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Head and initial part of the body of an immature zebrafish, viewed from above (eyes at left). Neurons (white spots) send signals to the spinal cord and coordinate the body’s movement. Researchers are studying a subset of these neurons that help maintain balance and posture.
Credit: Richard Roberts, Ph.D., Washington University School of Medicine
NIH support from: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
CRISPR/Cas9 engineering was used in mouse embryonic stem cells to insert a GFP tag in frame with the motor-neuron-specific transcription factor HB9. These cells were differentiated into motor neurons. The resulting motor neuron nuclei are labeled with the GFP reporter (green) and counterstained with antibodies against the neuronal marker Tuj1 (red).
Credit: T. Macfarlan, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH
A fluorescent microscopic image of hundreds of human embryonic stem cells in various stages of differentiation into neurons. Some cells have become neurons (red), while others are still precursors of nerve cells (green). The yellow is an imaging artifact that results when cells in both stages are on top of each other.
The image was taken in the lab of Guoping Fan at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Learn more about CIRM-funded stem cell research: www.cirm.ca.gov
A newborn mouse cochlea (purple) grown in cell culture, and neurons (orange) that send information from the cochlea to the brain. The cochlea is the hearing organ of the inner ear. Researchers are using these miniature structures to learn how individual cell types work, and to test potential therapies for hearing loss.
Credit: Taha A. Jan, M.D., and Mirko Scheibinger, Ph.D., Marine Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Hole, Biology of the Inner Ear Course
NIH support from: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
Photo © Tristan Savatier - All Rights Reserved - License this photo on www.loupiote.com/3909473516
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Soma, created by the Flaming Lotus Girls, captures the essence of a neuron. Spinning balls of fire act as nuclei within the dodecahedron cell bodies. Dendrites extend up into the sky and reach down to the earth, emitting constant flame and color changing light. Along her axon, extend eighteen individually controlled fire effects across the stainless steel arch with sequenced LEDs on the underside.
For more information about this art installation, go to www.flaminglotus.com/
Photo taken at the Burning Man 2009 festival (Black Rock Desert, Nevada).
If you like this photo, follow me on instagram (tristan_sf) and don't hesitate to leave a comment or email me.
Signals called neuregulin (red) and ErbB4 (green) are captured in neurons. The cell nucleus (magenta) and MAP2 (blue) also are shown. Credit: T. Ahmed and A. Buonanno, NICHD
Microscopy of induced stem cells. Neuron precursors typically form a "rosette" structure that is seen here. Learn more: go.usa.gov/c7pmA.
Credit: K. Francis, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health
Pregnant, constipated and bloated? Fly poo may tell you why
www.bbsrc.ac.uk/news/health/2011/110107-pr-fly-poo.aspx
Fruit fly droppings give insight into human gut problems
www.admin.cam.ac.uk/news/dp/2011010501
Fly poo never looked so beautiful
wellcometrust.wordpress.com/2011/01/06/fly-poo/
Enteric neurons and systemic signals couple nutritional and reproductive status with intestinal homeostasis.
by: Paola Cognigni, Andrew P. Bailey, Irene Miguel-Aliaga
Cell metabolism, Vol. 13, No. 1. (5 January 2011), pp. 92-104. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2010.12.010
Axons transmit information within the nervous system. Let me start with one of the central concepts of neuroscience, the neuron doctrine, first proposed by (Santiago Ramón y Cajal ): discrete cells make up the nervous system. These cells are neurons; they are made up of dendrites, soma, and axons. In general, information flows from axons to dendrites.
In my mental model of a neuron, dendrites are receivers or input devices, and it integrates excitatory or inhibitory inputs received from other neurons.
I think of the dendrite inputs as analog signals; they continuously vary over time. The soma is a central processor that controls the form and function of the neuron. The axons are analog to digital converters and transmitters. The axon initial segment produces a digital action potential ("spike") when the summation of the voltages within the neuron are above a threshold. The action potential is a one-tenth of a volt electrical signal that travels down an axon at speeds up to about 100 meters per second. Myelin sheaths cover many axons; this increases the speed a signal can travel down an axon. The myelinated axons make up the white matter of the brain. Also, signals go faster when the axon diameter is larger.
The function and form of axons varies, here are a few basic categories Figure 1.1, [Examples (A-F) of the rich...]. (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10976/figure/A48/)
References
Khan Academy has many wonderful videos, here are three that will be very useful to understand the function of an axon
1. Neuron action potential description (www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-s...)
2. Effects of axon diameter and myelination (www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-s...)
3. Action potential patterns (www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-s...)
The textbook I used in Neuroscience class was:
Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Hall, W. C., LaMantia, A.-S., & White, L. E. (2012). Neuroscience (5th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. There is a searchable version of the second edition of Neuroscience (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10799/)
My own model of neurons has been shaped by listening to a class by Idan Segev Synapses, Neurons and Brains (Coursera)
Answer to a Quora question www.quora.com/What-is-the-function-of-axons-How-is-it-use...
IMG_20160926_090044
Interneurons create circuits that enable communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system. Here, numerous subpopulations of interneurons (green) are present in a section of a mouse hippocampus. Credit: NICHD
4 more finch neurons. the small one in the middle is an interneuron; the rest are projection neurons in RA.
A me la neve fa scattare il neurone numero Uno (o Due…non ricordo mai quale è), comunque quello a cui si è fermata la crescita a tre anni, per intenderci.
Al primo fiocco di neve smette di ciucciarsi il dito e sgrana gli occhioni.
Al secondo fiocco comincia a saltellare intorno e gridare nevicanivicanevicanevica, e smette solo quando il neurone numero Due (o Uno…vabbè, l’altro) gli arriva uno scappellotto sulla testa.
Al terzo fiocco di neve ha già indossato berretto di lana con pon pon, giaccone, guanti, moon boot e dice ‘vado a fare le palate’.
Se i fiocchi sono più di sette, il neurone numero Uno (o Due, insomma quello lì) tira fuori lo slittino.
Questa mattina c’erano mille mila fiocchi di neve,
così il neurone-quello-lì ha cominciato a zampettare intorno e io con lui, abbiamo svegliato la casa, tirato giù dal letto l’altro neurone, più coniuge e figliuolo, ci siamo vestiti come palombari, alle 7,30 eravamo già per la strada, con il figliuolo a dire ‘mà, sei felice, eh? Però se nevica anche domani e mi svegli alle 6,00 posso picchiarti?’ che non è carino, secondo me.
Adesso ha smesso di nevicare, di fuori non c’è quasi traccia di neve, e il neurone-quello-lì è tutto abbacchiato, che sospira e suda dentro il giaccone.
‘Amemi’ fa tanta tenerezza, il neurone-quello-lì.
Speriamo che nevichi un altro pochettino, che non si può guardare, un neurone triste.
Poverino lui.
E poverina me, che sono vestita come una palombara, e qui dentro ci saranno 800°…
"Why Files” 2015 Cool Science Image Contest winning photo by Scott Vermilyea, Neuroscience Training Program, School of Medicine and Public Health and neurobiology undergraduate Scott Guthrie, with SCRMC members Ted Golos and Marina Emborg, professors in the School of Medicine and Public Health and Wisconsin National Primate Research Center. Golos is also a faculty member in the School of Veterinary Medicine.
Funding from the NIH Office of Research and Structured Programs (ORIP) to the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center to explore stem cell related solutions for Parkinson’s disease.
This image was chosen as a winner of the 2016 NIH funded research image call.
This image is not owned by the NIH. It is shared with the public under license. If you have a question about using or reproducing this image, please contact the creator listed in the credits. All rights to the work remain with the original creator.
Credit: Scott Vermilyea, Neuroscience Training Program, School of Medicine and Public Health and neurobiology undergraduate Scott Guthrie, with SCRMC members Ted Golos and Marina Emborg, professors in the School of Medicine and Public Health and Wisconsin National Primate Research Center.
NIH funding from: Office of Research Infrastructure Programs
Martín Adrover measures dopamine release from neurons in live brain tissue under a microscope using an electrochemical technique called cyclic voltammetry.
Read more about the research: irp.nih.gov/our-research/research-in-action/a-conviction-...
Credit: National Institutes of Health
LOOK KG 243 racer from late 1990's built with Columbus Neuron steel. Components are generally 2000's - but a mix of new and old.
Photo: Thomas Ohlsson Photography
www.thomasohlsson.com | 500px | Facebook | Flickr | Instagram
A modular design of bioengineered brain-like cortical tissues. The approach consisted of a modular design of silk protein-based porous scaffolds dyed with food color. Each layer was seeded with different primary rat cortical neurons.
Credit: National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health
Intense neural conversations thought to underlie learning and memory may be fueled by an energy-sensing feedback loop. Scientist monitored energy levels in the form of ATP as neurons talked to each other.
Read the NIH news release: www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-scientists-reve...
Credit: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke/NIH
neurons are most striking when they seem astronomical.
for grins, and to test a new technique, dye-coated tungsten particles were shot into a plate of primary neural culture with a gene-gun. the more diffuse, amorphous cells are glia (astrocytes), the smaller more varicose ones are neurons (probably only visable if the picture is viewed at a large size).
Researchers used the gene editing tool CRISPR to rapidly search the entire human genome for genetic suspects behind hereditary versions of ALS and FTD.
More info: www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/crispr-helps-find-n...
Credit: Gitler Lab, Stanford University
NIH support from: National Institute on Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
Type II neurons (green) in the mouse cochlea contact many hair cells, but make up only a small fraction of the neurons in the auditory nerve—the nerve that sends sound information from the ear to the brain. Scientists are just beginning to study the role of Type II neurons in hearing.
Credit: Pankhuri Vyas, Ph.D., and Jingjing Sherry Wu, Ph.D., The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
NIH support from: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders
This confocal microscope image was taken by Jeremy McIntyre, an NIH-supported researcher who studies the biology of smell at the University of Florida College of Medicine.
The image shows a thick mesh of neurons in a small cross section of a mouse’s olfactory bulb, a structure located in the forebrain of all vertebrates, that processes input about odors detected by the nose.
More info: directorsblog.nih.gov/2017/11/16/snapshots-of-life-making...
Credit: Jeremy McIntyre, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville
This image won 3rd prize in the University of Florida's 2016 Elegance of Science competition (Marston Science Library and Florida Museum of Natural History), Gainesville.
NIH support from: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders
Photo © Tristan Savatier - All Rights Reserved - License this photo on www.loupiote.com/9813352924
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This is "Drifts", an installation by Berkeley artist Michael Christian.
For more info about Michael Christian, go to michaelchristian.com.
Photo taken at the Burning Man 2013 festival (Black Rock Desert, Nevada).
If you like this photo, follow me on instagram (tristan_sf) and don't hesitate to leave a comment or email me.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1 May 1852 – 17 October 1934) was a Spanish histologist, physician, pathologist and Nobel laureate. His pioneering investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain were so original and influential that he is considered by many to be the greatest neuroscientist of all time.
ora,
dopo mesi di silenzio,
il mio amico flickeriano mezzo neurone si è fatto vivo,
con una delle sue e-mail:
'ma te sei di sinistra perché sei brutta e ti fai le canne?'
chi frequenta da poco questo stream non conosce il mio amico flickeriano mezzo neurone quindi non sa dell'affetto che ci lega:
quell'affetto profondo che ti fa dire:
'ma te, amico, sotto un treno mai eh?'
però il f.m.n. è uno che, con le sue domandine dolci come cicuta e fiele, riesce a farmi pensare.
e visto che io di neuroni ne ho solo due, bè, anche per me pensare non è che sia una passeggiata.
comunque, a parte che io le canne non me le faccio perché mi annoio a rollare cartine e preferisco farmi venire direttamente un tumore fumando le sigarette,
questa storia dell'essere brutta ha generato in me questa considerazione:
poniamo che l'elettorato italiano sia un uomo.
di quelli a cui piacciono le donne.
molto.
ora,
poniamo la Destra e la Sinistra come due donne.
la Destra la chiamiamo D e la Sinistra S, per comodità.
arriva la D.
strafiga, alta 1,75, tette da coppa di champagne, dure come cemento armato,
culetto di quelli da pubblicità degli slip,
capello lungo, lucido come se ci avessero appena passato sopra il lucido da scarpe.
bocca rossa, carnosa, ciglia che fanno flap flap.
indossa un vestitino leggero, semitrasparente e attillato.
all'elettorato viene la bava alla bocca...
arriva la S.
ciabatta in panno, calzettone al ginocchio color carne che però non nasconde la peluria invernale,
grossa, con le tette che arrivano simpaticamente alla cintura (regalo di reggiseni bruciati ai tempi della rivoluzione sessuale e del femminismo),
capello color topo e baffo.
l'elettorato sente svanire ogni voglia.
D:
- ciao caro.
so che sceglierai me, non puoi non farlo. io sono bella, sono sexy, ti farò provare sensazioni ineguagliabili, e non indosso biancheria intima (flapflap)
S:
- ciao caro.
io sono quella che ti porta i bambini a scuola, li accudisce, cura i tuoi interessi, pensa a te anche quando non ci sei. non puoi lasciarmi perché senza me come potrai sopravvivere a te stesso?
D:
- oddio, ma la vedi? è sciatta, brutta, vecchia" non sa divertirsi dice sempre le solite cose, e poi, insomma, dai...vuoi mettere me?
andremo in vacanza 8 mesi all'anno, ci abbronzeremo nei mari caraibici, andremo in montagna in inverno, ci ubriacheremo nei locali più fighi, e tu, con me, farai sempre la figura del macho....(flapflap)
S:
- caro, non ascoltarla: cerca solo i tuoi soldi li dilapiderà in meno di...5 anni, ti ruberà, ti prenderà in giro, gli servi solo perché, rincoglionito dalla sua bellezza, non chiederai che di vivere alla sua ombra...
io invece ti curerò, penserò alla tua vecchiaia, farò grandi i tuoi figli insegnando loro la rispettabilità, aiuterò i tuoi vecchi, non li abbandonerò....
D:
- oh ma che nnnnoia quella!
io ti porterò a ballare, a sognare, a vivere!
i tuoi soldi? comprerò solo abiti bellissimi per me, ma per toglierli davanti a te, perché tu possa godere poi della mia bellezza, solo per te...(flapflap)
S:
- non ascoltarla! ti lusinga ma è falsa! le sue tette sono di silicone, il suo culo non reggerà più di due anni ancora, la bellezza svanirà e non ti resterà che una donna senza nulla da dirti...non sa scrivere, non sa leggere, non capisce, non conosce...pensa al futuro!
D:
- amore mio, guardami: sono bella come mai nessuna delle donne che tu hai avuto, non leggo ma solo perché preferisco guardare il mondo e morderlo, non scrivo perché le uniche parole che mi servono sono quelle al miele che riservo a te...
puoi forse anche solo per un attimo dubitare sulla tua scelta?
poi,
a pochi giorni dal voto, nel vortice delle cose dette e fatte dalle due donne per conquistare l'uomo elettorato, il colpaccio:
D:
- amore...io ...te la dò! subito! appena vinceremo!
S:
- oh...bè...anche io te la dò...
ora,
diciamocelo,
che cavolo di possibilità aveva, la povera S, di vincere?
così ho risposto al mio flickeriano mezzo neurone:
"caro amico mio, io sono di Sinistra perché sono cogliona. però adesso scusami, ma ho fretta: ho fissato un appuntamento con l'estetista e pure con la dietologa. fosse mai che certe sfighe passassero dalla Sinistra ai suoi votanti...con immuttato affetto
tua
Lui"
This image shows distinct neural connections in a cross section of a mouse’s hippocampus, a region of the brain involved in the memory of facts and events. The large, crescent-shaped area in green is hippocampal zone CA1. Its highly specialized neurons, called place cells, serve as the brain’s GPS system to track location. In red is hippocampal zone CA2. It’s important for forming memories of social interactions. The blue area shows the transmission sites of nerve signals between neurons in the neighboring CA3 zone and dentate gyrus, part of the hippocampus involved in episodic memories.
More information: directorsblog.nih.gov/2017/09/21/snapshots-of-life-color-...
Credit: Raunak Basu, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
NIH funding from: National Institute of Mental Health