mycoplasma photos on Flickr

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This very attractive Trillium is infected with a plant disease.

I was excited to see this White-flowered Trillium (Large-flowered Trillium) in Northport, Michigan. I thought it was different species, or variety. Janet (jlst2i) thought it was bacterial disease. Janet was correct.

Phytoplasm (aka Mycoplasma-like bacteria) infects Trillium, and the result is the green stripes in the petals. This is an early symptom. Trillium being a perennial flower, the disease progresses each year until the petals are nearly totally green.

Whether it's the best of times or the worst of times, it's the only time we've got by Ben The Man

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- I've been abscent for awhile due to my Mycoplasma pneumoniae. My antibiotics did not work so I had to go to the hospital. Because this bacterium does not have a cell wall, it is not susceptible to antibiotics and there must be treated with an alternative medication. My pneumonia began with a viral respiratory infection. This was due to the American flu. I'm back home and recovering.

- Ik ben een tijdje inactief geweest op Flickr. Ik kreeg eerst de Amerikaanse griep gevolgd door een longonsteking. Antibiotica werkte niet toen naar ziekenhuis. Tijdens de wintermaanden komen longontstekingen met de bacterie vaker voor. Ik had Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Doordat deze bacterie geen celwand heeft, is hij niet gevoelig voor antibiotica en moet er behandeld worden met een alternatief medicijn. Nu eindelijke thuis. Ik heb echt een klap met de hamer gehad. Zo'n maand lang koorts gehad. Nu gelukkig hersteld.

Macro photo taken with a modified Canon EF35-80mm f/4-5.6 lens. Turn your old Kit Lens into a superb Macro lens by removing the front element. Give this old lens a new life. It's a macro shot of a Rolex Oyster Perpetual Watch. The most prestigious Rolex model since 1956.

At first glance, the Canon EF35-80mm f/4-5.6 seems like a very average lens. However, if you can look past the plastic mount, slow aperture, and cheap build quality, this lens is by far the best macro lens out there for its price. A simple modification is needed to turns this otherwise ordinary lens into a super-macro lens that works in a similar fashion to the Canon MP-E 65mm. I removed the front sticker, unscrewed 3 retaining screws, and removed the front 3 elements (the AF elements). Please check youtu.be/5a6n_OAmjSg With these elements removed, the lens is focused by either zooming it in/out or by moving the camera back/forth, just like one would do with the MP-E 65mm 1-5x macro lens. The loss of autofocus is hardly a concern since the camera will still tell you when you hit the currently selected focal point, so I tend to use those and shoot as soon as you hear the beep of your camera. After the mods, I would say that this lens goes from around 1:1.5 to ~2:1 life size magnification. Truly amazing results for something I bought for less than 25 EUR in an Used Product store. Indeed, even dedicated macro lenses can't exceed 1:1 magnification without using extension tubes. And, to make the deal even sweeter, you still get full electronic metering and aperture controls just like you would with any other EF lens. The focussing distance is tiny, at 35mm you have maybe 5cm and more like 2cm at 80mm, it's not a very easy lens to use, but this is what makes getting the good shots so much more rewarding! More 35-80 macro's can be found: www.flickr.com/groups/3580macro/

Trillium Grandiflorium . Green striped trillium. These have up till now only been seen in Bronte Creek provincial park in Canada. I found a few today in the openings. by Ron Young, Photos of nature, Ohio & SE Michigan. Nature Conservancy

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The green striped on the petals is caused by mycoplasmas ( parasite ) which is infecting the plant. The result is unusual but not uncommon.

Trillium-5508-j89 by Chris Davidson

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Trillium erectum

Pennsylvania

I have read that sometimes mutant plants with green striped petals are found in the Trillium species. From what I have read these plants are diseased or infected with parasitic mycoplasmas that cause the greening. It mentioned removing these Trilliums, before the mycoplasmas can spread to affect an entire colony.

If anyone cares to elaborate on this subject, please feel free to correct me or add more!!!

Heksenbezem by aly bolhuis

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Een heksenbezem is een vorm van woekering, waarbij uit een enkele groeitop zich een grote hoeveelheid groeitoppen ontwikkelen. De ziekte komt in veel verschillende plantensoorten voor en kan veroorzaakt worden door een aantal verschillende organismen. Meestal zijn dat Mycoplasma 's, soms schimmels.

In Nederland zijn heksenbezems vaak in berkenbomen (Betula pendula) te zien. De aangetaste boom maakt in een enkele tak een groot aantal zijtakjes, zodat met name in de herfst en winter een opvallende dichtere structuur in het silhouet van de boom te zien is. Deze afwijking wordt veroorzaakt door de schimmel Taphrina betulina (synoniem: Exoascus betulini). Men zou de ziekte bij oppervlakkige beschouwing voor een vogelnest kunnen houden.

(Wikipedia)

A witch's broom is a form of overgrowth, whereby from a single THAT POINT develop a large amount of growth buds. The disease occurs in many different plant species and may be caused by a number of different organisms. Mostly, these are mycoplasmas, sometimes fungi.

In the Netherlands, witch brooms often seen in birch trees (Betula pendula). The infested tree makes a single branch many side branches, so especially in the fall and winter to see a striking denser structure in the silhouette of the tree. This deviation is caused by the fungus Taphrina betulina (synonym: Exoascus betulini). One could keep the disease at first glance for a bird's nest.

Chukar by Zahoor Ahmed

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The chukar is the National bird of Pakistan, where its name is derived from chakor in Sanskrit. Literary mentions of it in the northern areas of the Indian subcontinent date back to the Rig Veda (c. 1700 BC).In North Indian and Pakistani culture, as well as in Indian mythology, the chukar sometimes symbolizes intense, and often unrequited, love. It is said to be in love with the moon and to gaze at it constantly.Because of their pugnacious behaviour during the breeding season they are kept in some areas as fighting birds.

The breeding season is summer. Males perform tidbitting displays, a form of courtship feeding where the male pecks at food and a female may visit to peck in response. The males may chase females with head lowered, wing lowered and neck fluffed. The male may also performs a high step stiff walk while making a special call. The female may then crouch in acceptance and the male mounts to copulate, while grasping the nape of the female. Males are monogamous. The nest is a scantily lined ground scrape, though occasionally a compact pad is created with a depression in the center. Generally, the nests are sheltered by ferns and small bushes, or placed in a dip or rocky hillside under an overhanging rock. About 7 to 14 eggs are laid.The eggs hatch in about 23–25 days. In captivity they can lay an egg each day during the breeding season if eggs are collected daily. Chicks join their parents in foraging and will soon join the chicks of other members of the covey.

Chukar will take a wide variety of seeds and some insects as food. It also ingests grit. In Kashmir, the seeds of a species of Eragrostis was particularly dominant in their diet while those in the US favoured Bromus tectorum.[Birds feeding on succulent vegetation make up for their water needs but visit open water in summer.

Chukar roost on rocky slopes or under shrubs. In winter, birds in the US selected protected niches or caves. A group may roost in a tight circle with their heads pointed outwards to conserve heat and keep a look out for predators.

Chukar are sometimes preyed on by golden eagles.

Birds in captivity can die from mycoplasma infection and outbreaks of other diseases such as Erysipelas

Egyptian vulture by Zahoor Ahmed

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Threats and conservation

Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by golden eagles, eagle owls,[61] and red foxes. Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away predators. Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed on by mammalian predators such as jackals, foxes and wolves. Like all birds they serve as hosts for ectoparasitic birdlice including Aegypoecus perspicuous as well as organisms that live within them such as mycoplasmas.

Immature (behind) and adult (from John Gould's Birds of Europe)

Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the Middle East, populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India, the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999.[67] In 1967–70, the area around Delhi was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per 10 km2. The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the NSAID Diclofenac, which has been known to cause death in Gyps vultures.

In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities. In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European population suggested causes of decline include poisoning by accumulation of lead, pesticides (especially due to large-scale use in the control of Schistocerca gregaria locust swarms), and electrocution. Windfarms may also pose a threat. Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute many wintering vultures. A shortage of carrion resulting from new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis in parts of Europe during 2000 may have also had an effect on some populations. In Armenia direct persecution for trophy and for local illegal trade of animal as pet has been recorded.

The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998. The Canarian Egyptian vulture was historically common, occurring on the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total population in 2000 was estimated at about 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs. Island birds also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The long-term effect of this poison at a sub-lethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the mineralization of their bones. In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds, attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However, these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity.

Bighorn Sheep (Ovis Canadensis) by HISTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

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The bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) is a species of sheep native to North America. It is named for its large horns. A pair of horns might weigh up to 14 kg (30 lb); the sheep typically weigh up to 143 kg (315 lb). Recent genetic testing indicates three distinct subspecies of Ovis canadensis, one of which is endangered: O. c. sierrae.

Sheep originally crossed to North America over the Bering Land Bridge from Siberia; the population in North America peaked in the millions, and the bighorn sheep entered into the mythology of Native Americans. By 1900, the population had crashed to several thousand due to diseases introduced through European livestock and overhunting.

Taxonomy and genetics

Ovis canadensis is one of two species of mountain sheep in North America; the other species being O. dalli, the Dall sheep. Wild sheep crossed the Bering land bridge from Siberia into Alaska during the Pleistocene (about 750,000 years ago); subsequently, they spread through western North America as far south as Baja California and northwestern mainland Mexico. Divergence from their closest Asian ancestor (snow sheep) occurred about 600,000 years ago. In North America, wild sheep diverged into two extant species — Dall sheep, which occupy Alaska and northwestern Canada, and bighorn sheep, which range from southwestern Canada to Mexico. However, the status of these species is questionable given that hybridization has occurred between them in their recent evolutionary history.

Subspecies

Former

In 1940, Ian McTaggart-Cowan split the species into seven subspecies, with the first three being mountain bighorns and the last four being desert bighorns:

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, O. c. canadensis, found from British Columbia to Arizona.

Badlands bighorn sheep (or Audubon's bighorn sheep), O. c. auduboni, occurred in North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana,

Wyoming, and Nebraska. This subspecies has been extinct since 1925.

California bighorn sheep, O. c. californiana, found from British Columbia south to California and east to North Dakota. The definition of this subspecies has been updated (see below).

Nelson's bighorn sheep, O. c. nelsoni, the most common desert bighorn sheep, ranges from California through Arizona.

Mexican bighorn sheep, O. c. mexicana, ranges from Arizona and New Mexico south to Sonora and Chihuahua.

Peninsular bighorn sheep O. c. cremnobates, occur in the Peninsular Ranges of California and Baja California

Weems' bighorn sheep, O. c. weemsi, found in southern Baja

Yellowstone National Park

Starting in 1993, Ramey and colleagues, using DNA testing, have shown this division into seven subspecies is largely illusory. Most scientists currently recognize three subspecies of bighorn. This taxonomy is supported by the most extensive genetics (microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA) study to date (2016) which found high divergence between Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep, and that these two subspecies both diverged from desert bighorn before or during the Illinoian glaciation (about 315–94 thousand years ago). Thus, the three subspecies of O. canadensis are:

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (O. c. canadensis) – occupying the U.S. and Canadian Rocky Mountains, and the Northwestern United States.

Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep (O. c. sierrae) – formerly California bighorn sheep, a genetically distinct subspecies that only occurs in the Sierra Nevada in California. However, historic observer records suggest that bighorn sheep may have ranged as far west as the California Coastal Ranges, which are contiguous to the Sierra Nevada via the Transverse Ranges. An account of "wild sheep" in the vicinity of the Mission San Antonio near Jolon, California and the mountains around San Francisco Bay dates to circa 1769.

Desert bighorn sheep (O. c. nelsoni) – occurring throughout the desert regions of the Southwestern United States and Northwestern Mexico. The 2016 genetics study suggested a more modest divergence of this desert bighorn sheep into three lineages consistent with the earlier work of Cowan: Nelson's (O. c. nelsoni), Mexican (O. c. mexicana), and Peninsular (O. c. cremnobates). These three lineages occupy desert biomes that vary significantly in climate, suggesting exposure to different selection regimens.

In addition, two populations are currently considered endangered by the United States government:

Description

Bighorn sheep are named for the large, curved horns borne by the rams (males). Ewes (females) also have horns, but they are shorter with less curvature. They range in color from light brown to grayish or dark, chocolate brown, with a white rump and lining on the backs of all four legs. Males typically weigh 58–143 kg (128–315 lb), are 90–105 cm (35–41 in) tall at the shoulder, and 1.6–1.85 m (63–73 in) long from the nose to the tail. Females are typically 34–91 kg (75–201 lb), 75–90 cm (30–35 in) tall, and 1.28–1.58 m (50–62 in) long. Male bighorn sheep have large horn cores, enlarged cornual and frontal sinuses, and internal bony septa. These adaptations serve to protect the brain by absorbing the impact of clashes. Bighorn sheep have preorbital glands on the anterior corner of each eye, inguinal glands in the groin, and pedal glands on each foot. Secretions from these glands may support dominance behaviors.

Bighorns from the Rocky Mountains are relatively large, with males that occasionally exceed 230 kg (500 lb) and females that exceed 90 kg (200 lb). In contrast, Sierra Nevada bighorn males weigh up to only 90 kg (198 lb) and females to 60 kg (132 lb). Males' horns can weigh up to 14 kg (30 lb), as much as all the bones in the male's body.

Natural history

The Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep occupy the cooler mountainous regions of Canada and the United States. In contrast, the desert bighorn sheep subspecies are indigenous to the hot desert ecosystems of the Southwestern United States and Mexico. Bighorn sheep inhabit alpine meadows, grassy mountain slopes, and foothill country near rugged, rocky cliffs and bluffs. Since bighorn sheep cannot move through deep snow, they prefer drier slopes, where the annual snowfall is less than about 150 cm (60 in) per year. A bighorn's winter range usually has lower elevations than its summer range.

Bighorn sheep are highly susceptible to certain diseases carried by domestic sheep, such as psoroptic scabies and pneumonia; additional mortality occurs as a result of accidents involving rock falls or falling off cliffs (a hazard of living in steep, rugged terrain). Bighorns are well adapted to climbing steep terrain, where they seek cover from predators. Predation primarily occurs with lambs, which are hunted by coyotes, bobcats, gray foxes, wolverines, jaguars, ocelots, lynxes, and golden eagles.

Bighorn sheep of all ages are threatened by black bears, grizzly bears, wolves, and especially mountain lions, which are perhaps best equipped with the agility to prey on them in uneven, rocky habitats. Fire suppression techniques may limit visibility through shrublands, and therefore increase cover and predation rates by mountain lions. Bighorn sheep are considered good indicators of land health because the species is sensitive to many human-induced environmental problems. In addition to their aesthetic value, bighorn sheep are considered desirable game animals by hunters.

Bighorn sheep graze on grasses and browse shrubs, particularly in fall and winter, and seek minerals at natural salt licks. Females tend to forage and walk, possibly to avoid predators and protect lambs, while males tend to eat and then rest and ruminate, which lends to more effective digestion and greater increase in body size.

Social structure and reproduction

Bighorn sheep live in large herds and do not typically follow a single leader ram, unlike the mouflon, the ancestor of the domestic sheep, which has a strict dominance hierarchy. Before the mating season or "rut", the rams attempt to establish a dominance hierarchy to determine access to ewes for mating. During the prerut period, most of the characteristic horn clashing occurs between rams, although this behavior may occur to a limited extent throughout the year. Bighorn sheep exhibit agonistic behavior: two competitors walk away from each other and then turn to face each other before jumping and lunging into headbutts. Rams' horns can frequently exhibit damage from repeated clashes. Females exhibit a stable, nonlinear hierarchy that correlates with age. Females may fight for high social status when they are integrated into the hierarchy at one to two years of age.

Rocky Mountain bighorn rams employ at least three different courting strategies. The most common and successful is the tending strategy, in which a ram follows and defends an estrous ewe. Tending takes considerable strength and vigilance, and ewes are most receptive to tending males, presumably feeling they are the most fit. Another tactic is coursing, when rams fight for an already tended ewe. Ewes typically avoid coursing males, so the strategy is ineffective. The rams also employ a blocking strategy. They prevent a ewe from accessing tending areas before she even enters estrus.

Bighorn ewes have a six-month gestation. In temperate climates, the peak of the rut occurs in November, with one, or rarely two, lambs being born in May. Most births occur in the first two weeks of the lambing period. Pregnant ewes of the Rocky Mountains migrate to alpine areas in spring, presumably to give birth in areas safer from predation, but are away from areas with good quality forage. Lambs born earlier in the season are more likely to survive than lambs born later. Lambs born late may not have access to sufficient milk, as their mothers are lactating at a time when food quality is lower. Newborn lambs weigh from 3.6 to 4.5 kg (8 to 10 lb) and can walk within hours. The lambs are then weaned when they reach four to six months old. The lifespan of ewes is typically 10–14 years and 9–12 years for rams.

Bighorn ram skull

Many bighorn sheep populations in the United States experience regular outbreaks of infectious pneumonia, which likely result from the introduction of bacterial pathogens (in particular, Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae, and some strains of Mannheimia haemolytica) carried asymptomatically in domestic sheep. Once introduced, pathogens can transmit rapidly through a bighorn population, resulting in all-age die-offs that sometimes kill up to 90% of the population. In the years following pathogen introduction, bighorn populations frequently experience multiple years of lamb pneumonia outbreaks. These outbreaks can severely limit recruitment and likely play a powerful role in slowing population growth.

Relationship with humans

Bighorn sheep were widespread throughout the western United States, Canada, and northern Mexico two hundred years ago. The population was estimated to be 150,000 to 200,000. Unregulated hunting, habitat destruction, overgrazing of rangelands, and diseases contracted from domestic livestock all contributed to the decline, the most drastic occurring from about 1870 through 1950.

In 1936, the Arizona Boy Scouts mounted a statewide campaign to save the bighorn sheep. The scouts first became interested in the sheep through the efforts of Major Frederick Russell Burnham. Burnham observed that fewer than 150 of these sheep still lived in the Arizona mountains. The National Wildlife Federation, the Izaak Walton League, and the National Audubon Society also joined the effort. On January 18, 1939, over 600,000 hectares (1,500,000 acres) of land were set aside to create the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge and the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge.

Many state and federal agencies have actively pursued the restoration of bighorn sheep since the 1940s. However, these efforts have met with limited success, and most of the historical range of bighorns remains unoccupied. Hunting for male bighorn sheep is allowed, but heavily regulated, in Canada and the United States.

In culture

Bighorn sheep were among the most admired animals of the Apsaalooka (Crow) people, and what is today called the Bighorn Mountain Range was central to the Apsaalooka tribal lands. In the Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area book, storyteller Old Coyote describes a legend related to the bighorn sheep. A man possessed by evil spirits attempts to kill his heir by pushing the young man over a cliff, but the victim is saved by getting caught in trees. Rescued by bighorn sheep, the man takes the name of their leader, Big Metal. The other sheep grant him power, wisdom, sharp eyes, sure-footedness, keen ears, great strength, and a strong heart. Big Metal returns to his people with the message that the Apsaalooka people will survive only so long as the river winding out of the mountains is known as the Bighorn River.

Bighorn sheep are hunted for their meat and horns, used in ceremonies, as food, and as hunting trophies. They also serve as a source of ecotourism, as tourists come to see the bighorn sheep in their native habitat.

The Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep is the provincial mammal of Alberta and the state animal of Colorado and, as such, is incorporated into the symbol for the Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife. The Desert bighorn sheep is the state mammal of Nevada.

The Bighorn sheep was featured in the children's book Buford the Little Bighorn (1967) by Bill Peet. The Bighorn sheep named Buford has a huge pair of horns in the Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter, similar to Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.

Bighorn sheep were once known by the scientific identification "argali" or "argalia" due to assumption that they were the same animal as the Asiatic argali (Ovis ammon). Lewis and Clark recorded numerous sightings of O. canadensis in the journals of their exploration—sometimes using the name argalia. In addition, they recorded the use of bighorn sheep horns by the Shoshone in making composite bows. William Clark's Track Map produced after the expedition in 1814 indicated a tributary of the Yellowstone River named Argalia Creek and a tributary of the Missouri River named Argalia River, both in what is today Montana. Neither of these tributaries retained these names, however. The Bighorn River, another tributary of the Yellowstone, and its tributary stream, the Little Bighorn River, were both indicated on Clark's map and did retain their names, the latter being the namesake of the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

The Bighorn Ram was featured in a series of prints by artist Andy Warhol. In 1983, the artist was commissioned to create a portfolio of ten endangered species to raise environmental awareness. The portfolio, known as "Endangered Species" was created in support of the Endangered Species Act, which was passed by the U.S. Congress in 1973. Other animals within the portfolio include the Siberian Tiger, Bald Eagle and the Giant Panda.

Egyptian vulture by Zahoor Ahmed

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Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by golden eagles, eagle owls and red foxes Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away predators. Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed on by mammalian predators such as jackals, foxes and wolves.Like all birds they serve as hosts for ectoparasitic birdlice including Aegypoecus perspicuus as well as organisms that live within them such as mycoplasmas.

Immature (behind) and adult (from John Gould's Birds of Europe)

Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the Middle East, populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India, the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999. In 1967–70, the area around Delhi was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per 10 km2.The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the NSAID Diclofenac, which has been known to cause death in Gyps vultures.

In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities.In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European population suggested causes of decline include poisoning by accumulation of lead,pesticides (especially due to large-scale use in the control of Schistocerca gregaria locust swarms), and electrocution.Windfarms may also pose a threat. Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute many wintering vultures. A shortage of carrion resulting from new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis in parts of Europe during 2000 may have also had an effect on some populations.

The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998. The Canarian Egyptian vulture was historically common, occurring on the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total population in 2000 was estimated at about 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs.Island birds also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The long-term effect of this poison at a sublethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the mineralization of their bones.In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds, attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However, these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity

Island Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar cypriotes (Gray, 1830)) IUCN - LC by Matthew Smith

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Fighting

The chukar partridge or chukar (Alectoris chukar) is a Eurasian upland gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae. It has been considered to form a superspecies complex along with the rock partridge, Philby's partridge and Przevalski's partridge and treated in the past as conspecific particularly with the first. This partridge has well marked black and white bars on the flanks and a black band running from the forehead across the eye and running down the head to form a necklace that encloses a white throat. The species has been introduced into many other places and feral populations have established themselves in parts of North America and New Zealand. This bird can be found in parts of Middle East.

Description:

The chukar is a rotund 32–35 cm (13–14 in) long partridge, with a light brown back, grey breast, and buff belly. The shades vary across the various populations. The face is white with a black gorget. It has rufous-streaked flanks, red legs and coral red bill. Sexes are similar, the female slightly smaller in size and lacking the spur. The tail has 14 feathers, the third primary is the longest while the first is level with the fifth and sixth primaries.

It is very similar to the rock partridge (Alectoris graeca) with which it has been lumped in the past but is browner on the back and has a yellowish tinge to the foreneck. The sharply defined gorget distinguishes this species from the red-legged partridge which has the black collar breaking into dark streaks near the breast. Their song is a noisy chuck-chuck-chukar-chukar from which the name is derived. The Barbary partridge (Alectoris barbara) has a reddish brown rather than black collar with a grey throat and face with a chestnut crown.

Other common names of this bird include chukker (chuker or chukor), Indian chukar and keklik.

Distribution and habitat

This partridge has its native range in Asia, including Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India, along the inner ranges of the Western Himalayas to Nepal. Further west in southeastern Europe it is replaced by the red-legged partridge, Alectoris rufa. It barely ranges into Africa on the Sinai Peninsula. The habitat in the native range is rocky open hillsides with grass or scattered scrub or cultivation. In Israel and Jordan it is found at low altitudes, starting at 400 m (1,300 ft) below sea level in the Dead Sea area, whereas in the more eastern areas it is mainly found at an altitude of 2,000 to 4,000 m (6,600 to 13,100 ft) except in Pakistan, where it occurs at 600 m (2,000 ft). They are not found in areas of high humidity or rainfall.

It has been introduced widely as a game bird, and feral populations have become established in the United States (Rocky Mountains, Great Basin, high desert areas of California), Canada, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand and Hawaii. Initial introductions into the US were from the nominate populations collected from Afghanistan and Nepal. It has also been introduced to New South Wales in Australia but breeding populations have not persisted and are probably extinct. A small population exists on Robben Island in South Africa since it was introduced there in 1964.

The chukar readily interbreeds with the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), and the practice of breeding and releasing captive-bred hybrids has been banned in various countries including the United Kingdom, as it is a threat to wild populations.

Systematics and taxonomy

The chukar partridge is part of a confusing group of "red-legged partridges". Several plumage variations within the widespread distribution of the chukar partridge have been described and designated as subspecies. In the past the chukar group was included with the rock partridge (also known as the Greek partridge). The species from Turkey and farther east was subsequently separated from A. graeca of Greece and Bulgaria and western Europe.

Subspecies:

There are fourteen recognized subspecies:

A. c. chukar (JE Gray, 1830) – nominate – eastern Afghanistan to eastern Nepal

A. c. cypriotes (Hartert, 1917) – island chukar – southeastern Bulgaria to southern Syria, Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus

A. c. dzungarica (Sushkin, 1927) – northwestern Mongolia to Russian Altai and eastern Tibet

A. c. falki (Hartert, 1917) – north central Afghanistan to Pamir Mountains and western China

A. c. kleini (Hartert, 1925)

A. c. koroviakovi (Zarudny, 1914) – Persian chukar – eastern Iran to Pakistan

A. c. kurdestanica (Meinertzhagen, 1923) – Kurdestan chukar – Caucasus Mountains to Iran

A. c. pallescens (Hume, 1873) – northern chukar – northeastern Afghanistan to Ladakh and western Tibet

A. c. pallida (Hume, 1873) – northwestern China

A. c. potanini (Sushkin, 1927) – western Mongolia

A. c. pubescens (Swinhoe, 1871) – inner Mongolia to northwestern Sichuan and eastern Qinghai

A. c. sinaica (Bonaparte, 1858) – northern Syrian Desert to Sinai Peninsula

A. c. subpallida (Zarudny, 1914) – Tajikistan (Kyzyl Kum and Kara Kum mountains)

A. c. werae (Zarudny and Loudon, 1904) – Iranian chukar – eastern Iraq and southwestern Iran

Population and status

Chukar partridge in the Antelope Island State Park, Utah, US

This species is relatively unaffected by hunting or loss of habitat. Its numbers are largely affected by weather patterns during the breeding season. The release of captive stock in some parts of southern Europe can threaten native populations of rock partridge and red-legged partridge with which they may hybridize.

British sportsmen in India considered the chukar as good sport although they were not considered to be particularly good in flavour. Their fast flight and ability to fly some distance after being shot made recovery of the birds difficult without retriever dogs. During cold winters, when the higher areas are covered in snow, people in Kashmir have been known to use a technique to tire the birds out to catch them.

Behaviour and ecology:

In the non-breeding season, chukar partridge are found in small coveys of 10 or more (up to 50) birds. In summer, chukars form pairs to breed. During this time, the cocks are very pugnacious calling and fighting. During winter they descend into the valleys and feed in fields. They call frequently during the day and especially in the mornings and evenings. The call is loud and includes loud repeated "Chuck" notes and sometimes duetting "Chuker" notes. Several calls varying with context have been noted. The commonest call is a "rallying call" which when played back elicits a response from birds and has been used in surveys, although the method is not very reliable. When disturbed, it prefers to run rather than fly, but if necessary it flies a short distance often down a slope on rounded wings, calling immediately after alighting. In Utah, birds were found to forage in an area of about 2.6 km2 (1.0 sq mi). and travel up to 4.8 km (3.0 mi) to obtain water during the dry season. The home range was found to be even smaller in Idaho.

The breeding season is summer. Males perform tidbitting displays, a form of courtship feeding where the male pecks at food and a female may visit to peck in response. The males may chase females with head lowered, wing lowered and neck fluffed. The male may also performs a high step stiff walk while making a special call. The female may then crouch in acceptance and the male mounts to copulate, while grasping the nape of the female. Males are monogamous. The nest is a scantily lined ground scrape, though occasionally a compact pad is created with a depression in the center. Generally, the nests are sheltered by ferns and small bushes, or placed in a dip or rocky hillside under an overhanging rock. About 7 to 14 eggs are laid. The eggs hatch in about 23–25 days. In captivity they can lay an egg each day during the breeding season if eggs are collected daily. Chicks join their parents in foraging and will soon join the chicks of other members of the covey.

As young chukars grow, and before flying for the first time, they utilize wing-assisted incline running as a transition to adult flight. This behaviour is found in several bird species, but has been extensively studied in chukar chicks, as a model to explain the evolution of avian flight.

Chukar will take a wide variety of seeds and some insects as food. It also ingests grit.[25] In Kashmir, the seeds of a species of Eragrostis was particularly dominant in their diet[35] while those in the US favoured Bromus tectorum.[6] Birds feeding on succulent vegetation make up for their water needs but visit open water in summer.[36]

Chukar roost on rocky slopes or under shrubs. In winter, birds in the US selected protected niches or caves. A group may roost in a tight circle with their heads pointed outwards to conserve heat and keep a look out for predators.[6]

Chukar are sometimes preyed on by golden eagles.[37]

Birds in captivity can die from mycoplasma infection and outbreaks of other diseases such as Erysipelas.[38][39][40]

In culture

A chukar in a 17th-century Persian encyclopedia:

The chukar is the National bird of Iraq[41] and of Pakistan, where its name is derived from chakor in Sanskrit. Literary mentions of it in the northern areas of the Indian subcontinent date back to the Rig Veda (c. 1700 BC).[42] In North Indian and Pakistani culture, as well as in Indian mythology, the chukar sometimes symbolizes intense, and often unrequited, love.[43][44] It is said to be in love with the moon and to gaze at it constantly.[45] Because of their pugnacious behaviour during the breeding season they are kept in some areas as fighting birds.[8][20]

References:

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Stuart Baker EC (1922). "The game birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, part 31". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 28 (2): 306–312.

Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia, 21-493

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Barilani, Marina; Ariane Bernard-Laurent; Nadia Mucci; Cristiano Tabarroni; Salit Kark; Jose Antonio Perez Garrido; Ettore Randi (2007). "Hybridisation with introduced chukars (Alectoris chukar) threatens the gene pool integrity of native rock (A. graeca) and red-legged (A. rufa) partridge populations" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 137: 57–69. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.01.014.

Duarte J, Vargas JM (2004). "Field inbreeding of released farm-reared Red-legged Partridges (Alectoris rufa) with wild ones" (PDF). Game and Wildlife Science. 21 (1): 55–61.

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Ludlow, Frank (1934). "Catching of Chikor [Alectoris graeca chukar (Gray)] in Kashmir". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37 (1): 222.

Finn, Frank (1915). Indian Sporting Birds. Francis Edwards, London. pp. 236–237.

Ali S, Ripley SD (1980). Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 2 (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 17–20. ISBN 0-19-562063-1.

Stokes, Allen W (1961). "Voice and Social Behavior of the Chukar Partridge" (PDF). The Condor. 63 (2): 111–127. doi:10.2307/1365525. JSTOR 1365525.

Williams HW, Stokes AW (1965). "Factors Affecting the Incidence of Rally Calling in the Chukar Partridge". The Condor. 67 (1): 31–43. doi:10.2307/1365378. JSTOR 1365378.

Bohl, Wayne H. (1956). "Experiments in Locating Wild Chukar Partridges by Use of Recorded Calls". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 20 (1): 83–85. doi:10.2307/3797253. JSTOR 3797253.

Oates EW (1898). A manual of the Game birds of India. Part 1. A J Combridge, Bombay. pp. 179–183.

Walter, Hanspeter (2002). "Natural history and ecology of the Chukar (Alectoris chukar) in the northern Great Basin" (PDF). Great Basin Birds. 5 (1): 28–37.

Bump G (1951). "The chukor partridge (Alectoris graeca) in the middle east with observations on its adaptability to conditions in the southwestern United States. Preliminary Species Account Number 1". US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Phelps JE (1955). The adaptability of the Turkish Chukar partridge (Alectoris graeca Meisner) in central Utah. Unpublished MS Thesis, Utah State Agricultural College, Logan, Utah, USA.

Hume AO (1890). The nests and eggs of Indian Birds. Volume 3 (2 ed.). R H Porter, London. pp. 431–433.

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Tobalske, B. W.; Dial, K. P. (2007). "Aerodynamics of wing-assisted incline running in birds" (Automatic PDF download). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (Pt 10): 1742–1751. doi:10.1242/jeb.001701. PMID 17488937.

Dial, K. P.; Randall, R. J.; Dial, T. R. (2006). "What Use Is Half a Wing in the Ecology and Evolution of Birds?". BioScience. 56 (5): 437–445. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)056[0437:WUIHAW]2.0.CO;2.

Dial, K.P. (2003). "Wing-Assisted Incline Running and the Evolution of Flight" (pdf). Science. 299 (5605): 402–404. Bibcode:2003Sci...299..402D. doi:10.1126/science.1078237. PMID 12532020.

Bundle, M.W; Dial, K.P. (2003). "Mechanics of wing-assisted incline running (WAIR)" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (Pt 24): 4553–4564. doi:10.1242/jeb.00673. PMID 14610039.

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Iraq Culture, Map, Flag, Tourist Places. sphereinfo.com

Ram Bir Singh Kushwah; Vijay Kumar (2001-01-01). Economics of Protected Areas and Its Effect on Biodiversity. APH Publishing, 2001. ISBN 9788176482097. "In the Rig Veda the references of some Himalayan species of partridges includes black partridge, chakor partridge, snow partridge and the common hill partridge"

Temple, Richard Carnac (1884). The legends of the Panjâb. Volume 2. Education Society's Press, Bombay. p. 257.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal v. 55. Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1881. "When I beheld thy face mournful, lady, I wandered restlessly o'er the world, Thy face is like the moon, and my heart like the chakor"

Balfour, Edward (1871). Cyclopædia of India and of eastern and southern Asia, commercial, industrial and scientific: products of the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms, useful arts and manufactures. Scottish & Adelphi Presses. "The birds are said by the natives to be enamoured of the moon and, at full moon, to eat fire"

Bighorn Sheep (Ovis Canadensis) by HISTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

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