; 5 estambres, morados con polen fértil, estilo ca. 3,2 cm, crema a marrón con manchas rojas, estigma ca. 0,9 cm de diámetro, marrón grisáceo. Brote masculino lanceolado, ca. 12 6 4 cm, brácteas rojo-púrpura por fuera, crema por dentro, con algo de cera por fuera, con ápice puntiagudo amarillento, levantando varias brácteas a la vez, revolutas antes de caer, abortando la yema entera antes de que maduren los frutos; flores masculinas en promedio 14 por bráctea en 2 filas, cayendo con la bráctea, tépalo compuesto ca. 3,8 cm, crema con quilla engrosada, acostillada en los ángulos dorsales, con ápice anaranjado de 5 dientes, los lóbulos centrales más pequeños que los lóbulos externos, tépalo libre ca. 1,6 cm, blanco translúcido, ovalado, liso, con ápice filiforme; 5 estambres, filamentos blancos, anteras moradas, anteras y estilo erectos; estigma crema, ovario arqueado, amarillo pálido, sin pigmentación. Racimo de frutos laxo, con 8 manos y 15 frutos por mano en promedio, en 2 filas, dedos curvados hacia el pedúnculo, fruto individual ca. 8 cm, curvo con una cresta pronunciada, pedicelo ca. 22 mm, glabras, ápice del fruto redondeado, sin restos florales relícticos, color verde de la piel inmadura, tornándose verde amarillento claro con manchas negras y hendiéndose longitudinalmente en la madurez, pulpa del fruto inmaduro blanca, tornándose blanca y blanda en la madurez; semillas casi planas, arrugadas, ca. 3,5 mm de diámetro, de 80 a 100 semillas por fruto. Cromo- algunos números no contados.

Distribución y hábitat. Musa yunnanensis crece abundantemente en las cuencas hidrográficas del río Mekong en pendientes de 500 a 1800 m. Las plantas pueden tolerar las heladas estacionales, que ocurren de enero a febrero en las elevaciones más altas de Yunnan, China. En iturraran se encuentra en la zona 3.

 

Plant normal, suckering freely, close to parent plant, 1 or 2 suckers, position vertical; the mature pseudostem to 5 m high, covered with old brown leaf sheaths, underlying color light green with purple- black blotches, waxy, sap watery. Petiole to 70 cm, waxy, petiole margins curved inward with purple- black sparse blotching, petiole bases winged and clasping the pseudostem, very waxy; leaf habit intermediate, lamina to 250 6 60 cm, narrowly elliptic, truncate at the apex, green adaxially, medium green abaxially, appearance dull, surface partially covered with a waxy coating, leaf bases symmetric, both sides rounded and auriculate, midrib dorsally light green, ventrally greenish yellow, with very corrugated lamina. Inflorescence at first horizontal and then falling vertically down- ward, peduncle to 45 6 4 cm, very pubescent with short hairs, light green to black; sterile bracts 2, deciduous at the opening of the first female flowers; female bud lanceolate, to 40 6 15 cm, bracts red- purple externally and cream internally, sometimes waxy, slightly imbricate, lifting several bracts at a time, revolute before falling. Basal flowers hermaphrodite, to 11 cm, ovary light green, with ovules in 2 rows per locule, the compound tepal ca. 4.5 cm, with 2 prominent thickened keels and hyaline margins, orange to yellow, the lobes orange; the free tepal ca. 3.3 cm, boat-shaped, translucent white with thickened keel and orange lobe; stamens 5, purple with fertile pollen, style ca. 3.2 cm, cream to brown with red spots, stigma ca. 0.9 cm diam., brown-gray. Male bud lanceolate, ca. 12 6 4 cm, bracts red-purple externally, cream internally, with some wax outside, with pointed yellowish apex, lifting several bracts at a time, revolute before falling, the whole bud aborting before fruits mature; male flowers on average 14 per bract in 2 rows, falling with the bract, compound tepal ca. 3.8 cm, cream with thickened keel, ribbed at the dorsal angles, with 5-toothed orange apex, the central lobes smaller than the outer lobes, free tepal ca. 1.6 cm, translucent white, oval, smooth, with thread-like apex; stamens 5, filaments white, anthers purple, anthers and style exserted; stigma cream, ovary arched, pale yellow, without pigmentation. Fruit bunch lax, with 8 hands and 15 fruits per hand on average, in 2 rows, fingers curved toward the stalk, individual fruit ca. 8 cm, curved with a pronounced ridge, pedicel ca. 22 mm, glabrous, fruit apex rounded, without relictual floral remains, immature peel color green, becoming light yellowish green with black blotches and splitting lengthwise at maturity, immature fruit pulp white, becoming white and soft at maturity; seeds nearly flat, wrinkled, ca. 3.5 mm diam., 80 to 100 seeds per fruit. Chromo- some numbers not counted. Distribution and habitat. Musa yunnanensis grows abundantly in the Mekong River watersheds on slopes from 500–1800 m. The plants can tolerate seasonal frosts, which occur from January to February at higher elevations in Yunnan, China. In iturraran is located in area 3.

Seen at the British Wildlife Centre, Newchapel, Surrey. Not his official name, but known by the regulars as 'Mark', because of a pigmentation just behind his left eye.

 

He appears to be the only male 'orange' squirrel.

 

 

  

Another Amazing La bella Donna Event Don’t Miss it!

 

One  More day at  Laguna Beach Montage Hotel Saturday 25th from 4 -7

 

 

  

Learn More About Kathy & Nicole Tracy

    

La Bella Donna Cosmetics co-founder Kathy Tracy, who runs the company's Los Angeles office, is a walking testimonial for her products. She credits La Bella Donna's signature product - Loose Mineral Foundation. "I never go out without my minerals," explains Kathy, who has always been in the public eye. The New York native, a former model, continued to work sporadically while raising her two children (son; David and daughter, La Bella Donna co-founder Nicole Tracy) in Los Angeles. 

 

"I've always been involved in fashion. After David was born, I wanted to have flexibility, so I made the transition from modeling to wardrobe consulting, which evolved into image consulting. I worked for private clients and for corporations and I needed to look good - it was my business. But I started to have trouble with makeup. I have sensitive skin and I'm of Italian descent, which means that I have an unusual skin tone. Unfortunately, makeup would turn colour on me within an hour -it required constant touching up. Either it looked mask-like or it would fade away. I gave up on traditional foundations and became a sun-worshipper because I looked better with a suntan - it looked like makeup. Well, now we know what that does to the skin. I developed hyper-pigmentation and excessive dryness, and because of my colouring was not a good candidate for a peel. I was very frustrated." 

 

At the same time, Nicole, who was in college, was modeling and developed adult acne. Their personal makeup challenges led the mother-daughter team to develop a foundation to meet their own high standards: no known irritants; superior, long-lasting coverage; colour that stays true; appropriate and beneficial for all ages and skin types (Kathy and Nicole have very different skin complexions). The result, La Bella Donna Loose Mineral Foundation, launched in 1994, has made them pioneers in the mineral makeup movement. 

  

Nicole Tracy doesn't have to worry about acne any more. Although the co-founder of La Bella Donna Cosmetics currently spends more time behind a desk running a national cosmetics company than in front of a camera, she and her mother, Kathy, remain La Bella Donna's best advertisements. "Between my mother - who had her own problems with makeup - and me, we had drawers full of makeup we couldn't wear because of all the FD&C dyes, oil or alcohol, talc, fragrance and preservatives," says Nicole, who joined forces with Kathy in 1994 to develop a makeup formula that worked for both of them. "We especially wanted to bridge the gap between wellness and beauty; we didn't set out to create a 'natural' makeup, because those don't necessarily give you the coverage you need in shades close to your own skin tone," she explains. A savvy businesswoman, Nicole, who grew up in Los Angeles, relocated to her native New York in 1998 to establish an East Coast presence for La Bella Donna. She developed the line while completing her studies at the University of Southern California, from which she received a B.S. degree in Communications and Business. Nicole currently resides in Los Angeles,

California with her husband and two children.

    

White Tiger Facts for Kids

 

1. What is a White Tiger

* White Tiger is a rare form of Bengal Tiger with a unique (recessive) gene inherited to it from its parents. It is due to the presence of this gene which gives it a white color.

* A white tiger is not a sub-specie of tiger.

* It is also not the albino form (the form in which hair and skin pigmentation is absent.

* White tigers are born only when two bengal tigers that possess a recessive gene (gene that affect the coat color) are bred together.

 

2. Where does the White Tiger Come From

* Currently there are no white tigers in the wild. The entire white tiger population in the world lives in captivity.

* White tigers were found in the wild in India. The last white tiger captured in the wild was in back in May 1950s.

* It is believed that the today’s entire population of white tiger has been generated from this one single white tiger.

* Since then all the white tigers have been born by inbreeding father to daughter and granddaughter and so on. This was done to retain the recessive gene that controls the fur color.

 

3. When was the First White Tiger Found

* The first sighting of white tiger ever recorded was in between AD 48-1000. Seven white tigers were found Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan & Guangdong, China.

 

4. Where was First White Tiger Found in India

* The first sighting of white tiger ever recorded in India is in Akbar Nama ( a chronicle maintained by the Mughal King Akbar). Two white tigers were

sighted in 1561 near Gwalior, India.

 

5. What does a White Tiger Look Like – White Tiger Description

 

White Tiger Coat

*White tiger is lighter in color than the common Bengal Tiger.

* Its coat is light cream in color and has grey and light brown stripes.

 

White Tiger Face

* White tiger face is similar in shape to that of other bengal tigers. They are only different in colors. The face fur is white and its nose is rose-pink. The color of its eyes is also different from the other bengal tigers.

 

White Tiger Eyes

* White tigers have very beautiful sapphire blue eyes which makes their look more exotic.

* However, their eyes can also be green or amber.

 

6. White Tiger Classification – White Tiger Scientific Name – White Tiger Taxonomy

* White tiger is a bengal tiger having different color, so it classification, taxonomy and scientific name is same as that of Bengal Tiger.

* Its scientific name is Panthera tigris tigris.

* It is also known as White Bengal Tiger.

 

7. White Tiger Characteristics

White Tiger Special Features

* The striking feature of white tiger is the color of its fur. This color is due to absence of a color pigment pheomelanin, which is possessed by the orange colored Bengal tigers.

* Another special feature of white tiger is the sapphire blue color of its eyes which gives it a stunning look.

* When compared to the normal orange colored bengal tigers, white tigers grow faster and are more heavier.

* At the age of 2 or 3 years the white tigers are fully grown.

 

White Tiger Size

White tigers are bigger in size than the orange bengal tigers at birth and in adulthood.

How much does a White Tiger Weigh – White Tiger Weight

Adult White male tigers weigh around 190 to 260 kilograms (420 to 570 pounds)

Adult female white tigers average weight is about 158 kilograms (350 pounds).

 

How Tall is a White Tiger – White Tiger Height

The shoulder height of white tiger is about 80 to 110 cms (31 – 43 inches)

 

How long is a White Tiger – White Tiger Length

The head to tail length of male White Tiger is about 8 to 10.2 feet ( 2.4 to 3.1 metres)

Females head to tail length is about 7.1 to 8.5 feet ( 2.1 and 2.6 metres).

 

How Fast is a White Tiger

The top speed of white tiger is 96 km/h (60 miles per hour).

 

White Tiger Lifespan

White tigers lifespan is between 10 to 20 years.

 

Source: kidzfeed.com/white-tiger-facts-for-kids/

   

I found this specimen, the only known at the time, in the low rocky intertidal at the south end of Carpinteria beach on 8 May 2008. The specimen was 33 mm long extended, with the delicate tail alone accounting for 14 mm of the total length.

 

In September 2010, this species was named after me by Terry Gosliner (Gosliner TM (2010) Two new species of nudibranch mollusks from the coast of California. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences 61:623-631).

 

This species is characterized externally by its smooth rhinophores, long tail and cephalic tentacles, pointed foot corners, red and orange tipped cerata, and lack of pigmentation on the head, body and tentacles.

 

I would of course love to hear about any new finds of this species!

Skin Peels work by removing dead skin cells and encouraging new ones to grow, leading to a fresher, more glowing you. The procedures are used all over the world to treat skin problems such as wrinkles and lines, acne scars, hyper-pigmentation, and sun damage - the results can be life-transforming! Whatever your skin dilemma, there’s sure to be a peel to suit.

  

EMPIRE MAKEOVER

 

Unisex Salon & Make Up Studio

 

Shop No. 11,Citypride Complex,Sector 25, Sindhu Nagar,

Pradhikaran,Nigdi,Pune – 411 044

 

Mob - +91 9923 809 274

 

Tel - 020 2765 1002

 

E –mail – enquiry@empiremakeover.com

   

Profile of a beautiful white tiger in Vegas

Price : Rs. 495.00

Pack Size: 50 gms

 

Description:

The demands on every second of life could rob you of time to care for your skin. We understand - and that is why our Instant Illumination Face Pack is the solution for healthy, plump, hydrated, and even toned skin that glows. The pack is an exotic mix of Chandan (sandalwood), Neem, Multani Mitti (Fuller’s Earth), Aloe Vera, Coriander and Vetiver – all aimed at giving your face the glow that will turn heads and leave you feeling elated.

 

Key Ingredients:

Visible ‘glowing’ Effects and Key Ingredients

 

Skin Purifying and Mood Uplifting Sandalwood

Sandalwood is known for its antiseptic, purifying, toning, cooling, and soothing qualities – needed to combat the ‘torture’ of stress, poor eating habits, and pollution. Additionally, it helps to tighten pores, and the anti-inflammatory properties soothe and repair the damage caused by acne and sunburn.

 

Skin Toning and Blemish Free with Neem

Neem is nature’s warrior and helps to make the skin soft, supple, natural looking, and healthy. The anti-fungal properties lighten scars and reduce pigmentation caused by acne. This wonder ingredient reduces and eliminates pimples to reveal a younger and radiant you.

 

Deep Cleansing and Gentle Nourishment of Multani Mitti

Fuller’s Earth or Multani Mitti has oil-absorbing properties which leave your skin glowing without the oily feel and look. It is effective to speed up the healing process of acne, improving the health and toning of the skin. It leaves your skin feeling air-whipped and exuberant.

 

Other Key Ingredients

 

Aloe Vera – this gift of nature helps to moisturize and heal dry and flaky skin. It not only soothes irritated skin, but helps with signs of ageing, fights acne, reduces blemishes, and eliminates dark circles and puffiness.

 

Vetiver is a natural moisturizer, reduces stretch marks and dark spots – revealing a younger and glowing complexion.

 

Coriander contains antioxidants, skin friendly minerals, and Vitamin C. Apart from its cooling properties it is also a potent ingredient that is an antiseptic with anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, disinfectant, detoxifier, and anti-inflammatory. It leaves your skin feeling hydrated and supple.

 

Usage:

Cleanse your skin

 

Wet hands, take a generous amount of the pack and form a smooth paste

 

Apply the paste in a press and release motion, taking care to avoid the eyes and the skin around them

 

Let it dry

 

Rinse Well with Warm Water, and pat dry

 

Suitable For:

All Skin Types – men and women

 

Perfect Solution for Dull, Dry, and Sagging Skin

 

Use of 2-3 times a week

 

Before any function or important event to look your best

  

Why it’s good:

Long lasting and visible effects

 

All Natural Ingredients

 

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Url: fizzyfern.com/products/anti-ageing-brightening-night-cream

 

A bird, colored blue, beak closed, uncertain species, shown possibly perched or possibly rising on a downstroke, on or from rocks placed in a flower bed including wild roses, lilies of genus Pancratium, vetch, and other flowers. Part of the same band as the Monkeys Fresco in the House of the Frescos; hence, also called the Monkeys and Blue Birds Fresco.

From:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Aegean_frescos

 

Overview of rooms in the museum:

The museum, as it is now, is completely renewed. Old information about rooms and their numbers are still not updated, not even in Wikipedia. They mention twenty rooms, and their names, but there are 27 rooms, XXVII

Maybe wiki will update their page soon, as it is in October 2015, it is not updated.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion_Archaeological_Museum

 

~

 

This serial of photos offers an impression of details of the collection with Minoan Art, belonging to the Palace of Knossos. the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion has been completely renewed. Lots of amazing information can be read next to art objects.

 

It is not allowed to use flash when making photos. This, and the many visitors made it hardly possible to make really sharp photos in some seconds.

My camera is a rather cheap one and creates curved lines.

Some photos are not sharp, but I kept them anyway.

Altogether it has been a deeply impressing visit, moving, deeply moving because of the mystical, spiritual, mental and emotional depth of the Art.

The Minoans were utterly creative.

Their art is comparable with our modern art. Their use of colors makes the art characteristic: pastel colors (modest in pigmentation), terra colors, with blue, green and ochre.

 

Often I edited the photos in several ways. Or cropped them, to attract the attention for details.

 

Enjoy the collection of photos. If you want to read more about the Minoans:

www.heraklion-crete.org/archaeological-museum/

   

Nyah is part of Inamorata Vitiligo collection that celebrates the beauty of this unique type of pigmentation. The collection consists of three dolls in Chocolate resin: Nyah (Nnaji sculpt), Nala (Nnaji sculpt) and Imani (Nubia sculpt).

 

Nala has one blue and one brown eye, black lashes, red glossy lips and vitiligo pigmentation. The white lingerie is from Inamorata Cherub LE30 from 2013.

 

The jewellery and dolls are available for sale in my shop at emiliacouture.com/shop/

Progne subis. This is the largest swallow in North America. You might think that the setting in front of a nest box is not very photogenic. However, almost the entire eastern population of this species nests in artificial nestboxes erected especially for them. Hardly any nest in their original natural nest sites which were holes in trees. Although humans have helped Purple Martins by providing these nest boxes, they have also introduced Starlings and House Sparrows from Europe. These are both invasive species and are aggressive and compete for nest holes with the Purple Martin. The purple colour of this species is like many species with iridescent plumage, cause by light refracting through tiny structures in the feathers rather than by pigmentation. The all-dark plumage identifies this as a male. I photographed this one at Cape May Point State Park where there is a thriving colony next to the car park.

Laguna Colorada (Red Lagoon) is a shallow salt lake in the southwest of the altiplano of Bolivia, within Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve and close to the border with Chile.

 

The lake contains borax islands, whose white color contrasts with the reddish color of its waters, which is caused by red sediments and pigmentation of some algae.

 

Laguna Colorada is one of the Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention signed in 1971.

 

James's Flamingos abound in the area. Also it is possible to find Andean and Chilean flamingos, but in a minor quantity.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

-----

 

We took the backward route from Tupiza northwards to the Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa and further to Salar de Uyuni salt plain; snow-covered volcanoes at the horizon line, red-coloured rocks and sand, colorful lagunas, and slow 4WD journey through the land of thin air - that's Bolivia southern part of Altiplano.

 

Laguna Colorada is most likely the most stunning of the colorful lakes; we spent there a night and thus got a chance for slow silent walks around, admiring its unforgettable stunning beauty...

Female L. obtusata.

Goodwin & Fish (1977) wrote that the colour of the female's ovipositor is “to varying degrees black pigmented” on L. obtusata, while that on L. fabalis “lacks pigmentation” in 99% of cases in Wales. Reid (1996) stated that it is not so in all areas.

This specimen has an ovipositor that is pigmentless at the posterior (1) shading forwards through yellow and orange to dark brown at the anterior (2), so fits neither description precisely. It is closest to that of L. obtusata, and as the shell size, form and colour matched that of males of that species (penes checked) found with it on the same patch of Ascophyllum, and, on this sheltered beach, the L. fabalis on Fucus serratus were of the most distinctly different shell form and size, there is no doubt that this female is L. obtusata.

Shell height 12.6 mm. Menai Strait, North Wales. September 2016.

Full account at: flic.kr/p/RcvnFf

Sets of OTHER SPECIES:

www.flickr.com/photos/56388191@N08/collections/

Mōlī (Laysan Albatross)

This mōlī is leucistic, which is a condition that involves a partial loss of pigmentation.

 

Photo by Jordan Akiyama/USFWS

Learn more about Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge and Battle of Midway National Memorial: www.fws.gov/refuge/midway-atoll

 

Virescence refers to an abnormal development of green pigmentation within plant parts that are not normally green, such as shoots or flowers.

 

Virescence is closely associated with phyllody (the abnormal development of flower parts into leaves) and witches' broom (the abnormal growth of a dense mass of shoots from a single point).

 

These are often symptoms of the same disease affecting a plant and typically caused by phytoplasmas.

 

Here, the pathogen may be Aster yellows phytoplasma (AYP).

photo courtesy Benn Bell

 

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he once did tell

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everlasting friendship

in the soul of an embryonic cell

mr black and mr white

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did dwell

now at flicker

away from

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ipernity I bid farewell

politicization of a mans skin

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pigmentation

under a magical spell

who will be the next US President

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they yell

Pleosporales Luttr. ex M.E. Barr (order)

EN: ? DE: ?

Slo.: ?

 

Dat.: April 5. 2017

Lat.: 46.35942 Long.: 13.69699

Code: Bot_1046/2017_DSC7333

 

Habitat: : mountain scree slope, southeast aspect; open, sunny, dry place; calcareous ground; exposed to direct rain; elevation 680 m; average temperature 6-8 deg C, average precipitations ~3.000 mm/year; alpine phytogeographical region.

 

Substratum: dead, rotten trunk of Fagus sylvatica lying on ground.

 

Place: Lower Trenta valley; between villages Soča and Trenta, right bank of river Soča near lower hunter's trail from Na Melu place to Lemovlje, below Na skalah settlement, East Julian Alps, Posočje, Slovenia EC.

 

Comments: This ascomycete remains a secret for me. It appears to have perithecioid ascomata with occasionally papillate apex, cellular pseudoparaphyses, bitunicate (hope so) and clavate/cylindrical 8-spore asci, ascospores with pigmentation and several septa and peridium composed of a few layers of cells. Thus it possibly belongs to fungi order Pleosporales Luttr. ex M.E. Barr. This order comprises tens of families and thousands of species. I searched for species, which stain decaying wood reddish/purplish. I browsed through short descriptions of about 160 species studied in the paper of Zhang et al. (2009) (Table:1). Several species, which stain substratum reddish, are cited, but none fits to this observation. It is also possible that my assumption about Pleosporales is completely wrong and this find is something totally different. Hard to manage is also the fact that the traditional taxonomy based exclusively on morphology has been overturned drastically by recent molecular studies. Hense proper naming of species (even genera and families) is confusing for an amateur. Unfortunately, there was no response from AscoFrance forum either. Any help would be much appreciated.

 

Spores smooth, septated; from 3 to 7 septa, AVG = 4.5, SD = 0.9, N = 80. Dimensions: 19,4 [24,5 ; 26,5] 31,6 x 5,2 [6 ; 6,3] 7,1 microns; Q = 3,1 [4 ; 4,4] 5,2; N = 40; C = 95%; Me = 25,5 x 6,1 microns; Qe = 4,2. Olympus CH20, NEA 100x/1.25, magnification 1.000 x, oil (asci tip, perithecia wall); NEA 40x/0.65, magnification 400x (spores, asci), in water; fresh material. Novex, Zoom Stereo RZ_Range, Holland (perithecia). AmScope MA500 digital camera.

 

Herbarium: Mycotheca and lichen herbarium (LJU-Li) of Slovenian Forestry Institute, Večna pot 2, Ljubljana, Index Herbariorum LJF

 

Ref.:

(1) Zhang, Y. et al. “Multi-Locus Phylogeny of Pleosporales: A Taxonomic, Ecological and Evolutionary Re-Evaluation.” Studies in Mycology 64 (2009): 85–102–S5. PMC. Web. (accessed: Dec. 30. 2017).

(2) fungi.myspecies.info/all-fungi/massariosphaeria (accessed Dec. 24. 2017)

(3) www.asturnatura.com/especie/massariosphaeria-typhicola.html (accessed Dec. 24. 2017)

(4) www.sites.google.com/site/funghiparadise/home (accessed Dec. 24. 2017)

(5) MO Observation 84963

  

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The equivalent of albinism in animals, erythrism results from the inheritance of two recessive genes for the absence of pigmentation. Normally the katydid colour palette runs the gamut of greens, browns and yellows, colours which keep them camouflaged and aid in their survival. Although it has been hypothesized that pink coloration may increase survival rates amongst red vegetation it is much more likely that the genetic anomaly decreases fitness by increasing the insect's visibility to predators. Therefore it is likely that most individuals with this condition don't survive long and rarely make it to adulthood, which made this discovery all the more noteworthy. Found during a night hike in Vohimana reserve, Madagascar.

Ambas apresentam a síndrome de Waadenburg. Uma síndrome não tão rara e que é apresentada também em humanos.

A Síndrome de Waanderburg, descrita em 1951 pelo oftalmologista e geniticista holandês J.P. Waanderburg é uma condição autossômica dominante.

 

Os sinais clínicos são:

- deslocamento lateral do canto interno dos olhos,

- raiz nasal proeminente e alargada,

hiperplasia da porção medial dos supercílios,

- mecha branca frontal,

- heterocromia total ou parcial da íris (um olho azul outro escuro),

- surdez congênita.

 

Mais informações busque: Martins, C.H.F. et alli, Rev. Bras. de Otorrinolaringol. V69, n1, 117-9, jan - fev 2003.

disponível em:

www.scielo.br/pdf/rboto/v69n1/a19v69n1.pdf

_______________________

 

Waadenburg´s Syndrome, first described in 1951 by J.P. Waanderburg, is an autossomal dominant condition.

The clinical signis are lateral displacement of the inner canthi of the yees, confluent eyebrows, brad and proiminent nasal root, pigmentation changes of the irises and skin (one eye blue and another dark ), sensorineural deafness, white forelock or early graying of the hair.

 

For more information: Martins, C.H.F. et alli, Rev. Bras. de Otorrinolaringol. V69, n1, 117-9, jan - fev 2003.

or visit:

www.scielo.br/pdf/rboto/v69n1/a19v69n1.pdf

 

Geelbekneushoringvoel

(Tockus leucomelas)

 

Geelbekneushoringvoel

 

(Tockus leucomelas)

 

The southern yellow-billed hornbill (Tockus leucomelas) is a hornbill found in southern Africa. Yellow-billed hornbills feed mainly on the ground, where they forage for seeds, small insects, spiders and scorpions. This hornbill species is a common and widespread resident of dry thornveldt and broad-leafed woodlands. They can often be seen along roads and water courses.

 

It is a medium-sized bird, 48–60 centimetres (19–24 in) in length, 132–242 grams (0.291–0.534 lb) in weight and is characterized by a long yellow and down-curved beak. This beak is huge in comparison to its body and can account for up 1/6th of the entire body length. Male beaks are on average 90 mm long while female beaks are an average of 74 mm. Males are generally bigger than females but there is overlap between the sexes. The size difference of the beak is a fairly reliable way of differentiating sex in wild hornbills.

 

The casque that characterizes all hornbills is of a very modest size in the southern yellow-billed hornbill. It is small, but it covers almost the entire length of the beak in males (less so in females), and may give the impression that they do not actually have a casque. As in all hornbills, the size of the beak actually intrudes on the frontal vision of the bird and the first two neck vertebrae are fused together.

 

Also, like most other hornbills, they possess a long tail, long eyelashes, stubby legs and stubby toes. The front three toes are fused together near the base.

 

They have white belly, grey neck, and black back plumage with abundant white spots and stripes. The neck has gray spots and the chest is lightly striated with black. Southern yellow-billed hornbills have no plumage pigmentation save for melanin, which can only produce shades of black and white.[2] The eyes are usually yellow, though brown has also been seen. The skin around the eyes and in the malar stripe is pinkish. The related eastern yellow-billed hornbill from north-eastern Africa has blackish skin around the eyes.

 

The southern yellow-billed hornbill is active during morning, day and evening. At night, it will sleep high in a tree so it won’t be preyed on. They can be found alone, in couples or in small groups. They generally tend to be loners unless it is breeding season, nesting season or if there is local migration during dry season.

 

The southern yellow-billed hornbill is often seen searching for food on the ground or in shrubs. It will not dig the ground, but it will overturn debris to find insects. It can also be seen pursuing insects by hopping heavily after it.

 

They are generally sedentary and they will defend their territories with elaborate displays. However, during the dry season, they will sometimes range widely in order to find food. Couples are usually monogamous and have a clear division of labour between males and females.

 

They have been known to live for up to 20 years in captivity, though their longevity in the wilds remains unknown.

 

Wikipedia

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To the casual observer the massive Marabou Stork with its balding, scabby head and pendulous pink air sac may appear to be one of the ugliest creatures in the world. If this same observer were to notice the Marabou's fondness for carrion and its habit of squirting excrement onto its own legs he or she would probably consider the original opinion to be justified. It takes a real bird lover to see past all of this stork's bizarre adornments to recognize the scruffy charm underneath.

 

The most distinctive feature of the Marabou is the nearly bald, spotted, scab-encrusted head, with its huge meat-cleaver bill. Dark, wispy hair-like feathers are scattered sparsely across the head, neck, and nape. The bare skin of the head and neck is predominantly pink to magenta in color, with spots of darker pigmentation concentrating around the face and extending down into the upper portion of the horn-colored bill. In breeding season the back of the neck turns a beautiful pale blue-green, and the spots on the face and forehead become encrusted with dried blood.

 

African Lion Safari is a Canadian owned family business created in the name of conservation. Their manner of exhibiting animals is completely different from the traditional approach; that is, the visitor is caged in the car, and the animals roam in 2 to 20 hectare (5 to 50 acre) reserves.

 

African Lion Safari first opened their gates to the public in 1969 with 40 lions in 3 reserves; today the park houses in excess of 1000 animals of over 100 species. After 40 years they have been successful with breeding 30 species that are considered endangered, and 20 or more species that are considered threatened. The original idea of "maintaining self-sustaining populations of species in decline" is still their priority.

 

Courtesy of African Lion Safari

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Disclaimer: Image and Description were provided by UNO Intl. Corp