managed a few shots of the greys coming home today with my windows open

Lockdown images from my one walk a day.....

Managed to fit it in at 700mm............

Managed to catch the sunset and the sky above through the house on the hill last night.

Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva meets with youth representatives (Green Protector, We do Green, YVE, Inkingi) and Rwandan Minister of State in Charge of Economic Planning Uwera in Nyandungu Eco Park and Wetland restoration project, Rwanda.

 

IMF Photo/Kim Haughton

26 January 2023

Kigali, Rwanda

 

Managed to snap a photo before I checked into the store...

Zambia Minister of Finance Situmbeko Musokotwane and Head of IMF’s African Department Abebe Aemro Selassie participate in a Governor Talk during the 2022 Spring Meetings at the International Monetary Fund.

 

IMF Photo/Allison Shelley

19 April 2022

Washington, DC, United States

Photo ref: 653A8254.cr3

Managed a series of closeups of this small holly blue butterfly

Managed

Managed jointly by the BLM and the National Park Service, Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho is a geologic wonder in a uniquely preserved volcanic landscape whose central focus is the Great Rift, a 62-mile long crack in the Earth's crust. Craters, cinder coves, lava tubes, deep cracks, and vast lava fields form a strangely beautiful volcanic sea on central Idaho's Snake River Plain. At first glance the landscape of Craters of the Moon appears to be devoid of life. Look deeper and you will observe a rich diversity of life including more than 750 types of plants and almost 300 animal species (not including insects!).

 

Local legends made references to the landscape resembling the surface of the moon. Some even referred to the area as the "Valley of the Moon." In fact, the second group of astronauts to walk on the moon visited Craters of the Moon in 1969 to study the volcanic geology and to explore an unusual and harsh environment in preparation for their trip to space.

 

A part of the BLM's National Conservation Lands, the national monument became known as Craters of the Moon when Robert Limbert used the name in an article for a national magazine. Limbert was the first man to thoroughly explore and promote the area.

 

Photo by Tom Askew

Managed to find this recently on Amazon for the bargain price of £4.25. Possibly one of my best finds yet.

Temple de l'Amour

 

The Palace of Versailles (/vɛərˈsaɪ, vɜːrˈsaɪ/ vair-SY, vur-SY; French: château de Versailles [ʃɑto d(ə) vɛʁsɑj]) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about 18 kilometres (11 mi) west of the city centre of Paris, in the Yvelines department of Île-de-France region in France.

 

The palace is owned by the government of France and since 1995 has been managed, under the direction of the French Ministry of Culture, by the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. About 15,000,000 people visit the palace, park, or gardens of Versailles every year, making it one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.

 

Louis XIII built a hunting lodge at Versailles in 1623. His successor, Louis XIV, expanded the château into a palace that went through several expansions in phases from 1661 to 1715. It was a favourite residence for both kings, and in 1682, Louis XIV moved the seat of his court and government to Versailles, making the palace the de facto capital of France. This state of affairs was continued by Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI, who primarily made interior alterations to the palace, but in 1789 the royal family and French court returned to Paris. For the rest of the French Revolution, the Palace of Versailles was largely abandoned and emptied of its contents, and the population of the surrounding city plummeted.

 

Napoleon, following his coronation as Emperor, used the subsidiary palace, Grand Trianon, as a summer residence from 1810 to 1814, but did not use the main palace. Following the Bourbon Restoration, when the king was returned to the throne, he resided in Paris and it was not until the 1830s that meaningful repairs were made to the palace. A museum of French history was installed within it, replacing the courtiers' apartments of the southern wing.

 

The palace and park were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979 for its importance as the centre of power, art, and science in France during the 17th and 18th centuries. The French Ministry of Culture has placed the palace, its gardens, and some of its subsidiary structures on its list of culturally significant monuments.

 

History

 

In 1623, Louis XIII, king of France, built a hunting lodge on a hill in a favourite hunting ground, 19 kilometres (12 mi) west of Paris, and 16 kilometres (10 mi) from his primary residence, the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The site, near a village named Versailles, was a wooded wetland that Louis XIII's court scorned as being generally unworthy of a king; one of his courtiers, François de Bassompierre, wrote that the lodge "would not inspire vanity in even the simplest gentleman". From 1631 to 1634, architect Philibert Le Roy replaced the lodge with a château for Louis XIII, who forbade his queen, Anne of Austria, from staying there overnight, even when an outbreak of smallpox at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1641 forced Louis XIII to relocate to Versailles with his three-year-old heir, the future Louis XIV.

 

When Louis XIII died in 1643, Anne became Louis XIV's regent, and Louis XIII's château was abandoned for the next decade. She moved the court back to Paris, where Anne and her chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin, continued Louis XIII's unpopular monetary practices. This led to the Fronde, a series of revolts against royal authority from 1648 to 1653 that masked a struggle between Mazarin and the princes of the blood, Louis XIV's extended family, for influence over him. In the aftermath of the Fronde, Louis XIV became determined to rule alone. Following Mazarin's death in 1661, Louis XIV reformed his government to exclude his mother and the princes of the blood, moved the court back to Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and ordered the expansion of his father's château at Versailles into a palace.

 

Louis XIV had hunted at Versailles in the 1650s, but did not take any special interest in Versailles until 1661. On 17 August 1661, Louis XIV was a guest at a sumptuous festival hosted by Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances, at his palatial residence, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte. Louis XIV was impressed by the château and its gardens, which were the work of Louis Le Vau, the court architect since 1654, André Le Nôtre, the royal gardener since 1657, and Charles Le Brun, a painter in royal service since 1647. Vaux-le-Vicomte's scale and opulence led him to imprison Fouquet that September, as he had also built an island fortress and a private army. But Louis XIV was also inspired by Vaux-le-Vicomte, and he recruited its authors for his own projects. Louis XIV replaced Fouquet with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a protégé of Mazarin and enemy of Fouquet, and charged him with managing the corps of artisans in royal employment. Colbert acted as the intermediary between them and Louis XIV, who personally directed and inspected the planning and construction of Versailles.

 

Construction

 

Work at Versailles was at first concentrated on gardens, and through the 1660s, Le Vau only added two detached service wings and a forecourt to the château. But in 1668–69, as a response to the growth of the gardens, and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Louis XIV decided to turn Versailles into a full-scale royal residence. He vacillated between replacing or incorporating his father's château, but settled on the latter by the end of the decade, and from 1668 to 1671, Louis XIII's château was encased on three sides in a feature dubbed the enveloppe. This gave the château a new, Italianate façade overlooking the gardens, but preserved the courtyard façade, resulting in a mix of styles and materials that dismayed Louis XIV and that Colbert described as a "patchwork". Attempts to homogenize the two façades failed, and in 1670 Le Vau died, leaving the post of First Architect to the King vacant for the next seven years.

 

Le Vau was succeeded at Versailles by his assistant, architect François d'Orbay. Work at the palace during the 1670s focused on its interiors, as the palace was then nearing completion, though d'Orbay expanded Le Vau's service wings and connected them to the château, and built a pair of pavilions for government employees in the forecourt. In 1670, d'Orbay was tasked by Louis XIV with designing a city, also called Versailles, to house and service Louis XIV's growing government and court. The granting of land to courtiers for the construction of townhouses that resembled the palace began in 1671. The next year, the Franco-Dutch War began and funding for Versailles was cut until 1674, when Louis XIV had work begun on the Ambassadors' Staircase, a grand staircase for the reception of guests, and demolished the last of the village of Versailles.

 

Following the end of the Franco-Dutch War with French victory in 1678, Louis XIV appointed as First Architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart, an experienced architect in Louis XIV's confidence, who would benefit from a restored budget and large workforce of former soldiers. Mansart began his tenure with the addition from 1678 to 1681 of the Hall of Mirrors, a renovation of the courtyard façade of Louis XIII's château, and the expansion of d'Orbay's pavilions to create the Ministers' Wings in 1678–79. Adjacent to the palace, Hardouin-Mansart built a pair of stables called the Grande and Petite Écuries from 1679 to 1682 and the Grand Commun, which housed the palace's servants and general kitchens, from 1682 to 1684. Hardouin-Mansart also added two entirely new wings in Le Vau's Italianate style to house the court,[75] first at the south end of the palace from 1679 to 1681 and then at its north end from 1685 to 1689.

 

War and the resulting diminished funding slowed construction at Versailles for the rest of the 17th century. The Nine Years' War, which began in 1688, stopped work altogether until 1698. Three years later, however, the even more expensive War of the Spanish Succession began and, combined with poor harvests in 1693–94 and 1709–10, plunged France into crisis. Louis XIV thus slashed funding and cancelled some of the work Hardouin-Mansart had planned in the 1680s, such as the remodelling of the courtyard façade in the Italianate style. Louis XIV and Hardouin-Mansart focused on a permanent palace chapel, the construction of which lasted from 1699 to 1710.

 

Louis XIV's successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, largely left Versailles as they inherited it and focused on the palace's interiors. Louis XV's modifications began in the 1730s, with the completion of the Salon d'Hercule, a ballroom in the north wing, and the expansion of the king's private apartment, which required the demolition of the Ambassadors' Staircase. In 1748, Louis XV began construction of a palace theatre, the Royal Opera of Versailles at the northernmost end of the palace, but completion was delayed until 1770; construction was interrupted in the 1740s by the War of the Austrian Succession and then again in 1756 with the start of the Seven Years' War. These wars emptied the royal treasury and thereafter construction was mostly funded by Madame du Barry, Louis XV's favourite mistress. In 1771, Louis XV had the northern Ministers' Wing rebuilt in Neoclassical style by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, his court architect, as it was in the process of falling down. That work was also stopped by financial constraints, and it remained incomplete when Louis XV died in 1774. In 1784, Louis XVI briefly moved the royal family to the Château de Saint-Cloud ahead of more renovations to the Palace of Versailles, but construction could not begin because of financial difficulty and political crisis. In 1789, the French Revolution swept the royal family and government out of Versailles forever.

 

Role in politics and culture

 

The Palace of Versailles was key to Louis XIV's politics, as an expression and concentration of French art and culture, and for the centralization of royal power. Louis XIV first used Versailles to promote himself with a series of nighttime festivals in its gardens in 1664, 1668, and 1674, the events of which were disseminated throughout Europe by print and engravings. As early as 1669, but especially from 1678, Louis XIV sought to make Versailles his seat of government, and he expanded the palace so as to fit the court within it. The moving of the court to Versailles did not come until 1682, however, and not officially, as opinion on Versailles was mixed among the nobility of France.

 

By 1687, however, it was evident to all that Versailles was the de facto capital of France, and Louis XIV succeeded in attracting the nobility to Versailles to pursue prestige and royal patronage within a strict court etiquette, thus eroding their traditional provincial power bases. It was at the Palace of Versailles that Louis XIV received the Doge of Genoa, Francesco Maria Imperiale Lercari in 1685, an embassy from the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1686, and an embassy from Safavid Iran in 1715.

 

Louis XIV died at Versailles on 1 September 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV,[78][106] then the duke of Anjou, who was moved to the Château de Vincennes and then to Paris by Louis XV's regent, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. Versailles was neglected until 1722, when Philippe II removed the court to Versailles to escape the unpopularity of his regency, and when Louis XV began his majority. The 1715 move, however, broke the cultural power of Versailles, and during the reign of Louis XVI, courtiers spent their leisure in Paris, not Versailles.

 

During Christmas 1763, Mozart and his family visited Versailles and dined with the King. The 7-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart played several works during his stay and later dedicated his first two harpsichord sonatas, published in 1764 in Paris, to Madame Victoria, daughter of Louis XV.

 

In 1783, the palace was the site of the signing of the last two of the three treaties of the Peace of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War. On 3 September, British and American delegates, led by Benjamin Franklin, signed the Treaty of Paris at the Hôtel d'York (now 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris, granting the United States independence. On 4 September, Spain and France signed separate treaties with Britain at the Palace of Versailles, formally ending the war.

 

The King and Queen learned of the Storming of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July 1789, while they were at the palace, and remained isolated there as the Revolution in Paris spread. The growing anger in Paris led to the Women's March on Versailles on 5 October 1789. A crowd of several thousand men and women, protesting the high price and scarcity of bread, marched from the markets of Paris to Versailles. They took weapons from the city armoury, besieged the palace, and compelled the King and royal family and the members of the National Constituent Assembly to return with them to Paris the following day.

 

As soon as the royal family departed, the palace was closed. In 1792, the National Convention, the new revolutionary government, ordered the transfer of all the paintings and sculptures from the palace to the Louvre. In 1793, the Convention declared the abolition of the monarchy and ordered all of the royal property in the palace to be sold at auction. The auction took place between 25 August 1793 and 11 August 1794. The furnishings and art of the palace, including the furniture, mirrors, baths, and kitchen equipment, were sold in seventeen thousand lots. All fleurs-de-lys and royal emblems on the buildings were chambered or chiselled off. The empty buildings were turned into a storehouse for furnishings, art and libraries confiscated from the nobility. The empty grand apartments were opened for tours beginning in 1793, and a small museum of French paintings and art school was opened in some of the empty rooms.

 

By virtue of an order issued by the Versailles district directorate in August 1794, the Royal Gate was destroyed, the Cour Royale was cleared and the Cour de Marbre lost its precious floor.

 

19th century – history museum and government venue

 

When Napoleon became Emperor of the French in 1804, he considered making Versailles his residence but abandoned the idea because of the cost of the renovation. Prior to his marriage with Marie-Louise in 1810, he had the Grand Trianon restored and refurnished as a springtime residence for himself and his family, in the style of furnishing that it is seen today.

 

In 1815, with the final downfall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, the younger brother of Louis XVI, became king, and considered returning the royal residence to Versailles, where he had been born. He ordered the restoration of the royal apartments, but the task and cost was too great. Louis XVIII had the far end of the south wing of the Cour Royale demolished and rebuilt (1814–1824) to match the Gabriel wing of 1780 opposite, which gave greater uniformity of appearance to the front entrance. Neither he nor his successor Charles X lived at Versailles.

 

The French Revolution of 1830 brought a new monarch, Louis-Philippe to power, and a new ambition for Versailles. He did not reside at Versailles but began the creation of the Museum of the History of France, dedicated to "all the glories of France", which had been used to house some members of the royal family. The museum was begun in 1833 and inaugurated on 30 June 1837. Its most famous room is the Galerie des Batailles (Hall of Battles), which lies on most of the length of the second floor of the south wing. The museum project largely came to a halt when Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848, though the paintings of French heroes and great battles still remain in the south wing.

 

Emperor Napoleon III used the palace on occasion as a stage for grand ceremonies. One of the most lavish was the banquet that he hosted for Queen Victoria in the Royal Opera of Versailles on 25 August 1855.

 

During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the palace was occupied by the general staff of the victorious German Army. Parts of the château, including the Hall of Mirrors, were turned into a military hospital. The creation of the German Empire, combining Prussia and the surrounding German states under William I, was formally proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors on 18 January 1871. The Germans remained in the palace until the signing of the armistice in March 1871. In that month, the government of the new Third French Republic, which had departed Paris during the war for Tours and then Bordeaux, moved into the palace. The National Assembly held its meetings in the Opera House.

 

The uprising of the Paris Commune in March 1871, prevented the French government, under Adolphe Thiers, from returning immediately to Paris. The military operation which suppressed the Commune at the end of May was directed from Versailles, and the prisoners of the Commune were marched there and put on trial in military courts. In 1875 a second parliamentary body, the French Senate, was created and held its meetings for the election of a President of the Republic in a new hall created in 1876 in the south wing of the palace. The French Senate and National Assembly continue to meet in the palace in joint session on special occasions, such as the amendment of the Constitution of France.

 

20th century

 

The end of the 19th and the early 20th century saw the beginning of restoration efforts at the palace, first led by Pierre de Nolhac, poet and scholar and the first conservator, who began his work in 1892. The conservation and restoration were interrupted by two world wars but have continued until the present day.

 

The palace returned to the world stage in June 1919, when, after six months of negotiations, the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War, was signed in the Hall of Mirrors. Between 1925 and 1928, the American philanthropist and multi-millionaire John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave $2,166,000, the equivalent of about 38 million dollars in 2024, to restore and refurbish the palace.

 

More work took place after World War II, with the restoration of the Royal Opera of Versailles. The theatre was reopened in 1957, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

 

In 1978, parts of the palace were heavily damaged in a bombing committed by Breton terrorists.

 

Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation.

 

One of the more costly endeavours for the museum and the French Fifth Republic has been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. Consequently, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought-after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palace's original furnishings.

 

21st century

 

In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which began with the replanting of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees during Cyclone Lothar on 26 December 1999. One part of the initiative, the restoration of the Hall of Mirrors, was completed in 2006. Another major project was the further restoration of the backstage areas of the Royal Opera of Versailles in 2007 to 2009.

 

The Palace of Versailles is currently owned by the French state. Its formal title is the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. Since 1995, it has been run as a Public Establishment, with an independent administration and management supervised by the French Ministry of Culture.

 

The grounds of the palace hosted the equestrian competition during the 2024 Summer Olympics.

 

The Queen's hamlet and Theatre

 

Near the Trianons are the French pavilion, built by Gabriel in 1750 between the two residences, and the Queen's Theatre and Queen's Hamlet, built by architect Richard Mique in 1780 and from 1783 to 1785 respectively. These were both built at the behest of Marie Antoinette; the theatre, hidden in the gardens, indulged her appreciation of opera and is absolutely original, and the hamlet to extend her gardens with rustic amenities. The building scheme of the Queen's Hamlet includes a farmhouse (the farm was to produce milk and eggs for the queen), a dairy, a dovecote, a boudoir, a barn that burned down during the French Revolution, a mill and a tower in the form of a lighthouse.

 

Modern political and ceremonial functions

 

The palace still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameral French Parliament—consisting of the Senate (Sénat) and the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)—meet in joint session (a congress of the French Parliament) in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution. For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability of International Criminal Court decisions and for gender equality in candidate lists), in January 2000 (ratifying the Treaty of Amsterdam), in March 2003 (specifying the "decentralized organization" of the French Republic), and in March 2024 (to enshrine the freedom of women to have recourse to abortion).

 

In 2009, President Nicolas Sarkozy addressed the Great Recession before a congress in Versailles, the first time that this had been done since 1848, when Louis Napoleon Bonaparte gave an address before the French Second Republic. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks, President François Hollande gave a speech before a rare joint session of parliament at the Palace of Versailles. This was the third time since 1848 that a French president addressed a joint session of the French Parliament at Versailles. The president of the National Assembly has an official apartment at the Palace of Versailles. In 2023 a state visit by Charles III to France included a state banquet at the Palace.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Das Schloss Versailles (französisch château de Versailles) in der gleichnamigen Nachbarstadt von Paris ist eine der größten Palastanlagen Europas und war von der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ausbruch der Französischen Revolution die Hauptresidenz der Könige von Frankreich. Der Barockbau, dessen größte Ausdehnung mehr als einen halben Kilometer beträgt, gilt als ein Höhepunkt europäischer Palastarchitektur und diente vom 17. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert als Vorbild für zahlreiche weitere Schlossbauten.

 

Ursprünglich von Philibert Le Roy als Jagdschloss für König Ludwig XIII. errichtet, wurde die Anlage ab 1661 unter Ludwig XIV. durch Louis Le Vau, François II d’Orbay, Jules Hardouin-Mansart und Robert de Cotte in mehreren Phasen um- und ausgebaut. Die Innenausstattung schuf Charles Lebrun, die berühmten Gartenanlagen, die aus einem Jagdpark hervorgingen, stammen von André Le Nôtre. Erst 1682 war der Riesenbau so weit vorangeschritten, dass der „Sonnenkönig“ mit seinem Hofstaat von Schloss Saint-Germain-en-Laye nach Versailles umziehen konnte. In seiner Zeit als Residenz war der Palast fast durchgehend von einem mehrere tausend Personen umfassenden Hofstaat bewohnt und bildete das kulturelle und große politische Zentrum Frankreichs.

 

Seit dem 19. Jahrhundert wird das Schloss als Museum genutzt. Es steht heute für Besucher offen, ebenso wie die weitläufigen Gartenanlagen und wie die drei weiteren im Park befindlichen Lustschlösser Grand Trianon, Petit Trianon und Hameau de la Reine. Während der Mittelbau mit den Staatssälen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts in der ursprünglichen Form zu sehen ist, beherbergen die großen Seitenflügel das im 19. Jahrhundert eingerichtete Museum der Geschichte Frankreichs. 1979 wurde Schloss Versailles in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes aufgenommen.

 

Das Schlossgebäude

 

Das Bauwerk

 

Der Ursprung: Ein kleines Jagdschloss

 

Der Ort Versailles vor den Toren der Hauptstadt Paris wurde 1038 erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Der Wortstamm – versare, d. h. umgraben, umwenden – lässt seine ursprüngliche Bedeutung noch erkennen und verweist auf das kleine Bauerndorf und seine Äcker, die einst hier lagen.[3] Im Dorf Versailles befanden sich im 17. Jahrhundert ein verfallenes kleines Schloss und eine Mühle. Die Ländereien und das Anwesen gehörten zum größten Teil der ansässigen Familie Gondi, ein kleinerer Teil befand sich in königlichem Besitz. Ludwig XIII., der das wildreiche Gebiet der Galie häufig bei Jagdausflügen aufsuchte, nächtigte gelegentlich in dem mittelalterlichen Versailler Schloss und sogar in der Mühle.

 

1623 ließ sich der König anstelle der Mühle ein kleines Jagdhaus errichten, in dem er 1624 das erste Mal übernachtete. Dieser gelegentlich als Kartenschloss verspottete Ansitz war so klein, dass er nicht einmal Räumlichkeiten für die Königin enthielt. François de Bassompierre bezeichnete das Jagdhaus als „ein armseliges Schloss, bei dem nicht mal ein einfacher Edelmann Neid empfindet“. Nachdem der König Ländereien der Gondi in Versailles hinzu erworben hatte, ließ er das Gebäude von 1631 bis 1634 durch Philibert Le Roy zu einem dreiflügeligen Jagdschloss erweitern. Das verfallene alte Schloss wurde später abgetragen. Das von einem Graben umgebene, aus Backstein erbaute und mit Sandsteinelementen gegliederte neue Versailler Schloss wurde im Stil des frühen französischen Barock errichtet. Dieses Jagdschloss bildet bis heute den Kern der Anlage, es umschließt den Marmorhof, den letzten und kleinsten der drei Ehrenhöfe, die der Stadtseite des Palastes vorgelagert sind. Nach dem Tode Ludwig XIII. ging das Gebäude als Teil des Erbes an seinen Sohn und Nachfolger Ludwig XIV. über. Der junge König residierte nach seiner Regierungsübernahme 1661 regelmäßig in Versailles, das ihm zunächst vor allem als Lustschloss und Sommersitz diente und in dem er große Hoffeste ausrichten ließ.

 

Den entscheidenden Impuls zum Ausbau des Palastes lieferte wohl der Finanzminister Nicolas Fouquet. Dieser ließ sich mit Vaux-le-Vicomte ein aufsehenerregendes Schloss erbauen, das nicht nur die Kunst des höfischen Barock in Frankreich nachhaltig prägen sollte, sondern auch den Zorn des Königs erregte. Ludwig XIV. vermutete, dass Fouquet die Pracht zu einem Großteil mit dem Griff in die Staatskasse finanzierte. Er warf seinem Minister Untreue vor und ließ ihn verhaften. Das in Vaux geschaffene Gesamtkunstwerk aus Bauarchitektur und Gartenkunst bestätigte den König in seinem Vorhaben, sich eine zeitgemäße Residenz errichten zu lassen. Er zog Fouquets Architekten und Künstler zu Rate und beauftragte sie schließlich mit dem Ausbau des kleinen Schlosses seines Vaters.

 

Ausbau zum Residenzschloss

 

Entgegen dem Ratschlag des Finanzministers Colbert, der aus Kosten- und Prestigegründen einen Neubau empfahl, weigerte sich Ludwig XIV. für die Versailler Residenz das alte Jagdschloss aufzugeben und so wurde das den späteren Marmorhof umschließende Gebäude im Laufe der Zeit umgebaut und in mehreren Abschnitten in den Neubau integriert. Der König schrieb in seinen Memoiren sogar, selbst wenn das alte Schloss hätte abgerissen werden müssen, so hätte er es ganz genauso wieder errichten lassen, wie es war. Nach anfänglichen kleineren Umbauten ab 1661 bildete der Aachener Frieden von 1668 den Auftakt zu einer ersten Erweiterung des Schlosses. Der U-förmige Mittelbau Ludwigs XIII., Kern des heutigen Corps de Logis, erhielt von 1668 bis 1671 durch Le Vau die enveloppé. Dabei handelte es sich um eine bauliche, sogenannte Ummantelung des alten Schlosses durch zwei neue, äußere Trakte. Die südlichen Flügel der Ummantelung nahmen die Paradezimmer der Königin auf, die nördlichen jene des Königs. Dieser Bau besaß anstelle der späteren Spiegelgalerie noch eine große Terrasse über den gartenseitigen Arkaden des Erdgeschosses.

 

1677 verkündete der König, Versailles zum künftigen Regierungssitz zu bestimmen. Der damit verbundene Ausbau des Palastes begann im Zuge des Friedens von Nimwegen, der Umzug des Hofstaats erfolgte ab dem 5. Mai 1682. Von 1678 bis 1684 wurde die Terrasse des Corps de Logis samt den ihr benachbarten Salons durch Jules Hardouin-Mansart über- und umgebaut und die Spiegelgalerie, sowie die Salons des Krieges und des Friedens installiert. Die ursprünglich waagerechten Fensterabschlüsse des ersten Stockwerkes wurden durch Rundbogenfenster ersetzt, die mit den Spiegeln der großen Galerie korrespondierten. Mit diesen Baumaßnahmen erhielt die Gartenfassade des Hauptgebäudes ihre heutige Gestalt.

 

Um Platz für den Hofstaat zu schaffen, wurden gleichzeitig mit den Erweiterungen am Corps de Logis 1678 die Arbeiten am Südflügel und ab 1685 die am Nordflügel begonnen. Mansart plädierte zudem dafür, das Schloss um ein weiteres Stockwerk zu erhöhen, um so mehr Wohnraum zu erhalten, was der König jedoch aus unbekannten Gründen ablehnte. Beide Flügelbauten bestehen aus jeweils zwei parallel zueinander errichteten langen Gebäuderiegeln, je einer auf der Garten- und einer auf der Stadtseite. Diese sind durch Querbauten mehrfach miteinander verbunden und beinhalten so eine Anzahl kleinerer Lichthöfe. Der Südflügel war 1684 weitgehend fertig gestellt, der später begonnene Nordflügel fünf Jahre darauf. Die Arbeiten an dessen stadtseitig gelegenem Trakt wurden wegen der Kosten des Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieges jedoch eingestellt und der Bau erst im 19. Jahrhundert vollendet. Für den Bau des Nordflügels musste die Thetis-Grotte, ein mit Statuen geschmücktes Brunnenhaus von 1664, abgerissen werden. Die darin ausgestellten Skulpturen befinden sich heute zum Teil im sogenannten Boskett des Apollo-Bades im Park des Schlosses. Auf dem Standort der Thetis-Grotte erhebt sich der Bau der 1710 durch Robert de Cotte fertiggestellten Schlosskapelle, deren Zugang durch den Nordflügel erfolgt.

 

Die Flügel des Versailler Schlosses und seiner Nebengebäude gruppieren sich um drei in einer Achse gelegene Hofplätze, die zusammen eine weitgehend zusammenhängende Fläche bilden und vom Zentrum des Schlosses in Richtung der Stadt führen. Den Ausgangspunkt bildet der kleine Marmorhof (Cour de Marbre) des umbauten Jagdschlosses, auf diesen folgt der von den Verlängerungstrakten des Corps de Logis umgebene Königshof (Cour Royale) und schließlich der große Platz des Ministerhofs (Cour des Ministres) mit den freistehenden Ministerflügeln. Da Versailles nicht nur königliche Residenz, sondern auch Regierungssitz war, wurde mit diesen Gebäuden Platz für die Hofbeamten geschaffen. Den Höfen stadtseitig gegenüber stehen der kleine und der große Marstall, umfangreiche Gebäude für die Pferde und den Fuhrpark der königlichen Familie. Östlich, vom Südflügel des Schlosses und dem südlichen Ministertrakt begrenzt, befindet sich außerdem das vierflügelige Grand Commun, ein solitär stehender Wirtschaftsbau von 1682, der die Schlossküchen und Bedienstetenwohnungen für über 1.000 Hofangestellte enthielt.

 

Nach dem Umzug des Hofes 1682 arbeiteten zeitweise über 22.000 Menschen an und in Versailles, nach den Angaben eines Zeitgenossen erreichte die Zahl der Arbeiter im Jahr 1685 sogar 36.000. Zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts war Versailles in seinen heutigen Dimensionen weitgehend fertiggestellt; die Gartenfassade ist 570 Meter breit.

 

Stilistische Einordnung

 

Das Äußere des Schlosses ist in zwei verschiedenen Stilformen gehalten, die zudem durch die unterschiedliche Addition der einzelnen Baukörper einen konträren Eindruck vermitteln. Die Stadtfassaden bestehen aus zahlreichen Einzelgebäuden, so dass sich dem Betrachter erst beim näheren Hinsehen erschließt, dass sie alle gemeinsam ein großes, zusammenhängendes Gebäude bilden. Die Fassaden des Schlosses folgen hier dem älteren Stil des ursprünglichen Jagdschlosses rund um den Marmorhof und entsprechen noch dem frühen französischen Barock. Sie sind aus rotem Ziegelstein errichtet, der mit Sandsteinelementen gegliedert ist, die Baukörper tragen sichtbare Mansarddächer.

 

Die Gartenfassaden des Schlosses sind im Stil des für Frankreich typischen klassizistischen Barocks gestaltet und gehen damit auf die Vorgabe von Le Vaus Ummantelung zurück. Horizontale Linien dominieren das Bauwerk und nur risalitartig hervorspringende Portale lockern die strengen Sandsteinfassaden auf. Die abschließende Balustrade des Obergeschosses ist mit steinernen Vasen und Trophäendarstellungen dekoriert und verbirgt hinter sich flache Dächer. Die Gartenfassade fasst die Gebäudeteile zu einem großen Block zusammen, dessen Breitenwirkung durch die horizontale Gliederung noch gesteigert wird.

 

Die verschiedenen Baustile des Schlosses, die majestätisch-monotone Garten- und die kleinteiligeren Stadtfassaden riefen nicht nur Bewunderung, sondern auch Kritik hervor. Versailles steht im völligen Kontrast zu den anderen Barockschlössern Frankreichs, die zumeist nicht nur kleiner, sondern wie Vaux-le-Vicomte oder Maisons-Laffitte auch im Pavillonsystem errichtet wurden. In der Kunstgeschichte werden insbesondere die Gartenfassaden zwar häufig als überwältigend in ihrer Wirkung, aber auch als eintönig beschrieben, Colbert nannte das Schloss einen „Mann mit großen Armen und einem dicken Kopf.“ Der Herzog Saint-Simon bezeichnete den Kontrast der Baustile als „schönes und häßliches, das zusammengenäht wurde“ und über das hinter der Attika verborgene Flachdach schrieb er „man glaubt einen abgebrannten Palast zu sehen, dem das obere Stockwerk und das Dach fehlen.“ Die Kapelle wurde als Riesenkatafalk verspottet und Voltaire bezeichnete sie als einen „erstaunlichen Firlefanz“.

 

Zur Zeit Ludwigs XV. wurde eine als grand dessin bezeichnete Neugestaltung der Stadtseite im Stil des Klassizismus erwogen. Die alten Fassaden dort sollten, den Gartenfassaden ähnlich, mit Haustein überbaut werden. Auch war über dem Hauptgebäude eine Kuppel geplant. Die Leitung dieses Projekts übernahm Ange-Jacques Gabriel. Letztlich erfolgte aus finanziellen Gründen jedoch ab 1771 nur der Umbau eines zu dieser Zeit baufälligen, stadtwärts gerichteten Trakts, der seit jener Zeit Gabrielflügel genannt wird. Der Pavillon des gegenüberliegenden Gebäudes, des Dufourflügels, wurde erst um 1820 angepasst und die Symmetrie der Hoffassade knapp ein halbes Jahrhundert nach Beginn der Umbauarbeiten halbwegs wiederhergestellt. Die parallel gegenüberstehenden Gebäudeteile tragen noch heute verschiedene Fassadenstile. 1780 durch Étienne-Louis Boullée vorgelegte Pläne zu einer vollständigen Neugestaltung des Schlosses im Sinne der Revolutionsarchitektur wurden nicht realisiert.

 

Symbolik und Kosten

 

Symbolik des Schlosses

 

Neben der offensichtlichen Zurschaustellung von Luxus und Reichtum diente das Schloss auch einer subtileren Darstellung des Ruhms und der Macht des Königtums. Die unter Ludwig XIV. angelegten Staatsräume und Säle verherrlichen den Sonnenkönig. Die Dekoration des Stucks und die Themen der Gemälde sind auf seine wirtschaftlichen und politischen Erfolge abgestimmt und künden von seinen Feldzügen und Siegen.[ Eine große Rolle nahmen außerdem die römische und die griechische Mythologie ein, mit deren Motiven die oberen Gesellschaftsschichten des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts wohlvertraut waren. Die Mythologie wurde als Gleichnis eingesetzt und Ludwig XIV. wiederholt als Gott Apollon dargestellt, was der Hofgesellschaft zahlreiche Interpretationen ermöglichte. Die Darstellung als antiker Gott der Sonne und des Lichts verlieh Ludwig XIV. zudem die Aura eines mystischen, höchsten Wesens, ohne zugleich mit der Kirche in Widerspruch zu geraten – denn den Rang des Königs mit dem christlichen Gott gleichzusetzen, war auch im absolutistischen, aber immer noch katholisch geprägten Frankreich unmöglich und wäre einem Sakrileg gleichgekommen. Der Vergleich mit Apollon dagegen bekräftigte seinen Ruf als Sonnenkönig.

 

Kosten und Finanzierung

 

Obwohl der französische Haushaltsplan immense Ausgaben für das Schloss vorsah, war das Geld in Versailles immer knapp und die Bauphasen konnten nur in den Friedenszeiten zwischen den Reunionskriegen vorangetrieben werden. Nachdem Ludwig XIV. den Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg begonnen hatte, musste er 1689 sogar das berühmte Silbermobiliar der Spiegelgalerie verkaufen und einschmelzen, um die Kriegsausgaben zu bestreiten. Viele geplante Bauvorhaben, wie der oben beschriebene Umbau der Stadtfassaden, konnten aus Kostengründen nicht in Angriff genommen werden. Fast alle Aufträge wurden ausgeschrieben, Voranschläge unbedingt eingehalten und die Armee in Friedenszeiten zu Bauarbeiten herangezogen. Der Sonnenkönig selbst sagte: „… am liebsten wird mir immer alles sein, was möglichst schön ist und wenig kostet“. Was den meisten Betrachtern als unglaublicher Luxus erschien, war in Wirklichkeit so kostengünstig wie nur möglich gebaut, was zur Folge hatte, dass die Kamine oft nicht zogen, die Fenster nicht richtig schlossen und das Leben dort im Winter sehr unkomfortabel war.

 

Bereits zwischen 1661 und 1663 waren mehr als 1.500.000 Livres für das Schloss ausgegeben worden. Der erste Bau Ludwigs XIII. hatte insgesamt gerade einmal 300.000 Livres verbraucht, wovon 213.000 auf das Schloss verwendet und weitere 82.000 für die Gärten benötigt wurden. Im Zeitraum von 1664 bis 1688 wurde jährlich durchschnittlich eine Million Livres in Versailles verbaut. Der französische Staatshaushalt verfügte in den 1680er Jahren über ein Budget von etwa 110 Millionen Livres, wovon Ludwig nach dem Frieden von Nimwegen 15 Millionen für seine Bautätigkeiten genehmigt bekam. Bis zum Tode des Sonnenkönigs sollen 300 Millionen Livres in die Versailler Schlösser, den Park, die Ausstattung und den Unterhalt geflossen sein. Fünfzig bis sechzig Millionen allein für das Mobiliar und zwei Millionen für den Bau des Eure-Kanals. Bescheiden nimmt sich dagegen die Leibpension für die bei Unfällen verstorbenen Arbeiter aus, deren Familien im Schnitt 40 bis 100 Livres als Hinterbliebenenrente erhielten.

 

Die Trianonschlösser und der Weiler

 

Im Park von Versailles befinden sich mehrere Lustschlösser: das Grand Trianon, das Petit Trianon sowie das Hameau de la Reine (deutsch: Weiler der Königin).

 

Das weitläufige Gartenschloss Grand Trianon (großes Trianon) oder Trianon de marbre (Marmor-Trianon) stammt noch aus der Zeit Ludwigs XIV. Es war ursprünglich dem König und seiner Familie vorbehalten, doch im Laufe der Jahre wurde es auch dem weiteren Hofstaat zugänglich gemacht. Das benachbarte Petit Trianon (kleines Trianon) ist ein Werk, das Ludwig XV. für seine Mätresse Madame de Pompadour erbauen ließ. Diese starb jedoch vor der Vollendung des kleinen, klassizistischen Schlösschens. Nachdem sein Nachfolger Ludwig XVI. es Marie-Antoinette geschenkt hatte, wurde es durch sie prunkvoll ausgestattet und ein neuer Gartenbereich angelegt, in dem auch ein kleines Theater seinen Platz fand. Die Königin ließ sich hier zudem, einer damaligen Mode folgend, ein künstliches Dorf, den so genannten Weiler der Königin mit augenscheinlich windschiefen Häusern errichten, die aber in Wirklichkeit prunkvolle Dekoration für die Schäferspiele der Herrscherin waren.

 

All diese Gebäude wurden eine halbe Fußstunde entfernt vom Hauptschloss errichtet, um den Königen Entspannung und Erholung abseits des überfüllten Palastes zu bieten. Versailles war zudem in ein ganzes Netzwerk von kleineren Schlössern eingebunden. Noch im Ort selbst befand sich das Schloss Clagny, welches Madame de Montespan gewidmet war (und bereits 1769 der Spitzhacke zum Opfer fiel), und nur eine halbe Wegstunde zu Pferde entfernt befand sich das Schloss von Marly, das mit seinen Gärten und Wasserspielen zu den berühmtesten Lustschlössern des ausgehenden 17. Jahrhunderts gehörte. Ebenfalls in Reichweite lagen die königlichen Residenzen Saint-Germain-en-Laye und Saint-Cloud.

 

Geschichtlicher Überblick

 

17. und 18. Jahrhundert: Das Ancien Régime

 

Die Residenz des Sonnenkönigs und seiner Nachfolger

 

Frankreich war im 17. Jahrhundert der mächtigste Staat Europas und unter dem Wirken des Sonnenkönigs zum kulturellen, wirtschaftlichen und politischen Zentrum des Kontinents geworden. Das Schloss des Königs war ein Ausdruck der Leistungsfähigkeit Frankreichs und ein Symbol seiner Größe und Stärke. Die geordnete Natur der Parkanlagen war ein Spiegelbild der Ordnung, die Ludwig XIV. dem Land brachte.

 

Nachdem er als Kind die Gefahr der Fronde in Paris am eigenen Leib erleben musste, konnte sich der König nie für die französische Hauptstadt begeistern, er liebte dagegen das kleine Jagdschloss seines Vaters. Dort konnte er einen angemessen repräsentativen und weitläufigen neuen Palast erbauen, der zudem so im engen Paris undenkbar gewesen wäre. Der Entschluss, den Hof 1682 aus dem Palais du Louvre und dem Tuilerienpalast sowie dem bis 1682 zumeist bewohnten Schloss Saint-Germain-en-Laye hierher zu verlegen, sollte Frankreichs Geschichte für viele Jahre prägen. Hier vollendete Ludwig XIV. den Regierungsstil, den man später als Absolutismus bezeichnete. Der König wollte weitere Aufstände wie die Fronde verhindern, er schnitt die Aristokratie von ihrer alten Aufgabe der Provinzverwaltung ab und setzte Beamte dafür ein, die Mitglieder des Adels wurden dagegen an den Hof geholt. Eine mögliche Opposition aus der Ferne gegen ihn, wie sie zum Beispiel seinem Vater widerfuhr, wurde somit erschwert. Die Angehörigen des Adels wurden politisch entmachtet und im Gegenzug mit kostbaren Geschenken und prunkvollen Festen entschädigt. Der einst mächtige hohe Adel Frankreichs verließ bereitwillig seine Schlösser in den Provinzen, nur wenige konnten es sich leisten, dauerhaft eigene Hofgesellschaften zu unterhalten. Um auf der Höhe der Zeit zu sein und den neuesten Moden des Hofes folgen zu können, verschuldeten sich die Aristokraten oder erhielten willkürliche Renten vom König.

 

Eine Wohnung in Versailles zugewiesen zu bekommen, war ein bedeutendes Privileg, das zudem die Illusion vermittelte, im Zentrum der Macht an der Regierung beteiligt zu sein. Wer zu den Logeants, den im Schloss Wohnenden gehörte, stand im Rang über den Galopins, den Kutschierenden, die Abends zurück in ihre Stadtwohnungen nach Paris mussten. Innerhalb des Hoflebens übernahm das Hofzeremoniell eine bedeutende Rolle; im Prinzip unbedeutende Hofämter standen symbolisch für politischen Einfluss. Lediglich bei Hofe konnten Posten, Titel und Ämter errungen werden, und wer sich vom Sonnenkönig distanzierte, lief Gefahr, Vorrechte und Rang zu verlieren. Aus diesem Grund hielt sich die Aristokratie so gut wie ständig um ihren König auf und versuchte, ihm gefällig zu sein. Das sorgte dafür, dass zeitweise mehrere Tausend Menschen zugleich das Schloss bewohnten.

 

Für die französische Gesellschaft bedeutete der Wandel des Zweiten Standes vom Land- zum Hofadel auf Dauer eine schwere Belastung. Von ihren alten Pflichten und Aufgaben weitgehend entbunden, fristete der französische Adel bald ein dekadentes Dasein. Während der Dritte Stand die Steuerlast und die Arbeit zu tragen hatte, konnte – beziehungsweise musste – sich der Adel dem Müßiggang hingeben. Dieser Umstand sollte über hundert Jahre später einer der Auslöser der Französischen Revolution werden.

 

Leben im Schloss

 

Ludwig XIV. führte einen streng geregelten Tagesablauf, beginnend mit dem Lever (ca. 8 Uhr), einem feierlichen Staatsakt, dem Dutzende Familienangehörige und Mitglieder des Hofstaats beiwohnen mussten, ferner auswärtige Besucher und Gesandte sowie besonders auszuzeichnende Persönlichkeiten, die der König selbst täglich aussuchte. Es folgte die Arbeit im Kabinett (ca. 2 Stunden). Der ganze Tag war vom Hofzeremoniell durchgetaktet, dazu gehörten Jagden und Ausfahrten sowie Besuche und Theateraufführungen. Zu diesen Anlässen war er zu jeder Zeit von Würdenträgern umgeben. Zur späten Stunde wurde ein Hofball abgehalten. Gunstbeweise verteilte er durch Gewährung kleiner zeremonieller Aufgaben oder Vorrechte, er gestattete oder entzog Einzelnen die Teilnahme an bestimmten Zeremonien oder Festlichkeiten und wusste auf diese Weise den gesamten französischen Adel meisterhaft zu beherrschen und in Schach zu halten.

 

Nach dem Tode Ludwigs XIV. 1715 und der Regentschaft Philipp II. im Namen von Ludwig XV., der zu dieser Zeit noch ein Kind war, verließ der Hof den riesigen Palast und begab sich bis 1723 nach Paris, wo die Adligen sich aber vom Hof des Regenten im Palais Royal (oder auf seinem Schloss Saint-Cloud) teilweise fernhielten und stattdessen ihre eigenen Salons in ihren Hôtels particuliers im Marais oder im Faubourg Saint-Germain führten. Unter den Nachfolgern des Sonnenkönigs verlor Versailles seine umfassende zentralistische Bedeutung und die Gesellschaft traf sich nun zunehmend auch wieder in den Landschlössern des Adels oder den Pariser Hôtels. Dennoch residierten auch Ludwig XV. und Ludwig XVI. in Versailles, so dass das Schloss ab 1682 nur mit kurzen Unterbrechungen fast ständig von der Königsfamilie bewohnt war. Obwohl öfter Ausflüge in die vielen weiteren Schlösser rund um Paris unternommen wurden, blieb Versailles immer Regierungssitz und Mittelpunkt des höfischen Frankreichs.

 

Am Ende des Ancien Régime umfasste der Hofstaat rund 10.000 Personen, von denen bis zu 5.000 direkt im Schloss lebten. Die eigentlichen Höflinge machten davon rund 1.000 Personen aus, hinzu kamen Kammerfrauen, Köche, Leibwachen und andere Bedienstete. Der Palast war eine Stadt unter einem großen Dach, mit Wohnungen, Arbeitsräumen und Vergnügungsstätten. Auf den Gängen und Höfen ließen sich Händler nieder. Das Schloss war fast ständig überbelegt, und die Aristokratie, so sie nicht zur königlichen Familie gehörte, war zum Teil verarmt und hauste sogar in den engen Dachkammern der oberen Geschosse oder im benachbarten Grand Commun, da Ludwig XIV. seiner Ehre wegen jedem einen Schlafplatz bieten wollte. Victor Hugo bezeichnete das Schloss später als eine einzige Höflingskaserne. Der Palast war nicht allein dem Adel vorbehalten: Zugang hatte auch das gewöhnliche Volk, die Neugierigen wurden von den Bewohnern als Voyeux bezeichnet. Je höher der Rang des Besuchers war, desto weiter durfte er in das Innere des Schlosses gelangen. Der englische Reisende Arthur Young berichtete in seiner Schrift Reise durch Frankreich in den Jahren 1787, 1788, 1789 und 1792 über Versailles: „Es war höchst belustigend, wenn Strolche in den ärmlichsten Lumpen unbeobachtet durch den Palast […] spazierten.“ Der freie Zugang zum Schloss bedeutete jedoch nicht zugleich Kontakt mit den hier lebenden Personen. Wer als Bittsteller kam oder auf ein Amt hoffte, musste offiziell bei Hofe vorgestellt werden, wozu man neben einem verbrieften Titel üblicherweise die Fürsprache eines bereits etablierten Höflings benötigte. Als etabliert galt, wer über eines der zahlreichen käuflichen Hofämter verfügte, die, je nach Bedeutung des Amts, vom König oder dem Haushofmeister vergeben wurden.

 

Trotz der prunkvollen Ausstattung war Versailles ein unkomfortables Schloss. Die en filade gereihten, zugigen und hohen Räume ließen sich schlecht heizen, und Madame de Maintenon beklagte, „man erträgt lieber die Zugluft durch die Türen […], man muss in Symmetrie zugrunde gehen“. Im strengen Winter 1709 platzten sogar Likörflaschen durch die Kälte. Die große Spiegelgalerie besaß keine Kamine, und auch das zentrale Schlafzimmer Ludwigs XIV. war so kalt, dass Ludwig XV. ein privates Schlafzimmer im Nordtrakt des Corps de Logis einrichten ließ, das er nach der Zeremonie des Coucher zum Schlafen aufsuchte und morgens rechtzeitig zum Lever wieder verließ.

 

Es gab, wie damals in ganz Europa üblich, im Schloss weder fließendes Wasser noch fest installierte Toiletten. Man verrichtete die Notdurft in Leibstühle und Nachttöpfe, deren Inhalte von der Dienerschaft in bis zu 29 Sickergruben in der Umgebung des Schlosses ausgeleert wurden. Ludwig XVI. ließ sich Frankreichs erstes Wasserklosett mit Toilettenspülung einbauen. Das Schloss hatte wiederholt mit Ratten- und Mäuseplagen zu kämpfen und einmal jährlich begab sich der Hof nach Fontainebleau, damit der Versailler Palast in dieser Zeit von Grund auf gereinigt werden konnte. Der Körperpflege wurde im 17. Jahrhundert zwar noch kein übermäßiger Stellenwert zugeschrieben, doch bereits Ludwig XIV. ließ sich im Untergeschoss des Corps de Logis mehrere Zimmer umfassende Badegemächer einrichten. Im Laufe des 18. Jahrhunderts fanden sich auch zunehmend Baderäume in den Appartements der königlichen Familienmitglieder, während sich die übrigen Schlossbewohner weiterhin mit feuchten Tüchern und Waschschüsseln behelfen mussten.

 

Die Versorgung des Hofstaats mit Nahrungsmitteln und Getränken beschäftigte eine Anzahl von mehreren hundert Angestellten. Die Mitglieder der königlichen Familie und Höflinge von hohem Rang wurden als commensaux, als Tischgenossen des Königs betrachtet und aus seiner Küche versorgt.[80] Verschiedene Höflinge hatten die Verpflichtung, offene Tafeln zur Verkostung weiterer Schlossbewohner zu halten, andere Hofangestellte erhielten für ihre bouche eine finanzielle Entschädigung, mussten sich um die Versorgung allerdings selbst kümmern. Die Mahlzeiten stammten zum Teil aus den Wirtshäusern in der Umgebung des Schlosses, zum Teil aus selbst organisierten Küchen, von denen sich im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr in den Höfen und unter den Dächern des Schlosses einfanden.

 

Das Leben bei Hof bedeutete Verzicht auf Privatsphäre. Die Königsfamilie nahm selbst gewöhnliche Mahlzeiten vor Publikum ein und auch die Niederkünfte der Königinnen waren innerhalb der Hofgesellschaft traditionell öffentliche Ereignisse – so sehr, dass Marie-Antoinette während der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes in Lebensgefahr geriet, als sich zu viele Menschen in ihrem Schlafzimmer aufhielten. Schon unter den Vorgängern des Sonnenkönigs gab es strenge Riten zur Verherrlichung der französischen Herrscher, doch um das Schloss Versailles und Ludwig XIV. wurde eine beispiellose Abfolge von Zeremonien entwickelt. Die Etikette regelte und beschrieb jeden Vorgang, von großen Festlichkeiten und Empfängen bis hin zu so alltäglichen Dingen wie dem Mittagsmahl. Auch für den Fall von Krankheit und Tod gab es vorgeschriebene Regeln, und als Ludwig XV. 1774 im Trianon an den Pocken erkrankte, wurde er eilig ins Versailler Schloss gebracht, um dort unter den Augen des Hofs zu sterben. Die Bedeutung dieses Systems kann heute nicht mehr annähernd nachvollzogen werden. Dem König widerfuhr eine nahezu göttliche Verehrung und entrückte diesen, durchaus beabsichtigt, vom Volk und unterstrich seine übergeordnete Stellung. Dem König zu dienen bedeutete, Frankreich zu dienen. Ihm beim Aufstehen, beim Lever behilflich zu sein, ihm einfach nur das Wasser oder das Hemd zu reichen, galt als allergrößte Ehre, die über Aufstieg und Fall bei Hofe entscheiden konnte. Ob man in der Gegenwart des Königs stehen, sitzen oder sprechen durfte und selbst durch welche Tür man sein Schlafzimmer betrat, war ein für alle Anwesenden sichtbares Zeichen des eigenen Rangs. Ludwig XIV. schrieb in seinen Memoiren „Im übrigen ist es eine der hervorragendsten Wirkungen unserer Macht, einer Sache, die an sich keinen Wert hat, einen unbezahlbaren Preis zuzuordnen.“

 

Die Etikette galt nicht nur im Umgang mit dem König, sondern auch für jeden Herzog, jeden Prinzen, jeden Höfling. Das Protokoll regelte den Umgang miteinander und wies jedem Mitglied des Hofs einen für alle sichtbaren Platz innerhalb dieser Gesellschaft zu. Das uralte System der höfischen Etikette wurde auch unter den Nachfolgern des Sonnenkönigs kaum verändert. Ein Beispiel für das streng geregelte Hofzeremoniell ist folgende Anekdote, die durch Madame Campan, die Kammerfrau der Königin überliefert wurde und die Marie-Antoinettes Alltag im Schloss beschrieb:

 

„Das Lever der Königin vollzog sich analog dem Lever des Königs. Die Hofdame vom Dienst hatte das Recht, der Königin beim Ankleiden das Hemd zu reichen. Die Palastdame zog ihr den Unterrock und das Kleid an. Kam aber zufällig eine Prinzessin der königlichen Familie dazu, so stand dieser das Recht zu, der Königin das Hemd überzuwerfen. Einmal also war die Königin gerade von ihren Damen ganz ausgekleidet worden. Ihre Kammerfrau hielt das Hemd und hatte es soeben der Hofdame präsentiert, als die Herzogin von Orléans eintrat. Die Hofdame gab das Hemd der Kammerfrau zurück, die es gerade der Herzogin übergeben wollte, als die ranghöhere Gräfin von Provence dazukam. Nun wanderte das Hemd wieder zu der Kammerfrau zurück, und erst aus den Händen der Gräfin von Provence empfing es endlich die Königin. Sie hatte die ganze Zeit nackt, wie Gott sie geschaffen hat, dabeistehen und zusehen müssen, wie die Damen sich mit ihrem Hemd überkomplimentierten.“

 

– Madame Campan

 

Die französische Revolution

 

Am 5. Mai 1789 traten im Grande Salle des Menus Plaisirs die Generalstände zusammen. Damit begann die konstitutionelle Phase der Französischen Revolution. Der König, dem nach der Verfassung die Einberufung und Entlassung der Generalstände zustand, ließ den Sitzungssaal aus politischen Gründen schließen. Die Abgeordneten des Dritten Standes, die sich mittlerweile zur Nationalversammlung erklärt hatten, zogen sich darauf in das außerhalb des Schlossgeländes liegende Ballhaus zurück. Dort leisteten sie am 20. Juni den Ballhausschwur „… sich niemals zu trennen, bis der Staat eine Verfassung hat …“.

 

Ludwig XVI. und Marie-Antoinette bewohnten das Schloss samt ihrer Familie und dem Hofstaat bis zum 5. Oktober 1789. An diesem Tag stürmten die Poissarden das Schloss und zwangen den König und seine Familie tags darauf, Versailles für immer zu verlassen und nach Paris in den Tuilerien-Palast zu ziehen. Das Schloss wurde von den Revolutionären in den folgenden Jahren zum Teil geplündert und stand weitgehend leer.

 

Das 19. Jahrhundert

 

Nach der Revolution

 

Nach der Revolution konnte das Schloss nur notdürftig erhalten werden. Napoléon erwog, den Palast wieder als Residenz herzurichten, doch wurden die Pläne nie umgesetzt und der Kaiser der Franzosen begnügte sich damit, das Grand Trianon für Wohnzwecke umzugestalten. Seit der Regierung Louis-Philippes I. dagegen wurden die Räume des Schlosses wiederhergestellt, sowie ein historisches Nationalmuseum eingerichtet und mit Büsten, Porträts, Schlachtenbildern und anderen Kunstwerken von vorwiegend historischem Wert ausgeschmückt (darunter Meisterwerke von Horace Vernet, Eugène Delacroix, Ary Scheffer, Adolphe Yvon, James Pradier). In dieser Epoche wurden große Veränderungen im Nord- und Südflügel vorgenommen, Museumsräume in den ehemaligen Appartements eingerichtet und der große Schlachtensaal und die sogenannten Kreuzfahrer- und die Afrikasäle installiert. In diesen historistischen Museumsräumen wurden die französische und die europäische Geschichte thematisiert.

 

Der Gartenarchitekt Gabriel Thouin präsentierte 1820 in seinem Werk Plans raisonnés de toutes les espèces de jardins einen Vorschlag zur teilweisen Umgestaltung und Einbettung des (im Kernbereich geometrisch belassenen) Schlossparks in einen noch größeren Landschaftsgarten, der jedoch nicht umgesetzt wurde. Der deutsche Gartenarchitekt Peter Joseph Lenné wurde bei seinen Entwürfen durch den Plan Thouins beeinflusst.

 

Zweite Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts

 

Eine besondere Bedeutung gewann das Schloss für die deutsch-französische Geschichte. Vom 5. Oktober 1870 bis 13. März 1871 war es im Deutsch-Französischen Krieg Sitz des großen Hauptquartiers der deutschen Armeen. Im Spiegelsaal des Schlosses fand am 18. Januar 1871 mit der Ausrufung König Wilhelms I. von Preußen zum deutschen Kaiser Wilhelm I. die Gründung des Deutschen Reiches statt. Dieser Ort war im Sinn einer historischen Gerechtigkeit ausgewählt worden, da viele Deckengemälde die Feldzüge und Eroberungen Ludwigs XIV. in Deutschland verherrlichten. Die besiegten Franzosen hingegen sahen in dem Akt jedoch nur eine Demütigung ihres Königtums.

 

Die Friedenspräliminarien wurden am 26. Februar 1871 in Versailles unterzeichnet. Am 10. März 1871 verlegte die Nationalversammlung den Regierungssitz von Bordeaux nach Versailles; erst 1879 wurde er wieder nach Paris verlegt. Seit der Dritten Republik trat der Kongress des Parlaments in Versailles zusammen. Für diesen Zweck wurde ein Kongresssaal in den mittleren Lichthof des Südflügels eingebaut. Von 1879 bis 1953 wurden hier die Präsidenten der Republik gemeinsam von Abgeordneten und Senatoren gewählt. Auch heute tritt der Kongress bei Verfassungsänderungen zur Unterstreichung deren Bedeutsamkeit hier zusammen, das Schloss selbst dient oft als Ort von Staatsempfängen.

 

Das 20. Jahrhundert und die Gegenwart

 

Vom Versailler Vertrag zur Nachkriegszeit

 

Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg wurde der Friedensvertrag, den das unterlegene deutsche Reich 1919 unterschreiben musste, im Versailler Schloss verhandelt. Die Franzosen wählten den Ort als Revanche für die Kaiserproklamation von 1871. Im Grand Trianon wurde der Vertrag von Trianon ausgehandelt. Die Bedingungen des Versailler Vertrages, die Deutschland eine Alleinschuld am Krieg anlasteten, werden als eine der Ursachen für den politischen Aufstieg der Nationalsozialisten betrachtet. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurden Versailles und sein Schloss eine Stätte der deutsch-französischen Aussöhnung. Davon zeugten auch die Feierlichkeiten anlässlich der 40. Wiederkehr der Unterzeichnung des Élysée-Vertrages vom 22. Januar 1963 (2003) in der Schlachtengalerie.

 

Am 26. Juni 1978 verübten bretonische Separatisten einen Sprengstoffanschlag auf das Schloss, das ihrer Meinung nach als Symbol für den französischen Zentralismus stand. Nach 2:00 Uhr nachts explodierte ein Sprengsatz, der die Einrichtung in drei Sälen vollständig zerstörte und in sieben anderen schwere Verwüstungen anrichtete. Der entstandene Sachschaden wurde auf fünf Millionen Francs geschätzt. 1979 erfolgte die Aufnahme in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes. 1982 diente das Schloss als Kulisse für den Weltwirtschaftsgipfel der G7.

 

Das Schloss heute

 

Das Schloss mit seinen Gartenanlagen, Museen und Parkschlössern ist für Besucher geöffnet und zugleich das meistbesuchte Schloss Frankreichs, es zählt damit zu den größten Touristenmagneten des Landes. Rund um den Palast, seine Pflege und Verwaltung sind um die 900 Personen beschäftigt. Versailles samt seiner Museen wird von einer staatlichen Betreibergesellschaft geführt. Von 2002 bis 2007 war die spätere französische Kulturministerin Christine Albanel Geschäftsführerin des Établissement public de Versailles, ihre Amtszeit stand in der Kritik, da Albanel keine kunstwissenschaftliche Erfahrung besaß und ihr zeitweise ein Ausverkauf des französischen Nationaldenkmals vorgeworfen wurde. Gegenwärtiger Geschäftsführer ist Jean-Jacques Aillagon.

 

Für die Besichtigung der verschiedenen Museen, der Sonderausstellungen und der Gartenanlagen wird ein Eintrittsgeld verlangt, EU-Bürger unter 26 Jahren und Behinderte sind davon ausgenommen. Aufgrund der weltweiten Bekanntheit von Versailles gehören Schloss und Gärten für viele Frankreich- und Paris-Touristen zum Pflichtprogramm, im Jahr 2022 wurden fast 7 Millionen Besucher gezählt. Gäste müssen unter Umständen mit langen Warteschlangen an den Kassen, besonders im Sommer und an den Wochenenden, rechnen.

 

In der Schlossanlage und den Gärten fanden und finden zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts umfangreiche Restaurierungsarbeiten statt, die bis heute (2022) andauern. Für das Projekt stellte die Regierung unter Jacques Chirac 2003 rund 390 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung. In einem ersten Abschnitt wurden u. a. die Deckengemälde im Spiegelsaal restauriert, die im Juni 2007 fertiggestellt und der Öffentlichkeit übergeben wurden. Andere fundamentale Etappen der Restaurierungskampagne waren das Bassin de Latone und einige Boskette im Park sowie Dachstuhl, Fenster und das Äußere der Schlosskapelle (Chapelle Royale). Letztere wurde im April 2021 fertiggestellt.

 

Während der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2024 in Paris wurden auf den Außenanlagen des Schlosses die Reitsportwettbewerbe sowie die Entscheidungen im Modernen Fünfkampf ausgetragen.

 

(Wikipedia)

Managed to capture the rider with the morning sun rays shining down to the track

Managed to fix a thick rug over the doorway to block out the glare from the streetlights.

Managed to find this sitting in my old data set and thought of giving it a go. This was taken atleast 2 years back in Guadeloupe, San Antonio Texas. Image was processed in PixInsight followed by a touchup in Photoshop.

 

Equipment Details :

OTA : Stellarvue SV70t with Reducer

Mount : ES Losmandy G11 PMC8

Imaging Camera : Zwo1600mm-C PRO

Filters : Astrodon Gen II LRGB + 3nm Set ( Ha,S2,O3)

 

Exposure Details :

Ha : 40 * 200s( Gain : 139 )

L : 600 * 60s( Gain : 76 )

R : 80 * 180s( Gain : 76 )

G : 80 * 180s( Gain : 76 )

B : 80 * 180s( Gain : 76 )

 

The Kennecott copper mine, now abandoned, operated from 1911 until 1938 and is managed by the National Park Service as part of Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.

Managed by Wega Transport, Corp.

 

Serving Ormoc - Tacloban - Calbayog

Managed to get close to this Partridge as it was trying to keep out of the the rain and wind .

 

A chilly night provides a good view of the stars over Moosilauke Ravine Lodge in Warren, N.H. Read more at Dartmouth Now (Photo by Eli Burakian '00)

 

Stay connected to Dartmouth:

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Mischief Managed

 

Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva participates in a discussion with World Bank President David Malpass at the World Bank in Washington, D.C. on February 10, 2020. IMF Photo/Cory Hancock

by fabmeetsworld ift.tt/1RiulnE

finally managed to upload a few pictures, but I still have to come around to all of you, my flickr friends, please be patient with me.....

 

See where I pick the roses:

www.flickr.com/photos/outdoorstudio/531659682/in/set-7215...

Windy and cold around here so challenges trying to do smoke outside. But, I managed to get some shots.

 

I bought some incense and because I didn't have an off camera flash or the right side lite, my incense shots aren't very good. Kevin said our house smelled like a Head Shop!

 

So, I bought smoke balls (from Amazon) to use outside. The are small and don't smoke for long. Each color has a different strength and longevity. So, get the camera all set and then shot a lot of shots. Usually the middle shots are the best.

 

I took this photo in the gas grill. I put the smoke bomb in the goblet and lit it. Then I put the chimney on top. I covered the chimeny this time forcing the smoke out the holes and openings (you can see other shots on my flickr page uncovered).

 

Used Photoshop to merge 4 shots of the smoke in different colors. Added 4 textures and some overlays. Played with light and darks. Cloned out all of the gas grill parts. Phew!

 

See some of my other montages on my flickr page: www.flickr.com/photos/needlepointernc/

Managed to catch the tail end of the sunset at Burntisland harbour this evening

 

Managed a couple of hours out this morning in very grey conditions before the rain started. Found some interest on Patsy's pool @ Titchwell

This single Greylag goose was roosting right infront of the blind @ Patsy's pool & was there yesterday as well

Managed to get very close! :-)

Featuring:

-Henny Sender, Managing Director, BlackRock

-Antoine Dresch, Founding Partner, Korelya Capital

-John Kim, Managing Director, Carlyle Asia

Managing Expectations Peach/ Simcoe Dry Hopped Sour

Folly Brew Pub

Toronto, Ontario

The Great North Museum: Hancock is a museum of natural history and ancient civilisations in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

 

The museum was established in 1884 and was formerly known as the Hancock Museum. In 2006 it merged with Newcastle University's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum to form the Great North Museum. The museum reopened as the Great North Museum: Hancock in May 2009 following a major extension and refurbishment of the original Victorian building. The museum and most of its collections are owned by the Natural History Society of Northumbria, and it is managed by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums on behalf of Newcastle University.

 

The museum is located on the campus of Newcastle University, next to the Great North Road, and close to Barras Bridge. The nearest Tyne & Wear Metro station is Haymarket, and there is also a bus station at Haymarket.

 

One of the Second World War air raid shelter openings into the Victoria Tunnel is beneath the grounds of the museum.

 

The collection of the Hancock Museum can be traced to about 1780 when Marmaduke Tunstall started accumulating ethnographic and natural history material from around the world. He then brought his collection from London to North Yorkshire. In 1790 Tunstall died, and George Allan of Darlington purchased Tunstall's collection; and later in 1823 it was acquired by the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne. A wombat, which is still on display, is considered to be the earliest object in the collection. It was the first complete wombat specimen to reach Europe. In 1829 the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne (now the Natural History Society of Northumbria) was formed as a scientific offshoot of the Literary and Philosophical Society. Amongst the founding and early members of the Natural History Society were Joshua Alder, Albany Hancock, John Hancock, Prideaux John Selby and William Chapman Hewitson.

 

The museum opened on its current site in 1884 after the collection of the Natural History Society outgrew its small museum, located on Westgate Road, which opened in 1834. A major benefactor to the museum was William Armstrong who gave the then large sum of £11,500. Armstrong had also founded the College of Physical Science which later became part of Newcastle University. The museum was renamed in the 1890s, after the local Victorian naturalists, Albany and John Hancock. In 1959 the Natural History Society agreed with the University of Newcastle for the university to care for the building and collections, and since 1992 the university has contracted with Tyne & Wear Museums to manage the museum under a Service Level Agreement.

 

The Hancock Museum was closed on 23 April 2006 for refurbishment and did not reopen until 23 May 2009. It was completely refurbished and extended as part of the Great North Museum Project, at a cost of £26 million. Great North Museum project is a partnership between Newcastle University, Tyne & Wear Museums, Newcastle City Council, the Natural History Society of Northumbria and the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. The project was made possible with funds from the Heritage Lottery Fund, TyneWear Partnership, One NorthEast, the European Regional Development Fund, Newcastle University, Newcastle City Council, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, the Wolfson Foundation and The Northern Rock Foundation, as well as numerous other trusts and foundations. The building architects were Terry Farrell and Partners; Sir Terry Farrell is a native of Newcastle, and had previously been a student at Newcastle University.

 

The new museum includes new displays on natural history and geology, Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece, Romans and Hadrian's Wall, World Cultures and Pre-history. It also includes an interactive study zone, an under 5's space, and a digital Planetarium, as well as new learning facilities, a new temporary exhibition space, and a study garden. The new museum houses not only the Hancock Museum collections, but also those of the university's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum. The building that formerly housed the Museum of Antiquities was later demolished. The Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum Project, but is not relocating to the Hancock, and is remaining in Newcastle University's Fine Art Building.

 

In September 2008, the Great North Museum searched for a lookalike of the Emperor Hadrian, for a photo shoot, whose likeness would feature in a permanent display at the Hancock Museum. On 21 November 2008 the 'Be Part of It' campaign was launched, and it was announced that the Great North Museum: Hancock would be opening in May 2009. Athlete Jonathan Edwards is the patron of the 'Be Part of It' campaign. Other celebrity supporters of the museum include Sir Thomas Allen and Adam Hart-Davis. Donors to the campaign have the opportunity to have their name (or the name of a loved one) permanently included on a donor wall in the museum.

 

The Great North Museum formally re-opened on 23 May 2009. In August the museum announced that they had surpassed their expected annual target of 300,000 visitors. By August over 400,000 people had visited the reopened museum. On 6 November 2009 HM The Queen officially opened the Great North Museum. In 2009, the Great North Museum had over 600,000 visitors.

 

By August 2010, the reopened Great North Museum had welcomed its one millionth visitor.

 

Among the museum's permanent residents are a life-size cast of an African elephant; the Egyptian mummy Bakt-en-Hor (previously known as Bakt-hor-Nekht); a full size replica of a T-Rex skeleton; and Sparkie, Newcastle's famous talking budgie, who was stuffed after his death in 1962 and is now the subject of a new opera by Michael Nyman.

 

The full size cast of an African Elephant was built in the Living Planet gallery. The model was crafted by Zephyr Wildlife, who took a cast from an actual stuffed elephant at a museum in Bonn in Germany. To get the elephant into the museum a crane, from Bel Lift Trucks, had to be used. The full size model of a T-Rex dinosaur has been shipped from Canada, where it was built by a company called Research Casting International. It forms part of the display known as the Fossil Stories gallery. The T-Rex model was one of the first items to be placed in the new museum, due to its size. In 1908, the Manchester taxidermist Harry Ferris Brazenor mounted a "fine bison bull" for the museum.

 

Other exhibitions include 'Hadrian's Wall' looking at Roman life in the north of England, 'Natural Northumbria' focusing on the wildlife found in the northeast, 'Ancient Egypt' looking at the Ancient Egyptians and featuring the museum's two mummies, 'Ice Age to Iron Age' detailing the history of the British Isles over the past 12,000 years, 'World Cultures' featuring artifacts and displays from cultures across the globe, 'The Shefton Collection' with one of the most detailed collections of Greek artifacts in the UK and 'Explore' which is a more hands-on area of the museum and features regular interactive sessions.

 

There were live animals on display but these have now been withdrawn, as well as a conference area for corporate events and a fully provisioned learning suite for school visits.

 

The museum was entered into the 'long list' for the 2010 Art Fund Prize for museums and galleries.

 

The interactive Bio-Wall features hundreds of creatures, that visitors will be able to investigate and find out where they live and how they survive in such extreme places as the Arctic and Desert. There is also a great white shark display, polar bear and giraffe specimens from the historic Hancock collections and a moa skeleton. Also between May and October 2019 the museum hosted Dippy the dinosaur as part of its UK tour.

 

Within the museum's archives are the nineteenth century botanical paintings by Margaret Rebecca Dickinson of plants from the Newcastle and Scottish Borders region.

  

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton

Managed to also complete Galadria, seen in the background. One issue I had with the vehicles was, together the two could only accommodate 4 of the 6 SK action figures. And this doesn't include Galadria as she was never released in the toy line.

Managed to fit a short cycle between rain showers this week.

Frankreich / Île-de-France - Schloss Versailles

 

Queen's hamlet

 

Weiler der Königin

 

The Palace of Versailles (/vɛərˈsaɪ, vɜːrˈsaɪ/ vair-SY, vur-SY; French: château de Versailles [ʃɑto d(ə) vɛʁsɑj]) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about 18 kilometres (11 mi) west of the city centre of Paris, in the Yvelines department of Île-de-France region in France.

 

The palace is owned by the government of France and since 1995 has been managed, under the direction of the French Ministry of Culture, by the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. About 15,000,000 people visit the palace, park, or gardens of Versailles every year, making it one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.

 

Louis XIII built a hunting lodge at Versailles in 1623. His successor, Louis XIV, expanded the château into a palace that went through several expansions in phases from 1661 to 1715. It was a favourite residence for both kings, and in 1682, Louis XIV moved the seat of his court and government to Versailles, making the palace the de facto capital of France. This state of affairs was continued by Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI, who primarily made interior alterations to the palace, but in 1789 the royal family and French court returned to Paris. For the rest of the French Revolution, the Palace of Versailles was largely abandoned and emptied of its contents, and the population of the surrounding city plummeted.

 

Napoleon, following his coronation as Emperor, used the subsidiary palace, Grand Trianon, as a summer residence from 1810 to 1814, but did not use the main palace. Following the Bourbon Restoration, when the king was returned to the throne, he resided in Paris and it was not until the 1830s that meaningful repairs were made to the palace. A museum of French history was installed within it, replacing the courtiers' apartments of the southern wing.

 

The palace and park were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979 for its importance as the centre of power, art, and science in France during the 17th and 18th centuries. The French Ministry of Culture has placed the palace, its gardens, and some of its subsidiary structures on its list of culturally significant monuments.

 

History

 

In 1623, Louis XIII, king of France, built a hunting lodge on a hill in a favourite hunting ground, 19 kilometres (12 mi) west of Paris, and 16 kilometres (10 mi) from his primary residence, the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The site, near a village named Versailles, was a wooded wetland that Louis XIII's court scorned as being generally unworthy of a king; one of his courtiers, François de Bassompierre, wrote that the lodge "would not inspire vanity in even the simplest gentleman". From 1631 to 1634, architect Philibert Le Roy replaced the lodge with a château for Louis XIII, who forbade his queen, Anne of Austria, from staying there overnight, even when an outbreak of smallpox at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1641 forced Louis XIII to relocate to Versailles with his three-year-old heir, the future Louis XIV.

 

When Louis XIII died in 1643, Anne became Louis XIV's regent, and Louis XIII's château was abandoned for the next decade. She moved the court back to Paris, where Anne and her chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin, continued Louis XIII's unpopular monetary practices. This led to the Fronde, a series of revolts against royal authority from 1648 to 1653 that masked a struggle between Mazarin and the princes of the blood, Louis XIV's extended family, for influence over him. In the aftermath of the Fronde, Louis XIV became determined to rule alone. Following Mazarin's death in 1661, Louis XIV reformed his government to exclude his mother and the princes of the blood, moved the court back to Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and ordered the expansion of his father's château at Versailles into a palace.

 

Louis XIV had hunted at Versailles in the 1650s, but did not take any special interest in Versailles until 1661. On 17 August 1661, Louis XIV was a guest at a sumptuous festival hosted by Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances, at his palatial residence, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte. Louis XIV was impressed by the château and its gardens, which were the work of Louis Le Vau, the court architect since 1654, André Le Nôtre, the royal gardener since 1657, and Charles Le Brun, a painter in royal service since 1647. Vaux-le-Vicomte's scale and opulence led him to imprison Fouquet that September, as he had also built an island fortress and a private army. But Louis XIV was also inspired by Vaux-le-Vicomte, and he recruited its authors for his own projects. Louis XIV replaced Fouquet with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a protégé of Mazarin and enemy of Fouquet, and charged him with managing the corps of artisans in royal employment. Colbert acted as the intermediary between them and Louis XIV, who personally directed and inspected the planning and construction of Versailles.

 

Construction

 

Work at Versailles was at first concentrated on gardens, and through the 1660s, Le Vau only added two detached service wings and a forecourt to the château. But in 1668–69, as a response to the growth of the gardens, and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Louis XIV decided to turn Versailles into a full-scale royal residence. He vacillated between replacing or incorporating his father's château, but settled on the latter by the end of the decade, and from 1668 to 1671, Louis XIII's château was encased on three sides in a feature dubbed the enveloppe. This gave the château a new, Italianate façade overlooking the gardens, but preserved the courtyard façade, resulting in a mix of styles and materials that dismayed Louis XIV and that Colbert described as a "patchwork". Attempts to homogenize the two façades failed, and in 1670 Le Vau died, leaving the post of First Architect to the King vacant for the next seven years.

 

Le Vau was succeeded at Versailles by his assistant, architect François d'Orbay. Work at the palace during the 1670s focused on its interiors, as the palace was then nearing completion, though d'Orbay expanded Le Vau's service wings and connected them to the château, and built a pair of pavilions for government employees in the forecourt. In 1670, d'Orbay was tasked by Louis XIV with designing a city, also called Versailles, to house and service Louis XIV's growing government and court. The granting of land to courtiers for the construction of townhouses that resembled the palace began in 1671. The next year, the Franco-Dutch War began and funding for Versailles was cut until 1674, when Louis XIV had work begun on the Ambassadors' Staircase, a grand staircase for the reception of guests, and demolished the last of the village of Versailles.

 

Following the end of the Franco-Dutch War with French victory in 1678, Louis XIV appointed as First Architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart, an experienced architect in Louis XIV's confidence, who would benefit from a restored budget and large workforce of former soldiers. Mansart began his tenure with the addition from 1678 to 1681 of the Hall of Mirrors, a renovation of the courtyard façade of Louis XIII's château, and the expansion of d'Orbay's pavilions to create the Ministers' Wings in 1678–79. Adjacent to the palace, Hardouin-Mansart built a pair of stables called the Grande and Petite Écuries from 1679 to 1682 and the Grand Commun, which housed the palace's servants and general kitchens, from 1682 to 1684. Hardouin-Mansart also added two entirely new wings in Le Vau's Italianate style to house the court,[75] first at the south end of the palace from 1679 to 1681 and then at its north end from 1685 to 1689.

 

War and the resulting diminished funding slowed construction at Versailles for the rest of the 17th century. The Nine Years' War, which began in 1688, stopped work altogether until 1698. Three years later, however, the even more expensive War of the Spanish Succession began and, combined with poor harvests in 1693–94 and 1709–10, plunged France into crisis. Louis XIV thus slashed funding and cancelled some of the work Hardouin-Mansart had planned in the 1680s, such as the remodelling of the courtyard façade in the Italianate style. Louis XIV and Hardouin-Mansart focused on a permanent palace chapel, the construction of which lasted from 1699 to 1710.

 

Louis XIV's successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, largely left Versailles as they inherited it and focused on the palace's interiors. Louis XV's modifications began in the 1730s, with the completion of the Salon d'Hercule, a ballroom in the north wing, and the expansion of the king's private apartment, which required the demolition of the Ambassadors' Staircase. In 1748, Louis XV began construction of a palace theatre, the Royal Opera of Versailles at the northernmost end of the palace, but completion was delayed until 1770; construction was interrupted in the 1740s by the War of the Austrian Succession and then again in 1756 with the start of the Seven Years' War. These wars emptied the royal treasury and thereafter construction was mostly funded by Madame du Barry, Louis XV's favourite mistress. In 1771, Louis XV had the northern Ministers' Wing rebuilt in Neoclassical style by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, his court architect, as it was in the process of falling down. That work was also stopped by financial constraints, and it remained incomplete when Louis XV died in 1774. In 1784, Louis XVI briefly moved the royal family to the Château de Saint-Cloud ahead of more renovations to the Palace of Versailles, but construction could not begin because of financial difficulty and political crisis. In 1789, the French Revolution swept the royal family and government out of Versailles forever.

 

Role in politics and culture

 

The Palace of Versailles was key to Louis XIV's politics, as an expression and concentration of French art and culture, and for the centralization of royal power. Louis XIV first used Versailles to promote himself with a series of nighttime festivals in its gardens in 1664, 1668, and 1674, the events of which were disseminated throughout Europe by print and engravings. As early as 1669, but especially from 1678, Louis XIV sought to make Versailles his seat of government, and he expanded the palace so as to fit the court within it. The moving of the court to Versailles did not come until 1682, however, and not officially, as opinion on Versailles was mixed among the nobility of France.

 

By 1687, however, it was evident to all that Versailles was the de facto capital of France, and Louis XIV succeeded in attracting the nobility to Versailles to pursue prestige and royal patronage within a strict court etiquette, thus eroding their traditional provincial power bases. It was at the Palace of Versailles that Louis XIV received the Doge of Genoa, Francesco Maria Imperiale Lercari in 1685, an embassy from the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1686, and an embassy from Safavid Iran in 1715.

 

Louis XIV died at Versailles on 1 September 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV,[78][106] then the duke of Anjou, who was moved to the Château de Vincennes and then to Paris by Louis XV's regent, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. Versailles was neglected until 1722, when Philippe II removed the court to Versailles to escape the unpopularity of his regency, and when Louis XV began his majority. The 1715 move, however, broke the cultural power of Versailles, and during the reign of Louis XVI, courtiers spent their leisure in Paris, not Versailles.

 

During Christmas 1763, Mozart and his family visited Versailles and dined with the King. The 7-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart played several works during his stay and later dedicated his first two harpsichord sonatas, published in 1764 in Paris, to Madame Victoria, daughter of Louis XV.

 

In 1783, the palace was the site of the signing of the last two of the three treaties of the Peace of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War. On 3 September, British and American delegates, led by Benjamin Franklin, signed the Treaty of Paris at the Hôtel d'York (now 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris, granting the United States independence. On 4 September, Spain and France signed separate treaties with Britain at the Palace of Versailles, formally ending the war.

 

The King and Queen learned of the Storming of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July 1789, while they were at the palace, and remained isolated there as the Revolution in Paris spread. The growing anger in Paris led to the Women's March on Versailles on 5 October 1789. A crowd of several thousand men and women, protesting the high price and scarcity of bread, marched from the markets of Paris to Versailles. They took weapons from the city armoury, besieged the palace, and compelled the King and royal family and the members of the National Constituent Assembly to return with them to Paris the following day.

 

As soon as the royal family departed, the palace was closed. In 1792, the National Convention, the new revolutionary government, ordered the transfer of all the paintings and sculptures from the palace to the Louvre. In 1793, the Convention declared the abolition of the monarchy and ordered all of the royal property in the palace to be sold at auction. The auction took place between 25 August 1793 and 11 August 1794. The furnishings and art of the palace, including the furniture, mirrors, baths, and kitchen equipment, were sold in seventeen thousand lots. All fleurs-de-lys and royal emblems on the buildings were chambered or chiselled off. The empty buildings were turned into a storehouse for furnishings, art and libraries confiscated from the nobility. The empty grand apartments were opened for tours beginning in 1793, and a small museum of French paintings and art school was opened in some of the empty rooms.

 

By virtue of an order issued by the Versailles district directorate in August 1794, the Royal Gate was destroyed, the Cour Royale was cleared and the Cour de Marbre lost its precious floor.

 

19th century – history museum and government venue

 

When Napoleon became Emperor of the French in 1804, he considered making Versailles his residence but abandoned the idea because of the cost of the renovation. Prior to his marriage with Marie-Louise in 1810, he had the Grand Trianon restored and refurnished as a springtime residence for himself and his family, in the style of furnishing that it is seen today.

 

In 1815, with the final downfall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, the younger brother of Louis XVI, became king, and considered returning the royal residence to Versailles, where he had been born. He ordered the restoration of the royal apartments, but the task and cost was too great. Louis XVIII had the far end of the south wing of the Cour Royale demolished and rebuilt (1814–1824) to match the Gabriel wing of 1780 opposite, which gave greater uniformity of appearance to the front entrance. Neither he nor his successor Charles X lived at Versailles.

 

The French Revolution of 1830 brought a new monarch, Louis-Philippe to power, and a new ambition for Versailles. He did not reside at Versailles but began the creation of the Museum of the History of France, dedicated to "all the glories of France", which had been used to house some members of the royal family. The museum was begun in 1833 and inaugurated on 30 June 1837. Its most famous room is the Galerie des Batailles (Hall of Battles), which lies on most of the length of the second floor of the south wing. The museum project largely came to a halt when Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848, though the paintings of French heroes and great battles still remain in the south wing.

 

Emperor Napoleon III used the palace on occasion as a stage for grand ceremonies. One of the most lavish was the banquet that he hosted for Queen Victoria in the Royal Opera of Versailles on 25 August 1855.

 

During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the palace was occupied by the general staff of the victorious German Army. Parts of the château, including the Hall of Mirrors, were turned into a military hospital. The creation of the German Empire, combining Prussia and the surrounding German states under William I, was formally proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors on 18 January 1871. The Germans remained in the palace until the signing of the armistice in March 1871. In that month, the government of the new Third French Republic, which had departed Paris during the war for Tours and then Bordeaux, moved into the palace. The National Assembly held its meetings in the Opera House.

 

The uprising of the Paris Commune in March 1871, prevented the French government, under Adolphe Thiers, from returning immediately to Paris. The military operation which suppressed the Commune at the end of May was directed from Versailles, and the prisoners of the Commune were marched there and put on trial in military courts. In 1875 a second parliamentary body, the French Senate, was created and held its meetings for the election of a President of the Republic in a new hall created in 1876 in the south wing of the palace. The French Senate and National Assembly continue to meet in the palace in joint session on special occasions, such as the amendment of the Constitution of France.

 

20th century

 

The end of the 19th and the early 20th century saw the beginning of restoration efforts at the palace, first led by Pierre de Nolhac, poet and scholar and the first conservator, who began his work in 1892. The conservation and restoration were interrupted by two world wars but have continued until the present day.

 

The palace returned to the world stage in June 1919, when, after six months of negotiations, the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War, was signed in the Hall of Mirrors. Between 1925 and 1928, the American philanthropist and multi-millionaire John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave $2,166,000, the equivalent of about 38 million dollars in 2024, to restore and refurbish the palace.

 

More work took place after World War II, with the restoration of the Royal Opera of Versailles. The theatre was reopened in 1957, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

 

In 1978, parts of the palace were heavily damaged in a bombing committed by Breton terrorists.

 

Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation.

 

One of the more costly endeavours for the museum and the French Fifth Republic has been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. Consequently, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought-after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palace's original furnishings.

 

21st century

 

In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which began with the replanting of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees during Cyclone Lothar on 26 December 1999. One part of the initiative, the restoration of the Hall of Mirrors, was completed in 2006. Another major project was the further restoration of the backstage areas of the Royal Opera of Versailles in 2007 to 2009.

 

The Palace of Versailles is currently owned by the French state. Its formal title is the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. Since 1995, it has been run as a Public Establishment, with an independent administration and management supervised by the French Ministry of Culture.

 

The grounds of the palace hosted the equestrian competition during the 2024 Summer Olympics.

 

The Queen's hamlet and Theatre

 

Near the Trianons are the French pavilion, built by Gabriel in 1750 between the two residences, and the Queen's Theatre and Queen's Hamlet, built by architect Richard Mique in 1780 and from 1783 to 1785 respectively. These were both built at the behest of Marie Antoinette; the theatre, hidden in the gardens, indulged her appreciation of opera and is absolutely original, and the hamlet to extend her gardens with rustic amenities. The building scheme of the Queen's Hamlet includes a farmhouse (the farm was to produce milk and eggs for the queen), a dairy, a dovecote, a boudoir, a barn that burned down during the French Revolution, a mill and a tower in the form of a lighthouse.

 

Modern political and ceremonial functions

 

The palace still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameral French Parliament—consisting of the Senate (Sénat) and the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)—meet in joint session (a congress of the French Parliament) in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution. For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability of International Criminal Court decisions and for gender equality in candidate lists), in January 2000 (ratifying the Treaty of Amsterdam), in March 2003 (specifying the "decentralized organization" of the French Republic), and in March 2024 (to enshrine the freedom of women to have recourse to abortion).

 

In 2009, President Nicolas Sarkozy addressed the Great Recession before a congress in Versailles, the first time that this had been done since 1848, when Louis Napoleon Bonaparte gave an address before the French Second Republic. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks, President François Hollande gave a speech before a rare joint session of parliament at the Palace of Versailles. This was the third time since 1848 that a French president addressed a joint session of the French Parliament at Versailles. The president of the National Assembly has an official apartment at the Palace of Versailles. In 2023 a state visit by Charles III to France included a state banquet at the Palace.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Das Schloss Versailles (französisch château de Versailles) in der gleichnamigen Nachbarstadt von Paris ist eine der größten Palastanlagen Europas und war von der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ausbruch der Französischen Revolution die Hauptresidenz der Könige von Frankreich. Der Barockbau, dessen größte Ausdehnung mehr als einen halben Kilometer beträgt, gilt als ein Höhepunkt europäischer Palastarchitektur und diente vom 17. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert als Vorbild für zahlreiche weitere Schlossbauten.

 

Ursprünglich von Philibert Le Roy als Jagdschloss für König Ludwig XIII. errichtet, wurde die Anlage ab 1661 unter Ludwig XIV. durch Louis Le Vau, François II d’Orbay, Jules Hardouin-Mansart und Robert de Cotte in mehreren Phasen um- und ausgebaut. Die Innenausstattung schuf Charles Lebrun, die berühmten Gartenanlagen, die aus einem Jagdpark hervorgingen, stammen von André Le Nôtre. Erst 1682 war der Riesenbau so weit vorangeschritten, dass der „Sonnenkönig“ mit seinem Hofstaat von Schloss Saint-Germain-en-Laye nach Versailles umziehen konnte. In seiner Zeit als Residenz war der Palast fast durchgehend von einem mehrere tausend Personen umfassenden Hofstaat bewohnt und bildete das kulturelle und große politische Zentrum Frankreichs.

 

Seit dem 19. Jahrhundert wird das Schloss als Museum genutzt. Es steht heute für Besucher offen, ebenso wie die weitläufigen Gartenanlagen und wie die drei weiteren im Park befindlichen Lustschlösser Grand Trianon, Petit Trianon und Hameau de la Reine. Während der Mittelbau mit den Staatssälen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts in der ursprünglichen Form zu sehen ist, beherbergen die großen Seitenflügel das im 19. Jahrhundert eingerichtete Museum der Geschichte Frankreichs. 1979 wurde Schloss Versailles in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes aufgenommen.

 

Das Schlossgebäude

 

Das Bauwerk

 

Der Ursprung: Ein kleines Jagdschloss

 

Der Ort Versailles vor den Toren der Hauptstadt Paris wurde 1038 erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Der Wortstamm – versare, d. h. umgraben, umwenden – lässt seine ursprüngliche Bedeutung noch erkennen und verweist auf das kleine Bauerndorf und seine Äcker, die einst hier lagen.[3] Im Dorf Versailles befanden sich im 17. Jahrhundert ein verfallenes kleines Schloss und eine Mühle. Die Ländereien und das Anwesen gehörten zum größten Teil der ansässigen Familie Gondi, ein kleinerer Teil befand sich in königlichem Besitz. Ludwig XIII., der das wildreiche Gebiet der Galie häufig bei Jagdausflügen aufsuchte, nächtigte gelegentlich in dem mittelalterlichen Versailler Schloss und sogar in der Mühle.

 

1623 ließ sich der König anstelle der Mühle ein kleines Jagdhaus errichten, in dem er 1624 das erste Mal übernachtete. Dieser gelegentlich als Kartenschloss verspottete Ansitz war so klein, dass er nicht einmal Räumlichkeiten für die Königin enthielt. François de Bassompierre bezeichnete das Jagdhaus als „ein armseliges Schloss, bei dem nicht mal ein einfacher Edelmann Neid empfindet“. Nachdem der König Ländereien der Gondi in Versailles hinzu erworben hatte, ließ er das Gebäude von 1631 bis 1634 durch Philibert Le Roy zu einem dreiflügeligen Jagdschloss erweitern. Das verfallene alte Schloss wurde später abgetragen. Das von einem Graben umgebene, aus Backstein erbaute und mit Sandsteinelementen gegliederte neue Versailler Schloss wurde im Stil des frühen französischen Barock errichtet. Dieses Jagdschloss bildet bis heute den Kern der Anlage, es umschließt den Marmorhof, den letzten und kleinsten der drei Ehrenhöfe, die der Stadtseite des Palastes vorgelagert sind. Nach dem Tode Ludwig XIII. ging das Gebäude als Teil des Erbes an seinen Sohn und Nachfolger Ludwig XIV. über. Der junge König residierte nach seiner Regierungsübernahme 1661 regelmäßig in Versailles, das ihm zunächst vor allem als Lustschloss und Sommersitz diente und in dem er große Hoffeste ausrichten ließ.

 

Den entscheidenden Impuls zum Ausbau des Palastes lieferte wohl der Finanzminister Nicolas Fouquet. Dieser ließ sich mit Vaux-le-Vicomte ein aufsehenerregendes Schloss erbauen, das nicht nur die Kunst des höfischen Barock in Frankreich nachhaltig prägen sollte, sondern auch den Zorn des Königs erregte. Ludwig XIV. vermutete, dass Fouquet die Pracht zu einem Großteil mit dem Griff in die Staatskasse finanzierte. Er warf seinem Minister Untreue vor und ließ ihn verhaften. Das in Vaux geschaffene Gesamtkunstwerk aus Bauarchitektur und Gartenkunst bestätigte den König in seinem Vorhaben, sich eine zeitgemäße Residenz errichten zu lassen. Er zog Fouquets Architekten und Künstler zu Rate und beauftragte sie schließlich mit dem Ausbau des kleinen Schlosses seines Vaters.

 

Ausbau zum Residenzschloss

 

Entgegen dem Ratschlag des Finanzministers Colbert, der aus Kosten- und Prestigegründen einen Neubau empfahl, weigerte sich Ludwig XIV. für die Versailler Residenz das alte Jagdschloss aufzugeben und so wurde das den späteren Marmorhof umschließende Gebäude im Laufe der Zeit umgebaut und in mehreren Abschnitten in den Neubau integriert. Der König schrieb in seinen Memoiren sogar, selbst wenn das alte Schloss hätte abgerissen werden müssen, so hätte er es ganz genauso wieder errichten lassen, wie es war. Nach anfänglichen kleineren Umbauten ab 1661 bildete der Aachener Frieden von 1668 den Auftakt zu einer ersten Erweiterung des Schlosses. Der U-förmige Mittelbau Ludwigs XIII., Kern des heutigen Corps de Logis, erhielt von 1668 bis 1671 durch Le Vau die enveloppé. Dabei handelte es sich um eine bauliche, sogenannte Ummantelung des alten Schlosses durch zwei neue, äußere Trakte. Die südlichen Flügel der Ummantelung nahmen die Paradezimmer der Königin auf, die nördlichen jene des Königs. Dieser Bau besaß anstelle der späteren Spiegelgalerie noch eine große Terrasse über den gartenseitigen Arkaden des Erdgeschosses.

 

1677 verkündete der König, Versailles zum künftigen Regierungssitz zu bestimmen. Der damit verbundene Ausbau des Palastes begann im Zuge des Friedens von Nimwegen, der Umzug des Hofstaats erfolgte ab dem 5. Mai 1682. Von 1678 bis 1684 wurde die Terrasse des Corps de Logis samt den ihr benachbarten Salons durch Jules Hardouin-Mansart über- und umgebaut und die Spiegelgalerie, sowie die Salons des Krieges und des Friedens installiert. Die ursprünglich waagerechten Fensterabschlüsse des ersten Stockwerkes wurden durch Rundbogenfenster ersetzt, die mit den Spiegeln der großen Galerie korrespondierten. Mit diesen Baumaßnahmen erhielt die Gartenfassade des Hauptgebäudes ihre heutige Gestalt.

 

Um Platz für den Hofstaat zu schaffen, wurden gleichzeitig mit den Erweiterungen am Corps de Logis 1678 die Arbeiten am Südflügel und ab 1685 die am Nordflügel begonnen. Mansart plädierte zudem dafür, das Schloss um ein weiteres Stockwerk zu erhöhen, um so mehr Wohnraum zu erhalten, was der König jedoch aus unbekannten Gründen ablehnte. Beide Flügelbauten bestehen aus jeweils zwei parallel zueinander errichteten langen Gebäuderiegeln, je einer auf der Garten- und einer auf der Stadtseite. Diese sind durch Querbauten mehrfach miteinander verbunden und beinhalten so eine Anzahl kleinerer Lichthöfe. Der Südflügel war 1684 weitgehend fertig gestellt, der später begonnene Nordflügel fünf Jahre darauf. Die Arbeiten an dessen stadtseitig gelegenem Trakt wurden wegen der Kosten des Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieges jedoch eingestellt und der Bau erst im 19. Jahrhundert vollendet. Für den Bau des Nordflügels musste die Thetis-Grotte, ein mit Statuen geschmücktes Brunnenhaus von 1664, abgerissen werden. Die darin ausgestellten Skulpturen befinden sich heute zum Teil im sogenannten Boskett des Apollo-Bades im Park des Schlosses. Auf dem Standort der Thetis-Grotte erhebt sich der Bau der 1710 durch Robert de Cotte fertiggestellten Schlosskapelle, deren Zugang durch den Nordflügel erfolgt.

 

Die Flügel des Versailler Schlosses und seiner Nebengebäude gruppieren sich um drei in einer Achse gelegene Hofplätze, die zusammen eine weitgehend zusammenhängende Fläche bilden und vom Zentrum des Schlosses in Richtung der Stadt führen. Den Ausgangspunkt bildet der kleine Marmorhof (Cour de Marbre) des umbauten Jagdschlosses, auf diesen folgt der von den Verlängerungstrakten des Corps de Logis umgebene Königshof (Cour Royale) und schließlich der große Platz des Ministerhofs (Cour des Ministres) mit den freistehenden Ministerflügeln. Da Versailles nicht nur königliche Residenz, sondern auch Regierungssitz war, wurde mit diesen Gebäuden Platz für die Hofbeamten geschaffen. Den Höfen stadtseitig gegenüber stehen der kleine und der große Marstall, umfangreiche Gebäude für die Pferde und den Fuhrpark der königlichen Familie. Östlich, vom Südflügel des Schlosses und dem südlichen Ministertrakt begrenzt, befindet sich außerdem das vierflügelige Grand Commun, ein solitär stehender Wirtschaftsbau von 1682, der die Schlossküchen und Bedienstetenwohnungen für über 1.000 Hofangestellte enthielt.

 

Nach dem Umzug des Hofes 1682 arbeiteten zeitweise über 22.000 Menschen an und in Versailles, nach den Angaben eines Zeitgenossen erreichte die Zahl der Arbeiter im Jahr 1685 sogar 36.000. Zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts war Versailles in seinen heutigen Dimensionen weitgehend fertiggestellt; die Gartenfassade ist 570 Meter breit.

 

Stilistische Einordnung

 

Das Äußere des Schlosses ist in zwei verschiedenen Stilformen gehalten, die zudem durch die unterschiedliche Addition der einzelnen Baukörper einen konträren Eindruck vermitteln. Die Stadtfassaden bestehen aus zahlreichen Einzelgebäuden, so dass sich dem Betrachter erst beim näheren Hinsehen erschließt, dass sie alle gemeinsam ein großes, zusammenhängendes Gebäude bilden. Die Fassaden des Schlosses folgen hier dem älteren Stil des ursprünglichen Jagdschlosses rund um den Marmorhof und entsprechen noch dem frühen französischen Barock. Sie sind aus rotem Ziegelstein errichtet, der mit Sandsteinelementen gegliedert ist, die Baukörper tragen sichtbare Mansarddächer.

 

Die Gartenfassaden des Schlosses sind im Stil des für Frankreich typischen klassizistischen Barocks gestaltet und gehen damit auf die Vorgabe von Le Vaus Ummantelung zurück. Horizontale Linien dominieren das Bauwerk und nur risalitartig hervorspringende Portale lockern die strengen Sandsteinfassaden auf. Die abschließende Balustrade des Obergeschosses ist mit steinernen Vasen und Trophäendarstellungen dekoriert und verbirgt hinter sich flache Dächer. Die Gartenfassade fasst die Gebäudeteile zu einem großen Block zusammen, dessen Breitenwirkung durch die horizontale Gliederung noch gesteigert wird.

 

Die verschiedenen Baustile des Schlosses, die majestätisch-monotone Garten- und die kleinteiligeren Stadtfassaden riefen nicht nur Bewunderung, sondern auch Kritik hervor. Versailles steht im völligen Kontrast zu den anderen Barockschlössern Frankreichs, die zumeist nicht nur kleiner, sondern wie Vaux-le-Vicomte oder Maisons-Laffitte auch im Pavillonsystem errichtet wurden. In der Kunstgeschichte werden insbesondere die Gartenfassaden zwar häufig als überwältigend in ihrer Wirkung, aber auch als eintönig beschrieben, Colbert nannte das Schloss einen „Mann mit großen Armen und einem dicken Kopf.“ Der Herzog Saint-Simon bezeichnete den Kontrast der Baustile als „schönes und häßliches, das zusammengenäht wurde“ und über das hinter der Attika verborgene Flachdach schrieb er „man glaubt einen abgebrannten Palast zu sehen, dem das obere Stockwerk und das Dach fehlen.“ Die Kapelle wurde als Riesenkatafalk verspottet und Voltaire bezeichnete sie als einen „erstaunlichen Firlefanz“.

 

Zur Zeit Ludwigs XV. wurde eine als grand dessin bezeichnete Neugestaltung der Stadtseite im Stil des Klassizismus erwogen. Die alten Fassaden dort sollten, den Gartenfassaden ähnlich, mit Haustein überbaut werden. Auch war über dem Hauptgebäude eine Kuppel geplant. Die Leitung dieses Projekts übernahm Ange-Jacques Gabriel. Letztlich erfolgte aus finanziellen Gründen jedoch ab 1771 nur der Umbau eines zu dieser Zeit baufälligen, stadtwärts gerichteten Trakts, der seit jener Zeit Gabrielflügel genannt wird. Der Pavillon des gegenüberliegenden Gebäudes, des Dufourflügels, wurde erst um 1820 angepasst und die Symmetrie der Hoffassade knapp ein halbes Jahrhundert nach Beginn der Umbauarbeiten halbwegs wiederhergestellt. Die parallel gegenüberstehenden Gebäudeteile tragen noch heute verschiedene Fassadenstile. 1780 durch Étienne-Louis Boullée vorgelegte Pläne zu einer vollständigen Neugestaltung des Schlosses im Sinne der Revolutionsarchitektur wurden nicht realisiert.

 

Symbolik und Kosten

 

Symbolik des Schlosses

 

Neben der offensichtlichen Zurschaustellung von Luxus und Reichtum diente das Schloss auch einer subtileren Darstellung des Ruhms und der Macht des Königtums. Die unter Ludwig XIV. angelegten Staatsräume und Säle verherrlichen den Sonnenkönig. Die Dekoration des Stucks und die Themen der Gemälde sind auf seine wirtschaftlichen und politischen Erfolge abgestimmt und künden von seinen Feldzügen und Siegen.[ Eine große Rolle nahmen außerdem die römische und die griechische Mythologie ein, mit deren Motiven die oberen Gesellschaftsschichten des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts wohlvertraut waren. Die Mythologie wurde als Gleichnis eingesetzt und Ludwig XIV. wiederholt als Gott Apollon dargestellt, was der Hofgesellschaft zahlreiche Interpretationen ermöglichte. Die Darstellung als antiker Gott der Sonne und des Lichts verlieh Ludwig XIV. zudem die Aura eines mystischen, höchsten Wesens, ohne zugleich mit der Kirche in Widerspruch zu geraten – denn den Rang des Königs mit dem christlichen Gott gleichzusetzen, war auch im absolutistischen, aber immer noch katholisch geprägten Frankreich unmöglich und wäre einem Sakrileg gleichgekommen. Der Vergleich mit Apollon dagegen bekräftigte seinen Ruf als Sonnenkönig.

 

Kosten und Finanzierung

 

Obwohl der französische Haushaltsplan immense Ausgaben für das Schloss vorsah, war das Geld in Versailles immer knapp und die Bauphasen konnten nur in den Friedenszeiten zwischen den Reunionskriegen vorangetrieben werden. Nachdem Ludwig XIV. den Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg begonnen hatte, musste er 1689 sogar das berühmte Silbermobiliar der Spiegelgalerie verkaufen und einschmelzen, um die Kriegsausgaben zu bestreiten. Viele geplante Bauvorhaben, wie der oben beschriebene Umbau der Stadtfassaden, konnten aus Kostengründen nicht in Angriff genommen werden. Fast alle Aufträge wurden ausgeschrieben, Voranschläge unbedingt eingehalten und die Armee in Friedenszeiten zu Bauarbeiten herangezogen. Der Sonnenkönig selbst sagte: „… am liebsten wird mir immer alles sein, was möglichst schön ist und wenig kostet“. Was den meisten Betrachtern als unglaublicher Luxus erschien, war in Wirklichkeit so kostengünstig wie nur möglich gebaut, was zur Folge hatte, dass die Kamine oft nicht zogen, die Fenster nicht richtig schlossen und das Leben dort im Winter sehr unkomfortabel war.

 

Bereits zwischen 1661 und 1663 waren mehr als 1.500.000 Livres für das Schloss ausgegeben worden. Der erste Bau Ludwigs XIII. hatte insgesamt gerade einmal 300.000 Livres verbraucht, wovon 213.000 auf das Schloss verwendet und weitere 82.000 für die Gärten benötigt wurden. Im Zeitraum von 1664 bis 1688 wurde jährlich durchschnittlich eine Million Livres in Versailles verbaut. Der französische Staatshaushalt verfügte in den 1680er Jahren über ein Budget von etwa 110 Millionen Livres, wovon Ludwig nach dem Frieden von Nimwegen 15 Millionen für seine Bautätigkeiten genehmigt bekam. Bis zum Tode des Sonnenkönigs sollen 300 Millionen Livres in die Versailler Schlösser, den Park, die Ausstattung und den Unterhalt geflossen sein. Fünfzig bis sechzig Millionen allein für das Mobiliar und zwei Millionen für den Bau des Eure-Kanals. Bescheiden nimmt sich dagegen die Leibpension für die bei Unfällen verstorbenen Arbeiter aus, deren Familien im Schnitt 40 bis 100 Livres als Hinterbliebenenrente erhielten.

 

Die Trianonschlösser und der Weiler

 

Im Park von Versailles befinden sich mehrere Lustschlösser: das Grand Trianon, das Petit Trianon sowie das Hameau de la Reine (deutsch: Weiler der Königin).

 

Das weitläufige Gartenschloss Grand Trianon (großes Trianon) oder Trianon de marbre (Marmor-Trianon) stammt noch aus der Zeit Ludwigs XIV. Es war ursprünglich dem König und seiner Familie vorbehalten, doch im Laufe der Jahre wurde es auch dem weiteren Hofstaat zugänglich gemacht. Das benachbarte Petit Trianon (kleines Trianon) ist ein Werk, das Ludwig XV. für seine Mätresse Madame de Pompadour erbauen ließ. Diese starb jedoch vor der Vollendung des kleinen, klassizistischen Schlösschens. Nachdem sein Nachfolger Ludwig XVI. es Marie-Antoinette geschenkt hatte, wurde es durch sie prunkvoll ausgestattet und ein neuer Gartenbereich angelegt, in dem auch ein kleines Theater seinen Platz fand. Die Königin ließ sich hier zudem, einer damaligen Mode folgend, ein künstliches Dorf, den so genannten Weiler der Königin mit augenscheinlich windschiefen Häusern errichten, die aber in Wirklichkeit prunkvolle Dekoration für die Schäferspiele der Herrscherin waren.

 

All diese Gebäude wurden eine halbe Fußstunde entfernt vom Hauptschloss errichtet, um den Königen Entspannung und Erholung abseits des überfüllten Palastes zu bieten. Versailles war zudem in ein ganzes Netzwerk von kleineren Schlössern eingebunden. Noch im Ort selbst befand sich das Schloss Clagny, welches Madame de Montespan gewidmet war (und bereits 1769 der Spitzhacke zum Opfer fiel), und nur eine halbe Wegstunde zu Pferde entfernt befand sich das Schloss von Marly, das mit seinen Gärten und Wasserspielen zu den berühmtesten Lustschlössern des ausgehenden 17. Jahrhunderts gehörte. Ebenfalls in Reichweite lagen die königlichen Residenzen Saint-Germain-en-Laye und Saint-Cloud.

 

Geschichtlicher Überblick

 

17. und 18. Jahrhundert: Das Ancien Régime

 

Die Residenz des Sonnenkönigs und seiner Nachfolger

 

Frankreich war im 17. Jahrhundert der mächtigste Staat Europas und unter dem Wirken des Sonnenkönigs zum kulturellen, wirtschaftlichen und politischen Zentrum des Kontinents geworden. Das Schloss des Königs war ein Ausdruck der Leistungsfähigkeit Frankreichs und ein Symbol seiner Größe und Stärke. Die geordnete Natur der Parkanlagen war ein Spiegelbild der Ordnung, die Ludwig XIV. dem Land brachte.

 

Nachdem er als Kind die Gefahr der Fronde in Paris am eigenen Leib erleben musste, konnte sich der König nie für die französische Hauptstadt begeistern, er liebte dagegen das kleine Jagdschloss seines Vaters. Dort konnte er einen angemessen repräsentativen und weitläufigen neuen Palast erbauen, der zudem so im engen Paris undenkbar gewesen wäre. Der Entschluss, den Hof 1682 aus dem Palais du Louvre und dem Tuilerienpalast sowie dem bis 1682 zumeist bewohnten Schloss Saint-Germain-en-Laye hierher zu verlegen, sollte Frankreichs Geschichte für viele Jahre prägen. Hier vollendete Ludwig XIV. den Regierungsstil, den man später als Absolutismus bezeichnete. Der König wollte weitere Aufstände wie die Fronde verhindern, er schnitt die Aristokratie von ihrer alten Aufgabe der Provinzverwaltung ab und setzte Beamte dafür ein, die Mitglieder des Adels wurden dagegen an den Hof geholt. Eine mögliche Opposition aus der Ferne gegen ihn, wie sie zum Beispiel seinem Vater widerfuhr, wurde somit erschwert. Die Angehörigen des Adels wurden politisch entmachtet und im Gegenzug mit kostbaren Geschenken und prunkvollen Festen entschädigt. Der einst mächtige hohe Adel Frankreichs verließ bereitwillig seine Schlösser in den Provinzen, nur wenige konnten es sich leisten, dauerhaft eigene Hofgesellschaften zu unterhalten. Um auf der Höhe der Zeit zu sein und den neuesten Moden des Hofes folgen zu können, verschuldeten sich die Aristokraten oder erhielten willkürliche Renten vom König.

 

Eine Wohnung in Versailles zugewiesen zu bekommen, war ein bedeutendes Privileg, das zudem die Illusion vermittelte, im Zentrum der Macht an der Regierung beteiligt zu sein. Wer zu den Logeants, den im Schloss Wohnenden gehörte, stand im Rang über den Galopins, den Kutschierenden, die Abends zurück in ihre Stadtwohnungen nach Paris mussten. Innerhalb des Hoflebens übernahm das Hofzeremoniell eine bedeutende Rolle; im Prinzip unbedeutende Hofämter standen symbolisch für politischen Einfluss. Lediglich bei Hofe konnten Posten, Titel und Ämter errungen werden, und wer sich vom Sonnenkönig distanzierte, lief Gefahr, Vorrechte und Rang zu verlieren. Aus diesem Grund hielt sich die Aristokratie so gut wie ständig um ihren König auf und versuchte, ihm gefällig zu sein. Das sorgte dafür, dass zeitweise mehrere Tausend Menschen zugleich das Schloss bewohnten.

 

Für die französische Gesellschaft bedeutete der Wandel des Zweiten Standes vom Land- zum Hofadel auf Dauer eine schwere Belastung. Von ihren alten Pflichten und Aufgaben weitgehend entbunden, fristete der französische Adel bald ein dekadentes Dasein. Während der Dritte Stand die Steuerlast und die Arbeit zu tragen hatte, konnte – beziehungsweise musste – sich der Adel dem Müßiggang hingeben. Dieser Umstand sollte über hundert Jahre später einer der Auslöser der Französischen Revolution werden.

 

Leben im Schloss

 

Ludwig XIV. führte einen streng geregelten Tagesablauf, beginnend mit dem Lever (ca. 8 Uhr), einem feierlichen Staatsakt, dem Dutzende Familienangehörige und Mitglieder des Hofstaats beiwohnen mussten, ferner auswärtige Besucher und Gesandte sowie besonders auszuzeichnende Persönlichkeiten, die der König selbst täglich aussuchte. Es folgte die Arbeit im Kabinett (ca. 2 Stunden). Der ganze Tag war vom Hofzeremoniell durchgetaktet, dazu gehörten Jagden und Ausfahrten sowie Besuche und Theateraufführungen. Zu diesen Anlässen war er zu jeder Zeit von Würdenträgern umgeben. Zur späten Stunde wurde ein Hofball abgehalten. Gunstbeweise verteilte er durch Gewährung kleiner zeremonieller Aufgaben oder Vorrechte, er gestattete oder entzog Einzelnen die Teilnahme an bestimmten Zeremonien oder Festlichkeiten und wusste auf diese Weise den gesamten französischen Adel meisterhaft zu beherrschen und in Schach zu halten.

 

Nach dem Tode Ludwigs XIV. 1715 und der Regentschaft Philipp II. im Namen von Ludwig XV., der zu dieser Zeit noch ein Kind war, verließ der Hof den riesigen Palast und begab sich bis 1723 nach Paris, wo die Adligen sich aber vom Hof des Regenten im Palais Royal (oder auf seinem Schloss Saint-Cloud) teilweise fernhielten und stattdessen ihre eigenen Salons in ihren Hôtels particuliers im Marais oder im Faubourg Saint-Germain führten. Unter den Nachfolgern des Sonnenkönigs verlor Versailles seine umfassende zentralistische Bedeutung und die Gesellschaft traf sich nun zunehmend auch wieder in den Landschlössern des Adels oder den Pariser Hôtels. Dennoch residierten auch Ludwig XV. und Ludwig XVI. in Versailles, so dass das Schloss ab 1682 nur mit kurzen Unterbrechungen fast ständig von der Königsfamilie bewohnt war. Obwohl öfter Ausflüge in die vielen weiteren Schlösser rund um Paris unternommen wurden, blieb Versailles immer Regierungssitz und Mittelpunkt des höfischen Frankreichs.

 

Am Ende des Ancien Régime umfasste der Hofstaat rund 10.000 Personen, von denen bis zu 5.000 direkt im Schloss lebten. Die eigentlichen Höflinge machten davon rund 1.000 Personen aus, hinzu kamen Kammerfrauen, Köche, Leibwachen und andere Bedienstete. Der Palast war eine Stadt unter einem großen Dach, mit Wohnungen, Arbeitsräumen und Vergnügungsstätten. Auf den Gängen und Höfen ließen sich Händler nieder. Das Schloss war fast ständig überbelegt, und die Aristokratie, so sie nicht zur königlichen Familie gehörte, war zum Teil verarmt und hauste sogar in den engen Dachkammern der oberen Geschosse oder im benachbarten Grand Commun, da Ludwig XIV. seiner Ehre wegen jedem einen Schlafplatz bieten wollte. Victor Hugo bezeichnete das Schloss später als eine einzige Höflingskaserne. Der Palast war nicht allein dem Adel vorbehalten: Zugang hatte auch das gewöhnliche Volk, die Neugierigen wurden von den Bewohnern als Voyeux bezeichnet. Je höher der Rang des Besuchers war, desto weiter durfte er in das Innere des Schlosses gelangen. Der englische Reisende Arthur Young berichtete in seiner Schrift Reise durch Frankreich in den Jahren 1787, 1788, 1789 und 1792 über Versailles: „Es war höchst belustigend, wenn Strolche in den ärmlichsten Lumpen unbeobachtet durch den Palast […] spazierten.“ Der freie Zugang zum Schloss bedeutete jedoch nicht zugleich Kontakt mit den hier lebenden Personen. Wer als Bittsteller kam oder auf ein Amt hoffte, musste offiziell bei Hofe vorgestellt werden, wozu man neben einem verbrieften Titel üblicherweise die Fürsprache eines bereits etablierten Höflings benötigte. Als etabliert galt, wer über eines der zahlreichen käuflichen Hofämter verfügte, die, je nach Bedeutung des Amts, vom König oder dem Haushofmeister vergeben wurden.

 

Trotz der prunkvollen Ausstattung war Versailles ein unkomfortables Schloss. Die en filade gereihten, zugigen und hohen Räume ließen sich schlecht heizen, und Madame de Maintenon beklagte, „man erträgt lieber die Zugluft durch die Türen […], man muss in Symmetrie zugrunde gehen“. Im strengen Winter 1709 platzten sogar Likörflaschen durch die Kälte. Die große Spiegelgalerie besaß keine Kamine, und auch das zentrale Schlafzimmer Ludwigs XIV. war so kalt, dass Ludwig XV. ein privates Schlafzimmer im Nordtrakt des Corps de Logis einrichten ließ, das er nach der Zeremonie des Coucher zum Schlafen aufsuchte und morgens rechtzeitig zum Lever wieder verließ.

 

Es gab, wie damals in ganz Europa üblich, im Schloss weder fließendes Wasser noch fest installierte Toiletten. Man verrichtete die Notdurft in Leibstühle und Nachttöpfe, deren Inhalte von der Dienerschaft in bis zu 29 Sickergruben in der Umgebung des Schlosses ausgeleert wurden. Ludwig XVI. ließ sich Frankreichs erstes Wasserklosett mit Toilettenspülung einbauen. Das Schloss hatte wiederholt mit Ratten- und Mäuseplagen zu kämpfen und einmal jährlich begab sich der Hof nach Fontainebleau, damit der Versailler Palast in dieser Zeit von Grund auf gereinigt werden konnte. Der Körperpflege wurde im 17. Jahrhundert zwar noch kein übermäßiger Stellenwert zugeschrieben, doch bereits Ludwig XIV. ließ sich im Untergeschoss des Corps de Logis mehrere Zimmer umfassende Badegemächer einrichten. Im Laufe des 18. Jahrhunderts fanden sich auch zunehmend Baderäume in den Appartements der königlichen Familienmitglieder, während sich die übrigen Schlossbewohner weiterhin mit feuchten Tüchern und Waschschüsseln behelfen mussten.

 

Die Versorgung des Hofstaats mit Nahrungsmitteln und Getränken beschäftigte eine Anzahl von mehreren hundert Angestellten. Die Mitglieder der königlichen Familie und Höflinge von hohem Rang wurden als commensaux, als Tischgenossen des Königs betrachtet und aus seiner Küche versorgt.[80] Verschiedene Höflinge hatten die Verpflichtung, offene Tafeln zur Verkostung weiterer Schlossbewohner zu halten, andere Hofangestellte erhielten für ihre bouche eine finanzielle Entschädigung, mussten sich um die Versorgung allerdings selbst kümmern. Die Mahlzeiten stammten zum Teil aus den Wirtshäusern in der Umgebung des Schlosses, zum Teil aus selbst organisierten Küchen, von denen sich im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr in den Höfen und unter den Dächern des Schlosses einfanden.

 

Das Leben bei Hof bedeutete Verzicht auf Privatsphäre. Die Königsfamilie nahm selbst gewöhnliche Mahlzeiten vor Publikum ein und auch die Niederkünfte der Königinnen waren innerhalb der Hofgesellschaft traditionell öffentliche Ereignisse – so sehr, dass Marie-Antoinette während der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes in Lebensgefahr geriet, als sich zu viele Menschen in ihrem Schlafzimmer aufhielten. Schon unter den Vorgängern des Sonnenkönigs gab es strenge Riten zur Verherrlichung der französischen Herrscher, doch um das Schloss Versailles und Ludwig XIV. wurde eine beispiellose Abfolge von Zeremonien entwickelt. Die Etikette regelte und beschrieb jeden Vorgang, von großen Festlichkeiten und Empfängen bis hin zu so alltäglichen Dingen wie dem Mittagsmahl. Auch für den Fall von Krankheit und Tod gab es vorgeschriebene Regeln, und als Ludwig XV. 1774 im Trianon an den Pocken erkrankte, wurde er eilig ins Versailler Schloss gebracht, um dort unter den Augen des Hofs zu sterben. Die Bedeutung dieses Systems kann heute nicht mehr annähernd nachvollzogen werden. Dem König widerfuhr eine nahezu göttliche Verehrung und entrückte diesen, durchaus beabsichtigt, vom Volk und unterstrich seine übergeordnete Stellung. Dem König zu dienen bedeutete, Frankreich zu dienen. Ihm beim Aufstehen, beim Lever behilflich zu sein, ihm einfach nur das Wasser oder das Hemd zu reichen, galt als allergrößte Ehre, die über Aufstieg und Fall bei Hofe entscheiden konnte. Ob man in der Gegenwart des Königs stehen, sitzen oder sprechen durfte und selbst durch welche Tür man sein Schlafzimmer betrat, war ein für alle Anwesenden sichtbares Zeichen des eigenen Rangs. Ludwig XIV. schrieb in seinen Memoiren „Im übrigen ist es eine der hervorragendsten Wirkungen unserer Macht, einer Sache, die an sich keinen Wert hat, einen unbezahlbaren Preis zuzuordnen.“

 

Die Etikette galt nicht nur im Umgang mit dem König, sondern auch für jeden Herzog, jeden Prinzen, jeden Höfling. Das Protokoll regelte den Umgang miteinander und wies jedem Mitglied des Hofs einen für alle sichtbaren Platz innerhalb dieser Gesellschaft zu. Das uralte System der höfischen Etikette wurde auch unter den Nachfolgern des Sonnenkönigs kaum verändert. Ein Beispiel für das streng geregelte Hofzeremoniell ist folgende Anekdote, die durch Madame Campan, die Kammerfrau der Königin überliefert wurde und die Marie-Antoinettes Alltag im Schloss beschrieb:

 

„Das Lever der Königin vollzog sich analog dem Lever des Königs. Die Hofdame vom Dienst hatte das Recht, der Königin beim Ankleiden das Hemd zu reichen. Die Palastdame zog ihr den Unterrock und das Kleid an. Kam aber zufällig eine Prinzessin der königlichen Familie dazu, so stand dieser das Recht zu, der Königin das Hemd überzuwerfen. Einmal also war die Königin gerade von ihren Damen ganz ausgekleidet worden. Ihre Kammerfrau hielt das Hemd und hatte es soeben der Hofdame präsentiert, als die Herzogin von Orléans eintrat. Die Hofdame gab das Hemd der Kammerfrau zurück, die es gerade der Herzogin übergeben wollte, als die ranghöhere Gräfin von Provence dazukam. Nun wanderte das Hemd wieder zu der Kammerfrau zurück, und erst aus den Händen der Gräfin von Provence empfing es endlich die Königin. Sie hatte die ganze Zeit nackt, wie Gott sie geschaffen hat, dabeistehen und zusehen müssen, wie die Damen sich mit ihrem Hemd überkomplimentierten.“

 

– Madame Campan

 

Die französische Revolution

 

Am 5. Mai 1789 traten im Grande Salle des Menus Plaisirs die Generalstände zusammen. Damit begann die konstitutionelle Phase der Französischen Revolution. Der König, dem nach der Verfassung die Einberufung und Entlassung der Generalstände zustand, ließ den Sitzungssaal aus politischen Gründen schließen. Die Abgeordneten des Dritten Standes, die sich mittlerweile zur Nationalversammlung erklärt hatten, zogen sich darauf in das außerhalb des Schlossgeländes liegende Ballhaus zurück. Dort leisteten sie am 20. Juni den Ballhausschwur „… sich niemals zu trennen, bis der Staat eine Verfassung hat …“.

 

Ludwig XVI. und Marie-Antoinette bewohnten das Schloss samt ihrer Familie und dem Hofstaat bis zum 5. Oktober 1789. An diesem Tag stürmten die Poissarden das Schloss und zwangen den König und seine Familie tags darauf, Versailles für immer zu verlassen und nach Paris in den Tuilerien-Palast zu ziehen. Das Schloss wurde von den Revolutionären in den folgenden Jahren zum Teil geplündert und stand weitgehend leer.

 

Das 19. Jahrhundert

 

Nach der Revolution

 

Nach der Revolution konnte das Schloss nur notdürftig erhalten werden. Napoléon erwog, den Palast wieder als Residenz herzurichten, doch wurden die Pläne nie umgesetzt und der Kaiser der Franzosen begnügte sich damit, das Grand Trianon für Wohnzwecke umzugestalten. Seit der Regierung Louis-Philippes I. dagegen wurden die Räume des Schlosses wiederhergestellt, sowie ein historisches Nationalmuseum eingerichtet und mit Büsten, Porträts, Schlachtenbildern und anderen Kunstwerken von vorwiegend historischem Wert ausgeschmückt (darunter Meisterwerke von Horace Vernet, Eugène Delacroix, Ary Scheffer, Adolphe Yvon, James Pradier). In dieser Epoche wurden große Veränderungen im Nord- und Südflügel vorgenommen, Museumsräume in den ehemaligen Appartements eingerichtet und der große Schlachtensaal und die sogenannten Kreuzfahrer- und die Afrikasäle installiert. In diesen historistischen Museumsräumen wurden die französische und die europäische Geschichte thematisiert.

 

Der Gartenarchitekt Gabriel Thouin präsentierte 1820 in seinem Werk Plans raisonnés de toutes les espèces de jardins einen Vorschlag zur teilweisen Umgestaltung und Einbettung des (im Kernbereich geometrisch belassenen) Schlossparks in einen noch größeren Landschaftsgarten, der jedoch nicht umgesetzt wurde. Der deutsche Gartenarchitekt Peter Joseph Lenné wurde bei seinen Entwürfen durch den Plan Thouins beeinflusst.

 

Zweite Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts

 

Eine besondere Bedeutung gewann das Schloss für die deutsch-französische Geschichte. Vom 5. Oktober 1870 bis 13. März 1871 war es im Deutsch-Französischen Krieg Sitz des großen Hauptquartiers der deutschen Armeen. Im Spiegelsaal des Schlosses fand am 18. Januar 1871 mit der Ausrufung König Wilhelms I. von Preußen zum deutschen Kaiser Wilhelm I. die Gründung des Deutschen Reiches statt. Dieser Ort war im Sinn einer historischen Gerechtigkeit ausgewählt worden, da viele Deckengemälde die Feldzüge und Eroberungen Ludwigs XIV. in Deutschland verherrlichten. Die besiegten Franzosen hingegen sahen in dem Akt jedoch nur eine Demütigung ihres Königtums.

 

Die Friedenspräliminarien wurden am 26. Februar 1871 in Versailles unterzeichnet. Am 10. März 1871 verlegte die Nationalversammlung den Regierungssitz von Bordeaux nach Versailles; erst 1879 wurde er wieder nach Paris verlegt. Seit der Dritten Republik trat der Kongress des Parlaments in Versailles zusammen. Für diesen Zweck wurde ein Kongresssaal in den mittleren Lichthof des Südflügels eingebaut. Von 1879 bis 1953 wurden hier die Präsidenten der Republik gemeinsam von Abgeordneten und Senatoren gewählt. Auch heute tritt der Kongress bei Verfassungsänderungen zur Unterstreichung deren Bedeutsamkeit hier zusammen, das Schloss selbst dient oft als Ort von Staatsempfängen.

 

Das 20. Jahrhundert und die Gegenwart

 

Vom Versailler Vertrag zur Nachkriegszeit

 

Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg wurde der Friedensvertrag, den das unterlegene deutsche Reich 1919 unterschreiben musste, im Versailler Schloss verhandelt. Die Franzosen wählten den Ort als Revanche für die Kaiserproklamation von 1871. Im Grand Trianon wurde der Vertrag von Trianon ausgehandelt. Die Bedingungen des Versailler Vertrages, die Deutschland eine Alleinschuld am Krieg anlasteten, werden als eine der Ursachen für den politischen Aufstieg der Nationalsozialisten betrachtet. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurden Versailles und sein Schloss eine Stätte der deutsch-französischen Aussöhnung. Davon zeugten auch die Feierlichkeiten anlässlich der 40. Wiederkehr der Unterzeichnung des Élysée-Vertrages vom 22. Januar 1963 (2003) in der Schlachtengalerie.

 

Am 26. Juni 1978 verübten bretonische Separatisten einen Sprengstoffanschlag auf das Schloss, das ihrer Meinung nach als Symbol für den französischen Zentralismus stand. Nach 2:00 Uhr nachts explodierte ein Sprengsatz, der die Einrichtung in drei Sälen vollständig zerstörte und in sieben anderen schwere Verwüstungen anrichtete. Der entstandene Sachschaden wurde auf fünf Millionen Francs geschätzt. 1979 erfolgte die Aufnahme in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes. 1982 diente das Schloss als Kulisse für den Weltwirtschaftsgipfel der G7.

 

Das Schloss heute

 

Das Schloss mit seinen Gartenanlagen, Museen und Parkschlössern ist für Besucher geöffnet und zugleich das meistbesuchte Schloss Frankreichs, es zählt damit zu den größten Touristenmagneten des Landes. Rund um den Palast, seine Pflege und Verwaltung sind um die 900 Personen beschäftigt. Versailles samt seiner Museen wird von einer staatlichen Betreibergesellschaft geführt. Von 2002 bis 2007 war die spätere französische Kulturministerin Christine Albanel Geschäftsführerin des Établissement public de Versailles, ihre Amtszeit stand in der Kritik, da Albanel keine kunstwissenschaftliche Erfahrung besaß und ihr zeitweise ein Ausverkauf des französischen Nationaldenkmals vorgeworfen wurde. Gegenwärtiger Geschäftsführer ist Jean-Jacques Aillagon.

 

Für die Besichtigung der verschiedenen Museen, der Sonderausstellungen und der Gartenanlagen wird ein Eintrittsgeld verlangt, EU-Bürger unter 26 Jahren und Behinderte sind davon ausgenommen. Aufgrund der weltweiten Bekanntheit von Versailles gehören Schloss und Gärten für viele Frankreich- und Paris-Touristen zum Pflichtprogramm, im Jahr 2022 wurden fast 7 Millionen Besucher gezählt. Gäste müssen unter Umständen mit langen Warteschlangen an den Kassen, besonders im Sommer und an den Wochenenden, rechnen.

 

In der Schlossanlage und den Gärten fanden und finden zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts umfangreiche Restaurierungsarbeiten statt, die bis heute (2022) andauern. Für das Projekt stellte die Regierung unter Jacques Chirac 2003 rund 390 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung. In einem ersten Abschnitt wurden u. a. die Deckengemälde im Spiegelsaal restauriert, die im Juni 2007 fertiggestellt und der Öffentlichkeit übergeben wurden. Andere fundamentale Etappen der Restaurierungskampagne waren das Bassin de Latone und einige Boskette im Park sowie Dachstuhl, Fenster und das Äußere der Schlosskapelle (Chapelle Royale). Letztere wurde im April 2021 fertiggestellt.

 

Während der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2024 in Paris wurden auf den Außenanlagen des Schlosses die Reitsportwettbewerbe sowie die Entscheidungen im Modernen Fünfkampf ausgetragen.

 

(Wikipedia)

managed to snap this a split-second after i tossed the ball in the air.

Managed a couple of trips to lighthouse point today... here's two for tonight...

I managed to get myself out of the house for a few minutes yesterday in an effort to get some photos of the magnolia blossoms. It was a bit on the windy side and I didn't have my tripod with me but it was good to be out. If I can just kick this bronchitis in the hiny, I will be all set. :-)

 

www.landeanphotos.com

 

DJ’s provide entertainment during the UN Climate Action Race to Zero | Resilience Forum Event at the Plaza Hotel hosted by Bloomberg Philanthropies

 

IMF Photo/Kim Haughton

21 September 2022

New York, New York, United States

Photo ref: KH220921098.jpg

I managed to get out for a shortish drive SW of Calgary four days ago, on 13 May 2025, and I am posting the last five images from that day. As I always seem to say, the weather forecast for that day was wrong again. Supposed to be more sun in the afternoon, but what really happened? Dark, storm clouds and (much-needed) rain.

 

Most of the roads were familiar, apart from a couple of ones that I don't think I have explored before. Several sloughs, two Canada Goose families with their tiny goslings, a couple of beautiful hawks, a handsome Red-winged Blackbird with a bold red wing patch, just one Mountain Bluebird that was flying, and a few other odds and ends.

Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva meets with Governor of the Bank of France François Villeroy de Galhau at the Banque de France.

 

IMF Photo/Cyril Marcilhacy

18 May 2021

Paris, France

Photo ref: CM_18052021-T17B4704.jpg

Just managed to keep my feet dry !

 

A seriously "bracing" brisk walk on the beach (Sunday 26-02-06) during a high tide and pretty rough sea at Walcott on the North Norfolk Coast.

 

Luckily the sun popped out before it set to give a nice glow on the tops of the breaking waves.

 

Slightly cropped and rotated :-)

 

I'm curious to know if anyone thinks I could/should have cropped more sky out of this? edit - I'll leave it thanks to you all for your comments :-)

A wee shots of the hills overlooking Ardentinny, covered in low cloud.

Managed to connect up with one of my favourite little bushshrikes, the brubru (Nilaus afer) last weekend on the Buffalo Trail. Its genus is monotypic, meaning that the brubru is the only member of the genus. It is a very poorly studied bird, with not one research paper on it found in Google Scholar or ResearchGate! Seems like prime material for a masters project.

Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva participates in a panel for International Women's Day at the International Monetary Fund on March 3, 2020. IMF Photo/Cory Hancock

The Great North Museum: Hancock is a museum of natural history and ancient civilisations in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

 

The museum was established in 1884 and was formerly known as the Hancock Museum. In 2006 it merged with Newcastle University's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum to form the Great North Museum. The museum reopened as the Great North Museum: Hancock in May 2009 following a major extension and refurbishment of the original Victorian building. The museum and most of its collections are owned by the Natural History Society of Northumbria, and it is managed by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums on behalf of Newcastle University.

 

The museum is located on the campus of Newcastle University, next to the Great North Road, and close to Barras Bridge. The nearest Tyne & Wear Metro station is Haymarket, and there is also a bus station at Haymarket.

 

One of the Second World War air raid shelter openings into the Victoria Tunnel is beneath the grounds of the museum.

 

The collection of the Hancock Museum can be traced to about 1780 when Marmaduke Tunstall started accumulating ethnographic and natural history material from around the world. He then brought his collection from London to North Yorkshire. In 1790 Tunstall died, and George Allan of Darlington purchased Tunstall's collection; and later in 1823 it was acquired by the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne. A wombat, which is still on display, is considered to be the earliest object in the collection. It was the first complete wombat specimen to reach Europe. In 1829 the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne (now the Natural History Society of Northumbria) was formed as a scientific offshoot of the Literary and Philosophical Society. Amongst the founding and early members of the Natural History Society were Joshua Alder, Albany Hancock, John Hancock, Prideaux John Selby and William Chapman Hewitson.

 

The museum opened on its current site in 1884 after the collection of the Natural History Society outgrew its small museum, located on Westgate Road, which opened in 1834. A major benefactor to the museum was William Armstrong who gave the then large sum of £11,500. Armstrong had also founded the College of Physical Science which later became part of Newcastle University. The museum was renamed in the 1890s, after the local Victorian naturalists, Albany and John Hancock. In 1959 the Natural History Society agreed with the University of Newcastle for the university to care for the building and collections, and since 1992 the university has contracted with Tyne & Wear Museums to manage the museum under a Service Level Agreement.

 

The Hancock Museum was closed on 23 April 2006 for refurbishment and did not reopen until 23 May 2009. It was completely refurbished and extended as part of the Great North Museum Project, at a cost of £26 million. Great North Museum project is a partnership between Newcastle University, Tyne & Wear Museums, Newcastle City Council, the Natural History Society of Northumbria and the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. The project was made possible with funds from the Heritage Lottery Fund, TyneWear Partnership, One NorthEast, the European Regional Development Fund, Newcastle University, Newcastle City Council, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, the Wolfson Foundation and The Northern Rock Foundation, as well as numerous other trusts and foundations. The building architects were Terry Farrell and Partners; Sir Terry Farrell is a native of Newcastle, and had previously been a student at Newcastle University.

 

The new museum includes new displays on natural history and geology, Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece, Romans and Hadrian's Wall, World Cultures and Pre-history. It also includes an interactive study zone, an under 5's space, and a digital Planetarium, as well as new learning facilities, a new temporary exhibition space, and a study garden. The new museum houses not only the Hancock Museum collections, but also those of the university's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum. The building that formerly housed the Museum of Antiquities was later demolished. The Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum Project, but is not relocating to the Hancock, and is remaining in Newcastle University's Fine Art Building.

 

In September 2008, the Great North Museum searched for a lookalike of the Emperor Hadrian, for a photo shoot, whose likeness would feature in a permanent display at the Hancock Museum. On 21 November 2008 the 'Be Part of It' campaign was launched, and it was announced that the Great North Museum: Hancock would be opening in May 2009. Athlete Jonathan Edwards is the patron of the 'Be Part of It' campaign. Other celebrity supporters of the museum include Sir Thomas Allen and Adam Hart-Davis. Donors to the campaign have the opportunity to have their name (or the name of a loved one) permanently included on a donor wall in the museum.

 

The Great North Museum formally re-opened on 23 May 2009. In August the museum announced that they had surpassed their expected annual target of 300,000 visitors. By August over 400,000 people had visited the reopened museum. On 6 November 2009 HM The Queen officially opened the Great North Museum. In 2009, the Great North Museum had over 600,000 visitors.

 

By August 2010, the reopened Great North Museum had welcomed its one millionth visitor.

 

Among the museum's permanent residents are a life-size cast of an African elephant; the Egyptian mummy Bakt-en-Hor (previously known as Bakt-hor-Nekht); a full size replica of a T-Rex skeleton; and Sparkie, Newcastle's famous talking budgie, who was stuffed after his death in 1962 and is now the subject of a new opera by Michael Nyman.

 

The full size cast of an African Elephant was built in the Living Planet gallery. The model was crafted by Zephyr Wildlife, who took a cast from an actual stuffed elephant at a museum in Bonn in Germany. To get the elephant into the museum a crane, from Bel Lift Trucks, had to be used. The full size model of a T-Rex dinosaur has been shipped from Canada, where it was built by a company called Research Casting International. It forms part of the display known as the Fossil Stories gallery. The T-Rex model was one of the first items to be placed in the new museum, due to its size. In 1908, the Manchester taxidermist Harry Ferris Brazenor mounted a "fine bison bull" for the museum.

 

Other exhibitions include 'Hadrian's Wall' looking at Roman life in the north of England, 'Natural Northumbria' focusing on the wildlife found in the northeast, 'Ancient Egypt' looking at the Ancient Egyptians and featuring the museum's two mummies, 'Ice Age to Iron Age' detailing the history of the British Isles over the past 12,000 years, 'World Cultures' featuring artifacts and displays from cultures across the globe, 'The Shefton Collection' with one of the most detailed collections of Greek artifacts in the UK and 'Explore' which is a more hands-on area of the museum and features regular interactive sessions.

 

There were live animals on display but these have now been withdrawn, as well as a conference area for corporate events and a fully provisioned learning suite for school visits.

 

The museum was entered into the 'long list' for the 2010 Art Fund Prize for museums and galleries.

 

The interactive Bio-Wall features hundreds of creatures, that visitors will be able to investigate and find out where they live and how they survive in such extreme places as the Arctic and Desert. There is also a great white shark display, polar bear and giraffe specimens from the historic Hancock collections and a moa skeleton. Also between May and October 2019 the museum hosted Dippy the dinosaur as part of its UK tour.

 

Within the museum's archives are the nineteenth century botanical paintings by Margaret Rebecca Dickinson of plants from the Newcastle and Scottish Borders region.

  

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton

Managed another month of daily fun with those wacky Hereios! No Explores, but I had a lot of fun!

 

Also kept up with two separate weekly groups, Fence Friday, Bench Monday, and a few Bokeh Wednesdays.

 

Experimented with my new 50mm, only to wind up quite frustrated with a crunchy, and occasionally jammed, focus ring. Took it in for repair or replacement yesterday, and have to wait six to eight weeks!!

 

I took an online lighting course this month. It was okay, but just okay. Also did some gardening and managed to avoid working too much. So it was a good month!! :)

  

1. No Dignity, 2. T is for trust, 3. Eyestalks on Ice Cream, 4. Big Purse: I never trusted her for a minute, she said. Her purse was way too big., 5. Rosie Peculiah was unaware that there was a "best by" age on pigtails, 6. Just cut it into three pieces., 7. Fred sleeps despite kitty attack and falling photo equipment, 8. Lights on Grouse Mountain, 9. The Party's Over, 10. Zelda strides past the giant 100, unaware that it accurately predicted the number of consecutive rainy days Vancouver was about to experience., 11. "I've just noticed - your eyes match the spinach in your teeth." -- Barry Cryer, from British show I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue, 12. Porla believed that a hat was simply not a hat unless it was adorned by three mackerel, 13. Agnes could not contain her glee at accidentally having hit "stop recording" during her husband's hockey game., 14. It's Later Than You Think, 15. Oatmeal, raisins, apple, coffee, 16. Sudeepta wondered whether one day she would regret having added a little more than masala to her husband's stew., 17. Ballena prefers primary colors while near the waterfront, to ensure that nearsighted harpoonists don't mistake her for a whale., 18. Happy International Jugglers Day (Don't Give Up Your Day Job), 19. A Clockwork Ant, 20. Adventures of Flower Girl, 21. Happitty Birthday, George!, 22. Looking back, 23. Happy Birthday Shakespeare!, 24. Wall of Vegetation, 25. Still Life With Cowgirl, 26. Zelda prepared for her first Happy Fish Bicycle Club Bloody Mary by stripping to her skivvies, so as not to ruin her clothes with profuse sweating., 27. I got the moves like Jagger, 28. Two Ukuleles, No Waiting (Happy Birthday to Xavier and his lovely wife partner, and belated congratulations to Maudie and Julie!), 29. Starting the day with a smile, 30. Silence

I finally managed to get hold of this Matchbox bus and wasn't sure I would like it. Matchbox have a long history of producing decent toy double decker buses so its obviously a disappointment that not only is this generic but that its also made mainly of plastic! The good news is that it is actually a decent representation of a modern looking U.K. double decker bus and the detailing isn't too bad. Time will tell if this will ever be available in the same amount of different liveries as say the Londoner or Titan models but at least there is now a modern looking "toy" bus for collectors and kids to buy which are relevant to what can be seen on our streets. Mint and boxed.

Backwards in, and slow turn over the bow.

yea, I ams still Rolypoly pilot!

 

Visit this location at Hook of Holland in Second Life

Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva and the IMF delegation during breaks between meetings and bilaterals.

 

IMF Photo/Kim Haughton

21 September 2022

New York, New York, United States

Photo ref: KH220921069.jpg

Tiesto during the TIESTO-Kaleidoscope World Tour performance held at InterContinental Hotels Doha Beach Area in Doha, Qatar, 01 October 2010.

 

DJ TIESTO live performance at the stage of InterContinental Hotels Doha, Beach Area on October 01, 2010 Doha, Qatar.

Music fans of local and foreign nationalities welcomes back in an up-close-and-personal experience the ever smiling world famous DJ as he performs his best selling music in unison with his own extravagant and jaw-dropping giant LED screen, animated light works and powerful sound system.

TIESTO "Kaleidoscope World Tour" was a success full house brought-in Doha, organized and managed by Jared Mcculloch of Global DJs.

Hotel InterContinental Doha Beach Area is the premier concert venue in Doha.

(Photo and Text by ROMMEL T. BANGIT

 

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Below text source from WIKIPEDIA:

TIESTO also known as DJ Tiësto, Allure, Da Joker, Drumfire, Handover Circuit, Paradise In Dubs, Passenger, Roze, Steve Forte Rio, Stray Dog, Tom Ace, Wild Bunch

Tiësto OON (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈcɛstoː]; born Tijs Michiel Verwest [ˈtɛi̯s miˈxil vərˈʋɛst] on January 17, 1969) is a Dutch musician, DJ and record producer of electronic dance music. Although he has used many aliases in the past, he is best known for his work as DJ Tiësto. On his latest productions, however, he has dropped the "DJ" label and is now known simply as "Tiësto", an alias which is a twist of his childhood nickname.

 

In 1997, he founded the label Black Hole Recordings with Arny Bink, where he released the Magik and In Search of Sunrise CD series. In 1999 and 2000 he collaborated with Ferry Corsten to create Gouryella. His 2000 remix of Delerium's "Silence" featuring Sarah McLachlan exposed him to more mainstream audiences. In 2001 he released his first solo album In My Memory which gave him several major hits that launched his career. He was named "World’s No.1 DJ" 3 consecutive times by DJ Magazine from 2002 through 2004.

Just after releasing his second studio album Just Be in 2004 at the Summer Olympics, he performed live at the opening ceremony in Athens, Greece, becoming the first DJ to play live on stage at an Olympics. Tracks he made especially for the Olympics were mixed together and released as the mix compilation Parade of the Athletes later that year. In April 2007 Tiësto launched both his radio show Tiësto's Club Life on Radio 538 in the Netherlands and released his third studio album titled Elements of Life. The album reached number one on the Dutch album chart as well on "Billboard Top Electronic Albums" in the U.S. and received a nomination for a Grammy Award in 2008. Tiësto released his fourth studio album called Kaleidoscope in October 2009.

Early Life and Career

Tijs Michiel Verwest was born in Breda, North Brabant, Netherlands on January 17, 1969. He had an interest in music since the age of twelve. When he was fourteen he decided to dedicate more time to it and began DJing professionally at school parties. He then moved on to become a resident DJ between 1985 and 1994 at several clubs in the Netherlands after his manager and friend Wilfred encouraged him. However, it was at The Spock, a small club in Breda, where he was able to fine-tune his own style by playing in a separate room from 10 p.m. until 4 a.m. on weekends. In the beginning of his career, as a DJ he played mostly New Beat and acid house.

In 1994, he began releasing material on Noculan Records' sub-labels Chemo and Coolman. During these years, he produced hardcore/gabber tracks under aliases such as Da Joker and DJ Limited. He was later discovered by the general manager of Rotterdam-based Basic Beat Recordings. In late 1994, he signed to Basic Beat where he met Arny Bink, Tiësto released records on the sub-label Trashcan, founded by Arny, and later created the Guardian Angel sub-label with Arny in which they introduced the popular Forbidden Paradise series. Meanwhile from 1995 to 1996 he released four extended plays on Bonzai Jumps and XTC, sub-labels of Lightning Records. In 1997, Tiësto joined his friend Yves Vandichel on his sub-label, DJ Yves, a division of the now defunct Human Resource label XSV Music. In the fall of 1997, both Arny and Tiësto decided to leave Basic Beat and create their own parent label, now known as Black Hole Recordings, Trashcan was discontinued and Guardian Angel continued releasing music until 2002. Through Black Hole, Tiësto released the Magik series and also created two major sub-labels in 1998; In Trance We Trust and SongBird.

 

From 1998 to 1999, Tiësto released music on Planetary Consciousness were he met A&R Hardy Heller and invited him to release some records on Black Hole. Tiësto later included the In Search of Sunrise series on SongBird. In 1999, Tiësto joined forces with fellow Dutch deejay Ferry Corsten to create the trance based duo of Gouryella. He also collaborated with Benno de Goeij from 1998 to 2000 under the name Kamaya Painters. Since November 1999 he performed monthly as a resident at Gatecrasher in Sheffield, one of the most popular clubs in England. In 1999 he also played in a 12-hour set, being his longest lasting concert in Amsterdam.

Late in 2000, Tiësto decided to concentrate on his personal work and left Corsten by himself to write and produce Gouryella's next single with John Ewbank, the record company was demanding more tracks and neither Tiësto or Ferry could work together at the time. Tiësto introduced Armin van Buuren, Johan Gielen and Ferry Corsten to the mainstream with his first compilations and the In Trance We Trust series. Summerbreeze became Tiësto's debut DJ mix album in the US with the help of a contract signed to Nettwerk. Summerbreeze featured his remix of Delerium's "Silence", it spent four weeks in the UK's Top Ten chart, it reached number three in the Billboard dance chart. In Search of Sunrise 2 was released in 2000. Tiësto decided to create a sub-label, known as Magik Muzik. The label began releasing Tiësto’s own releases, but it has also released tracks for the Filterheadz, Oliver Lieb, Mark Norman, Mojado, Phynn and Jes Brieden. The label became a trademark which stands for high quality electronic dance music which was due to the release of Tiësto's classic dance anthem "Flight 643" in 2001.

In My Memory era (2001–2004)

Tiësto's fame started to rise in the early 2000s after his set at the first ID&T Innercity party (Live at Innercity: Amsterdam RAI), and the release of In My Memory, his first solo album released in 2001 which contained 10 singles and 5 major hits; The singles from the album were: "Lethal Industry" which was actually produced in 1999 and had only 3 copies released at that time, the track was officially released in 2001 which was remixed by Richard Durand in 2006 along with "Flight 643" which was another leading single that was later adapted with vocals by Suzanne Palmer and released as "643 (Love's on Fire)". Other tracks were "Obsession" in which Tiësto worked alongside Junkie XL, the instrumental tracks "Dallas 4PM" and "Suburban Train" with "Urban Train" as its B-Side which contained some vocals. The last singles to be released were "In My Memory" which is the title track for the album as it only received high ratings in the United States and the opening track "Magik Journey" which opened Tiësto in Concert (2003). On February 2, 2002 Tiësto played nine consecutive hours during the second edition of the Dutch Dimension festival. On February 27 he was awarded a Zilveren ('Silver') Harp music award. The same year he also received a Lucky Strike Dance Award in the category Best DJ Trance/Progressive. In August he became part of Moby's Area2 Tour. For eighteen days he travelled through the United States with artists such as Moby himself, but also David Bowie and Busta Rhymes. In January 2003 Tiësto received the annual Dutch Popprijs ('Pop Award') during the Noorderslag festival. After touring with Moby, Tiësto remixed two songs from him, "We Are All Made of Stars" and "Extreme Ways" in the same year, having "We Are All Made of Stars" reach #13 in the Hot Dance Club Play. In 2002 he released his first In Search of Sunrise mix to feature a place on its name, In Search of Sunrise 3: Panama. On March 28, 2003; Tiësto, Dieselboy, Bad Boy Bill, and Noel Sanger joined the PlayStation2 Dual Play tour. Tiësto and Noel's appearance began on April 13 and ended on June 6.

His fame continued to skyrocket in the early 2000s, following his six-hour "Tiësto Solo" sets which he performed without other DJs or opening acts. This idea, of one DJ playing alone to a large crowd, was brought to its pinnacle when Tiësto was the first DJ to hold a solo concert in a stadium; on May 10, 2003, he performed for over 25,000 people in Arnhem's GelreDome. This concert was later called Tiësto in Concert, the event was an enormous success. He repeated the same type of concert the following year during two consecutive nights in late October. In addition to holding these two concerts for 35,000 of his fans, he held another concert for a crowd of 20,000 in Hasselt, Belgium the following week. DVDs of both his May 10, 2003 and October 30, 2004 concerts have been released, having the other DVD titled Tiësto in Concert 2. The DVD's show the journey from the first idea to the main event, it features live performances by Andain, Dinand Woesthoff, and Jan Johnston. The event includes live music and dancers performing at different times throughout the set. The theme of the event is a mystical, musical journey around the world based on the theme of Magik. It consists of 200+ minutes of performances with a second disc with special features, It includes a behind-the-scenes looking at The Making Of the event, the music video for his song "Traffic" and TV Commercials for the event. The second DVD has performances from Aqualung and violin player DJ Mason, Micha Klein and the Bulgarian Children of Orpheus choir. During this period, he was crowned as "No. 1. DJ in the World" by DJ Magazine (UK) in 2002, 2003, and 2004.

Just Be era (2004–2007)

In 2004, he released his second artist album Just Be, which featured his first single "Traffic" which is the first non-vocal track to reach number one spot in the Dutch national charts for 23 years. The track "Sweet Misery" was originally written for Evanescence but it did not meet the deadline for the release of their album. In support to his Just Be album, he played at Breda, Eindhoven, Utrecht, and Amsterdam; these stops were later named Just Be: Train Tour. On May 20, 2004 he was appointed Officer of the Order of Orange-Nassau by Her Majesty Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands.

The Athens Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (ATHOC) asked Tiësto to perform at the Olympic Games, making him the first DJ to play live on stage at an Olympic Games at the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in Athens, where he played for 90 minutes. Tiësto flew to Athens in January 2004 to have a meeting with the ATHOC. His Tiësto in Concert DVD caught their attention, after which he was asked to write more tracks based on his opening tune "Adagio for Strings" which could fit in with the Olympic spirit and combine the classical with the modern age; They also requested that he play his own produced music. The first rehearsal was on Saturday August, 7, for an empty stadium; the second rehearsal was on Sunday August 8 with 35,000 volunteers, a lot of the people recognised some tracks like "Traffic" and "Adagio for Strings". The last rehearsal included almost 60,000 people in the stadium which was on Tuesday August 10, there were some technical problems, the mixer broke down, the monitors dropped out a couple of times and the music in the stadium was not continuously on the right volume.

During the parade on Friday, August 13, 2004, all participating nations introduced their athletes—10,500 in total There were 80,000 spectators, only 75,000 knowing about dance music. During the course of his performance the Dutch athletes started dancing in front of the DJ booth and had to be moved on by officials. The performance included new tracks produced especially for the Opening Ceremony and songs that were created to complement the spirit and theme of the ceremony. A condensed studio-recorded album of the songs played on the Olympic set was later released, including new songs specially composed for the occasion, entitled Parade of the Athletes in October 2004. In the liner notes, he noted the IOC requested that the music not contain any lyrics as they could be inadvertently misinterpreted.

In late 2004, he began his touring across Latin America, with his release of In Search of Sunrise 3: Panama in which he gained influence from the sun and sand in summer 2002. The tour continued in 2005, and Tiësto performed live at Brazil, Argentina, Panama, Peru, Costa Rica, Uruguay, Paraguay, Ecuador and Colombia. Following the tours, In Search of Sunrise 4: Latin America was released in 2005, featuring a second CD for the first time in the In Search of Sunrise series.

In 2005, his Perfect Remixes Vol. 3 compilation was released through Warlock Records, containing ten tracks which were created during the beginning of his career, between those is Junkie XL, Mauro Picotto and The Roc Project. On August 20, 2005, Verwest took Tiësto in Concert to the US when he played to 16,000 at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena with Cirque du Soleil dancers. For the second year in a row he performed live at a New Year's Eve/New Year's concert in Las Vegas, Nevada at the Orleans Arena to a sell-out crowd. Despite his four-city US tour being postponed due to the hurricane damage in New Orleans and Miami, playing such cities further expanded and cemented his popularity among mainstream audiences. This was surpassed later in summer 2007 when some 250,000 danced on Ipanema Beach, Brazil, becoming the second largest concert in history. BPM magazine has an annual poll in the US which is unveiled in the WMC, in 2005 Tiësto took the No. 1 spot. The influences of Los Angeles remained with him and would later influence his In Search of Sunrise compilation.

A wax sculpture of Tiësto was placed behind a turntable at Madame Tussauds in Amsterdam where visitors can mix Tiësto's music together. In the fall of 2005 he went on a very successful tour across Central and Eastern Europe where he played once in each country to crowds of 10,000 to 15,000 fans. Stops were made in Ukraine, Slovakia, Serbia, Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Turkey, Croatia, Poland and South Africa. The United States tour that was part of Tiësto in Concert was dwarfed by his appearance at Sensation White in 2006 where he performed to over 45,000 people in the world's biggest dance event in Amsterdam, Holland.

In Search of Sunrise 5: Los Angeles was released in 2006 which was certified Gold in Canada for sales over 50,000 copies. It also charted, peaking #34 in Canada and #59 in Austria. The compilation was launched in the Winter Music Conference at Mansion in South Beach Miami to support his release, Tiësto went on his In Search of Sunrise 5 Asia Tour for more than 3 weeks.

In September 2006, Tiësto was admitted to hospital after experiencing pain in his chest. He was diagnosed with pericarditis and subsequently had to cancel a number of shows. With the diagnosis, he was invited to support Dance4Life to help teens who are not aware of the risks of HIV/AIDS. He was chosen as the official ambassador for the Dance4Life foundation in May 2006, and released the song "Dance4Life" with Maxi Jazz to help spread the awareness of HIV/AIDS.

On April 6, 2007 Tiësto began presenting a new weekly two-hour radio show called Tiësto's Club Life on Dutch radio station Radio 538. It is syndicated worldwide and later released as a Podcast.

Elements of Life era (2007-2009)

On April 16, 2007, Tiësto released his third studio album Elements of Life, the album moved 73,000 units in its April release, according to Nielsen SoundScan. During the production of the album Tiësto in several cases sent a demo with the music to certain artists, and they replied back with the lyrics and vocals and other duration times. In the case of Christian Burns from BBMak, Tiësto met him through MySpace and got in contact with him and the production of the single "In the Dark". The album consists of rock, trance and experimental music, which shows the style Tiësto has grown throughout the years since his previous albums which contained lyrics, In My Memory and Just Be. Producer Brian Transeau collaborated with Tiësto in three tracks, he composed "Bright Morningstar" and "Sweet Things", he also performed the vocals in the single "Break My Fall". Together, they produced more tracks which were not released in the album, Tiësto has mentioned they would work again during the coming summer. In December 2007 it was announced that the album was nominated for a Grammy Award, in the category "Best Electronic/Dance Album." The album also received gold certifications in Belgium, Hungary, Netherlands, and Romania.[28] A special release party was held at the Heineken Music Hall in Amsterdam on November 3, 2007 for In Search of Sunrise 6: Ibiza.

His last three full-length releases broke the 70,000 mark, and the 2003 2CD compilation Nyana recently hit 87,000, according to Nielsen SoundScan. In support of the album, he embarked on his Elements of Life World Tour which had shows across the world. Tiësto's performance at Parken Stadium in Copenhagen, Denmark on November 10, 2007 was also sold out.[30] The Copenhagen: Elements of Life World Tour DVD was released in a party which was held on February 29, 2008 in London at the IndigO2 club.

Tiësto announced his residence at Privilege, officially recognised by the Guinness World Records as being the largest club in the world. He played in Ibiza every Monday, from July 7 until September 22. The gigs consisted of sets in the style of his In Search of Sunrise series. In 2007, he had released In Search of Sunrise 6: Ibiza which was inspired by the island. The residencies also featured the performance of guest deejays, all selected by Tiësto, such as Chris Lake, Andy Duguid, Mat Zo, Cosmic Gate, Alex Kunnari and Sander van Doorn as well as exclusive appearances by Fonzerelli and Airbase.

On April 28, Tiësto released Elements of Life: Remixed, a recompilation of the Elements of Life album with all songs being replaced by remixed versions. In mid-2008, Tiësto announced his In Search of Sunrise: Summer Tour 2008, which will be presented by Armani Exchange on May in support of his upcoming In Search of Sunrise 7: Asia compilation[34] and the previously released In Search of Sunrise 6: Ibiza. On August 8, 2008 Tiësto became the first DJ to perform at the famous O2 Arena in London as part of his In Search of Sunrise 7 summer tour, the event was sold out with a capacity of 20,000 people. Earlier that day, Tiësto had performed in-store at Armani Exchange on Regent Street in central London.

A sole production was prepared for Tiësto from June 8 to September 21 for his return at club Privilege for the second year in a row on Monday nights, after a successful year as a resident in 2008. During his time at Privilege he previewed tracks from his upcoming artist album. InTheBooth, the official members-only fansite of Tiësto launched July 17, 2009. On July 31, he was the first DJ to perform for 25,000 people at an exclusive outdoor concert in Victoria Park, London.

Kaleidoscope era (2009–present)

On October 6, 2009, Tiësto released his fourth studio album Kaleidoscope, which featured artists such as Priscilla Ahn, Calvin Harris, Tegan & Sara and Nelly Furtado. Unlike his earlier albums, which were all mostly trance, Kaleidoscope explores other electronic genres, and is considered Tiesto's most experimental album. The first single "I Will Be Here" featuring Sneaky Sound System being released in July 2009.[37][38][39] In its first week, the album reached the Top 10 chart on iTunes.

To release the album he has set up a new record label called Musical Freedom after parting ways with Black Hole Recordings. Tiësto felt that his music was evolving in a new direction and his focus as an artist was moving away from what Black Hole was set up to support. His new tour, sharing the name of his new album, called Kaleidoscope World Tour commenced in late September.

Tiësto contributed songs to both DJ Hero and DJ Hero 2 video games and is a playable character in the second game. He contributed two exclusive mixes to the second game, and used content from DJ Hero 2 to create the official video for his single 'Speed Rail' - the world's first music video to be created entirely using in-game footage.

Tiësto has produced a trance-flavoured song on Memphis rap duo Three 6 Mafia's upcoming album Laws of Power called "Feel It," which features Flo Rida and Sean Kingston.

On March 16, 2010, Tiësto released his greatest hits album called Magikal Journey: The Hits Collection 1998-2008, a two disc album focusing on his most famous songs and remixes of his songs.

On April 7, 2010, Tiësto announced that he would start a new compilation series called A New Dawn with his own label Musical Freedom. In his interview Tiësto furthermore confirmed that he will no longer have any more involvement with Black Hole Recordings.

On August 31, 2010 Kaleidoscope: Remixed was released, a remix album of his album Kaleidoscope.

On December 11, 2010, Tiësto was one of the headlining acts at ZoukOut 2010,[48] which was held in Singapore at Siloso Beach, Sentosa Island.

Philanthropy

On January 6, 2005, Tiësto performed in an outdoor fundraiser in De Dam, Amsterdam. The event was free, and many famous Dutch artists like Dinand Woesthoff, BLØF, Acda & De Munnik, Di-rect, Berget Lewis, Xander de Buisonjé and Trijntje Oosterhuis were involved in it to provide financial aid to the people who suffered from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in Southern and Southeastern Asia. All profits made of all TV commercials and live broadcast were given to the organisations collecting the relief funds.

In April 2006, Tiësto was named the official worldwide ambassador for the Dance4Life foundation promoting awareness of HIV/AIDS, as the foundation's ambassador he has helped the organisation with fundraising along with recording the track "Dance4life" that he recorded with Maxi Jazz from Faithless. The foundation consists on a better way of living with safe sex in exchange of entertainment to the young crowd.[50] The song was a huge success, peaking for five weeks in #3 and eleven consecutive weeks in the Top 10 of the Dutch Singles Chart, it also reached #5 in Belgium, #6 in Finland and also charting in the UK and Germany. With the successful release of Elements of Life, Tiësto and fashion designer Giorgio Armani collaborated together on a limited edition Tiësto T-shirt available at Armani Exchange stores. His single "Sweet Things" comes with the shirt including an exclusive "A|X Remix" by Tom Cloud which shows the great influence Tiësto has in fashion culture.[51] The charity raised over US$300,000.[34] On November 29, 2008 artists like Tiësto himself, Sied van Riel, Leon Bolier, Joop, and MC Gunner presented a concert at The Sand, Amsterdam promoted by Dance4Life, the sales from the event will go to the foundation to support next year's Schools4Life project.

Personal life

Until early 2006, Tiësto was in a relationship with Dutch model Monique Spronk. On January 10, 2008, Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf announced that Tiësto and his girlfriend Stacey Blokzijl were going to get married on October 10, 2008 in Cartagena, Colombia. He proposed to her in December 2007 while they were visiting Mauritius. Tiësto cancelled his wedding for October 10, because he claimed to have a busy schedule and too little time for the preparations. During Christmas 2008, Blokzijl broke off the engagement due to the constant delays to their wedding.

Source: Wikipedia

 

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