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Excerpt from scotiabankcontactphoto.com/2022/core/vid-ingelevics-ryan-...:
Since 2019, Toronto-based artists Vid Ingelevics and Ryan Walker have charted the progression of the Port Lands Flood Protection Project, one of the most ambitious civil works projects in North America. This third series of photographs, presented on wooden structures along the Villiers Street median, focuses on the extraordinary operation of building a new mouth for the Don River and the careful methodology employed in the naturalization of a massive industrial brownfield.
The first photographic series that Ingelevics and Walker produced about this site, titled Framework (2020), captured the buildings and structures demolished to make way for the river excavation. This demolition allowed for the massive movement of soil captured in the second series, A Mobile Landscape (2021). How to Build a River documents how this soil removal made way for the river to be constructed using bio-engineering practices. It reveals the innovative bioengineering techniques used to construct this complex ecology and its multiple engineering layers, which will soon be invisible—either submerged underwater or beneath park surfaces—when the project is finished.
As the excavation has proceeded and workers have brought materials to the site and carefully categorized, prepared, and positioned them, Ingelevics and Walker have witnessed the river’s path quickly taking shape. The images in this series follow the rigorous steps taken to protect the new riverbed and future ecosystem, with multiple layers of sand, charcoal, and impermeable geosynthetic clay liner added to block contaminants caused by almost a century of housing fuel storage tanks in the Port Lands. The photographs capture the ways in which the new riverbanks (known as “crib walls”) were stabilized with logs, tree trunks, rocks, and coconut fibre material, and track the meticulous creation of future habitats for fish and birds.
Fish Habitat (2019) shows the development of a new riparian habitat, which includes coloured streamers strung across the water to deter geese from landing and eating vegetation that will provide food for fish. In Stratified River Ingredients (2021) a worker strides past stepped blankets of biodegradable coconut fabric, which will help hold the riverbank soil together until plant root systems are in place. In this series the new river comes to life. Its plants and banks, its roots and rocks and sands can all be seen coming together in Meander (2021). All of these innovative bioengineering techniques have been employed in similar projects around the world where nature is fast-tracked, but it’s unusual to have so many techniques applied simultaneously, and on such a vast scale.
At times during this massive project, something as small as an unidentified plant can halt construction. Transplanting #1 and #2 (2021) show crews salvaging plants for storage after strange, bulrush-like plants sprouted unexpectedly after 100 years of dormancy underground. These were likely remnants of the site’s original wetlands, which germinated when sunlight hit the excavated mud. Some of the plants were taken to a greenhouse laboratory at the University of Toronto, and others were transplanted to the Leslie Street Spit, located nearby along the waterfront. Even with the most meticulously planned naturalization processes, nature can still surprise us.
Following their documentation of the processes of destruction and removal required to prepare the site, this third series of work in Ingelevics and Walker’s multi-year project allows viewers to witness the construction of these new, interconnected habitats and structures. Their photographs offer glimpses into the makings of a highly creative built ecology, one that has looked to nature in order to artificially recreate it.
Lataif-e-sitta (Persian: لطائف سته) or al-Laṭaʾif as-Sitta (Arabic: اللطائف الستة), meaning "The Six Subtleties", are psychospiritual "organs" or, sometimes, faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception in Sufi psychology, and are explained here according to the usage amongst certain Sufi groups (key terms in this article are taken from the Urdu, rather than the original Arabic). These six subtleties are thought to be parts of the self in a similar manner to the way glands and organs are part of the body. Drawing from the Qur'an, many Sufis distinguish Nafs, Qalb, Sirr, Ruh, Khafi, and Akhfa as the six laṭaʾif.
Similar concepts in other spiritual systems include the Dantian mentioned in traditional Chinese medicine, martial arts and meditation, the sephiroth of kabbalah and the chakras of Indian Tantra and Kundalini yoga.
Among Sufis spiritual development involves awakening centers of perception that lie dormant in every person. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate them in a certain order. Each center is associated with a particular color, a general area of the body, and often with a particular prophet. Activation of all these "centers" is part of the inner methodology of the Sufi way or "Work". Purification of the elementary passionate nature (tazkiyat an-nafs), cleansing the spiritual heart (tazkiyat al-qalb), becoming a receptacle of divine love (ishq), illumination of the spirit (tajjali ar-ruh), emptying egocentric drives (taqliyyat as-sirr) and remembering the divine attributes, often through repetition of the names of God, (dhikr) are a process by which the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion" in the opening of the last two faculties, khafi and akhfa.
According to some, this latifa is located slightly below the navel, and is yellow, for others, it is between the eyebrows and is blue.
The word nafs is usually translated as self or psyche. Its etymology is rooted in "breath" (similar to Biblical or Kabbalistic nefesh) and is common to virtually all archaic psychologies where the act of breathing was connected with life, animating otherwise lifeless object. In this respect, ancient notions of "Prana" in Hinduism, Greek "pneuma", Latin "spiritus" or Hebrew "Ruach" -all equate the basic visible process of breathing with energizing principle that confers existence to an individual human being. Some Sufis consider under the term "Nafs" the entirety of psychological processes, encompassing whole mental, emotional and volitional life; however, the majority of Quranic-based Sufis are of the opinion that Nafs is a "lower", egotistical and passionate human nature which, along with Tab (literally, physical nature), comprises vegetative and animal aspects of human life. Ego may be assumed as an equivalent for Nafs in modern psychology. The central aim of the Sufi path is transformation of Nafs (technical term is tazkīyyat an-nafs or "purging of the soul") from its deplorable state of ego-centredness through various psycho-spiritual stages to the purity and submission to the will of God. Although the majority of the Sufi orders have adopted convenient 7 maqāms (maqāms are permanent stages on the voyage towards spiritual transformation), and some still operate with 3 stages, the picture is clear: the Sufi's journey begins with an-nafs al-ʾammārah (commanding soul), an-nafs al-luwwāmah (self-accusing soul), and ends in an-nafs al-muṭmaʾinnah (satisfied soul) - although some Sufis's final stage is, in their technical vocabulary, an-nafs aṣ-ṣāfīyah wa-al-kāmilah (soul restful and perfected). In essence, this is almost identical to Christian paradigm of "vita purgativa" and various stages the spiritual aspirant traverses in the journey towards .
Qalb. According to some, this latifa is located in the left of Chest and is yellow, for others it is red. In it man witnesses his deeds. By awakening it man also gets the knowledge of the realm of Jins.The word Qalb, stands for heart. In Sufi terminology, this spiritual heart (not to be confused with the blood pumping organ) is again variously described. For some, it is the seat of beatific vision. Others consider it the gate of Ishq or Divine love. Yet, for the majority, it is the battleground of two warring armies: those of Nafs and Ruh or spirit. Here, one again encounters terminological confusion: for the Sufis influenced by Neoplatonism, a "higher" part of Nafs is equated to the Aql or intellect (called Nafs-I-Natiqa) or "rational soul" and is the central active agent in spiritual battle: Ruh or spirit, notwithstanding its name, is rather passive in this stage. In short, cleansing of the Qalb or heart is a necessary spiritual discipline for travellers on the Sufi path. The term for this process is Tazkiah-I-Qalb and the aim is the erasure of everything that stands in the way of purifying God's love or Ishq.
Often people take their heart's word (inner feeling) as truthful. If the hearts were indeed truthful, then why are not all the people of the heart united? Qalb of the common folk is in a sleeping or unconscious state, and does not possess any awareness or correct understanding. This heart can err in judgement due to the dominance of the Self and Khannas (the Whisperer), or due to the person's own simple-mindedness. Placing trust in a sleeping (or unconscious) heart is foolish. When the Name Allah does vibrate in the heart, an awareness of Right and Wrong, and understanding follows. It is then called Qalb-e Salim (the sound Heart). Then the prominence of the meditation by Qalb changes its direction towards God; it is called Qalb-e Minib (the repentant Heart). This heart can prevent a person from mischief, but it can not make a right judgement. When the theophanies (Tajalliyat) of God begin to fall on the Heart, it is called Qalb-eshahid(the witnessing Heart).
A leading Indian artist, Geeta Vadhera, has titled her 37th exhibition of paintings as Qalb Qudrat - At the Heart of Nature.
Ruh
According to some, this latifa is located in the right side of the chest and is red, for others it is green. After its activation the human gets acquainted with Alam-e-Aaraf (the place where man resides after death).This is on the right side of the chest. This is awakened and illuminated by the meditation and one-pointed concentration on it. Once it becomes illuminated, a vibration similar to the heartbeat is felt on the right side of the chest. Then the Name of God, Ya Allah is matched with the vibrating pulse. The meditation of the soul is done in this way. This is an advancement in rank and status and is better than the Qalb. It is able to travel to the realm of the souls (the station of the Archangel Gabriel). Anger and rage are attached to it that burn and turn into majesty. Ruh or spirit is the second contender in the battle for human life. Again, opinions on Ruh differ among Sufis. Some deem it coeternal with God; others consider it a created entity. Be that as it may, Ruh is the plateau of consensus for the majority of Sufis, especially the early ones (before 11th/12th century C.E.). For those Sufis with Gnostic leanings (which can be found in Bektashi or Mevlevi orders), Ruh is a soul-spark, immortal entity and transegoic "true self", similar to the Christian concepts of "synteresis" or "Imago Dei", or Vedantist notion of "jiva", as well as Tibetan Buddhist "shes-pa", principle of consciousness and Taoist "shen" or spirit. But, the majority of the Sufis would consider this an unnecessarily extravagant speculation and would stick to the more orthodox notion of dormant spiritual faculty that needs to be worked upon by constant vigil and prayer in order to achieve the Tajliyya-I-Ruh, or Illumination of the spirit. Ironically, this spiritual faculty is frequently referred to in terms one encounters in connection with Nafs- "blind" life force or life current that needs to be purified by strict religious observances in order to achieve illumination.
Sirr
Sirr is located in the solar plexus and is associated with the color white. It records the orders of Allah for the individual in similitude to that which is originally present in Loh-e-mehfooz (Preserved Scripturum). After its activation, human being gets acquainted with Aalam-e-Misal (The Allegorical realm - Reflection of knowledge of the preserved Scripturum.) This center is associated with consciousness. This is also awakened and illuminated by the meditation and one-pointed concentration on it with the Name of God, Ya Hayy, Ya Qayyum. The dream state or by spiritual separation from the physical body “transcendental meditation” it can journey to the realm of the secrets.
Sirr, literally means "the secret". Emptying of the Sirr (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) is basically focusing on God's names and attributes in perpetual remembrance or Dhikr, hence diverting one's attention from the mundane aspects of human life and fixing it on the spiritual realm. The "emptying" signifies negation and obliteration of ego-centred human propensities.
Khafi. According to some, it is located in the middle of the forehead (between the eyes or third eye position) and is black, to others blue. It's the equivalent of Kitab-e-Marqoom (the written book). According to others this is to the right of the centre of the chest. It too is taught the Name of God Ya Wahid by meditation. It is green in colour and it can reach the realm of unification. The term Khafi means mysterious, arcane or Latent Subtlety. It represents intuition.
Akhfa
The term Akhfa or ikhfa means most arcane, deeply mysterious, or obscure, subtlety. Its location is deep inside the brain or on center-top of the head. The color of this center, according to some, is green, to others, violet. It's the Nuqta-e-wahida (point of unity) in every human where the Tajalliat (beatific visions) of Allah are directly revealed. It contains information about the hidden knowledge of the universe. By entering into this point, the human being enters the system of the universe and laws governing the universe. This center is associated with deep perception.
According to some this is situated at the centre of the chest. It is awakened by meditating on the Name of God, Ya Ahad. It is purple in colour and it too, is connected to that veil in the realm of unification behind which is the throne of God.
The last center or subtlety is "accessible only to those who have developed the others, and belongs to the real sage." (see "The Sufis" by Idries Shah).
Three Souls
Qalb and Nafs form the "Rooh-e-haivani" (Animal Soul). This part of the soul has the record of every activity of life. It is also termed as Joviya (Confluence).
Sirr and Rooh form "Rooh-e-Insani (Human soul) or Ayan. This part of the soul is inscribed with commands characterizing the life. It is also termed as Ayan. When a human being gets acquainted with it, he can witness the record and scheme of "all that exists", written on loh-e-mahfooz.
Akhfa and khafa form "Rooh-e-azam" (the great soul), also called sabita. It is a bright ring of light in which all the information pertaining to the unseen and seen cosmos is inscribed.
"Great Soul", "Human Soul", and "Animal Soul" are actually levels of functioning of the same soul and are not three different souls. These three components are like three rings of light infused in one another and are collectively called the soul, the indivisible entity, the Lord's edict, or simply the man. Man gets acquainted with them one by one by Muraqaba ( Sufi Meditation), Dhikr (Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche/life from negative thinking patterns (fear, depression), negative emotions (hate, contempt, anger, lust) and negative practices (hurting others psychologically or physically). Loving God and loving/helping every human being irrespective of his race, religion, or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
The Attributes of God that have been transferred to the existents and have become parts of the mechanism of the universe are collectively known as the Incumbent Knowledge (Ilm-e-wajib). Knowledge of the Incumbent means knowledge that has been transferred to the existents, that is, it refers to those Attributes of God with which existents enjoy affinity and correlation. The Knowledge of the Incumbent is also known as the Knowledge of the Pen (Ilm-e-Qalum).
First Descent is that state when God exhibited the program present in His Mind as He Willed. The creative formulae of the cosmos are the secrets of the First Descent. Why did God opt to create the universe and what is the Will of God, which He intends to accomplish? Reflection of all these things is found in the Great Soul; The Firmly Affixed Inscription. One side of Great Soul is the Obscure Subtlety (akhfa) and the other side is the Latent Subtlety (khafi) Great Soul is the storehouse of eleven thousand beatific visions of God. The person who attains communion with these two subtleties can observe these visions. These two subtleties of akhfa and khafi are found in every human being irrespective of who he is, what he is, or his station in life.
Considered, methodological, quiet, contemplative.
Today’s film photographer isn’t someone you’ll likely see running after the next shot. He plods, ponders, thinks, frames and shoots before moving on to pastures new. Welcome to the world of Colin Wilson; 35mm and 120 shooter ...
Read on at: emulsive.org/interviews/film-photographer-interviews/inte...
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Hey, hey, I think I'm gettin' there. Only two of the elements in this one were my shots and the rest were stock photos. Fair enough. But the methodology was yours truly's and it didn't take anywhere near as long to complete (though I don't think it is) as it would otherwise have.
Original File: Breadman.psb
The fire hydrant is attractive, appealing and outstanding. So you can easily find them when you need them for firefighting purpose. Yet they are humble, not over-shiny and not over-exaggerating in appearance.
It is a nice example that combines the conflicting qualities in real world.
It is like my first lesson in photography. Our teacher told us to take more pictures i.e. to experiment and explore, and at the same time take less pictures i.e. being more critical and selective on your subject, scene and light.
Dialectics is a philosophical methodology using the opposite forces or ideas and finding solutions by resolving and integrating the ideas.
This is the fire hydrant at the corner opposite to my home and the shot was taken with my Fuji point & shoot.
Happy weekend!
The Tau empire has always preferred peaceful expansion over violent. Why waste troops when systems may be willingly coerced into being annexed? To give themselves willingly to the pursuit of the Greater Good.
However, after the Damocles Gulf Crusade, Imperial forces became very guarded against Tau diplomatic infiltration. Fear of the vengeful force of the Emperor, of punitive Astartes crusades or a harrowing Inquisition. This fear would become the primary obstacle identified by Tau Water Caste as preventing peaceful annexation of planets.
Responding to this, it was decided by the Ethereal Caste to train and arm an auxiliary force of Gue'vesa (Humans who have defected to serve the Tau and the Greater Good). These would be selected from the most veteran and well trained of the former Guardsmen, especially those with intelligence or covert ops backgrounds, and inserted into targeted systems in advance of any diplomatic envoy. Here, these undercover operatives would seek out Inquisition personnel and gauge the loyalties of the nobility and governing officials. The Gue'vesa Hunters would identify and eliminate Inquisition assets and any other approved threats to potential Tau diplomacy to prepare for the delegation's arrival. After the Water Caste Tau Diplomat arrived, these Gue'vesa hunters would continue to operate in the shadows to ensure their safety as well as thwart any Imperial intelligence operations.
If all went to plan, the Gue'vesa Hunters could ensure that the system was able to engage in negotiations without fearful pressure, and that the Empire of Man would not learn of the defection until after Tau Annexation was complete.
To assist with this mission, dead drops of Tau armor, weapons, and technology would also be inserted to provide the Gue'vesa Hunters with support should human gear be insufficient for the mission. A special Pulse Rifle designed to better suit human physicality was included in these arsenals, and became symbolic of the increasing numbers and participation of Gue'vesa within the Tau Empire.
C4C- Images taken to test the methodology of table top lighting. All these are lit with a simple side light and a second curtain flash on camera. The Goose is just a friend who pops in now and again.
The first lesson I have learned is to clean all the dust away first...and to smooth out he table cover.
Ah! Post WW2 planners utopia! As early as 1942/43 British planners were looking ahead to post-war reconstruction - both to deal with the devastation of Britain's urban fabric by enemy bombing as well as the social and economic 'evils' of much of the unchecked Victorian urban and industrial expansion. Hitherto much of the methodology behind contemporary urban expansion and new housing was to manage the rapid suburban development that, in many cities had lead to edge of town development of 'suburbia' - interestingly loved by those who lived and aspired to such 'semis' and hated by planners and architects as drab fungal growths on the urban fringe ('subtopia'). The other great priority was slum clearance and in-city redvelopment of existing urban areas. Most British towns, cities and regions produced massive development plans and these were to form the foundation of many elements of post-war construction - most notably in the landmark Town & Country Planning Act of 1947 in which the new Labour Government enshrined the production of planning and plans themselves, introduced the 'green belt' concept to protect the boundaries of existing and pushed for the construction of quite a British solution - "New Towns". In the 1940s and '50s numerous New Towns were 'designated' including a ring of such towns around London that had been suggested in the 1944 Greater London Plan. This magnificent volume, sister to the 1943 County of London Plan, was largely authored by one of the doyen of UK planning, Patrick Abercrombie. It put forward plans that helped formulate various of the London 'new towns' - one site considered was the large Essex village of Chipping Ongar, better known as Ongar. Eventually Ongar was de-selected in c1947 largely because of the cost of the ambitious transport plans involving the London - Ongar branch railway line - the scheme would have seen extension of the line into a loop running through to Brentwood and electrification. This foundered, due to potential costs in post-war austerity - had it happened the history of the branch (that ended up being reluctantly electrified as part of London Transport's Central line and eventually abandoned in 1994) would have been very, very different. Anyhow - the Plan contains some illustrations of the 'new world' proposed - by the illustrator Peter Shepheard, they are in that marvellous style that seems so utopian to us now but must have been so asperational and vital to a British population that had suffered years of war, depression and who often lived in crowded, drab slums. Here we see spring in the air at the sleek lines of a proposed neighbourhood shopping centre that would have helped form the nucleus of the Greensted 'village' to the west of Ongar. Much was made of the traffic free environment - this form of segregation was seen as being key to allow the relaxed, carefree lifestyle New Towns would offer. Happy women and children, cavorting with cats and dogs (I see no men - they're all at work!) do the daily shopping, having arrived by foot or London Transport bus - one of the drawbacks of many post-war plans was the inability to deal with late 20th century growth in personal ownership of motor cars that is seen in road sizes and car parking in many UK towns and cities. In the evening you could have gone to the Greensted Ritz - to see Carmen Miranda in Rio, I'm amazed it isn't 'Brave New World"!
If Ongar didn't get off the drawing board a neighbouring Essex village of Harlow did and was to see precisely the sorts of changes that Ongar had illustrated. Harlow, designated in 1947, saw many of these proposals implemented and, in time, was seen to be the most successful of the 'New Towns'. Places such as Harlow are easily sneered at I fear but one has to admire the energy and passion put into the intention to 'better' peoples lives, whatever you think of the planning and concepts. Interesting that now, in 2014, a new generation of New Towns is proposed to help manage the UK's housing shortage - based on the premise that the 1947 Act, now seen by some as being at the roots of the 'strangulation' of urban development, has been radically overturned we may turn back to one of the very concepts that engendered such centralised planning!
John Pollini in my opinion is the number 1 authority on Julio Claudian Portrait study. I have had much correspondence with Prof. Pollini and he is passionate about Roman Art. Here is his curriculum Vitae:
Education
B.A. Classics, University of Washington, 1/1968
M.A. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, UC Berkeley, 1/1973
Ph.D. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, UC Berkeley, 1/1978
Academic Appointment, Affiliation, and Employment History
Professor, Department of Art History (Adjunct Professor for Department of Classics and Department of History), University of Southern California, 1991-
Dean of the School of Fine Arts, University of Southern California, 1993-1996
Chairman of the Department of Art History, University of Southern California, 1990-1993
Associate Professor, Department of Art History and Department of Classics (adjunct appointment), University of Southern California, 1987-1991
Assistant Professor, Department of Classics, Johns Hopkins University, 1980-1987
Curator, Johns Hopkins University Archaeological Museum, 1980-1987
Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Classics, Johns Hopkins University, 1979-1980
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Classics, Case Western Reserve University, 1978-1979
Description of Research
Summary Statement of Research Interests
Professor Pollini's research is concerned with methodologies of classical art and archaeology, ancient history, classical philology, epigraphy and numismatics. His other scholarly research interests include ancient religion, mythology, narratology, rhetoric and propaganda. Over the years Professor Pollini has excavated at the Greco-Roman site of Aphrodisias, Turkey, and the Etruscan site of Ghiaccio Forte, Italy, and participated in the underwater survey of the port of Tarquinia (Gravisca), Italy. Trained in the methodologies of classical art & archaeology, ancient history, classical philology, epigraphy, and numismatics, Professor Pollini is committed to interdisciplinary teaching and research. Professor Pollini has lectured widely both in the United States and abroad. He has published numerous articles and authored several books.
Research Specialties
Classical Art and Archaeology
Honors and Awards
Elected Life Member, German Archaeological Association, 2000-
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship, awarded for second time, 2006-2007
Guggenheim Fellowship, deferred until 2007-2008, 2006-2007
Whitehead Professor at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (Honorific Appointment), 9/1/2006-6/1/2007
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching 2002, 2002-2005
Mellon Foundation Award for Excellence in Mentoring, 2004-2005
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching 1998, 1998-2001
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship, awarded for second time, 1995-1996
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship, 1987-1988
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship, 1983-1984
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellowship, 1978-1979
Fulbright Award, Fellowship to Italy, 1975-1976
CURRICULUM VITAE
JOHN POLLINI
Department of Art History
Von Kleinsmid Center 351 University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0047
Professor of Classical Art and Archaeology, Department of Art History
Joint Professor, Department of History
Adjunct Professor, Department of Classics
President, Classical Archaeological Association of Southern California (CAASC)
DEGREES
Ph. D. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, University of California at
Berkeley (1978) (interdisciplinary program involving the Departments of Art History,
Classics, and History; major field: Etruscan and Roman Art and Archaeology; minor
fields: Greek Art and Archaeology and Roman History; Ph.D. equivalency exams in
ancient Greek and Latin) [Diss.: Studies in Augustan “Historical” Reliefs]
M.A. Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology, University of California at
Berkeley (l973) [MA Thesis: Two Marble Portrait Statues of Pugilists from Carian
Aphrodisias: Iconography and Third Century A.D. Sculptural Traditions in the Roman
East]
B.A. magna cum laude, Classics, University of Washington (1968)
POSTDOCTORAL ACADEMIC APPOINTMENTS
Dean of the School of Fine Arts, University of Southern California, with administrative,
budgetary, and fund-raising responsibilities (1993-1996)
Chairman of the Department of Art History, University of Southern California
(1990-1993)
Full Professor, University of Southern California, Department of Art History
(1991-present), with joint appointment in the Department of History and adjunct
appointment in the Department of Classics
Associate Professor, University of Southern California, Department of Art History, with
adjunct appointment in the Department of Classics (1987-1991)
Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins University, Department of Classics (1980-1987) and
Curator of the Johns Hopkins University Archaeological Museum (1980-1987)
Visiting Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins University, Department of Classics
(1979-1980)
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow, Case Western Reserve University, Department of Classics
(1978-1979)
INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FELLOWSHIPS, GRANTS,
AWARDS, HONORS
William E. Metcalf Lectureship (2008)
John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship (2006-2007, deferred to
2007-2008)
Whitehead Professor of Archaeology, American School of Classical Studies at
Athens (2006-2007)
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship (2006-2007)
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (Summer 2006)
Mellon Foundation Award for Excellence in Mentoring (2005)
Taggart Foundation Grant: Campus Martius Virtual Reality Project (2005)
Distinguished Lecturer, Biblical Archaeological Society and Center for Classical
Archaeology, University of Oklahoma, Norman (2005): Series of three lectures on
Roman and Christian Religion, Art, and Ideology
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (2003)
Senior Humboldt Research Prize (nominated) to Berlin, Germany, for 2000-2001
Elected Member (for life) of the German Archaeological Institute (Berlin) (2000)
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship for Independent Study and
Research (1995-1996)
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (Summer 1988)
American Council of Learned Societies Fellowship (1987-1988)
Kress Foundation Travel Grant (1987)
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship for Independent Study and
Research (1983-1984)
Mellon Postdoctoral Fellowship, Case Western Reserve University (1978-1979)
Mabelle McLeod Lewis Memorial Fund Fellowship to Italy (1975-1976)
Fulbright Fellowship, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy (1975-1976)
UNIVERSITY FELLOWSHIPS, GRANTS, AWARDS, HONORS
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching
(2002-2005)
College Faculty Research Development Award (consecutive years: 2000-2007)
University of Southern California Grant for Innovative Undergraduate Teaching
(with Lynn Swartz Dodd and Nicholas Cipolla) for a virtual reality project “Imaging
Antiquity: Creating Context through Virtual Reconstructions, Digital Resources, and
Traditional Media” (2003-2004)
Grant for the “College Initiative for the Study of Political Violence” (2002)
University of Southern California Grant for Innovative Undergraduate Teaching
(with Bruce Zuckermann and Lynn Swartz Dodd) to develop a new interdisciplinary and
interdepartmental course entitled “Accessing Antiquity: Actual Objects in Virtual Space”
(2000-2001)
University of Southern California Senior Nominee for National Endowment for the
Humanities Summer Stipend for Faculty Research (1998-1999)
Departmental Nominee for University Associates Award for Excellence in Teaching
(1998-2001)
College Awards and Grants for Research Excellence (consecutive years: 1997-2000)
Hewlett Foundation Award and Grant for General Education Course Development
(1997-1998)
Faculty Research and Innovation Fund Grant, University of Southern California (1988)
University of California Traveling Fellowship (1976-1977)
Dean’s Fellowship, U.C. Berkeley (1973-1975)
Phi Beta Kappa (1968), University of Washington
ADDITIONAL EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION
Field trips sponsored by the American Academy in Rome, German Archaeological
Institute, and Comune di Roma (1975-1978)
Research in Rome, Italy for dissertation (1975-1978), as well as further study of Greek
and Roman art and architecture in Italy and elsewhere in Europe during this period
Supervised study of Greek and Roman sculpture at the J. Paul Getty Museum, with
J. Frel (1973-1975)
Course in Greek art and archaeology at the Universität München, Munich, Germany
with E. Homann-Wedeking (1971)
Study of the German language at the Goethe Institute, Grafing (Munich), Germany (1971)
Course work in Roman, Etruscan, and Italic art and architecture, Università di Roma,
with G. Becatti, M. Pallottino, F. Castagnoli, and M. Squarciapino (1970-1971)
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELD WORK
Underwater survey of port of Tarquinia (Gravisca), Italy (1977): Consultant
Excavation of Etruscan site of Ghiaccio Forte, Italy (1973)
Excavation of Greco-Roman site of Aphrodisias, Turkey (1970-1972)
Excavation of Spanish/Indian Mission, Guavave, Arizona (1965-1966)
LANGUAGES
Ancient: Latin and Greek
Modern: German, Italian, French, modern Greek, some Turkish
BOOKS
PUBLISHED:
I) The Portraiture of Gaius and Lucius Caesar (Fordham University Press, New York
1987) (with a book subvention from the National Endowment for the Humanities).
II) Roman Portraiture: Images of Character and Virtue, with graduate student
participation (Fisher Gallery, Los Angeles 1990).
III) Gallo-Roman Bronzes and the Process of Romanization:The Cobannus Hoard
(Monumenta Graeca et Romana IX) (Brill, Leiden 2002).
IV) The de Nion Head: A Masterpiece of Archaic Greek Sculpture (Philipp von
Zabern, Mainz 2003).
V) Terra Marique: Studies in Art History and Marine Archaeology in Honor of Anna
Marguerite McCann on the Receipt of the Gold Medal of the Archaeological Institute
of America (editor, designer, and contributor of introduction, publication list, and
one of 19 essays) (Oxbow Publications, Oxford 2005).
SUBMITTED:
VI) From Republic to Empire: Rhetoric, Religion, and Power in the Visual Culture of
Ancient Rome (University of Oklahoma Press), comprising eight chapters:
CHAPTER I: The Leader and the Divine: Diverse Modes of Representation in Roman Numismatics
CHAPTER II: The Cult Image of Julius Caesar: Conflicts in Religious Theology and Ideology in
Augustus’ Representational Program
CHAPTER III: From Warrior to Statesman in Augustan Art and Ideology: Augustus and the Image of
Alexander
CHAPTER IV: The Ideology of “Peace through Victory” and the Ara Pacis: Visual Rhetoric and the
Creation of a Dynastic Narrative [revised and updated essay originally published in
German]
CHAPTER V: The Acanthus of the Ara Pacis as an Apolline and Dionysiac Symbol of
Anamorphosis, Anakyklosis and Numen Mixtum [revised and updated publication].
CHAPTER VI: Divine Providence in Early Imperial Ideology: The Smaller Cancelleria Relief and
the Ara Providentiae Augustae
CHAPTER VII: The “Insanity” of Caligula or the “Insanity” of the Jews? Differences in Perception
and Religious Beliefs
CHAPTER VIII: “Star Power” in Imperial Rome: Astral Theology, Castorian Imagery, and the Dual
Heirs in the Transmission of the Leadership of the State
IN PROGRESS:
VII) Christian Destruction and Desecration of Images of Classical Antiquity: A Study
in Religious Intolerance in the Ancient World
VIII) Dynastic Narratives in Augustan Art and Thought: The Rhetoric and Poetry of
Visual Imagery [with DVD Virtual Reality Program of the Monuments]
IX) The Image of Augustus: Art, Ideology, and the Rhetoric of Leadership
X) Social, Sexual, and Religious Intercourse: Sacrificial Ministrants and Sex-Slaves
in Roman Art -- 3rd Century B.C. - 4th Century A.D.
ARTICLES
PUBLISHED:
1) “A Flavian Relief Portrait in the J. Paul Getty Museum,” in Getty Museum Journal
5 (1977) 63-66.
2) “Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and the Ravenna Relief,” in Römische Mitteilungen
88 (1981) 117-40.
3) “A Pre-Principate Portrait of Gaius (Caligula)?” in Journal of the Walters Art
Gallery 40 (1982) 1-12.
4) “Damnatio Memoriae in Stone: Two Portraits of Nero Recut to Vespasian in
American Museums,” in American Journal of Archaeology 88 (1984) 547-55.
5) “The Meaning and Date of the Reverse Type of Gaius Caesar on Horseback,” in
American Numismatic Society Museum Notes 30 (1985) 113-17.
6) “Response to E. Judge’s ‘On Judging the Merits of Augustus,’” in Center for
Hermeneutical Studies: Colloquy 49 (1985) 44-46.
7) “Ahenobarbi, Appuleii and Some Others on the Ara Pacis,” in American Journal of
Archaeology 90 (1986) 453-60.
8) “The Findspot of the Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta,” in Bullettino della
Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 92 (1987/88) 103-108.
9) “Two Acrolithic or Pseudo-Acrolithic Sculptures of the Mature Classical Period in
the Archaeological Museum of the Johns Hopkins University,” in Classical Marble:
Geochemistry,Technology, Trade (NATO ASI Series E vol. 153), edd. N. Herz and
M. Waelkens (Dordrecht 1988) 207-17.
10) “Man or God: Divine Assimilation and Imitation in the Late Republic and Early
Principate,” in Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His
Principate, edd. K.A. Raaflaub and M. Toher (Berkeley 1990) 333-63.
11) “The Marble Type of the Augustus from Prima Porta: An Isotopic Analysis,” in
Journal of Roman Archaeology 5 (1992) 203-208.
12) “The Tazza Farnese: Principe Augusto ‘Redeunt Saturnia Regna’!” in American
Journal of Archaeology 96 (1992) 249-55, 283-300.
13) “The Cartoceto Bronzes: Portraits of a Roman Aristocratic Family of the Late First
Century B.C.,” in American Journal of Archaeology 97 (1993) 423-46.
14) “The Gemma Augustea: Ideology, Rhetorical Imagery, and the Construction of a
Dynastic Narrative,” in Narrative and Event in Ancient Art, ed. P. Holliday
(Cambridge 1993) 258-98.
15) “The Acanthus of the Ara Pacis as an Apolline and Dionysiac Symbol of
Anamorphosis, Anakyklosis and Numen Mixtum,” in Von der Bauforschung zur
Denkmalpflege, Festschrift für Alois Machatschek (Vienna 1993) 181-217.
16) “The ‘Trojan Column’ at USC: Reality or Myth?” in Trojan Family (May, 1994)
30-31.
17) “The Augustus from Prima Porta and the Transformation of the Polykleitan Heroic
Ideal,” in Polykleitos, the Doryphoros, and Tradition, ed. W. Moon (Madison 1995)
262-82.
18) “The ‘Dart Aphrodite’: A New Replica of the ‘Arles Aphrodite Type,’ the Cult Image
of Venus Victrix in Pompey’s Theater at Rome, and Venusian Ideology and Politics
in the Late Republic - Early Principate,” in Latomus 55 (1997) 757-85.
19) “Parian Lychnites and the Prima Porta Statue: New Scientific Tests and the Symbolic
Value of the Marble” (with N. Herz, K. Polikreti, and Y. Maniatis), in Journal of
Roman Archaeology 11 (1998) 275-84.
20) “The Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver,” in The Art
Bulletin 81 (1999) 21-52.
21) “Ein mit Inschriften versehener Legionärshelm von der pannonisch-dakischen Grenze
des römischen Reiches: Besitzverhältnisse an Waffen in der römischen Armee,” in
M. Junkelmann, Römische Helme VIII Sammlung Axel Guttmann, ed. H. Born
(Mainz 2000) 169-88.
22) “The Marble Type of the Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta: Facts and Fallacies,
Lithic Power and Ideology, and Color Symbolism in Roman Art,” in Paria Lithos:
Parian Quarries, Marble and Workshops of Sculpture (Proceedings of the First
International Conference on the Archaeology of Paros and the Cyclades, Paros, 2-5
October 1997), edd. D.U. Schilardi and D. Katsonopoulou (Athens 2000) 237-52.
23) “The Riace Bronzes: New Observations,” in Acten des 14. Internationalen
Kongresses für Antike Bronzen, Kölner Jahrbuch 33 (2000) 37-56.
24) “Two Bronze Portrait Busts of Slave-Boys from a Shrine of Cobannus in Roman
Gaul,” in Studia Varia II: Occasional Papers on Antiquities of The J. Paul Getty
Museum 10 (2001) 115-52.
25) “A New Portrait of Octavian/Augustus Caesar,” in Roman Sculpture in the
Art Museum, Princeton University (Princeton 2001) 6-11.
26) “Two Gallo-Roman Bronze Portraits of Sacrificial Ministrants in the J. Paul Getty
Museum,” in From the Parts to the Whole 2: Acta of the 13th International Bronze
Congress, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 28 - June 1, 1996, edd. C.C.
Mattusch, A. Brauer, and S.E. Knudsen (Portsmouth, Rhode Island 2002) 89-91.
27) “‘Frieden-durch-Sieg’ Ideologie und die Ara Pacis Augustae: Bildrhetorik und
die Schöpfung einer dynastischen Erzählweise,” in Krieg und Sieg: Narrative
Wanddarstellungen von Altägypten bis ins Mittelalter (Internationales
Kolloquium 23. - 30. Juli 1997 im Schloss Heindorf, Langenlois; Österreichischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften XXIV), edd. M. Bietak und M. Schwarz (Vienna
2002) 137-59.
28) “A New Portrait of Octavia and the Iconography of Octavia Minor and Julia Maior,”
Römische Mitteilungen 109 (2002) 11-42.
29) “Slave-Boys for Sexual and Religious Service: Images of Pleasure and Devotion,” in
Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text, edd. A.J. Boyle and W.J. Dominik (Leiden
2003) 149-66.
30) “The Caelian Hill Sacrificial Minister: A Marble Head of an Imperial Slave-Boy from
the Antiquarium Comunale on the Caelian Hill in Rome,” in Römische Mitteilungen
111 (2004) 1-28.
31) “A New Head of Augustus from Herculaneum: A Marble Survivor of a Pyroclastic
Surge,” in Römische Mitteilungen 111 (2004) 283-98.
32) “The Armstrong and Nuffler Heads and the Portraiture of Julius Caesar, Livia, and
Antonia Minor in Terra Marique: Studies in Honor of Anna Marguerite McCann
on the Receipt of the Gold Medal of the Archaeological Institute of America, ed.
J. Pollini (Oxbow Publications, Oxford 2005) 89-122.
33) “A New Marble Portrait of Tiberius: Portrait Typology and Ideology,” in Antike Kunst
48 (2005) 57-72.
34) “A North African Portrait of Caracalla from the Mellerio Collection and the
Iconography of Caracalla and Geta,” in Revue Archéologique (2005) 55-77.
35) “A Bronze Gorgon Handle Ornament of the Ripe Archaic Greek Period,” in Annuario
della Scuola Archeologica Italiana di Atene e delle Missioni Italiani in Oriente 83
(2005) 235-47.
36) “Ritualizing Death in Republican Rome: Memory, Religion, Class Struggle, and the
Wax Ancestral Mask Tradition’s Origin and Influence on Veristic Portraiture” in
Performing Death: Social Analyses of Funerary Ritual in the Ancient Near East
and Mediterranean (Oriental Institute Seminars 3, University of
Chicago), ed. N. Laneri (Chicago 2007) 237-85.
37) “A New Bronze Portrait Bust of Augustus,” in Latomus 66 (2007) 270-73.
FORTHCOMING:
38) “Gods and Emperors in the East: Images of Power and the Power of Intolerance,”
in the proceedings of an international conference on “‘Sculptural Environment’ of the
Roman Near East: Reflections on Culture, Ideology, and Power” (University of
Michigan), in Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion,
edd. E.A. Friedland, S.C. Herbert, and Y.Z. Eliav (Peeters Publ.: Leuven).
39) “A New Portrait Bust of Tiberius in the Collection of Michael Bianco,” in Bulletin
Antieke Beschaving 83 (2008) 133-38.
40) “The Desecration and Mutilation of the Parthenon Frieze by Christians and Others,” in
Athenische Mitteilungen 122 (2007).
41) “Problematics of Making Ambiguity Explicit in Virtual Reconstructions:
A Case Study of the Mausoleum of Augustus,” for the proceedings of an international
conference, “Computer Technology and the Arts: Theory and Practice,” sponsored by
the British Academy and the University of London.
42) “A Winged Goat Table Leg Support from the House of Numerius Popidius Priscus at
Pompeii,” in Pompei, Regio VII, Insula 2, pars occidentalis. Indagini, Studi,
Materiali (la Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei), ed. L. Pedroni.
43) “Augustus: Portraits of Augustus,” in Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and
Rome (2008).
44) “A New Bronze Lar and the Role of the Lares in the Domestic and Civic Religion of the Romans,” in Latomus (2008).
IN PROGRESS:
45) “The ‘Colville Athena’ Head and Its Typology.”
46) “Idealplastik and Idealtheorie: Paradeigmatic Systems, Homosexual Desire, and the
Rhetoric of Identity in Polykleitos’ Doryphoros and Diadoumenos.”
REVIEW ARTICLES
PUBLISHED:
D. Boschung, Die Bildnisse des Augustus (Das römische Herrscherbild I.2) (Berlin 1993),
in Art Bulletin 81 (1999) 723-35.
E. Varner, Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial
Portraiture (Monumenta Graeca et Romana 10) (Leiden 2004), in Art Bulletin 88
(2006) 591-98.
BOOK REVIEWS
PUBLISHED:
M. Torelli, Typology and Structure of Roman Historical Reliefs, in American Journal of
Archaeology 87 (1983) 572-73.
J. Ganzert, Das Kenotaph für Gaius Caesar in Limyra, in American Journal of
Archaeology 90 (1986) 134-36.
R. Brilliant, Visual Narratives. Storytelling in Etruscan and Roman Art in American
Journal of Philology 107 (1986) 523-27.
PUBLISHED IN CHOICE:
E. Bartman, Portraits of Livia: Imaging the Imperial Woman in Augustan Rome, in
vol. 37 (1999) 126.
B.S. Ridgway, Prayers in Stone: Greek Architectural Sculpture (Ca. 600 - 100 B.C.),
in vol. 37 (2000) 1095.
W.E. Mierse, Temples and Towns in Roman Iberia: The Social and Architectural
Dynamics of Sanctuary Designs from the Third Century B.C. to the Third Century A.D.
in vol. 37 (2000) 1458.
V. Karageorgis, Ancient Art from Cyprus: The Cesnola Collection in The Metropolitan
Museum of Art (New York 2000)in vol. 38 (2000) 1953.
Z. Hawass, Valley of the Golden Mummies (New York 2000) in vol. 38 (2001)
4036.
M.W. Jones, Principles of Roman Architecture (New Haven 2000) in vol. 38 (2001)
5409.
F. Salmon, Building on Ruins: The Rediscovery of Rome and English Architecture
(Ashgate 2000) in vol. 39 (2001) 106.
J. Boardman, The History of Greek Vases: Potters, Painters and Pictures (New York
2001) in vol. 39 (2002) 3755.
Roman Sculpture in the Art Museum, Princeton University, ed. J. M. Padgett (Princeton
2001) in vol. 39 (2002) 6218.
G. Hedreen, Capturing Troy: The Narrative Function of Landscape in Archaic and Early
Classical Greek Art (Ann Arbor, 2001) in vol. 40 (2002) 73.
A. J. Clark, M. Elston, and M.L. Hart, Understanding Greek Vases: A Guide to Terms,
Styles, and Techniques (Los Angeles 2002) in vol. 40 (2003) 3185.
S. Woodford, Images of Myths in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge 2003) in vol. 41
(2003) 89.
J. Aruz with R. Wallenfels (edd.), Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from
the Mediterranean to the Indus (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) (New
Haven 2003) in vol. 41 (2004) 2584.
G. Curtis, Disarmed: The Story of the Venus de Milo (New York 2003) in vol. 41 (2004)
5083.
Games for the Gods: The Greek Athlete and the Olympic Spirit, edd. J.J. Herrmann and C.
Kondoleon (Boston Museum of Fine Arts) in vol. 42 (2004) 646.
E.W. Leach, The Social Life of Painting in Ancient Rome and on the Bay of Naples
(Cambridge 2004) in vol. 42 (2004) 1215-16.
D. Mazzoleni, Domus: Wall Painting in the Roman House (Los Angeles 2004) in vol. 42
(2005) 1809.
S. Fine, Art and Judaism in the Greco-Roman World: Toward a New Jewish Archaeology
(Cambridge 2005) in vol. 43 (2006) 1586-87.
C.H. Hallett, The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary 200 B.C. -- A.D. 300 (Oxford
2005) in vol. 44 (2006).
Constantine the Great: York’s Roman Emperor, edd. E. Hartley, J. Hawkes, M. Henig, and
F. Mee (York 2006) in vol. 44 (2006).
M.D. Stansbury-O’Donnell, Vase Painting, Gender, and Social Identity in Archaic Athens
(Cambridge 2006) in vol. 44 (2006).
PRINCIPAL INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (Hard Copy and Online):
Greek Art and Archaeology: Course Manual (113 pages, 23 plates) and online version of
this Course Manual with digitized images
Roman Art and Archaeology: Course Manual (158 pages, 58 plates) and online version
of this Course Manual with digitized images
Digging into the Past: Material Culture and the Civilizations of the Ancient
Mediterranean: Course Manual (43 pages)
Proseminar Guide to General and Specific Works on Greek and Roman Art and
Archaeology and Related Disciplines (50 pages) and online version
Website for AHIS 425, “Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research and Methodology
in Classical Art and Archaeology and Related Disciplines” with links to other important
websites in the fields of Art, Archaeology, Classics, and Ancient History
Website for AHIS 201g: “Digging into the Past: Material Culture and the
Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean” (with digitized images)
PAPERS GIVEN AT INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL
CONFERENCES AND SYMPOSIA
On Judging the Merits of Augustus: Center for Hermeneutical Studies: Colloquy,
Berkeley (April, 1985)
Investigating Hellenistic Sculpture: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts,
National Gallery of Art (October, 1986)
Augustus: Monuments, Arts, and Religion: Brown University (March, 1987)
Aspects of Ancient Religion: University of California at Berkeley (April, 1987)
Marble and Ancient Greece and Rome: International conference sponsored by
NATO at Il Ciocco (Tuscany), Italy (May, 1988)
Polykleitos, the Doryphoros and Its Influence: University of Wisconsin, Madison
(October, 1989)
UCLA-USC Seminar in Roman Studies: UCLA, Los Angeles (December, 1992)
XIIIth International Bronze Congress: Harvard University (May 28 - June 1, 1996)
UCLA-USC Seminar in Roman Studies: Roman Representations: Subjectivity, Power
and Space: USC, Los Angeles (March, 1997)
International Symposium at Cuma (Naples): Flavian Poets, Artists, Architects and
Engineers in the Campi Flegrei (July, 1997)
International Symposium at the University of Vienna: Interdisziplinäres Kolloquium
Historische Architekturreliefs vom Alten Ägypten bis zum Mittelalter (July, 1997)
First International Conference on the Archaeology of Paros and the Cyclades: Paros,
Greece (October, 1997)
Getty Research Institute Colloquium: Work in Progress (November, 1997)
Annual Meetings of the Art Historians of Southern California at California State
University, Northridge, California (November, 1998)
XIV. Internationaler Kongress für Antike Bronzen: Werkstattkreise, Figuren und Geräte
(Sponsored by Das Römisch-Germanisches Museum der Stadt Köln und das
Archäologisches Institut der Universität zu Köln [September 1999]): Besides giving paper,
chaired the session “Bronzestatuen und -statuetten: Fundkomplexen, Fundgruppen,
Einzelstücke, und Typen”
First International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- keynote speaker and chaired
session on “Ideology, Historiography, and the Imperial Family” (May, 2000)
International Symposium at Emory University, Atlanta: Tyranny and Transformation
(October, 2000)
Annual Meeting of the Art Historians of Southern California at the Getty Center,
Los Angeles, California (November, 2000)
Getty Research Institute Colloquium: Work in Progress (December, 2000)
Second International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- chaired session on “The Image of
the Princeps and the Ruler Cult” (May, 2001)
UCLA-USC Seminar in Roman Studies: UCLA, Los Angeles (April, 2002)
Third International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- chaired session on “Roman History
and Ideology” (May, 2002)
Symposium on the Age of Augustus at UCLA -- (Feb., 2003)
Fourth International Symposium on Roman Imperial Ideology: Politics, Art, and
Numismatics at the Villa Vergiliana, Cuma (Naples) -- keynote speaker and
chaired session (May, 2003)
International Archaeological Congress, Harvard University (Aug. 2003): Besides giving a
paper, chaired session on “Ancient Society”
VIIth International ASMOSIA Conference, Thasos, Greece (Sept. 2003)
International Conference in the Arts and the Humanities, Honolulu, Hawaii (Jan. 2004)
Symposium on Roman Sculpture, Minneapolis Museum of Art (organized by Richard
Brilliant) (April, 2004)
International Symposium on Interaction of Indigenous and Foreign Cults in Italy at Cuma
(Naples) (May, 2004): Besides giving a paper, chaired session
International Conference at University of Michigan: “‘Sculptural Environment’ of the
Roman Near East: Reflections on Culture, Ideology, and Power (November 2004)
International Conference at Stanford University: “Seeing the Past” (February 2005)
International Conference at the University of London: “Computer Technology and the Arts:
Theory and Practice” (November 2005)
International Conference at the University of Chicago: “Performing Death: Social Analyses
of Funerary Ritual in the Mediterranean” (February 2006)
VIIIth International ASMOSIA Conference, Aix-en-Provence, France (June 2006)
Symposium “Art of Warfare”: Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University (January
2007)
PAPERS PRESENTED AT ANNUAL CONVENTIONS OF THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE
COLLEGE ART ASSOCIATION
Boston (AIA, December, 1979)
New Orleans (AIA, December, 1980)
San Francisco (AIA, December, 1981)
Philadelphia (AIA, December, 1982)
Cincinnati (AIA, December, 1983)
Toronto (AIA, December, 1984)
Washington, D.C. (AIA, December, 1985) -- invited paper, “The Promulgation of the
Image of the Leader in Roman Art,” in a special AIA plenary session on Politics and
Art
San Antonio (AIA, December, 1986) -- invited paper, “Time, Narrativity, and Dynastic
Constructs in Augustan Art and Thought,” at a joint AIA-APA session on topics
illustrating connections between Roman art and philology
Houston (CAA, February, 1988) -- invited paper, “The Gemma Augustea and the
Construction of a Dynastic Narrative,” for a CAA session on Narrative and Event in
Greek and Roman Art
Atlanta (AIA, December, 1994) -- discussant for a joint AIA-APA session on “Rethinking
Nero’s Legacy: New Perspectives on Neronian Art, Literature, and History”
New York (AIA, December, 1996) -- special poster session: “The Marble Type of the
Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta: New Scientific Tests” (prepared in collaboration
with Norman Herz, Director of Programs, Center for Archaeological Sciences, University
of Georgia)
Chicago (AIA, December, 1997)
Washington, D.C. (AIA, December, 1998) -- invited paper, “A Portrait of a Sex-Slave
‘Stud’ (?) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York,” for a special colloquium in
honor of Anna Marguerite McCann on the receipt of the “Gold Medal” of the
Archaeological Institute of America
San Francisco (AIA, January, 2004) -- joint paper with N.Cipolla and L. Swartz Dodd
OTHER ACADEMIC AND PUBLIC LECTURES/TALKS
American Academy, Rome, Italy (March, 1976)
Cleveland Society AIA, Cleveland, Ohio (April, 1979)
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. (September, 1980)
Institute of Fine Arts, New York, N.Y. (October, 1980)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N.Y. (January, 1983)
New York Society AIA, New York, N.Y. (January, 1983)
Baltimore Society AIA, Baltimore, Md. (February, 1983)
University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (March, 1987)
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Ca. (March, 1987)
Columbia University, New York, N.Y. (April, 1987)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, UCLA, Ca. (November 1989)
Tulane University, New Orleans, La. (February, 1990)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, USC, Ca. (February 1990)
Los Angeles Society AIA, Los Angeles, Ca. (March, 1990)
Fisher Gallery and School of Fine Arts, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
Ca. (March, 1990)
Institute of Fine Arts, New York, N.Y. (April, 1990)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (May, 1990)
University of Vienna and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria (June, 1990)
San Diego Society AIA, San Diego, Ca. (September, 1990)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, Getty Museum, Malibu, Ca.
(November, 1990).
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. (December, 1990)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, Gamble House, Pasadena, Ca.
(March 1991)
Henry T. Rowell Lecturer: Baltimore Society AIA, Baltimore, Md. (November, 1991)
Villanova University, Villanova, Pa. (November, 1991)
Royal-Athena Galleries, Los Angeles, Ca. (October, 1992)
Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts (CASVA), National Gallery of Art,
Washington D.C. (November, 1992)
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. (November, 1992)
Duke University, Durham, N.C. (November, 1992)
University of California, Los Angeles: UCLA/USC Seminar in Roman Studies, Los
Angeles, Ca. (December, 1992)
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Ca. (January, 1993)
J. Paul Getty Museum and Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, Malibu,
Ca. (February, 1993)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, UCLA, Ca. (March 1993)
California State University, Long Beach, Ca. (March, 1993)
Stanford University, Palo Alto, Ca. (April, 1993)
University of California, Berkeley, Ca. (April, 1993)
California State University, Northridge, Ca. (April, 1993)
University of Arizona, Tucson, Az. (April, 1993)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (June, 1994)
Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities (Director’s Series) (Dec., 1994)
University of California, Irvine (May, 1997)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (July, 1997)
American School of Classical Studies, Athens (October, 1997)
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles (March, 1998)
British School at Rome (June, 1998)
University of California, Berkeley (November, 1998)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, University of California,
Santa Barbara (March, 1999)
Work in Progress: Getty Research Institute, Brentwood, California (December, 2000)
Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California, Getty Research Institute,
Brentwood, Ca. (April, 2001)
American Academy, Rome, Italy (May, 2001)
Loyola Marymount, Los Angeles (March, 2002)
Southern California Institute of Architecture (February, 2003)
Columbia University, New York (April, 2003)
University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands (May, 2003)
University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands (May, 2003)
American School of Classical Studies, Athens (September, 2003)
University of Oklahoma, Norman (March, 2005)
Cambridge University, Cambridge, England (November, 2005)
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Greece (March, 2007)
University of Athens, Greece (May, 2007)
Los Angeles Society of the AIA, Los Angeles (December, 2007)
College of William and Mary (January, 2008)
Duke University, Durham (February, 2008)
Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA (March, 2008)
University of Nebraska, Lincoln (April, 2008)
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS as Whitehead Professor of Archaeology (2006-2007)
Participated in all Fall trips of the School to various parts of Greece, giving
presentations on each of the trips.
Participated in the School’s Spring trip to Central Anatolia, giving several presentations.
Offered a seminar in the Winter Quarter: “Christian Destruction and Desecration of
Images and Shrines of Classical Antiquity.”
MISCELLANEOUS TALKS AND PRESENTATIONS
Lectures and talks on site regarding the architecture and topography of Rome, Ostia,
and Hadrian’s Villa for members of the Technische Universität für Architektur und
Denkmalpflege, Vienna, Austria; the Summer School of the American Academy in
Rome; St. Olaf College’s Junior Year Abroad Program; and M.A. students of
architecture in a joint summer program of the University of Southern California and the
University of Illinois; and the Intercollegiate Center for Classical Studies in Rome.
Talks on various aspects of Classical art and archaeology at meetings of the
Archaeological Society of the Mid-Atlantic States (1980-1987)
Gallery talks on the ancient collections of the Archaeological Museum of the Johns
Hopkins University (in capacity as curator) and of the Walters Art Gallery (1979-1987)
Gallery talks on the ancient collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Los Angeles
County Museum of Art (1987-present)
Talk for USC graduate students in the Dept. of Classics at the Ara Pacis and Mausoleum of
Augustus in Rome (May 26, 2006), organized by Prof. Claudia Moatti, Dept. of Classics
SPECIAL TALKS AND LECTURES AT USC
Seminar for Professor Claudia Moatti, Department of Classics: “Problems in Ancient Art”
(March, 2005)
Seminar for Dr. Daniela Bleichmar, Department of Art History: Rediscovering the
Classical Past: The Relationship of Art History, Archaeology, and Visual Culture (March,
2005)
University of Southern California’s 125th Celebration: For Symposium on “Trojan
Legends” presented paper: “USC's Trojan Column: An Ancient and Modern Myth”
(October, 2005)
MEDIA INTERVIEWS AND CONSULTATION
New York Times, International Herald Tribune, Los Angeles Times, The New Yorker, The
History Channel, Arts and Entertainment Channel, KPCC Radio Los Angeles, NBC, Fox
Featured piece on my innovative work on the marble type of the statue of Augustus from
Prima Porta: A. Elders, “Tracing the Stones of Classical Brilliance,” in Hermes -- Greece
Today 35 (1999) 20-24.
ORGANIZER AND LEADER OF TOURS OF MUSEUMS AND SITES
Turkey (for Board of Councilors and donors of the School of Fine Arts, USC, 1995; for
university students and the general public, 1998)
Greece (Attica and the Peloponnese) (for university students and the general public, 1999)
Central Italy (for university students and the general public, 2000, 2002, 2003)
PARTICIPATION IN OTHER COLLOQUIA AND SYMPOSIA
Roman Sculpture and Architecture: German Archaeological Institute, Rome
(January, 1978)
Roman Architecture: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery
of Art (January, 1981)
The Age of Augustus. The Rise of Imperial Ideology: Brown University (April, 1982)
Pictorial Narratives in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: The Johns Hopkins University and
the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art (March, 1984)
Villa Gardens of the Roman Empire: Dumbarton Oaks (May, 1984)
Retaining the Original -- Multiple Originals, Copies, and Reproductions: Center for
Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art (March, 1985)
Investigating Hellenistic Sculpture: Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts,
National Gallery of Art (October, 1986)
Marble -- Art Historical and Sculptural Perspectives on Ancient Sculpture: J. Paul Getty
Museum (April, 1988)
International Conference on Roman Archaeology and Latin Epigraphy: University of
Rome and the French School of Rome (May, 1988)
Roman Portraits in Context: Emory University (January, 1989)
Small Bronze Sculpture from the Ancient World: J. Paul Getty Museum (March, 1989)
Alexandria and Alexandrianism: J. Paul Getty Museum (April, 1993)
International Symposium: “Rome Reborn” Visual Reality Program at UCLA (December,
1996)
History of Restoration of Ancient Stone Sculptures, J. Paul Getty Museum (October, 2001)
Re-Restoring Ancient Stone Sculpture, J. Paul Getty Museum (March, 2003)
Marble Conference on Thasos, Liman, Thasos (Sept. 2003)
OTHER PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
Editorial Assistant (1968-1969) and Associate Editor (1969-1970), AGON: Journal of
Classical Studies
Editorial Board, American Journal of Philology (January, 1982-January, 1987)
Delegate from Baltimore Society AIA to National Convention (1984-1986)
Vice-President, Baltimore Society of the AIA (1985-1987)
Co-Director, Exhibition on Roman Portraiture, Fisher Gallery (1989)
Co-Founder (with Dr. Diana Buitron) of the Classical Archaeological Society of the Mid-
Atlantic States (1978-87)
Founder and President of the Classical Archaeological Society of Southern California
(1987-present)
Member of the Ancient Art Council of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (1987-
present)
Oversaw the publication and helped edit the newsletter “ARTFACTS” of the
School of Fine Arts (1993-1996) during my tenure as Dean of the School of Fine Arts
USC Representative to Advisory Council of the American Academy in Rome
(1993-present)
Comitato di Collaborazione Culturale to the Consul General of Italy at Los Angeles
(1995-1998)
Advisory Committee for the Virtual Reality Project for Ancient Rome (“Rome Reborn”)
(1996-1998)
Delegate from Los Angeles Society AIA to National Convention (Chicago, Dec., 1997)
Reviewer for the Getty Grant Program (1999)
Reviewer for the MacArthur Foundation Grant (2000, 2003)
Planning Committee for a Four-Year International Conference on “Roman Imperial
Ideology” at the Villa Vergiliana at Cuma (Naples), organized by J. Rufus Fears (2000-
2003)
Consultant for the Forum of Augustus Project: Sovrintendenza Archeologica Comunale,
Direzione al Foro di Augusto (2004-present)
Editor of the newsletter “Musings” for the Department of Art History, USC (2005)
Planning Committee for the Internation Bronze Congress in Athens, Greece (2006-2007)
Chaired two sessions -- “Roman Sculpture” and “Augustan Art” -- at the Annual Meeting
of the Archaeological Institute of America (San Diego 2007)
UNIVERSITY COMMITTEES AND OTHER SERVICE
Faculty Senate (1988-1991)
Advisory Committee to the Dean of the School of Fine Arts (1990-1991, 1992-1993)
Chairman, Personnel Committee of the School of Fine Arts (1988-1990)
Library Liaison Officer for Art and Architecture Library (1987-present)
Search Committee for Reference Librarian of the Art and Architecture Library
(1989-1990 and 2000)
University Library Committee (1989-1990, 1998-2001)
Recruitment Committee for the School of Fine Arts (1989-1995)
Space Allocation Committee, School of Fine Arts (1989-1990)
University Research Committee (1990-1991)
Promotion Committee, School of Fine Arts (1990-1995)
University Ad Hoc Committee on Revenue Center Management (1990-1995)
Committee for University Development, School of Fine Arts (1993-1995)
Development Task Force, the School of Fine Arts (1993-1995)
Consultative Committee to the Provost (Spring 1993-1995)
University Galleries Advisory Committee (1993-1995)
University Committee on Transnational and Multicultural Affairs (1993-1995)
Provost’s Council at USC (formerly Council of Deans) (1993-1995)
USC Representative to the Advisory Council of the American Academy in Rome
(1993-present)
Founder and Member of the Board of Councilors for the School of Fine Arts (1994-1995)
Consortium Council of Deans for Development at USC (1995)
Tenure and Promotion Committee, Department of Art History (1995-to present)
Recruitment Committee for Department of Art History in the College of
Letters, Arts, and Sciences (1996-2005)
Program Proposer for the Establishment of an Interdepartmental and Interdisciplinary
Ancient Mediterranean Studies Program (1997-1999)
Chinese Search Committee, Department of Art History (1998-1999)
Japanese Search Committee, Department of Art History (1998-1999)
Professor-In-Charge, USC-Getty Lecture Series, Seminar, and Faculty Dinner (honoring
Salvatore Settis) (1998-1999)
Curriculum Committee (Co-Chair) (1998-1999)
Chair, Committee for Selection of Departmental Chair (1999-2000)
Chair, Merit Review Committee (1999-2000)
Committee for the Establishment of an Undergraduate Major in Archaeology
(2002-present)
Greek Art Search Committee, Department of Art History and Classics (2001-2004)
Faculty Search Committee, Department of Art History: Senior Hiring Initiative (2003-
present)
Junior Faculty Review Committee, Department of Art History (2003)
USC’s Arts and Humanities Committee (2003-2004)
Chair of Oversight Committee for the Interdisciplinary Archaeology Major (Spring 2006)
MEMBERSHIPS IN NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
NATIONAL:
Archaeological Institute of America
College Art Association
American Philological Association
Association of Ancient Historians
Vergilian Society
INTERNATIONAL:
Deutsches Archäologisches Institut
Associazione Internazionale di Archeologia Classica
Association for the Study of Marble and Other Stones in Antiquity (AMOSIA)
Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies
If you are interested in Julio Claudian Iconography and portrait study you may enjoy these two links:
Julio Claudian Iconographic Association- Joe Geranio- Administrator at groups.yahoo.com/group/julioclaudian/
The Portraiture of Caligula- Joe Geranio- Administrator- at
Both are non-profit sites and for educational use only.
Being photographed after 2nd Chobi Mela IX workshop. Working Internationally: Strategies and Methodologies. Shafiq Alam AFP, Abir Abdullah EPA, Shahidul Alam Drik/Pathshala at Pathshala South Asian Media Institute
It was only later readers of Milton, says Appelbaum, who thought of "apple" as "apple" and not any seed-bearing fruit. For them, the forbidden fruit became synonymous with the malus pumila. As a widely read canonical work, Paradise Lost was influential in cementing the role of apple in the Fall story.
This month marks 350 years since John Milton sold his publisher the copyright of Paradise Lost for the sum of five pounds.
His great work dramatizes the oldest story in the Bible, whose principal characters we know only too well: God, Adam, Eve, Satan in the form of a talking snake — and an apple.
Except, of course, that Genesis never names the apple but simply refers to "the fruit." To quote from the King James Bible:
And the woman said to the serpent, "We may eat the fruit of the trees of the garden; but of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God has said, 'You shall not eat it, nor shall you touch it, lest you die.'"
"Fruit" is also the word Milton employs in the poem's sonorous opening lines:
Of Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit
Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe
But in the course of his over-10,000-line poem, Milton names the fruit twice, explicitly calling it an apple. So how did the apple become the guilty fruit that brought death into this world and all our woe?
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The short and unexpected answer is: a Latin pun.
In order to explain, we have to go all the way back to the fourth century A.D., when Pope Damasus ordered his leading scholar of scripture, Jerome, to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin. Jerome's path-breaking, 15-year project, which resulted in the canonical Vulgate, used the Latin spoken by the common man. As it turned out, the Latin words for evil and apple are the same: malus.
In the Hebrew Bible, a generic term, peri, is used for the fruit hanging from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, explains Robert Appelbaum, who discusses the biblical provenance of the apple in his book Aguecheek's Beef, Belch's Hiccup, and Other Gastronomic Interjections.
"Peri could be absolutely any fruit," he says. "Rabbinic commentators variously characterized it as a fig, a pomegranate, a grape, an apricot, a citron, or even wheat. Some commentators even thought of the forbidden fruit as a kind of wine, intoxicating to drink."
A detail of Michelangelo's fresco in the Vatican's Sistine Chapel depicting the Fall of Man and expulsion from the Garden of Eden
Wikipedia
When Jerome was translating the "Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil," the word malus snaked in. A brilliant but controversial theologian, Jerome was known for his hot temper, but he obviously also had a rather cool sense of humor.
"Jerome had several options," says Appelbaum, a professor of English literature at Sweden's Uppsala University. "But he hit upon the idea of translating peri as malus, which in Latin has two very different meanings. As an adjective, malus means bad or evil. As a noun it seems to mean an apple, in our own sense of the word, coming from the very common tree now known officially as the Malus pumila. So Jerome came up with a very good pun."
The story doesn't end there. "To complicate things even more," says Appelbaum, "the word malus in Jerome's time, and for a long time after, could refer to any fleshy seed-bearing fruit. A pear was a kind of malus. So was the fig, the peach, and so forth."
Which explains why Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel fresco features a serpent coiled around a fig tree. But the apple began to dominate Fall artworks in Europe after the German artist Albrecht Dürer's famous 1504 engraving depicted the First Couple counterpoised beside an apple tree. It became a template for future artists such as Lucas Cranach the Elder, whose luminous Adam and Eve painting is hung with apples that glow like rubies.
Enlarge this image
Eve giving Adam the forbidden fruit, by Lucas Cranach the Elder.
Wikipedia
Milton, then, was only following cultural tradition. But he was a renowned Cambridge intellectual fluent in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, who served as secretary for foreign tongues to Oliver Cromwell during the Commonwealth. If anyone was aware of the malus pun, it would be him. And yet he chose to run it with it. Why?
Appelbaum says that Milton's use of the term "apple" was ambiguous. "Even in Milton's time the word had two meanings: either what was our common apple, or, again, any fleshy seed-bearing fruit. Milton probably had in mind an ambiguously named object with a variety of connotations as well as denotations, most but not all of them associating the idea of the apple with a kind of innocence, though also with a kind of intoxication, since hard apple cider was a common English drink."
It was only later readers of Milton, says Appelbaum, who thought of "apple" as "apple" and not any seed-bearing fruit. For them, the forbidden fruit became synonymous with the malus pumila. As a widely read canonical work, Paradise Lost was influential in cementing the role of apple in the Fall story.
But whether the forbidden fruit was an apple, fig, peach, pomegranate or something completely different, it is worth revisiting the temptation scene in Book 9 of Paradise Lost, both as an homage to Milton (who composed his masterpiece when he was blind, impoverished and in the doghouse for his regicidal politics) and simply to savor the sublime beauty of the language. Thomas Jefferson loved this poem. With its superfood dietary advice, celebration of the 'self-help is the best help' ideal, and presence of a snake-oil salesman, Paradise Lost is a quintessentially American story, although composed more than a century before the United States was founded.
What makes the temptation scene so absorbing and enjoyable is that, although written in archaic English, it is speckled with mundane details that make the reader stop in surprise.
Take, for instance, the serpent's impeccably timed gustatory seduction. It takes place not at any old time of the day but at lunchtime:
"Mean while the hour of Noon drew on, and wak'd/ An eager appetite."
What a canny and charmingly human detail. Milton builds on it by lingeringly conjuring the aroma of apples, knowing full well that an "ambrosial smell" can madden an empty stomach to action. The fruit's "savorie odour," rhapsodizes the snake, is more pleasing to the senses than the scent of the teats of an ewe or goat dropping with unsuckled milk at evening. Today's Food Network impresarios, with their overblown praise and frantic similes, couldn't dream up anything close to that peculiarly sensuous comparison.
It is easy to imagine the scene. Eve, curious, credulous and peckish, gazes longingly at the contraband "Ruddie and Gold" fruit while the unctuous snake-oil salesman murmurs his encouragement. Initially, she hangs back, suspicious of his "overpraising." But soon she begins to cave: How can a fruit so "Fair to the Eye, inviting to the Taste," be evil? Surely it is the opposite, its "sciental sap" must be the source of divine knowledge. The serpent must speak true.
So saying, her rash hand in evil hour
Forth reaching to the Fruit, she pluck'd, she eat:
Earth felt the wound, and Nature from her seat
Sighing through all her Works gave signs of woe,
That all was lost.
But Eve is insensible to the cosmic disappointment her lunch has caused. Sated and intoxicated as if with wine, she bows low before "O Sovran, vertuous, precious of all Trees," and hurries forth with "a bough of fairest fruit" to her beloved Adam, that he too might eat and aspire to godhead. Their shared meal, foreshadowed as it is by expulsion and doom, is a moving and poignant tableau of marital bliss.
Meanwhile, the serpent, its mission accomplished, slinks into the gloom. Satan heads eagerly toward a gathering of fellow devils, where he boasts that the Fall of Man has been wrought by something as ridiculous as "an apple."
Except that it was a fig or a peach or a pear. An ancient Roman punned – and the apple myth was born.
The first tale in the Bible tells of the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden. This was in consequence for having tasted the “forbidden fruit” of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Christian iconography and popular culture represent the fruit as an apple. But a careful reading of the passage leads one to the conclusion that, in fact, the actual fruit is never mentioned in the book. How, then, did the apple become this symbol of temptation and sin?
A standard version of Genesis 3:3-5 says:
But of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God hath said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die. And the serpent said unto the woman, Ye shall not surely die: For God doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil.
According to Robert Appelbaum’s book Aguecheek’s Beef, Belch’s Hiccup, and Other Gastronomic Interjections, the confusion may be due to a sort of joke of St. Jerome, who first translated the Bible into the vulgar Latin. (This version is still known as “The Vulgate” even today.) It turns out that the Latin words for apple, and for evil, are the same: malus. According to Appelbaum, the Hebrew word, peri, which was used to refer to the fruit in the Bible, can refer to any type of fruit, a fig, a pomegranate, a grape, or even a peach or a lemon. Some Bible commentators even believe that the forbidden fruit may have been a drink that produced an intoxication in those who drank it. Hence they gained “knowledge of good and evil.”
St. Jerome translated “peri” with the word “malus.” It’s an adjective meaning “evil,” though as a noun, it means “apple,” from trees known even today as Malus pumila. However, as Appelbaum points out, malus may refer not only to the apple, but to any fruit with seeds: pears are a species of malus, as are figs, peaches, and others.In religious iconography, there was no clear consensus for several centuries on exactly what type of fruit it was from this tree of which humanity’s first parents couldn’t eat. Michelangelo painted a fig tree in the Sistine Chapel. Durer depicted an apple tree, as did Lucas Cranach, the Elder. But another Appelbaum hypothesis in explaining the apple’s preeminence over other seeded fruits comes from the English poet, John Milton. His Paradise Lost was published in 1667. For Milton, the semantic ambiguity of the malus should not have been a mystery, versed as he was in ancient languages like Latin and Hebrew. Appelbaum notes that it’s possible Milton appreciated St. Jerome’s joke as a reference to intoxication or drunkenness from apple cider, popular in his own time. Paradise Lost refers on a couple of occasions to the fruit of this problematic tree and refers to it as an apple.
Another possible explanation may come from the Golden Apple of Discord. In Greek mythology, this was the work of the goddess Eris, (a temptress, as Satan had been for the Hebrews). According to the myth, Eris was angry at having not been invited to the wedding of Peleus and Tetis (parents of the great warrior Achilles). She presented the wedding guests with a golden apple which would reveal who among them was “the most beautiful of all.” Three goddesses fought amongst themselves: Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty; Hera, the guardian of the home and childbearing and wife of the great Zeus; and Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom. To settle the dispute, Zeus consulted a Trojan shepherd and mortal, Paris, to choose from among the three goddesses which was the most beautiful. The three goddesses tried to bribe him in turn with new gifts. Finally, Paris decided for Aphrodite, who had promised him the love of the most beautiful woman of all. This was none other than Helena. Helena’s abduction by Paris is the mythical origin of the Trojan War. And thus the apple is also at the center of the most epic dispute in Greek civilization.
The Apple and the Heart
16
Romanesque iconography more frequently used the apple as the forbidden fruit. The lengthy list of images in the three studied countries represents a significant part of our corpus. Among them, one can cite in Spain, Amandi, Añes, Avilés, the Bible of Burgos, the Bible of San Isidoro, Covet, Estany, Estibaliz, Frómista, Loarre, Mahamud, Peralada (figure 6), Porqueras, Rebolledo de la Torre, San Pablo del Campo, Sangüesa, Santillana del Mar, and Uncastillo. In France, Airvault, Andlau, Arles, Aulnay, the Bible of Corbie, the Bible of Marchiennes, the Bible of Souvigny, Cahors, Chalon-sur-Saône, Chauvigny (Figure 3), Cluny, Courpiac, Esclottes, Guarbecque, Hastingues-Arthous, the Hortus Deliciarum, Lescure, Mauriac (in the Auvergne), Melay, Moirax, Montpezat, Neuilly-en-Donjon, Nîmes, Poitiers (Sainte-Radegonde Church), Provins, Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire, Saint-Gaudens, the Sauve-Majeure, Targon, Tavant, Thuret, Toirac, Varax, Verdun, and Vézelay. In Italy, Galliano, Modena (figure 4), Parma, Pisa, Sant’Angelo in Formis, and Sovana.
17
Over subsequent centuries, the apple was continually present in the iconography of the original sin. [45] For illustrative purposes, note that in the Gothic...[45] It was frequently used as the forbidden fruit in literature, particularly in the twelfth century by Marie de France, [46] Marie de France, Yonec, v. 152, in Les Lais de Marie...[46] in the thirteenth century by Robert de Boron, [47] Le Roman du Graal: manuscrit de Modène, ed. Bernard...[47] and in the fifteenth century by Sebastian Brandt. [48] Sebastian Brandt, La Nef des fous [Das Narrenschiff],...[48] In paroemiology, this seems to be the meaning of a proverb from the beginning of the thirteenth century: “mieux vaut pomme donnée que mangée” (better an apple given than eaten). [49] Joseph Morawski, ed., Proverbes français antérieurs...[49] In hagiography, the apple is the forbidden fruit in, for example, the Cantigas de Santa María. [50] Alfonso X of Castile, Cantigas de Santa María, 353,...[50] An interesting case also appears in the breviary: the Hail Mary—appearing in the twelfth century from a passage in the New Testament [51] Luke, I, 28, 42. Henri Leclercq, “Marie, mère de Dieu,”...[51]—refers only to a “fruit,” but an anonymous commentator from Northern France specifies at the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century that it concerns the “fruit of the apple tree.” [52] Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Cod. Gall. 34,...[52] Anchored in Western imaginations ever since, the apple has even replaced the fig among modern scholars, in parallel to the cultural process that saw the heart where previously there had been the liver. [53] See Hasenohr, Prier au Moyen Âge: n. 38. Regarding...[53]
Figure 3. - Capital at the entranceway to the choir of the church
18
The reasons behind this almost unanimous choice are unclear, however. We may allude to the more or less widespread presence of the apple throughout all of Western Europe. We may observe the old Celtic symbolism of the apple as the fruit of knowledge. We may recall its symbolic capital as a sign of power, wealth, lies, lust, discord, and transgression. [54] Michel Pastoureau, “Bonum, malum, pomum. Une histoire...[54] We may suppose that just as the garden of Hesperides recalls the Garden of Eden (both sheltering a snake that defends the sacred tree), the apple tree “with fruits of gold” in the Greek myth influenced the medieval interpretation of the biblical account. We may thus argue the ancient association between this tree and Eden, which led to naming the carob the “apple of Paradise” in Hebrew. [55] L. Ginzberg, Les Légendes des juifs, 219, n. 70.[55] We may also consider the authority of Saint Augustine, who hesitantly accepted the possibility of the apple being the fruit of sin, perhaps influenced by the existence of thirty different varieties of apples in the Roman world at the time. [56] Augustine, La Genèse au sens littéral en douze livres...[56] We may wonder especially whether in popular medieval etymology there was not certain confusion between the words malum “badly” and malum “apple” as well as between malus “malicious” and malus “apple tree;” these phonetic identities may have had semantic implications indicating the evil character of the fruit. [57] Among the transformations affecting the Roman world...[57]
19
The increasing popularity of the apple in this role was perhaps also related to its round shape and red color, which drew it closer to the heart, being the organ that was linked to the blood of Christ and that Christianity and its doctrine perceived as the center of the human being. In this sense, the precedents were strong; the doubt surrounding the identity of the forbidden fruit reflected another, more ancient doubt regarding the central organ of the body in the diverse cultures that, in a more or less direct way, provided the foundations for medieval Christian culture. Whereas the Egyptians perceived the heart as the center of the human being, [58] The Book of the Dead, ed. and trans. E. A. Wallis Budge,...[58] the Hebrews attributed sacred powers to the liver, while regarding the heart as the seat of feelings and wisdom, and the source of life. [59] See, for example, Genesis, 20:5; Job, 9:4; Proverbs,...[59] The two organs fought for the role of the principle of life among the Babylonians [60] Alexandre Piankoff, Le “Cœur” dans les textes égyptiens...[60] and Greeks. [61] In mythology, the liver is the central element in the...[61]
20
In the third century BC, the medical school in Alexandria established the physiological model that went on to prevail throughout the following two millennia: the brain was attributed with neurological sensitivity, movement, and functions, the heart with enthusiasm and the vital spirit. [62] Mary J. Carruthers, The Book of Memory: A Study of...[62]
21
Isidore of Seville affirmed that in the heart “lies all concern and the source of knowledge, [as] with the heart we understand, and with the liver we love.” [63] Isidore of Seville, Seville’s Etymologies: The complete...[63] Sharing his opinion, more than five centuries later, Hildegard of Bingen considered the attribute of the heart to be knowledge and that of the liver to be sensitivity. [64] Hildegard of Bingen, Causae et curae, II, 1–12, ed....[64] For her, the heart was the point of contact between the body and the soul, the terrestrial and the divine; it was “almost the essence of the body [since it] governs it,” being the residence of the soul. [65] Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias, I, 4, 16, ed. A. Führkötten...[65] It is thus not by chance that she imagined the forbidden fruit to be an apple. [66] Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias, III, 2, 21, ed. Führkötten...[66] For Saint Bernard, the heart was the seat of faith. [67] Bernard of Clairvaux, In Nativitate Beatae Mariae,...[67] For his adversary, Pierre Abélard, when God wants to examine the feelings of men, he probes their hearts. [68] Pierre Abélard, Ethics, ed. and trans. D. E. Luscombe...[68] Chrétien de Troyes considered the heart to be the place where mystical union occurs with our purest self, [69] Chrétien de Troyes, Cligès, vv. 708–716, trans. Micha,...[69] since this organ is the seat of love, [70] Chrétien de Troyes, vv. 4302–4306, trans. Micha, 1...[70] memory, [71] Chrétien de Troyes, Le Conte du Graal ou le Roman de...[71] and life. [72] Chrétien de Troyes, Cligès, vv. 3668–3673, trans. Micha,...[72] Vincent of Beauvais regarded the heart as the principal “spiritual organ.” [73] Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, I, 32 (Graz:...[73] The evolution in the hierarchy of meanings did not affect the importance attributed to the heart: while troubadours and courtly love previously spoke of “the hearing of the heart,” the eye and the heart were later associated. [74] Guy Paoli, “La relation œil-cœur. Recherches sur la...[74] At the start of the thirteenth century, a poem established the relationship between the heart and the phallus, between feeling and sexuality, by telling the story of a character killed by the husbands of his mistresses, who tore off these two organs and gave them to their adulterous wives to eat. [75] Lai d’Ignauré, trans. Danielle Régnier-Bohler, in Le...[75]
22
The new collective feeling in relation to the heart was present in the idioms that were forming. From the Classical Latin cor, synonymous with “memory” (also with “thought,” “intelligence,” and “heart” [76] This is still the meaning of the word for Saint Augustine...[76]) were derived “recorder” in French, ricordari in Italian, and recordar in Castilian and Portuguese. Although the heart as the center of memory appears in the root of the Castilian and Portuguese words decorar, this link is even more explicit in the phrases par cœur in French (appearing in around 1200), de cor in Portuguese (dating to the thirteenth century), and by heart in English (attested around 1374 and based on the acceptance of herte as “memory,” which existed from the start of the twelfth century [77] Rey, Dictionnaire historique, 1:442; José Pedro Machado,...[77]). However, the heart was not only regarded as the seat of memory. In English, it was associated with courage (towards 825), emotions (1050), love (about 1175), and character (1225). [78] The Oxford English Dictionary, 5:159.[78] In medieval Italian, the heart (core prior to 1250, then cuore) was reputed as being the center of feelings, emotions, and thoughts. [79] Manlio Cortelazzo and Paolo Zolli, Dizionario etimologico...[79]
23
Most often, the association occurred between the organ and a feeling, thought to derive from it directly, as attested in various Western languages: curage in French (appearing in 1080, then written as courage and used as a synonym of cœur “heart” until the seventeenth century), coraggio (prior to 1257) in Italian, coraje in Castilian and coragem in Portuguese (both from the fourteenth century), herzhaftigleit in German (from the fifteenth century derived from herz “heart,” written herza in the eighth century), and courage in English (around 1500, written as corage in around 1300). English presents an interesting case, showing the psychocultural hesitation between the liver and heart as the seat of positive feelings: the compound liver-heartedness, literally “without liver or heart,” designates the idea of “cowardly.” Further evidence of the moral importance attached to this organ is found in the word cordial, which initially carried the neutral meaning of “relative to the heart” and later acquired the positive sense of “nice” and “pleasant,” not only in French, English, Castilian, and Portuguese, but also in Italian (cordial) and in German (herzlich).
24
The symbolic value of the heart in the twelfth century was also seen in Jewish culture. Whereas the Pirkei Rabbi Nathan, a text predating the tenth century, establishes several comparisons between the parts of the universe and parts of the human body without even citing the heart, in the second half of the twelfth century, Maimonides considered it the center of the human body. [80] Samuel S. Kottek, “Microcosm and Macrocosm According...[80] He was probably influenced by Aristotle, for whom the human body developed from the heart, which was a very influential idea after the Christian rediscovery of the Stagirite. Thus, some Romanesque representations of the creation of Adam depict him coming to life not by a “breath on the face” (in faciem eius spiraculum vitae) as the Bible states, [81] Genesis, 2:7.[81] but by the hand of God touching his heart. This is the case, for example, in a manuscript from the abbey of Saint-Martial de Limoges, [82] Breviarium ad usum S. Martialis Lemovicensis (Paris:...[82] which was illuminated in around the year 1100, as well as in a relief carved a few years later on the northern facade of the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.
25
The importance of the heart in Romanesque culture also transpires in its growing metaphorical use. On the political level, it became the “king” of the human body in the same way as the king is the “heart” of the social body. [83] Jacques Le Goff, “Head or Heart? The Political Use...[83] On the literary level, the rhetorical figure of the heart spread like a book in which an ordinary individual, saint, or even Christ could write their amorous (including erotic) and spiritual emotions. [84] On the evolution of this metaphor, see Ernst Robert...[84] On the architectural level, the cruciform design of churches situated the altar—the place where the mystery of the incarnation was reproduced—in the position occupied by the heart. [85] It is no coincidence that in Medieval French, the same...[85] On the liturgical level, the Christianization of the Holy Grail rendered it the receptacle holding the blood of Christ, symbolically transforming it into a heart. [86] Begoña Aguiriano, “Le cœur dans Chrétien,” Senefiance...[86] On the geographical level, in the same way as the heart was the center of the human body, the sepulcher of the Lord was the heart of the world, according to a sermon by Peter the Venerable. [87] Peter the Venerable, In laudem sepulcri Domini, PL,...[87] On the linguistic level, from the thirteenth century, the word designated the center of something in French and Italian, as it did later in English (beginning of the fourteenth century) and Castilian (sixteenth century). [88] This meaning was applied to the city by Aristotle in...[88] In this cultural context, when the Abbess of Bingen declared that Adam made of clay was merely an empty body before being filled with a heart, liver, lungs, stomach, and internal organs by God, [89] Hildegard of Bingen, Causae et curae, II, 20, ed. Kaiser,...[89] she seemingly established a hierarchy of organs. Thus, the growing importance of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in spirituality from the twelfth century seems to have been the conclusion of a long process in which this organ gained in medical and symbolic value. [90] Jean-Vincent Bainvel, “Cœur sacré de Jésus (dévotion...[90]
Exegetical Doubt
26
An interesting example of the rivalry between the fig and the apple in terms of the symbolic function of forbidden fruit is seen in the sculptures on the western facade of the small rural Castilian church of San Quirce, close to Burgos, which was completed in 1147. Here, eleven modillions illustrate several episodes of the myth of Adam, from the creation of protoplasm to the judgment of Cain, while in between them, ten metopes depict scenes that are sometimes difficult to relate to those of the modillions, although each stage of the cycle is identified by inscriptions. [91] These inscriptions are now almost illegible, but they...[91] The ensemble forms an iconographic discourse with two aspects: the subject is evil, as much at its origin (original sin) as in some of its manifestations (sex, death, and bodily impurity).
27
This latter topic is visible on the two metopes at each end, where the artist depicts a man defecating. This was not a simple curiosity or obscenity, as the placement of these scenes is significant: the first being compared with the sin of Adam and the second with that of Cain. In fact, an inscription close to the representation of the original sin illuminates the link between the events depicted on the metope and modillion: MALA CAGO. No doubt, the man who speaks and acts in this way is both the paradisiacal Adam who has just eaten the forbidden fruits as well as the symbol of all human beings, his “posthumous sons,” as defined in a contemporaneous sermon. [92] Julien of Vézelay, Sermons, XV, ed. and trans. Damien...[92] However, the exact interpretation of the inscription poses an important problem.
28
A few decades ago, historiography considered this a pun, as the individual excretes both “apples” and “evils.” [93] Pérez de Urbel and Whitehill, “La iglesia románica...[93] This interpretation is based on three elements: the facade’s inscription, a capital inside the church on the same subject that undoubtedly depicts an apple, and finally, the ancient roots of the tradition perceiving the forbidden food of Paradise in this fruit. However, on the modillion’s scene, the forbidden fruits rather resemble figs, an impression reinforced by a nonformalistic reasoning. Indeed, the fig traditionally had an explicitly sexual character, while the apple, though related to Aphrodite, the goddess of love, had a more sensual, rather than explicitly sexual connotation. This is shown, for example, in an Icelandic saga from the thirteenth century in which the love philter is an apple, or even in some mythologies, where the rejuvenating and beautifying virtues attributed to the fruit remain in the etymology of “pomade,” a scented, cosmetic, and curative substance with apple. [94] See Pastoureau, “Bonum, malum, pomum;” Rey, Dictionnaire...[94]
29
The fig’s association with sexuality is seemingly expressed during the third quarter of the twelfth century in the iconographic design of the doorway of Barret Church in Poitou. Here, the three capitals on each side establish a spatial and symbolic relationship, which was very common in the Romanesque imagination. Looking at them, starting with the capital closest to the entry on the left-hand side, the first represents the original sin with the fig as the fruit, the second depicts a character in a very obscene pose, and the third, which is double, shows an eagle on one side and a monster devouring a sheep on the other. Symmetrically, on the right-hand side, the first capital depicts lions leaning against each other, the second, two doves embracing, and the final one, a centaur and a dove. The message seems rather evident: sin (that is to say, the fig and sex) leads to unnatural and erotic acts, thus to the death of the soul, which is devoured by the demon (eagle and monster); on the other hand, those who join Christ (the lion) will be innocent (doves), embracing peace and purity, thus calming the animal that exists in every human being (centaurs).
30
Indeed, the sexual meaning of the fig was accepted within traditional culture and did not disappear with its Christianization. Throughout the centuries, the fig tree was associated with Dionysus, and, at least in its Roman version, Bacchus. The image of the god was always carved in the wood of the fig tree, with a basket of figs being the most sacred object at the festivals that celebrated him, the Bacchanalia. As the protector of orchards, particularly of the fig tree, Dionysus was confused with his son, Priapus, born of Aphrodite. In the processions paying homage to this god of fertility, who was endowed with a disproportionately large penis, there was a large phallus carved in the wood of the fig tree, the leaves of which were also seen as an ithyphallic symbol. [95] Brosse, Mythologie des arbres, 290–291. The fig’s sexual...[95] This notion of sexual exuberance is also found in a version of an episode of the Dionysus myth by the Christian apologist Clement of Alexandria (around 150–250). [96] Clement of Alexandria, Protreptique, II, 34, 3–4, ed....[96] In a similar manner, although he calls the liver iecur and not ficatum, Isidore of Seville implicitly makes this link by affirming that in this organ “lies pleasure and concupiscence. [97] Isidore of Seville, Seville’s Etymologies, XI, I, 125,...[97]
31
The popular gesture of “making the fig” should also be mentioned here, associated with the fruit through its name and shape. This association is observed in Castilian, in which two words (higo/higa) appeared at the same time, in around 1140. [98] Joan Corominas, Diccionario critico etimológico de...[98] This gesture assumed “an obvious sexual connotation” [99] Jean-Claude Schmitt, La Raison des gestes dans l’Occident...[99] in the popular tradition of several societies, and even in the medieval West, where it can either denote the female sex organ (predominant meaning), its state of excitation (in this case, the tip of the thumb between the index and middle fingers imitates a swollen clitoris), copulation (the thumb is the penis between the vaginal lips), or a phallus (rarer meaning). [100] Desmond Morris et al., Os gestos: suas origens e significado...[100] It is probably with this latter meaning that formerly, in Bavaria, a young man confirmed his intention to marry by sending a silver or gold fig to his lover, who could refuse the demand by returning the gift or accept it by returning a silver heart. [101] José Leite de Vasconcelos, A figa (Porto: Araújo e...[101] The far la fica was an aggressive and derogatory gesture frequently used by Italians in the Middle Ages, not only on a daily basis, but also in emotionally charged situations. In 1162, angry with the Milanese who had forced his wife to mount a mule backwards, thus facing the tail of the animal—a very ancient position signifying contempt—Frederick I Barbarossa seized the city and, on penalty of death, forced the prisoners to remove a fig from the anus of a mule with their teeth. [102] Quoted by Leite de Vasconcelos, A figa, 80; by Jerome...[102] The inhabitants of Pistoia had carved into their castle of Carmignano two large arms with hands making the sign of the fig towards the enemy city of Florence—which, humiliated, went on to conquer the place in 1228. [103] Giovanni Villani, Cronica, VI, 5, ed. Ignazio Moutier...[103] In Dante, a robber condemned to Hell makes the sign of the fig against God Himself. [104] Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, Inferno, XXV, 1–3,...[104] The gesture and expression ficha facere are found, with the same derisory meaning, in all Romanesque cultures, and even outside of them. [105] Leite de Vasconcelos, A figa, 42–56, 72, 76–81, and...[105] Although this gesture has a talismanic function, that of casting off the evil eye and other dangers, this seems to be precisely due to its sexual connotation, that of warding off sterility in life. [106] Leite de Vasconcelos, A figa, 27–41, 57–59, and 91...[106]
32
In this sense, the scene of the paramount sin depicted on the third modillion at San Quirce, in addition to adopting the ancient interpretation of the original sin as a sexual sin, [107] See Martin Elze, Tatian und seine Theologie (Göttingen:...[107] prepared the observer to encounter, three metopes along and just after the expulsion from Paradise, a representation of the carnal relationship of protoplasm. [108] Pérez de Urbel and Whitehill (“La iglesia románica...[108] Thus, according to our hypothesis, the word malum would not have been used here with its specific meaning of “apple,” but rather in the broader sense of “fruit with pulp” (as opposed to nux, “fruit with hard skin”), [109] Although the former meaning was eventually enforced...[109] so that the pun of the inscription would signify “to expel evils and fruits.” Whether conscious or not of the inscription’s ambiguity, the sculptor at San Quirce thus revealed the interesting coexistence of two exegetical traditions, that of the apple, present in the representation of the original sin inside the church, and that of the fig, visible on its facade. An even more meaningful coexistence if it is accepted that a single artist carved both the capital and the modillion. [110] A situation that de Lojendio (Castilla 1) regards as...[110]
33
This exegetical doubt is not an isolated case appearing in a monastic community in the center of Castile. The formation of the French word “pomme” provides an interesting indication in this context. Although, from the beginning of the fifth century, the Latin word pomum (“fruit” in a generic sense) gained the specific meaning of “fruit of the apple tree” in Northern Italy and the majority of the Ibero-Romance area—a meaning preserved in the Provençal and Catalan poma—Italian, Castilian, Portuguese, and Galician eventually favored the traditional form malum, from which they derived mela, manzana, maçã and mazá, respectively. [111] Both the Spanish word manzana (attested in 1112 as...[111] Pomum preserved its broad sense in these four languages in the form pomo (poma in the case of Galician). By the same evolution, the collective forms pomario in Italian and pomar in Castilian, Portuguese, Provençal, and Galician derived from the Classical Latin pomarium.
34
In contrast, the medieval Latin of Gaul had used, from the end of the eighth century, the word pomarius to denote the apple tree, from which derived the vernacular name of this specific fruit (pume) from the generic term (pomum) in 1080. [112] The word appeared in the Chanson de Roland as pume;...[112] At the same date appeared the French word verger (orchard), denoting land planted with various fruit trees, taken from the Latin viridiarum (from viridis, “green”). Faced with these facts, it is not absurd to assume that the French linguistic evolution unconsciously avoided the supposedly negative character of this fruit, as expressed through the word malum. Furthermore, the apple is a positive symbol in Celtic culture, [113] Françoise Le Roux and Christian-Joseph Guyonvarc’h,...[113] which was heavily present in the territory of the future France, particularly in the context of the “folkloric reaction” of the twelfth century. [114] Jacques Le Goff, “Culture cléricale et traditions folkloriques...[114]
35
In accordance with its archetypical character as the fruit par excellence, the word was used in the formation of many syntagms, and even, around 1256, in the curious expression “pomme de paradis” (apple of paradise) denoting the banana. [115] Rey, Dictionnaire historique. It is interesting to...[115] Although in terms of vocabulary, we note a French resistance to the association of the apple with the fruit of sin, in terms of iconography, as seen above, such identification was established without problem. This was also the case in popular literary works, such as the first French theatrical text from the middle of the twelfth century or a sermon from the same time. [116] Respectively Le Mystère Adam: Ordo representationis...[116] Similarly, in this and the subsequent century, there were various love stories generally beginning with a betrayal (hearts metaphorically devoured) and ending with the death of the two protagonists (one of them literally devouring the other’s heart without realizing it [117] Accounts collected in Régnier-Bohler, ed., Le Cœur...[117]). To a certain extent, these stories consciously or unconsciously rewrote the drama of the original demise: betraying the confidence of the Creator (“from the tree . . . you will not eat”) by eating the apple/heart (“the knowledge of good and evil”), the human being was the cause of his own perdition (“the day you eat of it, you will surely die”), as Adam and Eve had hearts full of arrogance (“you will be like gods” [118] Genesis, 2:17; 3:5. On the close relationship between...[118]).
The Tree and Androgyny
36
This search for the identity of the Romanesque forbidden fruit must still consider the tree in relation to the primordial couple. The position of these three elements provides some important information. One of the symbolic and physical solutions used was to portray the primi parentes on the same side of the tree, with Eve always being closer to it (figure 4). The most common composition placed the tree between Adam and Eve, as already found on the sarcophagus of San Justo de la Vega in Leon, dated to the end of third century or the beginning of the fourth century and currently held in the archaeological museum of Madrid. It would be simplistic to think that this position on both sides of the tree simply responded to the desire for symmetry in Romanesque art, [119] As considered Guerra, Simbología románica, 107.[119] because the form is almost always a fragment of the contents that emerged. [120] Gerardus Van Der Leeuw, La Religion dans son essence...[120] In the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, this scheme probably referred to two very pressing questions related to the contemporary phenomenon of the sacralization of marriage.
Figure 4. - Relief on the western façade of Modena Cathedral (Emilia-Romagna), circa 1100.
37
On the one hand, by placing Adam and Eve at an equal distance from the tree, the iconography referred to a certain social egalitarianism and moral leveling between man and woman, even if the snake is almost always turned towards the woman. The side occupied by each character varied. We have already considered the position of Eve on the right-hand side of the tree as an “iconographic tradition,” a scheme with only three exceptions, in Saint-Antonin, Bruniquel, and Lescure. [121] Jean-Claude Fau, “Découverte à Saint-Antonin (Tarn-et-Garonne)...[121] In fact, the woman appears on the left in several other cases: for example on the sculptures in Anzy-le-Duc, Airvault, Butrera, Cergy, Cervatos, Covet, Embrun, Gémil, Girona, Lavaudieu, Lescar, Loarre, Luc-de-Béarn, Mahamud, Manresa, Moirax, Montcaret, Peralada (figure 6), Saint-Étienne-de-Grès, Saint-Gaudens, Sangüesa, San Juan de la Peña, Toirac, Verona, and Vézelay. Similarly, on the frescos in Aimé, Fossa, and San Justo in Segovia, on the illuminations of the Bible of Burgos, the Exultet 3 of Troia, and the Hortus Deliciarum, on a metal medallion from the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, and on the mosaics in Monreale and Trani.
38
In addition, the central position of the tree, separating Adam and Eve, insinuated a rupture of the initial unity, at least on the psychological level. The tree, that is to say knowledge, revealed the existence of contradictory traits in human beings, made in the image and resemblance of God, the androgyne par excellence. “God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female created he them:” [122] Genesis, 1:27.[122] this is why the human being was initially double, and thus, inherently complete and microcosmic. [123] There were several types of microcosmic man in the...[123] Removing Eve from the rib of Adam was a surgery of separation, because they were formed from the same bones, they were “one flesh.” [124] Genesis, 2:23–24.[124] In this manner, the sacred text was interpreted from first half of the first century, initially by the Jew, Philo of Alexandria, and subsequently by Ambroise, Augustine, Gregory the Great, Isidore, the pseudo-Remigius of Auxerre, Guibert of Nogent, Pierre Lombard, Bernard, and others, who all regarded Eve as the image of the woman from within man. [125] Michel Planque, “Ève,” in Dictionnaire de spiritualité...[125]
39
Augustine, in particular, implicitly recognized the androgyny of the first man when he said that the devil “cannot tempt us only by the means of this animal part, which appears in a single man as an image or a model of woman.” [126] Augustine, Del Genesis contra los maniqueos [De Genesi...[126] Following a reasoning based on that of Saint Paul, he saw Adam-Eve as the complementarity of spirit and flesh, a comparison that was adopted by many thinkers in the Romanesque period. Since in the Bible, “Adam” was originally the generic name denoting a human being (Genesis, 1:19) and only later became the name of a person (Genesis, 3:17), Augustine interpreted the word “man” (Genesis, 1:26) as “human nature.” [127] Augustine, De Trinitate, I, 7, PL, vol. 42, col. 8...[127] Saint Anselme, who was very influential in the twelfth century, agreed that “Adam” should initially include Adam and Eve. [128] Anselm of Canterbury, La Conception virginale et le...[128] While trying to explain how Adam’s prohibition of the fruit also implied Eve, Petrus Comestor stated that it was transmitted to the woman through man; [129] Petrus Comestor, Historia scholastica, 15, PL, vol....[129] thus implicitly suggesting the unity of the two individuals, and the androgyny of the being to whom it was forbidden to eat the fruit.
40
While the medieval Church did not formally accept the divine and the androgyny of Adam, it was still familiar with it. It is thus found in a text from the New Testament: “There is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Jesus Christ.” [130] Galatians, 3:28.[130] This appeared in an apocryphal text: “When you make the two one, and when you make the inside like the outside and the outside like the inside, and the above like the below, and when you make the male and the female one and the same, so that the male not be male nor female . . . then will you enter the kingdom [of God].” [131] Il Vangelo di Tommaso, 22, trans. Mario Erbetta (Casale...[131] This was a noncontemptible part of the thought of Clement of Alexandria [132] In a piece of literature that is today lost, Hypotyposes,...[132] (around 150–215), Origen [133] According to him, based on Luke, 20:36, there will...[133] (185–254), Gregory of Nyssa [134] Gregory of Nyssa, La Création de l’homme [De opificio...[134] (around 330–390) and, through them, of Johannes Scotus Eriugena [135] Johannes Scotus Eriugena, Periphyseon, IV, PL, vol....[135] (around 810–870). It undoubtedly belonged to the cultural and psychological milieu of the first Christian centuries. [136] Wayne A. Meeks, “The Image of the Androgyne: Some Uses...[136]
41
While the androgyne of Eden had disappeared, it was because of sin. For some thinkers, the human being henceforth became aware of its duplicity, since that time it was broken and characterized by the genitals, which was visible proof of the original sin: sexus comes from sectio (“cut,” “separation”), a term derived from secare “to cross,” which only assumed a specifically sexual meaning in the Middle Ages. [137] Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis,...[137] It is thus not by chance that Adam said “me” for the first time after the sin. [138] “Mulier, quam dedisti mihi sociam, dedit mihi de ligno,...[138] Although, undeniably, the original sin and sex were closely linked, the way in which events had transpired was the subject of debate. [139] Emmanuele Testa, Il peccato di Adamo nella Patristica...[139] One stream of thought interpreted the sin as a sexual offence: for example, the Jew Philon and some Church fathers, including Clement of Alexandria and Saint Ambrose. [140] Philo of Alexandria, De opificio mundi, 151–152, trans....[140] In the Romance period, the majority of theologists from the school of William of Champeaux (1070–1121) also considered that this sin involved concupiscence, although Guillaume himself saw it as an act of disobedience in which sensualitas managed to dominate ratio. [141] Odon Lottin, “Les théories du péché originel au XIIe...[141]
42
Another group reversed the question, seeing sex rather as a consequence of the sin. The Physiologus, an influential allegorical, zoological treatise translated into Latin in the fifth century, stated that the elephant and its partner, which “personified” Adam and Eve, were unaware of intercourse until the female had eaten the fruit of the Mandragora officinarum and given it to the male: “because of that, they had to leave Paradise.” [142] El Fisiólogo: bestiário medieval, 20, ed. Francis J....[142] The main proponent of this train of thought was Saint Augustine, according to whom the human being before the sin practiced sex without concupiscence. [143] Augustine, La Genèse au sens littéral [De Genesi ad...[143] The error of the first couple would then have been one of pride, which led to the error of disobedience and then to carnal error. [144] In the first part of his interpretation, Augustine...[144] Another proponent of this idea was Johannes Scotus Eriugena in the eighth century, who considered that before the sin, the human being was only one, and that the resulting division of the sexes would cease in the eternal life. [145] Johannes Scotus Eriugena, Periphyseon, V, 20, PL, vol....[145] His thought continued to exert a certain influence; in the fourteenth century, it led Meister Eckhart to regard “any division” to be “bad as such,” thus perceiving the number two as the sign of the fall. [146] Meister Eckhart, Commentaire de la Genèse, 88 and 90,...[146] The Romanesque representations of the initial sin hesitated in choosing between these theological positions. Showing a preference for the second, several images accorded sexual attributes to Adam and Eve just after the ingestion of the fruit: for Adam, generally a beard [147] For Hildegard of Bingen, Causae et curae, II, 5–7,...[147] (figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), seldom a penis (figure 5), and for Eve, usually breasts (figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). A minority of images seem to attribute the initial sin to a sexual act, an iconographic and theological concept that was perhaps expressed for the first time on the bronze door of Hildesheim Cathedral in Germany between 1011 and 1015. [148] William Tronzo, “The Hildesheim Doors: An Iconographic...[148] Here, Adam appears to the left of the tree and behind him is another tree on which a small dragon is standing. Eve is to the right, close to another tree with the snake. The fruit is the apple, one in right hand of Adam and the other in the right hand of Eve, being stretched out towards Adam. There is another apple in the left hand of Eve, whose folded arm merges with her vagina. A similar illustration was used in Rebolledo de la Torre in 1186. In the Alardus Bible, the snake that gives the fruit to Eve is at the height of her vagina, recalling a male sexual organ about to penetrate her. The southernmost façade of the Church of Santa María in Sangüesa in Navarre, which dates from the second half of the twelfth century, seems to portray the same design. Here, the scene of sin is situated immediately below the personification of Lust, showing a woman whose naked breasts are attacked by toads and snakes. [149] Despite the great diversity of iconographical material...[149] This association between lust and the original sin was not uncommon; as Sangüesa was on St. James’s Way, the most travelled road by Occitans and Italians, we may hypothesize that its iconographic message expressed the opinion of many pilgrims on the subject. In this sense, this image from Navarre ratified at least two other images known to these pilgrims.
43
The first image from Provence, dated to the second quarter of the twelfth century, is located a few kilometers from Tarascon in Saint-Etienne-du-Grès, on the tympanum of Saint-Gabriel’s chapel, where Daniel appears next to the original sin (prefiguration of Christ, the new Adam) with lions (a common symbol of lust): an opposition of scenes suggesting the sexual signification of the sin. As already mentioned, it is true that the contrast between the two scenes did not necessarily mean that the artist interpreted the sin “as a vulgar sin of lust, but its consequence was to introduce turmoil and even shame into a domain that had emerged wholly pure from the hands of the Creator.” [150] Gérard de Champeaux and Sébastien Sterckx, Introduction...[150] However, the authors of this comment—a longstanding phenomenon in medieval art studies—seem inclined towards adapting the intentions of the Romanesque artist to the theologically correct reading, rather than considering other interpretative possibilities beyond the domain of ecclesiastical culture. It is significant, for example, that on the same area of the tympanum, the two scenes are chronologically inversed, first portraying Daniel and then the sin.
44
The second image from Italy figures on the mosaic of Otranto (1163–1165). The branches of the forbidden tree pass between the legs of the characters, insinuating the sexual nature of the sin. This seems all the more evident given that Adam and Eve are each situated in a circle, rendering the characters isolated, separated, and autonomous entities in their respective domains, domains most certainly resulting from the primordial androgyne being cut in two. This assumption is reinforced by the fact that the forbidden fruit is represented as the fig (with its strong sexual connotation, as already seen) and illustrated in a suggestive way by the mosaic artist, the priest Pantaleon: the thinner part of the fig held by Eve is facing downwards and placed between her breasts, as though forming a third breast; the fig in Adam’s hand is in the inverse position, reminding us of the male genitals. [151] The same sexual presentation appeared towards the end...[151]
Figure 5. - Illumination from the in Troia (Puglia), Archivio Capitulario, middle of the eleventh century.
Figure 6. - Capital in the western gallery of the monastery cloister
45
Taking the geographical distribution of the Romanesque images into account, we see that the function attributed to the fig as the forbidden fruit was mainly expressed in the cultural milieu related to the Greco-Judaic world, while the apple appeared in association with the Romano-Christian world. This is perhaps due the specific links established in these cultural areas between each fruit and a bodily organ. In the images where the fig is used, Eve is often portrayed with the fruit on the right-hand side of the tree, like the liver in the human body. [152] In this regard, I evidently mean a statistical trend,...[152] In the images with the apple, the tendency is for Eve and the fruit to appear on the left-hand side, just like the heart in the body (figures 3 and 6). In both instances, the forbidden fruit was the symbol of the rupture of the unity of Eden and the birth of the disjointed humanity that characterizes history.
Notes
[1]
On the methodological issues affecting the construction and analysis of an iconographic corpus, some good comments have been made by Jérôme Baschet in “Inventivité et sérialité des images médiévales. Pour une approche iconographique élargie,” Annales HSS 51 (1996): 93–133.
[2]
Genesis, 2:16–17; 3:1–12.
[3]
Jeremiah, 1:14. Jerome, Expositio quattuor Evangeliorum, Patrologia Latina (PL), vol. 30, col. 549d–550a.
[4]
Midrash Rabbah, Genesis, XV, 7, trans. Bernard Maruani and Albert Cohen-Arazi (Paris: Verdier, 1987), 1:183 [Midrash Rabbah, Genesis trans. Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, 2 vols. (London: Soncino Press, 1939)]; Genesis Rabbah I (Genesis 1–11), trans. Luis Vegas Montaner (Estella: Verbo Divino, 1994), 188–189 [Genesis Rabbah I, trans. Samuel Rapaport (London: Routledge, 1907)].
[5]
Following the interpretation of Marcel Durliat, Pyrénées romanes (La-Pierre-Qui-Vire: Zodiaque, 1978), 42.
[6]
Vita Adae, 36–42: “The ‘Vita Adae’,” ed. J. H. Mozley, The Journal of Theological Studies (1929): 121–149 (English manuscripts); “La Vie latine d’Adam et Ève,” ed. Jean-Pierre Pettorelli, Archivum latinitatis Medii Aevi (1998): 5–104 (German manuscripts); 2 Henoc 22:8: Slavonic Apocalypse of Enoch, trans. Francis I. Andersen, in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1983–1985), 1:92–221; L’Évangile de Nicodème, 19, ed. André Vaillant (Geneva, Paris: Droz, 1968), 59–61.
[7]
In this instance, the capital over the door of Miègeville, dated to around 1100–1118, does not depict the scene of the sin, but rather that of the expulsion from Paradise, where the fruit behind Adam and Eve (the couple being situated between God on one side and an angel on the other) is the grapevine.
[8]
Midrash Rabbah, Genesis, XV, 7 and XIX, 5, trans. Maruani and Cohen-Arazi, [trans. Freedman and Simon], 184 and 217; Genesis Rabbah I, trans. Vegas Montaner, 190–225. Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch, XXXII, 3–6, trans. Ephraim Isaac, in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1:28. Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, 4–8, trans. Harry E. Gaylord, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1:667; Apocalypse of Abraham, XXXIII, 7, trans. Ryszard Rubinkiewicz and Horace G. Lunt, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1:700. In the first century AD, Eliezer ben Hurcanus’s Chapters only specifies that “Noah found a grapevine coming from the Garden of Eden:” Los Capítulos de Rabbí Eliezer, XXIII, 4, trans. Miguel Pérez Fernandez, (Valencia: Institución San Jerónimo, 1984), 174. Louis Ginzberg nevertheless believes that this text probably alludes to a fragment from the tree of knowledge: Les Légendes des juifs [1909], trans. Gabrielle Sed-Rajna (Paris: Éd. du Cerf, 1997), 1:302, n. 59. According to the same author (Les Légendes des juifs, 219, n. 70), “the oldest and widespread opinion identifies the forbidden fruit with the grape, which traces back to an ancient mythological idea considering wine to be the beverage of the gods.”
[9]
David Romano, “Jueus a la Catalunya carolingia i dels primers comtes (876–1100),” in Exposiciò dins la formació de l’Europa medieval (Girona: Ajuntament de Girona, 1985), 113–119. Hilário Franco Júnior, “Le pouvoir de la parole: Adam et les animaux dans la tapisserie de Gérone,” Médiévales 25 (1993): 113–128.
[10]
Arturo Graf, Il Mito del Paradiso terrestre (1892; reprint, Rome: Edizioni del Graal, 1982), 65; Gioacchino Volpe, Movimenti religiosi e sette ereticali nella società medievale italiana: secoli XI–XIV fourth ed. (Florence: Sansoni, 1972), 17–40; Cinzio Violante, La Società milanese nell’età precomunale (Bari: Laterza, 1974), 220–231. Priests in Spain in the seventh century offered a bunch of grapes to believers during the Eucharist, which could also be a reaction against the idea of the grapevine as the forbidden fruit (third Council of Braga [675], prologue and canon 1: Concílios visigóticos e hispano-romanos, ed. and trans. José Vives (Barcelona and Madrid: CSIC, Instituto Enrique Florez, 1963), 371–373).
[11]
Michel Tardieu, Trois Mythes gnostiques: Adam, Éros et les animaux d’Égypte dans un écrit de Nag Hammadi (II, 5) (Paris: Études augustiniennes, 1974), particularly 88–89, 142–144, and 166–169.
[12]
Paul Deschamps, “Notes sur la sculpture romane en Bourgogne,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts (1922): 61–80.
[13]
Deschamps, “Notes sur la sculpture.”
[14]
Joseph de Ghellinck, “L’eucharistie au XIIe siècle en Occident,” in Dictionnaire de théologie catholique (Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1913), vol. 5, col. 1233–1302. Iconography was also influenced by the phenomenon in which the Crucified was depicted as a bunch of grapes, as seen on the thirteenth-century metal relief on the door of the Church of Sion in Switzerland. This was reproduced by Erich Neumann, The Great Mother: An Analysis of the Archetype, trans. Ralph Mannheim (1955; reprint, Princeton (N. J.): Princeton University Press, 1972), pl. 114.
[15]
Roger Dion, Histoire de la vigne et du vin en France des origines au XIXe siècle (Paris: author publication, 1959), 245–247.
[16]
Auguste Gaudel, “Péché originel,” in Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, vol. XII-1, col. 441 [quotation back-translated from the French].
[17]
Jacques Brosse, Mythologie des arbres (Paris: Plon, 1989), 299–300. The purity attributed to the olive rendered the olive tree the tree of life par excellence, as seen above, n.5.
[18]
Robert Saint-Jean and Jean Nougaret, Vivarais-Gévaudan romans (La Pierre-Qui-Vire: Zodiaque, 1991), 157–158. La Nuit des temps, 75.
[19]
Genesis, 3:7.
[20]
John, 1:48. This relationship between the fig and knowledge can be traced back to classical paganism: Plato, for example, called this fruit “the friend of philosophers,” according to Éloïse Mozzani, Le Livre des superstitions: mythes, croyances et légendes (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995), 746.
[21]
Matthew, 21:19. Paul Sébillot, Le Folklore de France, vol. 6, La Flore (1906; reprint, Paris: Imago, 1985), 21; Mozzani, Le Livre des superstitions, 746.
[22]
Stuttgart Psalter, around 810 (Stuttgart: Württembergische Landes-bibliothek, Cod. Bibl. 172o 23, fol. 8).
[23]
Midrash Rabbah, Genesis XV, 7, trans. Maruani and Cohen-Arazi, 185; Génesis Rabbah I, trans. Vegas Montaner, 190–191.
[24]
Life of Adam and Eve (Apocalypse), xx, 4–5, trans. M. D. Johnson, in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2:281; Apocalisse di Mosè, trans. Liliana Rosso Ubigli, in Apocrifi dell’Antico Testa-mento, ed. Paolo Sacchi (Turin: UTET, 1989), 2:429; Vida de Adán y Eva (Apocalipsis de Moises), trans. Natalio Fernández Marcos, in Apocrifos del Antiguo Testamento, ed. Alejandro Diez Macho (Madrid: Cristiandad, 1982), 2:330.
[25]
Testament of Adam 3c, trans. Stephen E. Robinson, in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1:994; Testamento de Adán III, 4 (R II), trans. F. J. Martínez Fernández, in Apocrifos del Antiguo Testamento, 5:433.
[26]
Il Combattimento di Adamo, 40, ed. and trans. A. Battista and B. Bagatti (Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1982), 110.
[27]
Theodoret of Cyrus, Quaestiones in Genesim, II, 28, Patrologia Graeca (PG), vol. LXXX, col. 125 c.
[28]
Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem, I, 2, 2, ed. Ernst Kroymann (Turnhout: Brepols, 1954), 443. Corpus christianorum. Series latina, 1; Hugh of Saint Victor, Adnotationes elucidatoriae in Pentateuchon, Patrologia Latina (PL), vol. CLXXV, col. 42 a-b; Pierre Comestor, Historia scholastica, 23, PL, vol. CXCVIII, col. 1073 b-c. Even at the end of the Middles Ages, several authors still thought in this manner: Meister Eckhart, Commentaire de la Genèse, 97 and 205, ed. and trans. Fernand Brunner et al. (Paris: Éd. du Cerf, 1984), 360 and 518. L’Œuvre latine de Maître Eckhart, 1.
[29]
Das Tristan-Epos Gottfrieds von Strassburg, v. 17944, ed. Wolfgang Spiewok (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1989), 251. Deutsche Texte des Mittelalters, 75.
[30]
Beryl Smalley, “Andrew of Saint-Victor, Abbot of Wigmore: A Twelfth-Century Hebraist,” Recherches de théologie ancienne et médiévale 10 (1938): 358–373; Beryl Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983), 149–172 and 179–180; Esra Shereshevsky, “Hebrew Traditions in Peter Comestor’s Historia Scholastica,” The Jewish Quarterly Review 59 (1968–1969): 268–289.
[31]
Brosse, Mythologie des arbres, 285–286.
[32]
Jean Beleth, Summa de ecclesiasticis officiis, 125, ed. Herbert Douteil (Turnhout: Brepols, 1976), 239–241; Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imperialia: Recreation for an Emperor, trans. S. E. Banks and J. W. Binns (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). In the thirteenth century, the theme appeared in several well-known texts, such as La Queste del Saint Graal, ed. Albert Pauphilet (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1980), 210ff. and Jacobus de Voragine’s Golden Legend: Legenda aurea, vulgo Historia Lombardica dicta, LXVIII, ed. Theodor Graesse (1846; reprint, Osnabrück: Otto Zeller, 1969), 303–304.
[33]
Exodus, 29:13, 22; Leviticus, 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4; 8:16, 25; 9:10, 19.
[34]
Tobit, VI, 7.
[35]
Hesiod, Théogonie, v. 524, ed. and trans. Paul Mazon, thirteenth reprint (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1996), 51. Coll. des Universités de France [Theogony, trans Hugh G. Evelyn-White (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classics, 1914)].
[36]
Anacreon, “Fragment 33,” vv. 28, 32, in Carmina Anacreontea, ed. Martin L. West (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1984), 25.
[37]
Horace, Odes, IV, 1, 12, ed. and trans. François Villeneuve (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1927), 152 [The Complete Odes and Satires of Horace, trans. Sidney Alexander (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999)].
[38]
Plato, Timée, 71 a, d, ed. and trans. Albert Rivaud (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1985), 198 [Timaeus and Critias, ed. Thomas K. Johansen, trans. Desmond Lee (London: Penguin, 1977)].
[39]
In the Romanesque period, there was at least one allusion to the Latin Cupid (called only Amores) sending an arrow to the heart: Chrétien de Troyes, Cligès, v. 455, trans. Alexandre Micha (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1982) [Cliges, trans. W. W. Comfort (London: Everyman’s Library, 1914)]. A medieval collection of classical mythology, written between 875 and 1075, says that the gods sent an eagle to punish Prometheus by attacking his heart (not the liver, as Hesiod declared): Premier Mythographe du Vatican, I, 1, 3, ed. Nevio Zorzetti, trans. Jacques Berlioz (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1995), 2. The transposition of the symbolic role of the liver to the heart became so ingrained that modern scholars have more than once taken one for the other, as, for example, the translator of Horace, Odes, ed. and trans. Villeneuve, n.36 or that of Anacreon, Odes, trans. Frédéric Matthews (Paris: Presses Universitaires, 1927), 91.
[40]
Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda aurea, XXV, ed. Graesse, 120. Eve
Maker: Frederick H. Evans (1853-1943)
Born: UK
Active: UK
Medium: photogravure
Size: 8.6" x 7.5"
Location:
Object No. 2016.1071
Shelf: N-9.5
Publication: Mark Haworth-Booth, The Golden Age of Photography Portfolio, Aperture, New York, 1985.
Graver la Lumiere, Fondation William Cuendet, Vevey, 2002 pg 17
Julien Faure-Conorton, La Photographie Pictorialiste, Actes Sud, Paris, 2025, pg 1
Other Collections:
Provenance: Binoche et Giquello, Photographies Anciennes et Modernes, Paris, No. 10, 2016, Lot 72.
Notes: published by the Silver Mountain Foundation. Printed by John Goodman. Frederick H. Evans (26 June 1853 – 24 June 1943) was a British photographer, best known for his images of architectural subjects, such as English and French cathedrals.[
Evans was born and died in London. He began his career as a bookseller, but retired from that to become a full-time photographer in 1898, when he adopted the platinotype technique for his photography. Platinotype images, with extensive and subtle tonal range, non glossy-images, and better resistance to deterioration than other methods available at the time, suited Evans' subject matter. Almost as soon as he began, however, the cost of platinum - and consequently, the cost of platinum paper for his images - began to rise. Because of this cost, and because he was reluctant to adopt alternate methodologies, by 1915 Evans retired from photography altogether. Evans' ideal of straightforward, "perfect" photographic rendering - unretouched or modified in any way - as an ideal was well-suited to the architectural foci of his work: the ancient, historic, ornate and often quite large cathedrals, cloisters and other buildings of the English and French countryside. This perfectionism, along with his tendency to exhibit and write about his work frequently, earned for him international respect and much imitation. He ultimately became regarded as perhaps the finest architectural photographer of his, or any, era - though some professionals privately felt that the Evans' philosophy favoring extremely literal images was restrictive of the creative expression rapidly becoming available within the growing technology of the photographic field. Evans was also an able photographer of landscapes and portraits, and among the many notable friends and acquaintances he photographed was George Bernard Shaw, with whom he also often corresponded. Evans was made an honorary fellow of the Royal Photographic Society in 1928, he was also a member of the Linked Ring photographic society
To view our archive organized by Collections, visit: OUR COLLECTIONS
For information about reproducing this image, visit: THE HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY ARCHIVE
Carved figures of the Green Man appear on our churches and cathedrals yet this is an ancient pagan symbol of rebirth, traditionally associated with May Day…
Ellen Castelow
~
www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Green-Man/
~
ai/gimp
In Disney, I tried to really nail good shots, moving away from a spray-and-pray methodology I started with; accuracy by volume if you will. More often than not, I was nailing the shot I wanted in 2 to 3 frames, which really made me happy. I've finally noticed how a shot sets up in the viewfinder, how everything comes together. This is one of those shots I nailed in two, and only then by accident (I had left my camera on Continuous High from trying some HDR bracketing). I just love Spaceship Earth. Do I have to say anymore than that?
This shot looks way better on black, so tap L on your keyboard please!
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Considered, methodological, quiet, contemplative.
Today’s film photographer isn’t someone you’ll likely see running after the next shot. He plods, ponders, thinks, frames and shoots before moving on to pastures new. Welcome to the world of Colin Wilson; 35mm and 120 shooter ...
emulsive.org/interviews/i-am-colin-wilson-and-this-is-why...
#ColinWilson #Hasselblad #Hasselblad501CM #IlfordHP5 #ImpossibleProject #KodakEktar100 #Pentax #PentaxLX
Lord Ra Riaz Gohar Shahi says, ‘I have written down in my book (thereligionofgod.com/) the methodology of how to obtain God, how to bring God in the heart. Exercise the method. If you’re Christian and need help, call upon Jesus to come and help you. If you are a Jew, call upon Abraham or Moses to come and help you. If you are a Muslim, call upon Prophet Mohammad or any relevant saint.’ If they do not appear to help you, in the end when you are helpless and hopeless, then Lord Ra Riaz Gohar Shahi invites you to put Gohar Shahi to the test. Now, Gohar Shahi says, ‘Call upon me and put me to a test.’ After this sentence, don’t ask me whether or not Gohar Shahi will help you. Put Gohar Shahi to a test. - HH Younus AlGohar, CEO of MFI
Another take on droplets collision. Same methodology as my previous shot, just another cup and some other colors.
Evolution of the collision of 2 milk droplets in coffee, shot using the flash in stroboscopic mode. I didn't have much time on my hands, so this was achieved after about (only) 100 tries. This shape is less symmetric than on my previous photo, but I improved the focus on the droplets.
TUCSON, AZ — Pictured here are three light meters that I use.
Our tools and methodology often are the result of the type of photography that we do, or would like to do. Often a piece of equipment is purchased to solve a particular problem.
People have criticized me for actually using a light meter. I don’t always. In fact when I started, my teacher wouldn’t even allow my to have a camera that had one. But it saves me time and having to retake photos. As a young reporter, I HATED having to retake photos. Way to much work, and it irritated the people around me.
Historically, my most often used light meter is the Pentax Spotmeter V (pictured at the right). In fact I have two of them, and they both have served me well. To be able to be point at sections of my subject and read how much light is reflecting allows me to plan how I will shape the photo. This mostly came about when a photog could take multiple images, at multiple exposures and splice them together. How wonderful!!!
The other light meters, the Sekonic L-758DR, and the Sekonic C-500, I plan to write about at another date.
The images were tagged with Photo Mechanic 6; camera and lens profiles were added added with Photoshop Lightroom and then merged using Photomatix. The images were spruced-up using the Topaz filter Denoise AI and Adjust AI and the final was touched-up using Adobe Photoshop.
__________
PENTAX 645Z
SMC Pentax-FA 645 120mm F4 Macro
ISO 100, ƒ4, ⅛-30 seconds
Maker: Frederick H. Evans (1853-1943)
Born: UK
Active: UK
Medium: photogravure
Size: 5 3/4" x 7 1/4"
Location: UK
Object No. 2015.830
Shelf: C-5
Publication: Camera Work IV, 1903
Anne Hammond, Ed, Frederick H Evans, Selected Texts and bibliography, Clio Press, Oxford, 1992, pg 52
Camera Work, The Complete Illustrations 1903-1917, Taschen, 1997 pg 143
Camera Work, A Pictorial Guide, Dover, 1978, pg
Other Collections:
Provenance: Doyle Auctioneers, Rare Books, Autographs & Photographs, November 23, 2015, lot 678
Rank: 40
Notes: Frederick H. Evans (26 June 1853 – 24 June 1943) was a British photographer, best known for his images of architectural subjects, such as English and French cathedrals.[
Evans was born and died in London. He began his career as a bookseller, but retired from that to become a full-time photographer in 1898, when he adopted the platinotype technique for his photography. Platinotype images, with extensive and subtle tonal range, non glossy-images, and better resistance to deterioration than other methods available at the time, suited Evans' subject matter. Almost as soon as he began, however, the cost of platinum - and consequently, the cost of platinum paper for his images - began to rise. Because of this cost, and because he was reluctant to adopt alternate methodologies, by 1915 Evans retired from photography altogether. Evans' ideal of straightforward, "perfect" photographic rendering - unretouched or modified in any way - as an ideal was well-suited to the architectural foci of his work: the ancient, historic, ornate and often quite large cathedrals, cloisters and other buildings of the English and French countryside. This perfectionism, along with his tendency to exhibit and write about his work frequently, earned for him international respect and much imitation. He ultimately became regarded as perhaps the finest architectural photographer of his, or any, era - though some professionals privately felt that the Evans' philosophy favoring extremely literal images was restrictive of the creative expression rapidly becoming available within the growing technology of the photographic field. Evans was also an able photographer of landscapes and portraits, and among the many notable friends and acquaintances he photographed was George Bernard Shaw, with whom he also often corresponded. Evans was made an honorary fellow of the Royal Photographic Society in 1928, he was also a member of the Linked Ring photographic society
To view our archive organized by themes and subjects, visit: OUR COLLECTIONS
For information about reproducing this image, visit: THE HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY ARCHIVE
Ardstraw, Strabane, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
This stunning sunflower field was planted for the sole purpose to raise money for Charities. The methodology is that everyone is welcome to visit, donate what they wish into a sealed collection box, then are free to walk anywhere & enjoy these flowers in any form. For your contribution you are advised to cut a few flowers to take home as a thank you token. Don’t panic as these flowers are going to wither away soon, so cutting a few to bring home doesn’t impact the ecology of the field. There are literally millions of these flowers so there are plenty to be shared with folk to help brighten their day a little 🌻
As everyone can clearly see, this is a wonderful idea for a very great cause. Although whilst standing in the middle of all these sunflowers waiting for patches of light to shine through the moving clouds, I soon recognised an equally important underlying benefit to all these sunflowers. All around me on almost every flower head Bumble Bees & other flying insects feeding off the sunflower pollen. I have heard recently that our bees are in decline due to lack of flowers etc so this was amazing to experience. These stunning Sunflowers are helping both us humans & bees equally. There should be more projects like this, even if there was funding for farmers to partially plant a small corner portion of their fields with sunflowers. It would have an immediate positive effect on us all.
Hope you enjoy! Please Favourite & Follow to view my newest upcoming works, Thank you
Here is my present to you on this Halloween eve: a quick chart on dispatching rightly those bumps in the night. See larger size for better detail.
In previous post I explained some bits about my own methodology achieving 'good colors' which involved Zeiss glass, VSCO-presets and diligent editing. However, this shortlist is missing something and it's called 'a taste'. I've found that no matter how much one has other resources like lenses or hours for editing, it doesn't compensate the inner vision which comes down to taste. When I started my search for the 'good colors' and 'the look' in general I really didn't know how to do define my target. Sure, I had some examples of what I liked, but to be honest they didn't take me very far. Like all newcomers in photography, I unconsciously thought that 'good colors' somehow mean same as 'more colors' - and I tried to approach the colors with 'Saturation', 'Vibrance' and 'Clarity' sliders. This was years ago when I had wrongly thought that software would give me some sort of edge when it comes to photography. Today I tend to think that I need a careful exposure and while some software provides nice tools, it more about getting basic stuff like white balance, curves and contrast right than esoteric filters.
One could argue that my current 'look' is based on this same premise of 'bold colors', but I would argue it is achieved more delicately. Between the old and new me I have definitely developed my vision and taste. One principle guiding my taste is the idea that photographs should look like 'photographs'. What does this tautology mean, you might ask? Like I already wrote earlier, I think that standard JPEGs out of the camera often look to much like a 'digital files' rather than actual material photographs everyone has seen in their earlier life. I tend to think that when editing photographs one should try to approach these real photographs and try to avoid the temptation of editing them, for example, too perfect (but still keep them contemporary). I'm always questioning myself from this point of view and to be honest I'm also often unsure since there are so many options. While my current look is based on strong and rich colors, there exists many other paths which also carry the legacy of the film era in terms of colors. Think, for example, photographs which have been taken with films and pushed/pulled a stop or two. They represent one specific aspect of the film era and it is evident that these grainy pictures and their subdued colors have molded our perception of photography in a great way. Or the golden slide films like Kodachrome and such, which have vibrant colors and dark shadows - that's another look which everyone knows. I guess what I'm trying to say is that there are many different photographic worlds which lives inside the historical legacy of pre-digital photography, and if you're just editing your pictures to 'look better' you are probably missing out something. Testing different looks with something like VSCO and trying to learn differences between different presets might be one way to develop your taste. Getting some books and following interesting photographers might be another. Third way could be to buy some real film and test how it turns out. All in all, it serves to pay attention to 'colors' in some other ways than just the usual raw-editor route.
Days of Zeiss: www.daysofzeiss.com
“Sunflowers & Bumblebees”
Ardstraw, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
This stunning sunflower field was planted for the sole purpose to raise money for “Cancer Research UK”. The methodology is that everyone is welcome to visit, donate what they wish into a sealed collection box, then are free to walk anywhere & enjoy these flowers in any form. For your contribution you are advised to cut a few flowers to take home as a thank you token. Don’t panic as these flowers are going to wither away soon, so cutting a few to bring home doesn’t impact the ecology of the field. There are literally millions of these flowers so there are plenty to be shared with folk to help brighten their day a little 🌻
As everyone can clearly see, this is a wonderful idea for a very great cause. Although whilst standing in the middle of all these sunflowers waiting for patches of light to shine through the moving clouds, I soon recognised an equally important underlining benefit to all these sunflowers. All around me on almost every flower head were Bumblebees & other flying insects feeding off the sunflower pollen. I have heard recently that our bees are in decline due to lack of flowers etc so this was amazing to experience 🐝 It was also my first ever attempt at photographing a flower & its something ill certainly be doing again in future.
These stunning Sunflowers are helping both us humans & bees equally. There should be more projects like this, even if there was funding for farmers to partially plant a small corner portion of their fields with sunflowers. It would have an immediate positive effect on us all.
Hope you enjoy! Please Favourite & Follow to view my newest upcoming works, Thank you
Methodology behind a “Pick”
A Observe
B select
C approach
D Complimrnt/Distract
E Begin the lift
F Close Casually
Main Story
In the early 1910’s a phamplett on pickpocketing, several centuries olde, came into the Universities Archives with a collection donated by a County Constabultory.
Catalogued and Filed away it remained basically unnoticed for decades until a student looking for material to complete a thesis on criminal justice stumbled upon it quite by accident
Most of the chapters dealt with the various methods of pickpocketing pockets and purses, along with a section on lifting men’s watches .
Towards the end she chillingly read a treatise on how to lift a ladies jewelry, something she was not aware was an area of pick pocketing!, or anything else of that nature!
It pretty much gave me a whole new insight into an area of crime she had never realized even existed, and is pretty much the reason I have created this account on flickr…
With the help of a pair of fellow students at the time she made a video on the subject using pointers mentioned in the Phamplette as an addition to her written thesis on the subject…
Here are still(s) from that video with various observations
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Along with some random guidelines outlined in the phamplette:
-The Lifting necklaces, is by far the easiest and usually The more Valuable of pieces to obtain .
-Their Bracelets, brooches and rings ( covered in later chapters) are a bit more difficult, but can be easily quite as valuable as any other bit of Gliss(Jewels). Especially if gloves are being worn.
- Earrings can be taken , usually singly, with increased chance of just appearing to have been lost, but if both are taken it would have the quite opposite effect once discovered. Recommended only for the most accomplished of Pickpockets.
-Chapters on How to select and approach your subject were also included:
- look for the more expensive material of clothing. Easier to lift from, and the “more valuable the cloth, usually the more valuable the jewel”
-The methodology over the use of Dance Cards.
-How to tell real jewels from rhinestones
-If Dancing, start at her waist, slowly work you hand up, be very aware if she appears to notice, hence the amount of alcohol consumed is an important factor. Keep her eyes in contact, do not let your gaze drift to her jewels!
-Continue the dance, ask her if you can have another a bit later after meeting the gents in the smoking lounge, or suggest going out for fresh aire, a good time to lift a bracelet if the necklace attempt fails.
-When attempting a lift while not dancing, hold her gloved hand and gently caress as you talk, then lift a ring or bracelet as you take her attention elsewhere’s
-A well-executed bit of tickling, especially on the younger lassies, can create a number of easily undefended advantages!
-Just as advantageous can be a well-timed nudge, bump, or trip along with advantageously placed hands upon a slippery dressed female victim.
-Just as you make the final lift, distract her attention to anything away from her immediate surroundings, point out something for her to look at, taking her mind away from your game!.
-Cardinal rule, do not ever mention her jewels! Keep her mind in the complete opposite directions by compliments on her on her hair, perfume, and most certainly her dress., but act as if she is wearing no jewels at all, be totally oblivious, and concentrated on the task at hand.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
This phamplette went into much more detail than we are able to give here, for rather obvious legal implications!
The Symbiotic Matrix of Rovingian Existence - The Quantum Perspective by Daniel Arrhakis (2026)
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The Symbiotic Matrix of Rovingian Existence - The Quantum Perspective
Introduction
Rovingian animism posits that existence is neither a static attribute of matter nor an isolated emanation of consciousness. It invariably emerges from the symbiotic product of both.
This unifying principle condenses into a fundamental ontological postulate for Rovingian animism: "There is no pure observer isolated on a spiritual pedestal, nor is there pure matter floating in a vacuum without witnesses."
Far from being confined to abstract mysticism or idealistic solipsism, this postulate finds its validation and resonance at the frontiers of contemporary science.
Through the formal foundations of quantum mechanics and systems biology, it is demonstrated that the separability between matter (the observed) and consciousness or spirit (the observer) is a methodological illusion.
Reality, in physical and biological terms, is an uninterrupted co-creation and a symbiosis between consciousness and matter.
The Participatory Universe: The Dissolution of Quantum Separability
The Myth of Isolated Matter
Classical and mechanistic physics operated for centuries under the Cartesian assumption of a universe composed of pure matter floating in a vacuum without witnesses. In this deterministic model, the observer was a mere passive spectator, totally isolated from the workings of reality.
Quantum mechanics definitively destroyed this conception, transforming the scientist into an active and inseparable participant in the cosmic fabric.
The Measurement Problem and the Wave Function
In quantum formalism, an isolated physical system does not possess strictly defined macroscopic properties. Instead, it exists in a superimposed potential state, mathematically described by the wave function (Psi). The transition from this potential state to concrete reality—the so-called collapse of the wave function—occurs only in the act of measurement.
The variables of a physical system only acquire real and defined coordinates at the exact moment of interaction with another system, be it the environment or the measuring instrument itself.
The Axiom of the Interdependent Cosmos – The Participatory Universe
The axiom of the interdependent cosmos is the fundamental principle that absolutely nothing in the universe exists in isolation, and each element is defined by its relations with the whole.
This phenomenon illustrates a fundamental ontological postulate for Rovingian Animism: there is no pure observer isolated on a spiritual pedestal, nor pure matter without witnesses.
It is the exchange of information between the experimental apparatus and the observed system that forces nature to manifest itself in a single spatiotemporal coordinate.
As the physicist John Wheeler argued, we inhabit a "participatory universe." Matter needs coupling with measurement and consciousness to actualize itself in raw reality; without this witness, the external world remains a spectral fog of intangible probabilities.
“There is no pure observer isolated on a spiritual pedestal, nor pure matter floating in a vacuum without witnesses” – Quantum matter requires a “witness” to collapse into factual reality, while consciousness needs a material substrate to anchor and express its interpretative dynamism.
Entanglement and Non-Separability
The principle of entanglement, formalized by Bell's Theorem and validated experimentally, demonstrates that interacting particles remain linked in an informational matrix that transcends classical space-time. Changing the state of one instantaneously determines the state of the other, regardless of distance.
This subatomic non-separability mirrors Rovingian Symbiosis: if the fundamental components of the cosmos reject isolation, the strict philosophical division between res extensa (matter) and res cogitans (consciousness) collapses.
Relational Quantum Mechanics (RQM)
Proposed by physicist Carlo Rovelli, this interpretation argues that quantum objects do not possess absolute intrinsic properties. An electron only acquires characteristics (such as velocity or position) in relation to other objects or the environment with which it interacts. From this perspective, the observer and the observed system merge into a single, indivisible quantum system.
Thus, the universe itself is seen as a dynamic web of constantly changing relationships and interactions.
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A Matriz Simbiótica da Existência Rovingiana - A Perspetiva Quântica
Introdução
O animismo rovingiano postula que a existência não é um atributo estático da matéria, nem uma emanação isolada da consciência. Ela emerge, invariavelmente, do produto simbiótico de ambas.
Este princípio unificador condensa-se num postulado ontológico fundamental para o animismo rovingiano : "Não há um observador puro isolado num pedestal espiritual, nem há uma matéria pura a flutuar num vácuo sem testemunhas".
Longe de se encerrar no misticismo abstrato ou no solipsismo idealista, este postulado encontra a sua validação e ressonância nas fronteiras da ciência contemporânea.
Através dos alicerces formais da mecânica quântica e da biologia sistémica, demonstra-se que a separabilidade entre matéria (observado) e consciência ou espírito (o observador) é uma ilusão metodológica.
A realidade, em termos físicos e biológicos, é uma cocriação ininterrupta e uma simbiose entre consciência e matéria.
O Universo Participativo: A Dissolução da Separabilidade Quântica
O Mito da Matéria Isolada
A física clássica e de matriz mecanicista operou, durante séculos, sob o pressuposto cartesiano de um universo composto por matéria pura a flutuar num vácuo sem testemunhas. Neste modelo determinista, o observador era um mero espectador passivo, totalmente isolado da engrenagem da realidade.
A mecânica quântica destruiu definitivamente esta conceção, transformando o cientista num participante ativo e indissociável do tecido cósmico.
O Problema da Medição e a Função de Onda
No formalismo quântico, um sistema físico isolado não possui propriedades macroscópicas estritamente definidas. Em vez disso, ele existe num estado de sobreposição de potencialidades, descrito matematicamente pela função de onda (Psi). A transição deste estado potencial para a realidade concreta — o chamado colapso da função de onda — ocorre apenas no ato da medição.
As variáveis de um sistema físico só adquirem coordenadas reais e definidas no momento exato da interação com outro sistema, seja ele o meio envolvente ou o próprio instrumento de medição.
O Axioma do Cosmos Interdependente – O Universo participativo
O axioma do cosmos interdependente é o princípio fundamental de que absolutamente nada no universo existe de forma isolada, sendo que cada elemento é definido pelas suas relações com o todo.
Este fenómeno ilustra um postulado ontológico fundamental para o Animismo Rovingiano: não existe um observador puro isolado num pedestal espiritual, nem uma matéria pura sem testemunhas.
É o intercâmbio de informação entre o aparato experimental e o sistema observado que força a natureza a manifestar-se numa única coordenada espaciotemporal.
Como defendeu o físico John Wheeler, habitamos um "universo participativo". A matéria necessita do acoplamento com a medição e a consciência para se atualizar na realidade bruta; sem este testemunho, o mundo exterior permanece um nevoeiro espectral de probabilidades intangíveis.
“Não existe um observador puro isolado num pedestal espiritual, nem uma matéria pura a flutuar num vácuo sem testemunhas” - A matéria quântica exige a "testemunha" para colapsar em realidade factual, enquanto a consciência necessita do substrato material para ancorar e expressar o seu dinamismo interpretativo.
Entrelaçamento e Não-Separabilidade
O princípio do entrelaçamento (entanglement), formalizado pelo Teorema de Bell e validado experimentalmente, demonstra que partículas que interagiram permanecem ligadas numa matriz informacional que transcende o espaço-tempo clássico. A alteração do estado de uma determina instantaneamente o estado da outra, independentemente da distância.
Esta não-separabilidade subatómica espelha a Simbiose Rovingiana: se as componentes fundamentais do cosmos rejeitam o isolamento, a divisão filosófica estrita entre a res extensa (matéria) e a res cogitans (consciência) colapsa.
Mecânica Quântica Relacional (RQM)
Proposta pelo físico Carlo Rovelli, esta interpretação defende que os objetos quânticos não possuem propriedades intrínsecas absolutas. Um eletrão só adquire características (como velocidade ou posição) em relação a outros objetos ou ao ambiente com o qual interage. Sob esta perspetiva, o observador e o sistema observado fundem-se num único sistema quântico indivisível.
Assim o próprio universo é encarado como uma teia dinâmica de relações e interações em constante mudança.
I thought I would give the strobist methodology a try...
Flash to camera left at 1/4 power - 160@f/16
1/2 x 2
W.I.P. Product Methodology: Tracing paper.
A Hinged Realization of a Plane Tessellation
"It was in the left hand try-pot of the Pequod, with the soapstone diligently circling round me, that I was first indirectly struck by the remarkable fact, that in geometry all bodies gliding along the cycloid, my soapstone for example, will descend from any point in precisely the same time."
Moby Dick by Herman Melville, 1851
The construction of a new fire station to replace Gipton and Stanks fire stations and removal of 24 fulltime posts from the establishment by way of planned retirements.
Key Points:
Gipton is classed as a very high risk area and Stanks as medium risk area.
Stanks fire station is poorly located at the outer edge of the local community and access/egress from the site is problematic.
In the 5 year period between 2004/5 and 2009/10 operational demand in these areas reduced by 28% (there has been a reduction of 61% of serious fires) . 2
WYFRS has piloted a new type of vehicle (Fire Response Unit) to deal with smaller fires and incidents to free up fire appliances to respond to more serious emergencies.
The pilot has been successful and it is believed that a District based Fire Response Unit will handle in the region of 3,000 calls per year.
The new fire station would have lower running costs.
The two Killingbeck fire appliances would be supplemented by a Resilience Pump for use during spate conditions.
Targeted community safety and risk reduction work would continue.
1. Foreword
1.1 This proposal forms one of a number of similar initiatives developed by West Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service (WYFRS) as part of its plans for the future provision of a highly effective and professional Fire and Rescue Service.
1.2 Each proposal is based on sound and comprehensive research, using real data from past performance and predictions of future demand and risk. Multiple sources of analysis have been used, allied to professional judgment and experience, to form the basis of robust business cases for change. The proposals are also reflective of the significant improvements in fire and community safety achieved over the past 10 years and represents a return on the investment made by the Authority on behalf of the public of West Yorkshire.
1.3 The proposals also incorporate a number of new and innovative approaches to addressing the challenge of maintaining high standards of performance for an emergency response service, within ever tightening financial constraints. The proposals have been developed as a package of inter related initiatives, representing major capital investment in local communities, whilst at the same time delivering annual recurring savings.
2. Introduction
2.1. Gipton fire station was constructed in 1937; it provides the initial emergency response cover for the residential and commercial areas of Gipton, Harehills, Burmantofts, Killingbeck, Halton Moor and Oakwood.
The fire station area covers approximately 8.45 square miles.
There is a population of 75,316.
There are approximately 2015 commercial properties within the area.
2.2. Stanks fire station was constructed 1973; it provides the initial emergency response cover for the mainly residential locations of Whinmoor, Swarcliffe, Whitkirk, Colton, Halton, Crossgates, Scarcroft, North Seacroft, Wellington Hill, Manston, Barwick-in-Elmet, Scholes and Thorner.
The station area covers approximately 14.39 square miles
There is a population of 42,452
There are approximately 663 commercial properties within the area.
2.3. Gipton has been classified as a very high risk area using the WYFRS Risk Matrix methodology. During 2009/10 there were 2196 operational incidents within this area including 86 dwelling fires and 33 Road Traffic Collisions. Stanks fire station area has been classified as medium risk and during the same period there were 688 operational incidents in the area including 34 dwelling fires and 12 Road Traffic Collisions. 1
2.4. Three fire appliances currently provide the initial fire and rescue coverage for Gipton and Stanks and are constantly crewed by 60 whole-time firefighters. The operational demand in these areas has reduced by 28% between 2004/5 and 2009/10 (there has been a reduction of 61% of serious fires) yet the provision of operational resources has remained the same over this period of time. 24
3. Community Impact Assessment
3.1. The following statement is taken from the 2011-2015 Community Risk Management Strategy and emphasises our commitment to deliver an efficient economic and effective range of services, “Every area within WYFRS will be considered in order to provide a better service at reduced cost”.
3.2. To enable WYFRS to deliver against this commitment a wide range of analysis and modelling tools have been used to determine the current and predicted levels of service delivery, together with their associated costs. These tools have also been used to undertake four separate impact assessments in regard to WYFRS proposals which will seek to:
Identify options which minimise reductions in service delivery standards and where there is scope for service delivery improvement.
Develop measures that will mitigate any negative impact upon service delivery and where possible maximise opportunities to achieve improvements.
3.3. WYFRS has developed a risk matrix which allocates a separate score/rating for hazards within communities. It is possible to use this risk rating in conjunction with the costs for providing services to each fire station to compare the cost of fire and rescue cover for each area. Gipton is one of the more cost effective stations in West Yorkshire but Stanks is almost 50% more expensive proportionate to the risk. 6
3.4. For most parts of the day the operational demand on resources based at the new station will be comparable to those of equally resourced fire stations. Figure 1 compares the predicted average operational activity levels for the new station with those of two other fire stations provided with two appliances. It indicates that although operational activity levels are generally comparable they are slightly higher during the evening hours due to the occurrence of smaller nuisance fires. 7
3.5. A Fire Response Unit has been piloted in Leeds District; this unit will attend small fires, car fires and certain fire alarms. These types of incident occur frequently in the East Leeds area. Figure 2 shows the level of activity in the new fire station area with the incidents the Fire response Unit attends taken out of the activity levels. The benefit of the Fire Response Unit can clearly be seen. The activity levels for the new station have been reduced considerably compared to other stations; it also shows that the new station will be less operationally active during the evening than the other local stations.
3.6. The new station in East Leeds will have a comparable level of activity to other fire stations provided with two appliances. 7
Figure 2 - Activity Timeline of Incidents Excluding Secondary Fires and Some False Alarms
Site Locations
3.7. An extensive review of emergency response cover has recently been completed and this has included the use of evaluation tools alongside local knowledge and professional judgment to identify optimum locations to build new WYFRS fire stations.
3.8. A site search mapping system has identified a number of appropriate areas across the County to build new fire stations and a number of sites have been identified within these areas which would provide the best solutions. A new fire station site must first be available for purchase and also provide access to road networks, it must not be located within flood plains and it must meet local planning permission requirements.
3.9. Analysis has been undertaken using the Fire Service Emergency Cover (FSEC – see also para 3.15) toolkit, together with the Phoenix/Active resource modelling toolkit.
3.10. The optimum area for a fire station between Gipton and Stanks has been identified as being situated on the A64 in the vicinity of Killingbeck police station. This proposed site is approximately 1.6 miles from Gipton Approach and 2.2 miles from Sherburn Road. The presence of a large site owned by West Yorkshire Police at this location may also present some potential to co-locate resources.
Determining where resources should be located
3.11. Independent research has assisted WYFRS to determine the potential impact that the implementation of each proposal would have on fire appliance attendance times to operational incidents. A simulation model has been used to identify the performance impact of moving resources to the new fire station. This modelling measures how the location of a new fire station would have performed if it had been in existence and responded to the actual incidents that did occurred in this area between 2007/8 and 2009/10. 4
3.12. Models have been run for locating a two fire appliances at Gipton and closing Stanks, and then run again for locating a two fire appliances at Stanks and closing Gipton, both these options provide a significantly lower level of response performance than would be achieved by locating
3.13. The proposals has a small reduction in performance in fire appliance attendance times against the Risk based Planning Assumptions for all incidents across the whole of West Yorkshire of approximately 0.3% for first appliance and 0.1% for the second appliance. 4
3.14. Local Impact – Figure 3 identifies that:
There is a reduction in response performance against the Risk Based Planning Assumptions in the Gipton station area. The main reason for this is simultaneous activity. This change will be greatly mitigated by the Fire Response Unit. The predicted response times still represent good performance and are appropriate for the. Further impact will be achieved by targeted risk reduction activities.
Fire Service Emergency Cover (FSEC) toolkit
3.15 The FSEC software toolkit has been developed by Central Government (Department for Communities and Local Government) for use by Fire and Rescue Authorities in determining appropriate fire and emergency cover. It enables the relationship between dwelling fire casualties and the social demographics of small areas in the county (super output areas) and the location of response resources (fire stations) to be determined. Four demographic benchmarks are used to demonstrate this relationship and to represent predicted risk associated with a range of appliance response times.
3.16 Analysis of the FSEC outputs (which is a cost benefit analysis in regard to property and life risk) predicts that the relocating the fire station to Killingbeck will:
Reduce the risk to the community.
Result in significant efficiencies. 9
3.17 The FSEC modelling suggests that the impact of the Killingbeck proposal would be less than other relocation options
3.18 The Phoenix/Active software tool is another analysis tool used to identify the impact of any changes of the Risk Based Planning Assumptions referred to above. It predicts that locally there is likely to be a small adverse impact on the performance against Risk Based Planning Assumptions. Across the Brigade the impact is negligible. 10
Predicted Risk Level
3.19. A new fire station located, within the Killingbeck area would attract the same risk classification as the Gipton fire station area therefore the new fire station would be classified as very high risk. Targeted risk reduction activity will help to reduce the risk, with the aim of reducing it sufficiently enough to re-categorise the area as high risk in the future. 1
3.20. Isochrones (travel distance) can be drawn around the proposed location of the new fire station (Section 8). These indicate the distance the appliance would be able to travel within the Risk Based Planning Assumption time of 7 minutes.
3.21. Section 8 also illustrates that for this area of West Yorkshire a single fire station in the new location provides fire appliance coverage which is more proportionate to risk than the current arrangements.
Risk Reduction
3.20 During 2010 a comprehensive and integrated framework for service delivery was developed, this is outlined in the Community Risk Management Strategy 2011-15. This was implemented in 2011 and is proving a very effective means for targeting resources and reducing risk and is an essential method for reducing any negative impact of change in fire cover. Fundamental to this approach is the introduction of District Risk Reduction Teams and Local Area Risk Reductions Teams.
3.21 The location of a fire station in the Killingbeck area will enable targeted community safety activities such as Home Fire Safety Checks to continue.
4 Firefighter Safety Impact Assessment
Risk and firefighters gathering risk information about premises.
4.1 One of WYFRS’s risk indicators is dedicated solely to “Firefighter safety” and has taken cognisance of the following statement within the 2009 WYFRS Firefighter Safety Strategy; “Effective gathering and analysis of information prior to operational incident attendance is of critical importance”.
4.2 The firefighter safety indicator captures the following information to reflect this statement:
The predominance of specified commercial properties within each fire station area.
The availability of associated risk information held for commercial properties.
The predominance of high-rise properties within each fire station area.
4.3 The swift arrival of supporting resources can have a beneficial impact upon the safe management of operational incidents and this is the rationale for this information being captured by the indicator.
4.4 Following the 2009/10 evaluation process the firefighter safety risk bandings for Gipton and Stanks have been determined as high and very low respectively. 1
8
4.5 The targets for operational risk information for the 2012/13 IRMP Action Plan will be set in a proportionate manner, with areas of higher risk levels receiving a greater number of operational risk information inspections. More inspections will take place in areas such as Gipton to increase the availability of risk information available to firefighters via the Mobile Data Terminals (MDT’s) and as more information is made available the corresponding risk level will be reduced.
4.6 The Premises Data-base currently indicates that there are a total of 1650 commercial properties within the Gipton and Stanks area that have not been made subject to an operational information inspection. A high priority has been placed on firefighters in Gipton visiting the premises where incidents could potentially occur. 11
4.7 It is therefore anticipated that the availability of risk information via the Mobile Data Terminals (MDT’s) for properties within all areas will be considerably improved by 2015, by which time the corresponding firefighter safety risk banding will have been reduced to Medium
The arrival times of the 2nd fire appliance
4.9. During 2009/10 there were a total of 333 operational incidents within the areas of Gipton and Stanks which required the attendance of more than one pumping appliance (one every 1.1 days). 12
4.10. Currently the North and East Leeds area has two fire appliances based at Gipton, Moortown and Leeds with one at Rothwell, Garforth, Stanks and Wetherby.
4.11. Increased second pump arrival times require the first attending crew to manage the initial stages of certain incidents in isolation; there is some potential for fires to become more developed in these initial stages.
4.12. The proposal improves the second appliance attendance times into Garforth station areas and there is little impact for the others local station areas.
5. Equality Impact Assessment
5.1 The new Public Sector Equality Duty places a requirement on the organisation to ensure where changes affect service delivery to the community or employees WYFRS assess those changes for any possible negative impact on equality. In this context equality refers to the protected characteristics in the Equality Act 2010, race, gender, disability, religion and belief, sexual orientation, age, gender-reassignment, maternity and pregnancy and marriage and civil partnerships.
5.2 This Equality Impact Assessment has been completed by using information drawn from the Office for National Statistics in regard to this area and has been used to determine whether the removal of a fire appliance from the area will lead to an adverse or disproportionate impact upon any sections of the population. 13
5.3 A 2008 report provided by the Communities and Local Government (CLG) department analysed the correlation between dwelling fires and socio demographics. This report has been used to provide an indication of whether any particular groups within the population are at heightened risk from fire. The report indicates that sick/disabled persons, lone pensioners and Black Caribbean/African groups were associated with a greater incidence of dwelling fires.
5.4 The Gipton and Harehills population was estimated as being 24,904 during 2001 with a fairly equal gender distribution. The predominant ethnic group within the population is White British with Asian/Asian British representing the next major group, followed by Pakistani, Black British/Caribbean and Asian/British Bangladeshi.
9
5.5 Approximately 49% of the resident Gipton and Harehills population are Christians, 23% are of Muslim faith and 25% declared no religious preference. In 2001 16% of the population was aged over 60 and 20% of the population had a limiting long-term illness.
5.6 The WYFRS Prevention strategy contained within the 2011-2015 Community Risk Management Strategy emphasises that risk reduction activities will be focussed toward areas of the county identified as being at higher risk from dwelling fires, deliberate fire setting and road traffic collisions and that an appropriate and proportionate allocation of resources will be made available for District Risk Reduction Teams (DRRT) to achieve this.
5.7 Although the Ward statistics indicate that the communities of Gipton and Harehills are very diverse the findings of the Equality Impact Assessment are that this proposal will not lead to any negative changes in the delivery of Prevention, Protection and Response services and consequently there will be no anticipated impact upon any under-represented groups. The Equality Impact Assessment also confirms that there is no negative impact on any employee group.
6. Organisational Impact Assessment
Efficiencies
6.1 This proposal will enable WYFRS to manage some of the financial deficit caused by reduced government funding.
6.2. The proposal has considered the less than optimal positioning of existing fire stations and appliances together with the reduced operational demand placed and associated costs. The most cost effective solution to these issues is to provide a new fire station and ensure that two fire appliances will be crewed by nine firefighters who will respond to emergencies in less than two minutes from being mobilised.
6.3. This can be achieved by reducing the staffing at Gipton and Stanks by 24 posts; this will be done by way of planned retirements. The staffing and duty system at the new fire station will remain the same.
6.4. The removal of posts that coincide with forecasted retirements will achieve significant revenue savings.
6.5. Although capital investment will be required to construct a new fire station, part of these costs will potentially be off-set by the sale of the two existing fire station sites.
6.6. There will be other associated savings delivered by this proposal, including:
Reduction of Personal Protective Equipment.
Reduction in consumables and station maintenance costs.
The new station will be more environmentally friendly and have energy efficiency technology.
6.7. The analysis undertaken for Gipton and Stanks has identified that there is considerable overlap in the existing Risk Based Planning Assumption isochrones (footprints) for these areas. This overlap represents a duplication of resource coverage and therefore one of the objectives for providing a more efficient service within these areas is to reduce this overlap. 14
10
Impact across West Yorkshire and Resilience
6.8 The reduction in pumping appliances in this area does have a small impact upon attendance times against the Risk Based Planning Assumptions across West Yorkshire for all incidents; performance is reduced by 0.3% for first appliances and 0.1% for second appliances. 4
6.9 In order to maintain WYFRS’s operational resilience, the fire appliance currently sited at Stanks will be relocated at the new fire station. This fire appliance will not be continually staff but will be activated during periods of anticipated or unanticipated high levels of operational activity and in response to significant events which could affect emergency response; such as wide area flooding, bonfire night, periods of bad weather or when attending very large incidents.
6.10 The use of Resilience Pumps supports WYFRS strategy of staffing the appropriate number of fire appliances for normal levels of activity and having the mechanisms to add further fire appliance when required. This strategy is important in maintaining an excellent fire and rescue service whilst meeting the efficiencies required by the reduction in public service budgets.
7. Conclusions
7.1 The existing fire stations at Gipton and Stanks are 3.7 miles apart and consolidating resources at a new fire station at a central location is an economic, effective and efficient way of providing fire and rescue services for these areas.
7.2 The provision of two front-line fire appliances constantly crewed by whole-time firefighters is still deemed appropriate for this area despite the success of previous year’s risk reduction activities.
7.3 Targeted risk reduction initiatives co-ordinated by the Leeds Outer North East, Inner North East and Outer East Local Area Risk Reduction Teams will be undertaken.
7.4 It is expected that the targets established for gathering safety critical risk information, will mitigate the impact upon the safety of WYFRS firefighters resulting from the removal of a pumping appliance from this area.
7.5 The introduction of a Resilience Pump will maintain three appliances in the area and support WYFRSs resilience arrangements
7.6 The consolidation of Gipton and Stanks resources at one central location together with the addition of a Resilience Pump will deliver significant efficiency savings whilst maintaining a high level of service delivery and providing employees with vastly improved accommodation facilities.
The methodology of feudal taxation and detached written religious order might find a late stronghold of post prehistoric belief (today grouped under the term pagan) in need of particular local attention. The ancient Abbey of La Roubière sits on the far off hill and the Église Saint-Quirinusux of Montjeaux (pictured above) may have each had roles to play from either side of the 12th century.
The diversity of Abbeys is greater than any constant, suffice to say that setting examples of ways-of-being and gently integrating ancient belief systems were elements within their patina of early expression. The approach of the above church may have been in contrast and perhaps closer in approach to visual ridicule.
We know that elders of the post neolithic Celtic traditions spent large amounts of time learning by heart verbal stories and heuristics. A last stronghold in the greater area of the Statue Menhirs - with more quiet corners than noisy junctions - may have had learned persons in and around a loci that became known as Mount Jupiter (Mons Jovis and the 'Monjeaux' of this church); people who held ideas of deep history in a collective consciousness. A third example that suggests local difficulties with residual pagan beliefs will be covered in the future.
When looking at the chapiteaux do we see residual transport 'dragons' - living myths from the past, the people of the cow symbol (Sardinia to Mont Bego), and the owl (see past posts for speculation regarding its potential importance) - all shown to be either fighting each other, dangerous for the common man or useless in catching the wrong pests.
The visual stories of these carvings were perhaps blatant to understand for modest and illiterate farm workers impressed by the new and then modern religious buildings, and equally impressed by old traditions and the rich stories, sense of people and place and wisdom that came with them.
The head of one of the dragons is missing.
AJM 16.07.20
Ah! Post WW2 planners utopia! As early as 1942/43 British planners were looking ahead to post-war reconstruction - both to deal with the devastation of Britain's urban fabric by enemy bombing as well as the social and economic 'evils' of much of the unchecked Victorian urban and industrial expansion. Hitherto much of the methodology behind contemporary urban expansion and new housing was to manage the rapid suburban development that, in many cities had lead to edge of town development of 'suburbia' - interestingly loved by those who lived and aspired to such 'semis' and hated by planners and architects as drab fungal growths on the urban fringe ('subtopia'). The other great priority was slum clearance and in-city redvelopment of existing urban areas. Most British regions produced massive development plans and these were to form the foundation of many elements of post-war construction - most notably in the landmark Town & Country Planning Act of 1947 in which the new Labour Government enshrined the production of planning and plans themselves, introduced the 'green belt' concept to protect the boundaries of existing and pushed for the construction of quite a British solution - "New Towns". In the 1940s and '50s numerous New Towns were 'designated' including a ring of such towns around London that had been suggested in the 1944 Greater London Plan. This magnificent volume, sister to the 1943 County of London Plan, was largely authored by one of the doyen of UK planning, Patrick Abercrombie. It put forward plans that helped formulate various of the London 'new towns' - one site considered was the large Essex village of Chipping Ongar, better known as Ongar. Eventually Ongar was de-selcted in c1947 largely because of the cost of the ambitious transport plans involving the London - Ongar branch railway line - the scheme would have seen extension of the line into a loop running through to Brentwood and electrification. This foundered, due to potential costs in post-war austerity - had it happened the history of the branch (that ended up being reluctantly electrified as part of London Transport's Central line and eventually abandoned in 1994) would have been very, very different. Anyhow - the Plan contains some illustrations of the 'new world' proposed - by the illustrator Peter Shepheard, they are in that marvellous style that seems so utopian to us now but must have been so asperational and vital to a British population that had suffered years of war, depression and who often lived in crowded, drab slums. Here we see the proposed neighbourhood planned around the lands surrounding the UK's oldest timber church at the hamlet of Greensted to the west of Ongar. The church is seen on the right - the perspective is slightly south of west so this is looking towards Toot Hill. Much was made of the mixture of types of housing and the preservation of landscape forms and features - fingers of rural greenery containing the carefully planned settlement - the basis of the relaxed, carefree lifestyle New Towns would offer. In contrast to suburban development each 'neighbourhood' had a full range of shopping, educational and social centres, serving the local population and supportingt he town as a whole.
If Ongar didn't get off the drawing board a neighbouring Essex village of Harlow did and was to see precisely the sorts of changes that Ongar had illustrated. Harlow, designated in 1947, saw many of these proposals implemented and, in time, was seen to be the most successful of the 'New Towns'. Places such as Harlow are easily sneered at I fear but one has to admire the energy and passion put into the intention to 'better' peoples lives, whatever you think of the planning and concepts. Interesting that now, in 2014, a new generation of New Towns is proposed to help manage the UK's housing shortage - based on the premise that the 1947 Act, now seen by some as being at the roots of the 'strangulation' of urban development, has been radically overturned we may turn back to one of the very concepts that engendered such centralised planning!
Pachamama Raymi is a methodology which seeks to break through the vicious circle of environmental degradation and rural poverty, promoting the sustainable management of natural resources.
For Meteorologist it's been summer since June 1, but astronomical summer begins today. However you mark the beginning of summer it's definitely in full effect here today in RVA (Richmond VA).
*Finally Got A Pro Account Sorted Out.
Contemporary Landscape University Project.
Landscape - Rural.
Location - Barr Beacon (Birmingham).
Photography And Post Processing - Me.
This project gave me a chance to analyse the materials, methodologies, processes and techniques of other landscape photographers. The aim was to develop and refine my basic core subject skills and abilities of Photography and Moving Image. The project brief required the ability to shoot both of the following topics and investigate it's relationship with landscape through depiction and research. One must be Urban (a.) Which sounds interesting and the other Rural (b.) My final body of work will consist of two fine conventional black and white prints presented in an appropriate form with the 35mm negatives. My final prints i will scan on to my computer then upload them on Flickr for everybody to see. I will also try out some digital color/colour landscape experiments. To compliment this i will add contact sheets and test stripes. i think some of the most important things to consider with Landscape Photography is form, shape and tone.
A Urban Landscape is something which is based in the main city and an Rural landscape is based in the countryside. Now i have the basic research, knowledge and to push this project further i needed to decide on a theme. I combined my theme on environmentalism, memories and surrealism. I picked one for my final body of work which was environmentalism and i establish connections. Environmentalism is interesting as a social movement, it's the need for a point of view, to show the Landscape for what it is and to change the publics perception/point of view. Memories might be interesting but surrealism could again be interesting taking an object/subject and constructing it.
Sometimes, the process and methodology precede all others...but the outcome is essentially what matters most. If the work allows to open up multiple levels of meaning and interpretation, that is exactly what any drawings stand for.
Ryota Matsumoto Studio
Website: ryotamatsumotostudio.blogspot.com
Poverty in India is widespread, and a variety of methods have been proposed to measure it. The official measure of Indian government, before 2005, was based on food security and it was defined from per capita expenditure for a person to consume enough calories and be able to pay for associated essentials to survive. Since 2005, Indian government adopted the Tendulkar methodology which moved away from calorie anchor to a basket of goods and used rural, urban and regional minimum expenditure per capita necessary to survive.
The World Bank has similarly revised its definition and benchmarks to measure poverty since 1990, with $1.25 per day income on purchasing power parity basis as the definition in use from 2005 to 2013. Some semi-economic and non-economic indices have also been proposed to measure poverty in India; for example, the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index placed 33% weight on number of years spent in school and education and 6.25% weight on financial condition of a person, in order to determine if that person is poor.
The different definitions and different underlying small sample surveys used to determine poverty in India, have resulted in widely different estimates of poverty from 1950s to 2010s. In 2013, the Indian government stated 21.9% of its population is below its official poverty limit. The World Bank, in 2010 based on 2005's PPPs International Comparison Program, estimated 32.7% of Indian population, or about 400 million people, lived below $1.25 per day on purchasing power parity basis. According to United Nations Development Programme, an estimated 29.8% of Indians lived below poverty line in 2009-2010.
Poverty in India is a historical reality. From late 19th century through early 20th century, under British colonial rule, poverty in India intensified, peaking in 1920s. Famines and diseases killed millions each time. After India gained its independence in 1947, mass deaths from famines were prevented, but poverty increased, peaking post-independence in 1960s. A variety of welfare and food security initiatives, along with rapid economic growth since 1991, has led to sharp reductions in extreme poverty in India. However, those above poverty line live a fragile economic life. Lack of basic essentials of life such as safe drinking water, sanitation, housing, health infrastructure as well as malnutrition impact the lives of hundreds of millions.
The World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions in May 2014, to its poverty calculation methodology and purchasing power parity basis for measuring poverty worldwide, including India. According to this revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million people lived in India. In other words, India with 17.5% of total world's population, had 20.6% share of world's poorest in 2013.
DEFINITION OF POVERTY
Poverty in India is widespread, and a variety of methods have been proposed to measure it. The official measure of Indian government, before 2005, was based on food security and it was defined from per capita expenditure for a person to consume enough calories and be able to pay for associated essentials to survive. Since 2005, Indian government adopted the Tendulkar methodology which moved away from calorie anchor to a basket of goods and used rural, urban and regional minimum expenditure per capita necessary to survive.
The World Bank has similarly revised its definition and benchmarks to measure poverty since 1990, with $1.25 per day income on purchasing power parity basis as the definition in use from 2005 to 2013. Some semi-economic and non-economic indices have also been proposed to measure poverty in India; for example, the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index placed 33% weight on number of years spent in school and education and 6.25% weight on financial condition of a person, in order to determine if that person is poor.
The different definitions and different underlying small sample surveys used to determine poverty in India, have resulted in widely different estimates of poverty from 1950s to 2010s. In 2013, the Indian government stated 21.9% of its population is below its official poverty limit. The World Bank, in 2010 based on 2005's PPPs International Comparison Program, estimated 32.7% of Indian population, or about 400 million people, lived below $1.25 per day on purchasing power parity basis. According to United Nations Development Programme, an estimated 29.8% of Indians lived below poverty line in 2009-2010.
Poverty in India is a historical reality. From late 19th century through early 20th century, under British colonial rule, poverty in India intensified, peaking in 1920s. Famines and diseases killed millions each time. After India gained its independence in 1947, mass deaths from famines were prevented, but poverty increased, peaking post-independence in 1960s. A variety of welfare and food security initiatives, along with rapid economic growth since 1991, has led to sharp reductions in extreme poverty in India. However, those above poverty line live a fragile economic life. Lack of basic essentials of life such as safe drinking water, sanitation, housing, health infrastructure as well as malnutrition impact the lives of hundreds of millions.
The World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions in May 2014, to its poverty calculation methodology and purchasing power parity basis for measuring poverty worldwide, including India. According to this revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million people lived in India. In other words, India with 17.5% of total world's population, had 20.6% share of world's poorest in 2013.
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON
India determines household poverty line by summing up the individual per capita poverty lines of the household members. This practice is similar to many developing countries, but different from developed countries such as the United States that adjust poverty line on an incremental basis per additional household member. For example, in the United States, the poverty line for a household with just one member was set at $11,670 per year for 2014, while it was set at $23,850 per year for a 4-member household (or $5963 per person for the larger household). The rationale for the differences arise from the economic realities of each country. In India, households may include surviving grandparents, parents and children. They typically do not incur any or significant rent expenses every month particularly in rural India, unlike housing in mostly urban developed economies. The cost of food and other essentials are shared within the household by its members in both cases. However, a larger portion of a monthly expenditure goes to food in poor households in developing countries, while housing, conveyance and other essentials cost significantly more in developed economies.
For its current poverty rate measurements, India calculates two benchmarks. The first includes a basket of goods including food items but does not include the implied value of home, value of any means of conveyance or the economic value of other essentials created, grown or used without a financial transaction, by the members of a household. The second poverty line benchmark adds rent value of residence as well as the cost of conveyance, but nothing else, to the first benchmark. This practice is similar to those used in developed countries for non-cash income equivalents and poverty line basis.
2010s
The World Bank has reviewed its poverty definition and calculation methodologies several times over the last 25 years. In early 1990s, The World Bank anchored absolute poverty line as $1 per day. This was revised in 1993, and the absolute poverty line was set at $1.08 a day for all countries on a purchasing power parity (PPP)basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 U.S. dollar. In 2005, after extensive studies of cost of living across the world, The World Bank raised the measure for global poverty line to reflect the observed higher cost of living. Thereafter, the World Bank determined poverty rates from those living on less than US$1.25 per day on 2005 PPP basis, a measure that has been widely used in media and scholarly circles.
In May 2014, after revisiting its poverty definition, methodology and economic changes around the world, the World Bank proposed another major revision to PPP calculation methodology, international poverty line and indexing it to 2011 U.S. dollar. The new method proposes setting poverty line at $1.78 per day on 2011 PPP basis. According to this revised World Bank methodology, India had 179.6 million people below the new poverty line, China had 137.6 million, and the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line on an equivalent basis as of 2013. India, in other words, while having 17.5% of total world's population, had 20.6% share of world's poor.
Semi-economic measures of poverty
Other measures such as the semi-economic Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which places 33% weight on education and number of schooling years in its definition of poverty, and places 6.25% weight on income and assets owned, suggests there were 650 million people (53.7% of population) living in MPI-poverty in India. 421 million of MPI-defined poor are concentrated in eight North Indian and East Indian states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The table below presents this semi-economic poverty among the states of India based on the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index, using a small sample survey data for Indian states in 2005.
OTHER ESTIMATES
According to a 2011 poverty Development Goals Report, as many as 320 million people in India and China are expected to come out of extreme poverty in the next four years, with India's poverty rate projected to drop from 51% in 1990 to about 22% in 2015. The report also indicates that in Southern Asia, only India is on track to cut poverty by half by the 2015 target date.
GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX
Global Hunger Index (GHI) is an index that places a third of weight on proportion of the population that is estimated to be undernourished, a third on the estimated prevalence of low body weight to height ratio in children younger than five, and remaining third weight on the proportion of children dying before the age of five for any reason. According to 2011 GHI report, India has improved its performance by 22% in 20 years, from 30.4 to 23.7 over 1990 to 2011 period. However, its performance from 2001 to 2011 has shown little progress, with just 3% improvement.
CAUSES
One cause is a high population growth rate, although demographers generally agree that this is a symptom rather than cause of poverty. While services and industry have grown at double-digit figures, agriculture growth rate has dropped from 4.8% to 2%. About 60% of the population is employed in agriculture whereas the contribution of agriculture to the GDP is about 18%. The surplus of labour in agriculture has caused many people to not have jobs. Farmers are a large vote bank and use their votes to resist reallocation of land for higher-income industrial project.
REDUCTION OF POVERTY
Since the early 1950s, Indian government initiated various schemes to help the poor attain self-sufficiency in food production. These have included ration cards and price controls over the supply of basic commodities, particularly food at controlled prices, available throughout the country. These efforts prevented famines, but did little to eliminate or reduce poverty in rural or urban areas between 1950 and 1980.
One of the main reasons for record decline in Poverty is India's rapid economic growth rate since 1991. Another reason proposed is India's launch of social welfare programs such as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and Midday Meal Scheme in Government Schools.[citation needed] Klonner and Oldiges, in a 2012 study, conclude that MGNREGA helps reduce rural poverty gap (intensity of rural poverty), seasonal poverty, but not overall poverty.
WIKIPEDIA
Explicación visual del proceso de una metodología de Pensamiento Visual. A visual explanation about the process of a Visual Thinking methodology
An F-35A Lightning II assigned to the 4th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron receives fuel from a KC-10 Extender assigned to the 908th Expeditionary Air Refueling Squadron to receive fuel during Exercise Agile Lightning Aug. 6, 2019. The exercise demonstrated the adaptive basing methodology where personnel and aircraft can operate in austere environments to complete essential missions vital to the defense of U.S. assets and personnel.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather, stealth, fifth-generation, multirole combat aircraft, designed for ground-attack and air-superiority missions. It is built by Lockheed Martin and many subcontractors, including Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney, and BAE Systems.
The F-35 has three main models: the conventional takeoff and landing F-35A (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing F-35B (STOVL), and the catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery, carrier-based F-35C (CATOBAR). The F-35 descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, the design that was awarded the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program over the competing Boeing X-32. The official Lightning II name has proven deeply unpopular and USAF pilots have nicknamed it Panther, instead.
The United States principally funds F-35 development, with additional funding from other NATO members and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. These funders generally receive subcontracts to manufacture components for the aircraft; for example, Turkey was the sole supplier of several F-35 parts until its removal from the program in July 2019. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.
As the largest and most expensive military program ever, the F-35 became the subject of much scrutiny and criticism in the U.S. and in other countries. In 2013 and 2014, critics argued that the plane was "plagued with design flaws", with many blaming the procurement process in which Lockheed was allowed "to design, test, and produce the F-35 all at the same time," instead of identifying and fixing "defects before firing up its production line". By 2014, the program was "$163 billion over budget [and] seven years behind schedule". Critics also contend that the program's high sunk costs and political momentum make it "too big to kill".
The F-35 first flew on 15 December 2006. In July 2015, the United States Marines declared its first squadron of F-35B fighters ready for deployment. However, the DOD-based durability testing indicated the service life of early-production F-35B aircraft is well under the expected 8,000 flight hours, and may be as low as 2,100 flight hours. Lot 9 and later aircraft include design changes but service life testing has yet to occur. The U.S. Air Force declared its first squadron of F-35As ready for deployment in August 2016. The U.S. Navy declared its first F-35Cs ready in February 2019. In 2018, the F-35 made its combat debut with the Israeli Air Force.
The U.S. stated plan is to buy 2,663 F-35s, which will provide the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps in coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled until 2037 with a projected service life up to 2070.
Development
F-35 development started in 1992 with the origins of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program and was to culminate in full production by 2018. The X-35 first flew on 24 October 2000 and the F-35A on 15 December 2006.
The F-35 was developed to replace most US fighter jets with the variants of a single design that would be common to all branches of the military. It was developed in co-operation with a number of foreign partners, and, unlike the F-22 Raptor, intended to be available for export. Three variants were designed: the F-35A (CTOL), the F-35B (STOVL), and the F-35C (CATOBAR). Despite being intended to share most of their parts to reduce costs and improve maintenance logistics, by 2017, the effective commonality was only 20%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns during development and for the total projected cost of the program over the lifetime of the jets.
By 2017, the program was expected to cost $406.5 billion over its lifetime (i.e. until 2070) for acquisition of the jets, and an additional $1.1 trillion for operations and maintenance. A number of design deficiencies were alleged, such as: carrying a small internal payload; performance inferior to the aircraft being replaced, particularly the F-16; lack of safety in relying on a single engine; and flaws such as the vulnerability of the fuel tank to fire and the propensity for transonic roll-off (wing drop). The possible obsolescence of stealth technology was also criticized.
Design
Overview
Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s, such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B is to be the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter. The single-engine F-35 resembles the larger twin-engined Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, drawing design elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship.
Lockheed Martin has suggested that the F-35 could replace the USAF's F-15C/D fighters in the air-superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in the ground-attack role. It has also stated the F-35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor, and that the F-35 has an advantage over the F-22 in basing flexibility and possesses "advanced sensors and information fusion".
Testifying before the House Appropriations Committee on 25 March 2009, acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. "Shack" Shackelford, stated that the F-35 is designed to be America's "premier surface-to-air missile killer, and is uniquely equipped for this mission with cutting-edge processing power, synthetic aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition".
Improvements
Ostensible improvements over past-generation fighter aircraft include:
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using structural fiber mat instead of the high-maintenance coatings of legacy stealth platforms
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and on-board sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve target identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes
High-speed data networking including IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel (Fibre Channel is also used on Boeing's Super Hornet.
The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment, Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS), and Computerized maintenance management system to help ensure the aircraft can remain operational with minimal maintenance manpower The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive bidding by other companies. This was after Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing 20% less than the F-16 per flight hour, the F-35 would actually cost 12% more. Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership calculations. The USMC has implemented a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the system. The ALIS system currently requires a shipping-container load of servers to run, but Lockheed is working on a more portable version to support the Marines' expeditionary operations.
Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-by-wire flight-control system
A modern and updated flight simulator, which may be used for a greater fraction of pilot training to reduce the costly flight hours of the actual aircraft
Lightweight, powerful lithium-ion batteries to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22). The majority of these are bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials. The F-35 will be the first mass-produced aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Experience of the F-22's problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap filler that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframe's skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring filler and implementing better drainage. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35B's requirement to fit inside the Navy's current amphibious assault ship parking area and elevators; the F-35C's longer wing is considered to be more fuel efficient.
Costs
A U.S. Navy study found that the F-35 will cost 30 to 40% more to maintain than current jet fighters, not accounting for inflation over the F-35's operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1 trillion maintenance cost for the entire fleet over its lifespan, not accounting for inflation. The F-35 program office found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35 fleet over a 53-year lifecycle was $857 billion. Costs for the fighter have been dropping and accounted for the 22 percent life cycle drop since 2010. Lockheed stated that by 2019, pricing for the fifth-generation aircraft will be less than fourth-generation fighters. An F-35A in 2019 is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with engines and full mission systems, inflation adjusted from $75 million in December 2013.
Welcome to the Irrlicht Engine
The Irrlicht Engine is an open source realtime 3D engine written in C++. It is cross-platform, using D3D, OpenGL and its own software renderers. OpenGL-ES2 and WebGL renderers are also in development. It is a stable library which has been worked on for nearly 2 decades. We've got a huge community and Irrlicht is used by hobbyists and professional companies alike. You can find enhancements for it all over the web, like alternative terrain renderers, portal renderers, exporters, world layers, tutorials, editors, language bindings and so on. And best of all: It's completely free.
Irrlichtelieren (Will-o’-the-wisping-around)
Jane K. Brown
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON
The lexeme Irrlichtelieren (will-o’-the-wisping-around, i.e. thinking outside the box) is Goethe’s neologism for a heterodox line of thought that displaces traditional methods of philosophy and science. Although the term occurs only once, in the student scene of Faust, Part One (FA 1.7:83.1917), the shifting value of will-o’-the-wisps in Faust and other works corresponds to the theories of scientific method Goethe advanced in essays of the 1790s and especially to the methodology of his Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of Color) of 1810. While in Goethe’s letters and in the devil’s language in Faust, will-o’-the-wisps betoken illusion, they develop in the course of Faust into symbols of the ineffable truth that Kantian metaphysics had effectively substituted for God. The ironic dialectic of the will-o’-the-wisps shapes Goethe’s views of pedagogy and scientific epistemology and his positions on the idealist subject/object dichotomy, on the relationships of nature and truth, on representation and knowledge, and on knowledge and community.
Introduction
Etymological Implications
Learning as Flitting Around
Subject-Object Relations
The Relationship of Nature and Truth
Representation as Knowledge
Knowledge and Community
Notes
Related Entries
Works Cited and Further Reading
Introduction
The neologism irrlichtelieren can be defined as: “An innovative and eccentric line of thought, [. . .] a lexical innovation [. . .] that configures the ‘improper’ imperative of Goethean thought [. . .] to displace the ‘proper’ way of doing philosophy (including logic, rationalist metaphysics, and transcendental idealism) by repurposing its traditional instruments of torture.”1 Goethe invented the word and used it only once, in the student scene of Faust I. Derived from the noun Irrlicht (will-o’-the-wisp, or ignis fatuus), it initially identifies the confused thinking of the student who has yet to learn logic,
Daß er bedächtiger so fortan
Hinschleiche die Gedankenbahn,
Und nicht etwa, die Kreuz und Quer,
Irrlichteliere hin und her. (FA 1.7:83.1914–17)2
So that he creep more circumspectly
along the train of thought
and not go will-o’-the-wisping
back and forth and here and there.
However, the use of will-o’-the-wisp in Faust transforms this apparent praise of logic into its opposite, so that “will-o’-the-wisping back and forth” comes to represent the epistemology actually promoted not only in Faust but also in Goethe’s essays on scientific methodology and optics from the 1790s and in his massive Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of Colors) of 1810. Derived from irren (erring), the central theme of Faust, where the Lord says “Es irrt der Mensch, so lang er strebt” (FA 1.7:27.317; man errs as long as he strives) and Licht (light), used consistently as an image for knowledge or truth in Goethe, as so often in the period, irrlichtelieren becomes a useful term for Goethe’s process of learning truth by trial and error. It engages a series of epistemological issues typical of the period: thinking outside the box, subject/object, the relation of nature and truth, the role of representation in knowledge, and the epistemology of community formation. Irrlichtelieren not only exemplifies Goethe’s tendency to heuristic rather than systematic thought (unlike that of his Romantic colleagues), but indeed embodies its own meaning—for will-o’-the-wisps and similar figures appear as characters in his (arguably) most characteristic works: Faust and the Märchen (Fairy Tale) of 1795. Furthermore, the word irrlichtelieren appears in Faust in the context of philosophical discourse when Mephistopheles is holding forth on the place of logic in the curriculum; similarly, in Faust II, a will-o’-wisp-like creature named Homunculus, seeking to become, is introduced in the context of implied questions of becoming in idealist philosophy as well as the philosophical-scientific discourse of classical antiquity invoked by the two pre-Socratics Anaxagoras and Thales. Yet because, unlike most of the terms in this lexicon, irrlichtelieren begins in Goethe’s poetic works as a metaphor that then becomes a personification, it emerges as a philosophical concept only in the metadiscourse of scholarly analysis.
Etymological Implications
The addition of “-ieren” to the word “Irrlicht” turns it into a verb, so that it means “to wisp around.” The combination of “will-o’-the-wisp” with the formal French suffix is intentionally frivolous, as is often the case with Goethe at his most ironic and most profound moments. In Goethe’s day, an Irrlicht was a still mysterious natural phenomenon (now understood as a natural fluorescence originating in the spontaneous combustion of gases from rotting matter in marshy places). Its entry into folklore, specifically as a mischievous nature spirit, is documented in Germany only beginning in the sixteenth century, when the Latin term ignis fatuus (silly flame) was invented by a German humanist to lend the long-existing German word intellectual credibility.3 Although Goethe was familiar with explanations for Irrlichter extending back to Paracelsus (1493–1541) and, beyond him, to the pre-Socratics, he used it as a scientific term only once, in a reference to two essays by his friend, the botanist and Romantic natural philosopher Christian Gottfried Nees von Esenbeck (1776–1858).4 Esenbeck considered both will-o’-the-wisps and falling stars to be entirely natural phenomena connected to a slime (Schleim), but in a tension typical of Romantic Naturphilosophie remained uncertain as to whether its effects were natural or supernatural. Sly allusions to Esenbeck are to be found in Faust via the presence of falling stars in the “Walpurgis Night’s Dream” and the sticky roses that torment Mephistopheles in act five of Faust II. Otherwise, Goethe used Irrlicht in his poetic works, essays, and correspondence always negatively, to refer to delusions.5 Thus, in Faust, “will-o’-the-wisp” emerges primarily from the mouth of Mephistopheles, the skeptical conjuror of illusions, and its ultimate significance as the best way to learn about truth arises from the fundamental irony inherent in the devil’s role in the play.
Learning as Flitting Around
Irrlichter are delusive because they constantly move around and because their light leads travelers astray. And yet, for the author of innumerable works about characters who wander aimlessly, wandering is a primary mode of being. Examples of such characters include Faust, for whom erring is the only path to salvation; the hero of Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (1795/96; Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship) and almost everyone in Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre (1829; Wilhelm Meister’s Journeyman Years); the indecisive traveler of Briefe aus der Schweiz (1808; Letters from Switzerland), who worries whether he should climb the Furka in winter; and the traveler in Italienische Reise (1816/17; Italian Journey), who hesitates to go to Sicily and decides not to go to Greece. In his autobiography, Dichtung und Wahrheit (1833; Poetry and Truth), Goethe regularly defines epochs of his life in terms of place and consistently features his own lack of agency in his choice of places. He, too, was a constant wanderer, even after he was more or less settled in Weimar.
Wandering is also the primary mode of scientific experimentation in the essays of the 1790s, where a “good experiment” (Goethe’s word is “Erfahrung [. . .] einer höhern Art”; FA 1.25:34) requires multiple observations of the same object from many different points of view (see, especially, “Der Versuch als Vermittler zwischen Objekt und Subjekt” of 1793). Indeed, the word Erfahrung contains the verb fahren (to travel). In this respect, Goethe was already ahead of Hegel, whose Phänomenologie was originally called “Die Wissenschaft der Erfahrung des Bewußtseins” (The Science of the Experience of Consciousness) and who emphasizes the notion of “dialektische Bewegung” (dialectical movement) at the heart of Erfahrung. Similarly, Part 1 of the Farbenlehre calls upon the reader to engage in several long series of observations, each of which ends with analogical amplifications of central observation rather than with a theoretical conclusion. Indeed, at the end of a Goethean experiment, the phenomenon “kann niemals isoliert werden” (FA 1.25:126; can never be isolated), the truth is to remain untouched in the unarticulated center of all the different observations. The same is still true in the Wanderjahre of the late 1820s, a text that both celebrates wandering and delights in the juxtaposition of seemingly contradictory points of view in its narratives and aphorisms. Indeed, Goethe’s cultivation of aphorism, as also his history of the science of color in the form of separate descriptions of scientists without an overarching narrative, reflect this same method of what, at first, seems to be random flitting. Irrlichterlieren is the freedom to attend to each detail carefully in itself before connecting it to others.
Subject-Object Relations
The experimental method Goethe described in the 1790s, when he was doing research in botany, anatomy, geology, and optics, when he was also absorbed in Kant’s Kritik der Urteilskraft (Critique of Judgment) and bringing scientists and philosophers (like Hegel) of the new idealist movement to the university at Jena had, as its explicit purpose, the mediation between subject and object. The multiperspectivism of “Der Versuch als Vermittler” (The Experiment as Mediator) arises from the need to keep scientific knowledge from imposing the subject on the object, the basic problem of idealism. Too much subjectivity causes the investigator to draw arbitrary and often unwarranted connections among phenomena and to become too attached to hypotheses, while too much objectivity reduces scientific knowledge to a mere collection of isolated facts (FA 1.25:31–33). Goethe resolves the problem with the term “Entäußerung,” renunciation, or, literally, withdrawal of one’s self to the outside. Goethe’s “experiment” escapes subjectivity but connects facts by multiplying and varying the conditions of observation. The quality of wandering now becomes flitting around outside of the box—that is, behaving like an Irrlicht flitting around outdoors. Similarly, Faust removes himself to the outside of his study and his identity with the aid of Mephistopheles, the invoker of will-o’-the-wisps in the play, while the world of the Märchen transcends itself through the mediation of actual will-o’-the-wisps visiting from abroad. Such is the model for Goethe’s epistemology.
The Relationship of Nature and Truth
In the Farbenlehre and repeatedly in the Wanderjahre Goethe asserts that the truth, the phenomenon (and later Urphänomen, or sometimes das Absolute), remains unknowable. Ringed about by observations, it is incommensurable, a secret to be respected, in some contexts to be reverenced, but to remain unviolated. Especially the Farbenlehre makes generous use of the terms “higher” and “highest” to rank insights and phenomena and does not hesitate to address transition points from the material to the spiritual/intellectual realm. Above all, the volume communicates the profound respect the scientist owes to the purity and essential impenetrability of the natural phenomenon. Just as in the earlier methodological essays, the phenomenon proper, which Goethe calls the “Urphänomen,” remains, to the end, a riddle at the center of all the scientist’s observations. Esenbeck’s theory of the mysterious slime that characterizes will-o’-the-wisps and falling stars is a similar mystery at the heart of a scientific explanation, leaving an opening to the realm of Geist (spirit/mind). The Irrlicht is Goethe’s image for this essential part of his epistemology. The Irrlicht can never be grasped, like the rainbow in the first scene of Faust II or the jewels scattered by Knabe Lenker (Boy Charioteer) in act two that turn to insects in the hand. In its inconstant motion, it escapes the control even of Mephistopheles in the Walpurgis Night of Faust I and it is repeatedly imagined in evanescent lights in Faust I and in a series of mysterious attractive figures in Faust II, such as Knabe Lenker, Homunculus, the angels of the burning roses in act five, and, finally, the rising Mater Gloriosa, always just out of reach at the very end of the play. In the Märchen the will-o’-the-wisps, having transubstantiated the green snake, restore the world to order and harmony and end by scattering gold, always in Goethe a symbol of the vital force of life, natura naturans. As folklore figures, will-o’-the-wisps are Goethe’s ideal image of Romantic natural supernaturalism, of the permeable, ungraspable boundary between nature and spirit, between the real and the ideal.
Representation as Knowledge
While the Absolute cannot be grasped directly, it can nevertheless be known through representations the mind stages for itself. The essay “Physik überhaupt” (1798; Physics in general) already introduces aesthetic terminology: the goal of Goethe’s series of observations is not to pin down the phenomenon but to understand it in a sequence or in a series of episodes. To present it, then, requires the condensing activity of the subject to represent aspects of the object “in einer stetigen Folge der Erscheinungen” (FA 1.25:126; in a regular series of appearances). “Aesthetic” is the appropriate term here, because all of Goethe’s poetic writing of the 1790s has episodic plots consisting of a series of experiences repeated from varied perspectives. The tripartite structure of the Farbenlehre similarly reflects Goethe’s basic principle of examining any phenomenon from several different points of view, both between and within parts, and his corresponding stylistic tendency toward episodic organization.
Yet, aesthetic terminology plays an even greater role in the epistemology of the Farbenlehre. Part 1 discusses the subject-object tension, for example, by focusing on “Begrenzung” (limitation) as the essential cause of color rather than Newton’s refraction. Color, like any other phenomenon, can only be recognized as such through its boundaries. Defining the edges of color or of light, then, transforms it into an image, a Bild (“Anzeige und Übersicht des goetheschen Werkes zur Farbenlehre,” FA 1.23.1:1045). Such framing equates to looking at the phenomenon from outside, a single perspective at a time, followed by connecting single observations into patterns in order to transform attentive looking into theorizing (FA 1.23.1:14), as already in the essays of the 1790s. But the consistent focus on the word Bild for what Goethe calls “theorizing” dominates this work (see also FA 1.23.1:12, 120). The foreword to the Farbenlehre compares understanding people’s inner (hidden) character through their deeds to understanding the nature of light through color: “Die Farben sind Taten des Lichts, Taten und Leiden” (FA 1.23.1:12; Colors are the deeds of light, what it does and what it endures). The comparison of human character to light has suddenly morphed into personification when colors become the deeds and sufferings of humanity. Colors have become actors, and indeed, given the Aristotelian atmosphere evoked by “Taten und Leiden,” tragic actors. Actors are images, personifications, representations, and not essences, but these “actors” are the realia of empirical observations. Reality is now something staged. Indeed, the first part of the Farbenlehre provides illustrations to enable the reader to repeat, to reenact, the “experiments” described in the text, and Goethe justifies this move by comparing his illustrations to a play performance, which requires spectacle, sound, and motion to be realized (FA 1.23.1:18–19). Theorizing is transformed into interpretation as observation of nature is equated to observation of a play on stage.
This dramatizing personification underpins Goethe’s understanding of light. The human eye, he asserts, does not see forms, but only light, dark, and color. He continues, “Das Auge hat sein Dasein dem Licht zu danken. Aus gleichgültigen thierischen Hülfsorganen ruft sich das Licht ein Organ hervor, das seines Gleichen werde; und so bildet sich das Auge am Lichte für’s Licht, damit das innere Licht dem äußeren entgegentrete” (FA 1.23.1:24; The eye owes its existence to light. From among the lesser ancillary organs of the animals, light calls forth one organ to be its like, and thus the eye is formed by the light and for the light so that the inner light may emerge to meet the outer light).6 Now light is the creator god calling forth the human eye, made in the god’s own image. From here it is but a step back to Faust, with its little erring lights, the will-o’-the-wisps, and Faust as, in effect, the erring human eye, looking at and wanting to experience the entire creation, a notion of experience as viewing already adumbrated at the end of the Vorspiel auf dem Theater (Prelude on the Stage) and in the final line of the first scene in Faust II, “Am farbigen Abglanz haben wir das Leben” (FA 1.7.206:4727; Life is ours in the colorful reflection). Indeed, the Irrlichter in Faust actually anticipate the trajectory of color and light in the Farbenlehre. They enter the play in Mephistopheles’ frivolous neologism, irrlichtelieren, and appear on stage as speaking actors in the Walpurgis Night and in the Walpurgis Night’s Dream, then as Knabe Lenker, Homunculus, and the impish angels in Faust II. Seeming at first to be delusions leading into error, they become images, then actors, who mirror for Faust and for us the presence in the world of the invisible and incommensurable truth that gives it meaning. The whole drama is nothing but plays within the play, and, in the end, it turns out that is all anyone can expect. In the final scene, Faust floats upward and onward apparently into the infinite, but in order to know that, to perceive the infinites, images are still necessary. Hence the baroque Catholic imagery that is obviously and uncomfortably not “real.” The final “chorus mysticus” (FA 1.7:464.12104–11) speaks of “Gleichnis” (parable), an extreme form of image, and then of dramatic action (“getan” [done], “Ereignis” [event]), exactly the way the Farbenlehre describes the representation of light in color. “Das Unzulängliche” (what is inadequate/unachievable) itself is transformed in the process. In Goethe’s day, this adjective meant “inadequate” but, in Goethe’s usage, becomes “unachievable”—a category of the object becomes a category of subjective striving. The play ends with the impossible riddle, “das ewig-Weibliche” (the eternal feminine). It is the Urphänomen, the phenomenon that underlies all our observations but remains alone as a riddle in the center.
Knowledge and Community
As Irrlichter are promoted from metaphor to personification in Faust, they become mediators, agents of cooperation. They take on bodies, and in the course of Faust II appear in the bodies of poetry, the vital spirit of life, in effect as Beauty in the form of Helen, and eventually as the angelic messengers of Divine Love. In the course of the play, they represent everything up a great chain of being from delusive nature to higher truth, to pure spirit. In the Märchen their ontological status engages the same totality, but not in such a clearly ordered hierarchy. In that tale, they become brighter and apparently more solid after substantial meals of gold, and as they scatter their energy in showers of gold coins they lose substance and even visibility. But the fact that they generously spend their golden substance is crucial. In both their getting and spending they enable the troubled inhabitants of the fairytale world to work together as a community and to restore their golden age of unity, peace, and prosperity. Their arrival signals the beginning of the restoration, and their departure its completion. They are the circulators of gold, of the vitality of nature and spirit; they are the light of this particular world, its erring light. As the mediators between spirit and nature, they also enable the establishment of human community, the injection of ideal order into an otherwise imperfect real world. Cooperation is also an essential element of Goethe’s scientific epistemology: scientific knowledge is built up one small piece at a time, whether as the process of repeated observations by a single individual or, at least as importantly, as the accumulation of observations by many individuals over long periods. The historical section of the Farbenlehre is longer than its theoretical section and polemic against Newton put together. Irrlichtelieren, as a unique mode of engagement with others, inspires a different kind of cooperative knowledge from the chains of tradition.
Nevertheless, it would be naive and most un-Goethean to regard this view as simple optimistic progressivism. Irrlichter are transient, evanescent phenomena. They may inspire social cohesion for the moment, as in the Märchen, but they are eternal wanderers, succeeded in the tale, to be sure, by other wanderers, but hardly guarantors of a permanent future outside of a fairy tale. Similarly, Faust’s utopian draining of swamps does not last forever in the real world of Faust, and Faust’s own vision of the future foresees them constantly recreated in a permanent struggle with the sea. And the sea is not only a force of destruction, but is also, in itself, a life-giving force. It, too, is a wanderer. It takes wanderers, the force of constant change, to promote social community but, like the visitors to the New World in the Wanderjahre, they always leave again.
Goethe’s early political ideal was Justus Möser’s federalism of small states. While he read political thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Gaetano Filangieri, and Cesare Beccaria, he never favored large permanent systems. He loved Rome, center of the world, for the personal relationships and development it afforded him, but not as the great political center. Not the Aeneid, the great epic of the founding of the Roman Empire, excited him, but the Odyssey, in which the hero’s struggles increasingly have to do with escaping the lures of women to return to his small island home, when he must yet again depart on another journey to plant an oar in a place where journeying by sea and epic heroism are unknown. Goethe admired but did not celebrate Napoleon, and he juxtaposed to his demonic hero Faust the passive, bourgeois heroes Wilhelm Meister and the Hermann of Hermann und Dorothea (1797; Hermann and Dorothea). His politics favored the small-scale operations that allowed for variation, change, indeed the “frivolity” of will-o’-wisps. In a common cliché, Goethe is the last Renaissance man, the last universalist, which is another way of saying that his scientific and poetic epistemologies, or his epistemology and his poetology, are essentially linked, as in this anything but frivolous term irrlichtelieren.
Clark Muenzer, personal communication. See also Muenzer’s “Begriff” entry in this volume. ↩
All references to Faust are cited parenthetically by line number. All translations are my own unless otherwise indicated. ↩
See the entry “Irrlicht” in Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens, ed. Hanns Bächtold-Stäubli and Eduard Hoffmann-Krayer (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1931-32). ↩
G. Schmid, “Irrlicht und Sternschnuppe,” Goethe 13 (1951): 268-89. ↩
See the entries “Irrlicht,” “irrlichtartig,” and “irrlichtelieren” in the Goethe-Wörterbuch, ed. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, and the Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1978), 2:235-43. woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=GWB#0. ↩
Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Scientific Studies, trans. Douglas Miller (Suhrkamp: New York, 1988), 164. First sentence altered by JKB. ↩