Zagroda pokazowa żubrów na wyspie Wolin. Zwierzęta mają tam do swojej dyspozycji zamknięty rezerwat o powierzchni ok. 20 hektarów. Dla turystów ustawiono tarasy widokowe. Żubry na Wolin przywiezione zostały w 1976 roku (cztery osobniki - byka, krowę i dwie jałówki). Obecnie w Zagrodzie Pokazowej Żubrów na Wolinie żyje siedem osobników.

Taken in the European bison breeding centre on The Wolin Island. It's located inside The Wolinski National Park - small park at the mouth of Oder River, in the North-Western Poland, close to the Polish-German border. It protects highly valuable north-western part of the Wolin Island. The Park was established in 1960 on the area of 4844 ha. It was extended in 1996 by incorporating 1 nautical mile broad belt of Baltic coastal waters in the north and delta of Swina River. Inclusion of the part of Pomeranian Bay and inner salt waters of Szczecin Bay has made the Woliński National Park the first maritime park in Poland. The total area of the Park today is 10 937 ha, of which forests covering 4530 ha (41%). 6 forest communities of a total area of 165 ha (1,5%) are under strict protection.

European bison (Bison bonasus), also known as wisent or European wood bison, is a Eurasian species of bison. It is the heaviest surviving wild land animal in Europe; a typical European bison is about 2.1 to 3.5 m (7 to 10 ft) long, not counting a tail of 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) long, and 1.6 to 2 m (5 to 7 ft) tall. Weight typically can range from 300 to 920 kg (660 to 2,000 lb), with an occasional big bull to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) or more. On average, it is slightly lighter in body mass and yet taller at the shoulder than the American bison (Bison bison). Compared to the American species, the Wisent has shorter hair on the neck, head and forequarters, but longer tail and horns.

European bison were hunted to extinction in the wild, with the last wild animals being shot in the Białowieża Forest in Eastern Poland in 1919 and in the Western Caucasus in 1927, but have since been reintroduced from captivity into several countries in Europe, all descendants of the Białowieża or lowland European bison. They are now forest-dwelling. They have few predators (besides humans), with only scattered reports from the 19th century of wolf and bear predation.

In 1996 the IUCN classified the European bison as an endangered species. It has since been downgraded to a vulnerable species. In the past it was commonly killed to produce hides and drinking horns, especially during the Middle Ages.

I'm so ready to snorkel again. One of the most beautiful things in the world is just beneath the surface of the water in the Bahamas.

out of my series ANIMALS

Аэль

Officially the Republic of Korea, and often referred to as Korea, is a state in East Asia, located on the southern half of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by China to the west, Japan to the east, and North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul, the second largest metropolitan city in the world and a major global city.South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 100,032 square kilometers and has a population of over 50 million, making it the third most densely populated (significantly sized) country in the world.

Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied by the Lower Paleolithic period. Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary Dan-gun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 AD, Korea went through the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when Korea was annexed by Japan. After liberation and occupation by Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy. A war between the two Koreas ended in an uneasy cease-fire. After the war and a period of military rule, the South Korean economy grew significantly and the country was transformed into a major economy and a full democracy.

South Korea is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 16 administrative divisions and is a developed country with a high standard of living. It has the fourth largest economy in Asia and the 15th largest in the world. The economy is export-driven, with production focusing on electronics, automobiles, ships, machinery, petrochemicals and robotics. South Korea is a member of the United Nations, WTO, OECD and G-20 major economies. It is also a founding member of APEC and the East Asia Summit.

History

The early years

Having occupied Najin and Ch’ŏngjin on 12 August, the Soviets moved into Wonsan and Hamhŭng on 24 August and P’yŏngyang during 24-26 August, sending troops directly into each of the provinces. Chistiakov, commander of the Soviet 25th Army arrived in Hamhŭng on 24 August and in accordance with his orders from the headquarters of the 1st Field Army of the Far Eastern Division he opened negotiations with the provincial governor and other Japanese leaders of the provincial government about taking over administration of the province. The content of their agreement was as follows:

If anyone, whether they are Japanese or Korean, leaves their post, they will immediately be sentenced to death by hanging. … For the time being, the Japanese police and military police will maintain order and administrative functions will continue to be carried out as before by the Japanese provincial governor and his subordinates. Those who cause disturbances of the peace will be severely punished. … Work should continue in factories, workshops, mines etc, and goods must not be removed from these workplaces.

This agreement was published in the Soviet Army’s decree of 25 August. This decree, which stressed the continuation of Japanese administrative and security control, was the Soviet command’s first official position revealing their policy toward the Korean peninsula. However, before a day had passed this decree was cancelled. Song Sŏnggwan, Ch’oe Kimo, Im Ch’ungsŏk and Sally Joe, and Kim Inhak, members of the South Hamgyŏng Province Communist Council as well as To Yongho and Ch’oe Myŏnghak, leaders of the South Hamgyŏng Province branch of the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence had visited Chistiakov, informing him that a ‘South Hamgyŏng Executive Committee’ had been formed and requesting that authority for administration be transferred to this committee. Chistiakov cancelled the decree and announced that, “this Executive Committee will manage all administrative and security affairs, under the command of the Soviet Army.”

The government moved rapidly to establish a political system that was partly styled on the Soviet system, with political power monopolised by the Worker's Party of Korea (WPK). The establishment of a command economy followed. Most of the country's productive assets had been owned by the Japanese or by Koreans who had been collaborators. The nationalization of these assets in 1946 placed 70% of industry under state control. By 1949 this percentage had risen to 90%. Since then, virtually all manufacturing, finance and internal and external trade has been conducted by the state.

In agriculture, the government moved more slowly towards a command economy. The "land to the tiller" reform of 1946 redistributed the bulk of agricultural land to the poor and landless peasant population, effectively breaking the power of the landed class. In 1954, however, a partial collectivization was carried out, with peasants being urged, and often forced, into agricultural co-operatives. By 1958, virtually all farming was being carried out collectively, and the co-operatives were increasingly merged into larger productive units.

Like all the postwar communist states, North Korea undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods. By paying the collectivized peasants low state-controlled prices for their product, and using the surplus thus extracted to pay for industrial development, the state carried out a series of three-year plans, which brought industry's share of the economy from 47% in 1946 to 70% in 1959, despite the devastation of the Korean War. There were huge increases in electricity production, steel production and machine building. The large output of tractors and other agricultural machinery achieved a great increase in agricultural productivity.

Korean war

The consolidation of Syngman Rhee's government in the South with American military support and the suppression of the October 1948 insurrection ended hopes that the country could be reunified by way of Stalinist revolution in the South, and from early 1949 Kim sought Soviet and Chinese support for a military campaign to reunify the country by force. The withdrawal of most U.S. forces from South Korea in June 1949 left the southern government defended only by a weak and inexperienced South Korean army. The southern regime also had to deal with a citizenry of uncertain loyalty. The North Korean army, by contrast, had been the beneficiary of the Soviet Union's outdated Soviet WWII-era equipment, and had a core of hardened veterans who had fought as anti-Japanese guerrillas or with the Chinese Communists.

Initially, the Soviet Union's Joseph Stalin rejected Kim's requests for permission to invade the South, but in late 1949 the Communist victory in China and the development of Soviet nuclear weapons made him re-consider Kim's proposal. In January 1950, after China's Mao Zedong indicated that China would send troops and other support to Kim, Stalin approved an invasion.[2] The Soviets provided limited support in the form of advisors who helped the North Koreans as they planned the operation, and Soviet military instructors to train some of the Korean units. However, from the very beginning Stalin made it clear that the Soviet Union would avoid a direct confrontation with the U.S. over Korea and would not commit ground forces even in case of some major military crisis. The stage was set for a civil war between two rival regimes on the Korean peninsula.

For over a year before North Korean forces tried to attack the southern government on June 25, 1950, the two sides had been engaged in a series of bloody clashes along the 38th parallel, especially in the Ongjin area on the west coast. On June 25, 1950, the northern forces escalated the battles into a full-fledged offensive and crossed the parallel in large numbers. Due to a combination of surprise, superior military forces, and a poorly armed South Korean army, the Northern forces quickly captured Seoul and Syngman Rhee and his government was forced to flee further south. However, the North Koreans failed to unify the peninsula when foreign powers entered the civil war. North Korean forces were soon defeated and driven northwards by United Nations forces led by the U.S. By October, the U.N. forces had retaken Seoul and captured Pyongyang, and it became Kim's turn to flee. But in November, Chinese forces entered the war and pushed the U.N. forces back, retaking Pyongyang in December and Seoul in January 1951. In March U.N. forces retook Seoul, and the war essentially became a bloody stalemate for the next two years. The front was stabilized in 1953 along what eventually became the current Armistice Line. After long negotiations, the two sides agreed on a border formed by the Korean Demilitarized Zone, and a ceasefire was declared. An official peace treaty, however, was never signed, and the two Koreas have technically been at war since 1960.

Before the war, Kim took control of North Korean politics, with the support of the armed forces, who respected his wartime record and long resistance to the Japanese. Pak Hon-yong, party vice chairman and Foreign Minister of the DPRK, was blamed for the failure of the southern population to support North Korea during the war and was executed after a show-trial in 1955. Most of the South Korean leftists who defected to the North in 1945–1953 were also accused of espionage and other crimes and killed, imprisoned or exiled to remote agricultural and mining villages. Potential rivals from other groups such as Kim Tu-bong were also purged

Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC

Gojoseon (Korean pronunciation: [kodʑosʌn]) was an ancient Korean kingdom. According to the Samguk Yusa and other medieval-era records, Gojoseon is said to have been founded in 2333 BC by Dangun, who is said to be a Posterity of Heaven. It was centered in the basins of Liao and Northern part of the Korean Peninsula.

Archaeological evidence of Gojoseon are found in the transition from the Jeulmun pottery to the Mumun pottery around 1500 BC, when groups of semi-sedentary small-scale agriculturalists occupied most of the Korean Peninsula. Local bronze production began around the 8th century BC. Based on contemporaneous written records, modern historians generally believe it developed from a loose federation into a powerful kingdom between 7th and 4th centuries BC.

Go(고, 古), meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn.

Proto-Three Kingdoms: 108–57 BC

When Gojoseon was defeated by the Han dynasty of China in 108 BC, the northern region of the peninsula and Manchuria was occupied by the states of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and other minor statelets. Goguryeo's traditional founding date is 37 BC, but it was mentioned in Chinese records as early as 75 BC, or possibly even 2nd century BC. China installed four commanderies in former Gojoseon territory, but three of them fell quickly to Korean resistance. Goguryeo gradually conquered and absorbed all its neighbors, and destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313.

In the south, the little-understood state of Jin had given rise to the loose confederacies Jinhan, Byeonhan, and Mahan, or collectively, Samhan. Baekje was founded in 18 BC in Mahan territory and began to slowly overtake it. Silla was founded by the unification of six chiefdoms within the Jinhan, traditionally in 57 BC, although it may have been somewhat later. Byeonhan was absorbed into the later Gaya confederacy, which in turn was annexed by Silla.

Because of this continuity, most historians consider the Three Kingdoms to begin around the fall of Gojoseon, but the three did not dominate the peninsula as kingdoms until around 300.

Three Kingdoms: 57 BC – 668 AD

The name "Three Kingdoms" was used in the titles of the histories Samguk Sagi (12th century) and Samguk Yusa (13th century), and should not be confused with the earlier Chinese Three Kingdoms.

The Three Kingdoms were founded after the fall of Gojoseon, and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in northern parts of the Korean peninsula. Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.

The nascent precursors of Baekje and Silla expanded within the web of complex chiefdoms during the Proto Three Kingdoms Period, and Goguryeo conquered neighboring Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and other complex chiefdoms in northern Korea and Manchuria. The three polities made the transition from complex chiefdom to full-fledged state-level societies in the 3rd century.

All three kingdoms shared a similar culture and language. Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic, but they were increasingly influenced by Chinese culture, particularly Confucianism and Taoism. In the 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula and spread rapidly, briefly becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms.

North-South States: 698–935

After the unification wars, the Tang Dynasty established territories in the former Goguryeo, and began to administer and establish communities in Baekje. Silla attacked the Chinese in Baekje and northern Korea in 671.

China then invaded Silla in 674 but Silla defeated the Chinese army in the north. Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Three Kingdoms.

Unified Silla was a time when Korean arts flourished dramatically and Buddhism became a large part of Silla culture. Buddhist monasteries such as the Bulguksa are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence. State-sponsored art and architecture from this period include Hwangnyongsa Temple, Bunhwangsa Temple, and Seokguram Grotto, a World Heritage Site.

Silla began to experience political troubles in 780. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning the Later Three Kingdoms period.

Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under King Gyeongsun, it was absorbed by Goryeo in 935.

Goryeo Dynasty 918–1392

The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ (Officially the Kingdom of Goryeo) (918-1392) was a Korean sovereign state established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which became to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392. Goryeo expanded its borders to present-day Wonsan in the north-east (936~943) and the Amnok River (993) and finally almost the whole of the Korean peninsula (1374).

Two of this period's most notable products are Goryeo celadon pottery and the Tripitaka Koreana — the Buddhist scriptures (Tripitaka) carved onto roughly 80,000 woodblocks and stored, and still in, Haeinsa. Goryeo also created the world's first metal-based movable type printing press in 1234 and the oldest surviving movable metal type book, the Jikji, was made in 1377.

In 668, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with Tang Dynasty help, but by the late 9th century it was tottering, its monarchs being unimaginative and pressed by the power of powerful statesmen. Many burglars and outlaws bubbled and in 900 Gyeon Hwon revolted from Silla control in the Jeolla region as Hubaekje and next year Gung Ye revolted from the northern regions as Hugoguryeo (Taebong). A son-of-a regional lord, Wang Geon went into Hugoguryeo as a general.

Hugoguryeo fell when Wang Geon revolted and killed Gung Ye in 918, and the tottering Silla was too overpowered by Goryeo and Hubaekje and surrendered to Goryeo in 935. In 936 Hubaekje surrendered and Goryeo started a unbroken dynasty that ruled Korea for 474 years.

By the 14th century Goryeo was tottering under Yuan Dynasty control. Although King Gongmin managed to "free" his kingdom from the Mongolian yoke, the Goryeo general Yi Seonggye revolted and overthrew the last king of Goryeo, King Gongyang in 1392. Gongyang was killed in 1394.

The name "Goryeo" is derived from "Goguryeo," one of the ancient Three Kingdoms of Korea. The English name "Korea" derives from "Goryeo." See also Names of Korea.

Joseon Dynasty 1392–1897

Joseon (July 1392 – August 1910) (also Chosŏn, Choson, Chosun), was a Korean sovereign state[3] founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo Kingdom at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul and the kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the Amnok and Duman rivers (through the subjugation of the Jurchens). Joseon was the last royal and later imperial dynasty of Korean history. It was the longest ruling Confucian dynasty.

During its reign, Joseon consolidated its absolute rule over Korea, encouraged the entrenchment of Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society, imported and adapted Chinese culture, and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, science, literature, and technology. However, the dynasty was severely weakened during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, when invasions by the neighboring Japan and Qing virtually overran the peninsula, leading to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy for which the country became known as the Hermit Kingdom. After invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace.

However, whatever power the kingdom recovered during its isolation further waned as the 18th century came to a close, and faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure and rebellions at home, the Joseon Dynasty declined rapidly in the late 19th century. In 1895, the Joseon Dynasty was forced to write a document of independence from the Qing Dynasty after the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War and its peace treaty, the Treaty of Shimonoseki. From 1897 to 1910, Korea was formally known as the Korean Empire to signify a sovereign nation no longer a tributary of the Qing Dynasty. The Joseon Dynasty came to an end in 1910, when the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty was enforced by the Empire of Japan.

The Joseon's rule has left a substantial legacy on the modern face of Korea; much of modern Korean etiquette, cultural norms, societal attitudes towards current issues, and even the modern Korean language and its dialects stem from the traditional thought pattern that originated from this period.

Korean Empire 1897–1910

The Sino-Japanese War marked the rapid decline of any power the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had managed to hold against foreign interference, as the battles of the conflict itself had been fought on Korean soil and the surrounding seas. With its newfound preeminence over waning China, Japan had Japanese delegates negotiate the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Qing emissaries, through which Japan wrested control over the Liaodong Peninsula from China (a move designed to prevent the southern expansion of Japan's new rival, Russia), and, more importantly to Korea, scrapped the centuries-old tributary relationship between Joseon and the Qing Dynasty. However, Russia realized this agreement as an act against its interests in northeastern China and eventually brought France and Germany to its side in saying that the Liaodong Peninsula should be repatriated to China.

At the time, Japan had no power to resist such foreign pressure, especially by nations that it considered far more advanced and which it sought to emulate, and as such relinquished its claim to the Liaodong Peninsula. With the success of the three-country intervention, Russia emerged as another major power in East Asia, replacing the Qing Dynasty as the country that the many government officials in the Joseon court advocated close ties with to prevent more Japanese meddling in Korean politics. Queen Min (the later Empress Myeongseong), the consort of King Gojong, also realized this change and recognized it by formally establishing closer diplomatic relations with Russia to counter Japan.

Queen Min began to emerge as a key figure in higher-level Korean resistance to Japanese influence. Japan, seeing its designs endangered by the queen, quickly replaced its ambassador to Korea, Inoue Kaoru, with Miura Goro, a diplomat with a background in the Japanese military. It is widely believed that he orchestrated the assassination of Queen Min on October 8, 1895, at her residence at Gyeongbokgung, nearby the Geoncheong Palace, the official sleeping quarters of the king within Gyeongbok Palace.

Japanese rule 1910–1945

Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion (22 August 1910 to 15 August 1945). Formally, Japanese rule ended on 2 September 1945 upon the Japanese defeat in World War II in 1945.

Korea was occupied and declared a Japanese protectorate in the 1905 Eulsa Treaty, and officially annexed in 1910 through the annexation treaty. Japan's involvement in the region began with the 1876 Treaty of Ganghwa during the Joseon Dynasty and increased with the subsequent assassination of Empress Myeongseong (also known as "Queen Min") in 1895. The 1905 and 1910 treaties were eventually declared "null and void" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965.

In Korea, the period is usually described as a time of "Japanese forced occupation" (Hangul: 일제 강점기; Ilje gangjeomgi, Hanja: 日帝强占期). Other terms used for it include "Japanese Imperial Period" (Hangul: 일제시대, Ilje sidae, Hanja: 日帝時代) or "Wae (Japanese) administration" (Hangul: 왜정, Wae jeong, Hanja: 倭政). In Japan, a more common description is "Japanese rule of Chosun" (日本統治時代の朝鮮, Nippon Tōchi-jidai no Chōsen?).

Provisional Gov't 1919–1948

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was the partially recognised government in exile of Korea, based in Shanghai, China and later in Chongqing, during the Japanese colonial rule of Korea.The Government was formed on April 13, 1919, following the Korean Declaration of Independence during the March 1st movement of the same year.

The government did not gain formal recognition from world powers, though modest form of recognition was given from the Nationalist Government of China and a number of other governments, most of whom were in exile themselves.

The Government strived for the independence of Korea from Japanese annexation that lasted from 1910 to 1945. They coordinated the armed resistance against the Japanese army during the 1920s and 1930s, including the Battle of Chingshanli in October, 1920 and the assault on Japanese military leadership in Shanghai in April 1932.

This struggle culminated in the formation of Korean Liberation Army in 1940, bringing together many if not all Korean resistance groups in exile. The government duly declared war against Japan and Germany on December 9 1941, and the Liberation Army took part in allied action in China and parts of Southeast Asia.

Prior to the end of World War II, the Korean Liberation Army was preparing an assault against the Japanese in Korea in conjunction with American Office of Strategic Services, but the Japanese surrender prevented the execution of the plan. The government's goal was achieved with Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945.

Division of Korea 1945–1948

The division of Korea into North Korea and South Korea stems from the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, ending Japan's 35-year colonial rule of Korea. In a proposal opposed by nearly all Koreans, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to temporarily occupy the country as a trusteeship with the zone of control demarcated along the 38th parallel. The purpose of this trusteeship was to establish a Korean provisional government which would become "free and independent in due course." Though elections were scheduled, the two superpowers backed different leaders and two states were effectively established, each of which claimed sovereignty over the whole Korean peninsula

The Korean War (1950-1953) left the two Koreas separated by the DMZ, remaining technically at war through the Cold War to the present day. North Korea is a communist state, often described as Stalinist and isolationist. Its economy initially enjoyed substantial growth but collapsed in the 1990s, unlike that of its Communist neighbor China. South Korea emerged, after decades of authoritarian rule, as a capitalist liberal democracy with one of the largest economies in the world.

Since the 1990s, with progressively liberal South Korean administrations, as well as the death of North Korean founder Kim Il-sung, the two sides have taken small, symbolic steps towards a possible Korean reunification.

Geography

South Korea occupies the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula, which extends some 680 miles (1,100 km) from the Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by the Yellow Sea to the west, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) to the east. Its southern tip lies on the Korea Strait and the East China Sea.

The country's total area is 38,622.57 square miles (100,032.00 km2).

South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; a southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of the Nakdong River.

South Korea's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is not arable. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30% of the total land area.

About three thousand islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea. Jeju-do is located about 100 kilometers (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometres (712 sq mi). Jeju is also the site of South Korea's highest point: Hallasan, an extinct volcano, reaches 1,950 meters (6,398 ft) above sea level. The most eastern islands of South Korea include Ulleungdo and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo), while Marado and Socotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea.

South Korea has 20 national parks and some popular nature places like Boseong Tea Field, Suncheon Bay Ecological Park in South Jeolla province

Other info

Oficial Name:

대한 민국

大韓民國

Daehan Minguk

Establishment

- Liberation declared March 1, 1919 (de jure)

- Liberation August 15, 1945

- First Republic August 13, 1948

- United Nations Recognition December 12, 1948

Area:

99.539km2

Inhabitants:

49.235.000

Language:

Korean

[kor] 42,000,000 in South Korea (1986). Population total all countries: 67,019,690. Also spoken in American Samoa, Australia, Bahrain, Belize, Brazil, Brunei, Canada, China, Germany, Guam, Japan, Kazakhstan, North Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Mauritania, Mongolia, New Zealand, Northern Mariana Islands, Panama, Paraguay, Philippines, Russia (Asia), Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Suriname, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkmenistan, USA, Uzbekistan. Alternate names: Hanguohua, Hanguk Mal. Dialects: Seoul (Kangwondo, Kyonggido), Ch'ungch'ongdo (North Ch'ungch'ong, South Ch'ungch'ong), Kyongsangdo (North Kyongsangdo, South Kyongsangdo), Chollado (North Chollado, South Chollado), Cheju Island. There is a difference of opinion among scholars as to whether or not Korean is related to Japanese. Some scholars suggest that both languages are possibly distantly related to Altaic. Dialect boundaries generally correspond to provincial boundaries. Some dialects are not easily intelligible with others (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). The suffix '-do' on dialect names means 'province'. Comprehension of Standard Korean may be lower on Cheju Island. Classification: Language Isolate

Capital city:

Seoul

Meaning country name:

Korea (Korean: 한국 in South Korea ) is a geographic area, civilization, and former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Korea is currently divided into North Korea and South Korea.

Although the borders of historical Korean dynasties fluctuated, the peninsula today is defined as coterminous with the political borders of the two Koreas combined. Thus, the peninsula borders China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast, with Japan situated to the southeast across the Korea Strait.

The history of Korea began with the legendary founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by Dangun. Limited linguistic evidence suggests probable Altaic origins of these people, whose northern Mongolian Steppe culture absorbed immigrants and invaders from northern Manchuria, Mongolia and China.[citation needed] The adoption of the Chinese writing system ("hanja" in Korean) in the 2nd century BC, and Buddhism in the 4th century AD, had profound effects on the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Koreans later passed on these, as well as their own advances, to Japan.

After the unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676, Korea was ruled by a single government and maintained political and cultural independence until the nineteenth century, despite the Mongol invasions of the Goryeo Dynasty in the 13th century and Japanese invasions of the Joseon Dynasty in the 16th century. In 1377, Korea produced the Jikji, the world's oldest movable metal print document. In the 15th century, the turtle ships, possibly the world's first ironclad warships, were deployed, and during the reign of King Sejong the Great, the Korean alphabet han-geul was created.

During the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname the "Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of the colonial designs of Japan and Europe. In 1910, Korea was forcibly annexed by Japan and remained occupied until the end of World War II in August 1945.

In 1945, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed on the surrender and disarming of Japanese troops in Korea; the Soviet Union accepting the surrender north of the 38th parallel and the United States taking the surrender south of it. This led to division of Korea by the two great powers, exacerbated by their inability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. The two Cold War rivals then established governments sympathetic to their own ideologies, leading to Korea's current division into two political entities: North Korea and South Korea.

Desciption Flag:

The flag of South Korea, or Taegukgi (Although revised official Romanization is Taegeukgi, the word Taegukgi has been used in English world historically) has three parts: a white background; a red and blue taegeuk in the center; and four black trigrams, one in each corner of the flag. In Korean, the flag is called the Taegeukgi. The design of the flag was reportedly suggested by Qing diplomat Ma Jianzhong in 1882 during the reign of King Gojong, and was designed by Bak Yeong-hyo, the Korean ambassador to Japan. King Gojong proclaimed the Taegeukgi to be the official flag of Korea on 6 March 1883.

The four trigrams originates in the Chinese book I Ching, representing the four Chinese philosophical ideas about the universe: harmony, symmetry, balance, circulation. The general design of the flag also derives from traditional use of the tricolor symbol (red, blue and yellow) by Koreans starting from the early era of Korean history. The white background symbolizes "cleanliness of the people." The taegeuk represents the origin of all things in the universe; holding the two principles of "Eum", the negative aspect rendered in blue, and "Yang", the positive aspect rendered in red, in perfect balance. Together, they represent a continuous movement within infinity, the two merging as one. The four trigrams are:

||| Force (☰; geon (건; 乾) in Korean) = heaven (天), spring (春), east (東), virtue (仁);

¦¦¦ Field (☷; gon (곤; 坤)) = earth (地), summer (夏), west (西), justice (義);

|¦| Radiance (☲; ri (리; 離)) = sun (日), fall (秋), south (南), courtesy (禮);

¦|¦ Gorge (☵; gam (감; 坎)) = moon (月), winter (冬), north (北), knowledge or wisdom (智).

Traditionally, the four trigrams are related to the Five Elements of fire, water, earth, wood, and metal. An analogy could also be drawn with the four western classical elements.

Coat of arms:

The Coat of arms of South Korea consists in the taeguk symbol present on the national flag surrounded by five stylized petals and a ribbon bearing the inscription "The Republic of Korea" (Daehan Minguk), the official name of the country, in Hangul characters. The Yin and Yang represents peace and harmony. The Five petals all have meaning and are related to Korea's national flower (the Hibiscus syriacus).

Motto:

널리 인간을 이롭게 하라___-Beneficts to all People-

National Anthem: Aegukga

Hangul

동해 물과 백두산이 마르고 닳도록

하느님이 보우하사 우리나라 만세

남산 위에 저 소나무 철갑을 두른 듯

바람서리 불변함은 우리 기상일세

가을 하늘 공활한데 높고 구름 없이

밝은 달은 우리 가슴 일편단심일세

이 기상과 이 맘으로 충성을 다하여

괴로우나 즐거우나 나라 사랑하세

Hangul and Hanja

東海 물과 白頭山이 마르고 닳도록

하느님이 保佑하사 우리나라 萬歲

南山 위에 저 소나무 鐵甲을 두른 듯

바람서리 不變함은 우리 氣像일세

가을 하늘 空豁한데 높고 구름 없이

밝은 달은 우리 가슴 一片丹心일세

이 氣像과 이 맘으로 忠誠을 다하여

괴로우나 즐거우나 나라 사랑하세

無窮花 三千里 華麗江山

大韓사람 大韓으로 길이 保全하세

Romanization

Donghae mulgwa Baekdusani mareugo daltorok

Haneunimi bouhasa urinara manse

Namsan wie jeo sonamu cheolgabeul dureun deut

Baram seori bulbyeonhameun uri gisangilse

Ga-eul haneul gonghwalhande nopgo gureum eopsi

Balgeun dareun uri gaseum ilpyeondansimilse

I gisanggwa i mameuro chungseong-eul dahayeo

Goerouna jeulgeouna nara saranghase

Mugunghwa samcheolli hwaryeogangsan

Daehansaram daehaneuro giri bojeonhase

English

Until the day when the East Sea's waters and Mt. Baekdu are dry and worn away,

God shall protect and preserve us. May our nation live through eternity!

The pinetree atop Namsan stands firmly unchanged under wind and frost as if wrapped in armour,

as is our resilient spirit.

Autumn sky is void and vast, high and cloudless,

the bright moon is our heart, undivided and true.

With this spirit and this mind, give all loyalty,

in suffering or in joy, love the country.

Three thousand Li of splendid rivers and mountains, filled with Roses of Sharon;

Great Korean People, let us everlastingly preserve our Great Korean nation.

Internet Page: www.english.president.co.kr

www.korea.net

www.english.tour2korea.com

S.K. in diferent languages

eng: South Korea

cat | ina | ita: Corea del Sud

hrv | hsb | slv: Južna Koreja

ast | spa: Corea del Sur

dan | swe: Sydkorea

deu | ltz: Südkorea / Südkorea

fra | jnf: Corée du Sud

ind | msa: Korea Selatan / كوريا سلاتن

kin | run: Koreya y’ubumanuko

roh-enb | roh-eno: Corea dal Süd

afr: Suid-Korea

arg: Corea d’o Sur

aze: Cənubi Koreya / Ҹәнуби Кореја

bam: Kɔre Woroduguyanfan

bos: Južna Koreja / Јужна Кореја

bre: Korea ar Su; Sukorea

ces: Jižní Korea

cor: Korea Dheghow

cos: Corea suttana

crh: Cenübiy Koreya / Дженюбий Корея

csb: Półniowò Kòreja

cym: De Corea

dsb: Pódpołdnjowa Koreja

epo: Sud-Koreo; Sud-Koreio

est: Lõuna-Korea

eus: Hego Korea

fao: Suður-Korea

fin: Etelä-Korea

frp: Corê du Sud

fry: Súd-Korea

fur: Coree dal Sud

gag: Üülen Koreya / Ӱӱлен Kорея

gla: Coirea a Deas; Coiria a Deas; Corea a Deas

gle: An Chóiré Theas / An Ċóiré Ṫeas; An Choria Theas / An Ċoria Ṫeas

glg: Corea do Sur

glv: Yn Chorea Yiass

hat: Kore disid

hau: Koreya ta Kudu

hun: Dél-Korea

ibo: Kọria Ndida

isl: Suður-Kórea

jav: Korea Selatan

kaa: Tuʻslik Koreya / Түслик Корея

kmr: Korê ya Cenûbê / Коре йа Щәнубе / کۆرێیا جەنووبێ

kur: Koreya Başûr / کۆرەیا باشوور

lat: Corea Meridionalis; Corea Meridiana

lav: Dienvidkoreja

lim: Zuud-Korea

lin: Kore ya Sidi

lit: Pietų Korėja

lld-bad: Corea dl Süd

lld-grd: Corea dl Sud

mlg: Kôrea Atsimo

mlt: Korea t’Isfel

mol: Coreea de Sud / Корея де Суд

nds: Süüdkorea / Süüdkorea

nld: Zuid-Korea

nor: Sør-Korea

nrm: Coraée-du-Su

oci: Corèa del Sud

pap: Sur-Korea

pol: Korea Południowa

por: Coreia do Sul / Coréia do Sul

que: Uralan Kuriya

rmy: Sudutni Koreya / सुदुत्नी कोरेया

roh-gri: Corea dal Sid

roh-srs: Corea dil Sid

ron: Coreea de Sud

rup: Corea di Not

scn: Corea dû Sud

slk: Južná Kórea

slo: Jugju Korea / Йугйу Кореа

sme: Lulli-Korea

smg: Pėitū Kuoriejė

smo: Malo Korea

som: Kooriyada Koonfureed; Kuuriyada Koonfureed

sqi: Korea Jugore

srd: Corea de Josso

swa: Korea ya Kusini

szl: Korea Pouedńowo

tet: Koreia Súl

tgl: Timog Korea

ton: Saute Kōlea

tpi: Saut Korea

tuk: Günorta Koreýa / Гүнорта Корея

tur: Güney Kore

uzb: Janubiy Quriya / Жанубий Қурия; Janubiy Koreya / Жанубий Корея

vie: Nam Hàn; Hàn Quốc

vol: Sulüda-Koreyän; Hangukän

vor: Lõunõ-Korea

wln: Nonne Corêye

wol: Koore bu Sid

zza: Korya Veroci

abq | bul: Южна Корея (Južna Koreja)

alt: Тӱштӱк Корея (Tüštük Koreja)

bak: Көньяҡ Корея / Könyaķ Koreya

bel: Паўднёвая Карэя / Paŭdniovaja Kareja

che: Къилбера Корея (Q̣ilbera Koreja)

chm: Кечывалвел Корея (Kečyvalvel Koreja)

chv: Кӑнтӑр Корейӑ (Kăntăr Korejă)

kaz: Оңтүстік Корея / Oñtüstik Koreya / وڭتۇستىك كورەيا

kbd: Южнэ Корея (Južnă Koreja)

kir: Түштүк Корея (Tüštük Koreja)

kjh: Южнай Корея (Južnaj Koreja)

kom: Южнӧй Корея (Južnöj Koreja)

krc: Юг Корея (Jug Koreja)

kum: Къыбла Корея (Qybla Koreja)

mkd: Јузна Кореа (Juzna Korea)

mon: Өмнөд Солонгос (Ömnöd Solongos)

oss: Хуссар Корей (Ĥussar Korej)

rus: Южная Корея (Južnaja Koreja)

srp: Јужна Кореја / Južna Koreja

tat: Көньяк Корея / Könyaq Koreä

tgk: Қурияи Ҷанубӣ / قوریۀ جنوبی / Qurijai Çanubī; Кореяи Ҷанубӣ / کاریۀ جنوبی / Korejai Çanubī

tyv: Мурнуу-Көрей (Murnuu-Körej)

udm: Лымшор Корея (Lymšor Koreja)

ukr: Південна Корея (Pivdenna Koreja)

ara: كوريا الجنوبية (Kūrīyā l-Ǧanūbīyâ)

ckb: کۆریای باشوور / Koryaî Başûr

fas: کرۀ جنوبی / Koreye Janubi

prs: کوریای جنوبی (Kōriyā-ye Janūbī)

pus: سهيلي کوريا (Sahīlī Koriyā)

snd: ڏکڻ ڪوريا (Ḋakʰaṇ Koriyā)

uig: جەنۇبىي چاۋشيەن / Jenubiy Chawshyen / Җәнубий Чавшйән; جەنۇبىي چاۋشەن / Jenubiy Chawshen / Җәнубий Чавшән

urd: جنوبی کوریا (Janūbī Koriyā)

div: ސައުތް ކޮރެއާ (Sa'ut Kore'ā)

heb: דרום קוראה (Dərôm Qôreʾah); דרום קוריאה (Dərôm Qôrêʾah); קוראה הדרומית (Qôreʾah ha-Dərômît); קוריאה הדרומית (Qôrêʾah ha-Dərômît)

lad: קוריאה דיל סור / Korea del Sur

yid: דרום קאָריִיע (Dorem Koriye)

amh: ደቡብ ኮርያ (Däbub Korya)

ell-dhi: Νότια Κορέα (Nótia Koréa)

ell-kat: Νότιος Κορέα (Nótios Koréa)

hye: Հարավային Կորեա (Haravayin Korea)

kat: სამხრეთ კორეა (Samĥreṭ Korea)

hin: दक्षिण कोरिया (Dakṣiṇ Koriyā)

ben: দক্ষিণ কোরিয়া (Dôkṣiṇ Koriyā)

pan: ਦੱਖਣੀ ਕੋਰੀਆ (Dakʰkʰaṇī Korīā)

kan: ದಕ್ಷಿಣ ಕೊರಿಯಾ (Dakṣiṇa Koriyā)

mal: ദക്ഷിണ കൊറിയ (Dakṣiṇa Koṟiya)

tam: தென் கொரியா (Teṉ Koriyā); தென்கொரியா (Teṉkoriyā)

tel: దక్షిణ కొరియా (Dakṣiṇa Koriyā)

zho: 南韓/南韩 (Nánhán); 韓國/韩国 (Hánguó)

yue: 南韓/南韩 (Nàahmhòhn); 韓國/韩国 (Hòhngwok)

jpn: 韓国 (Kankoku)

kor: 한국/韓國 (Hanguk); 남한/南韓 (Namhan)

bod: ལྷོ་ཁྲའོ་ཤན་ (Lho. Kʰra'o.šan.); ཁྲའོ་ཤན་ལྷོ་རྒྱུད་ (Kʰra'o.šan. Lho.rgyud.)

dzo: ལྷོ་ཀོ་རི་ཡ་ (Lho.Ko.ri.ya.)

mya: တောင္ကုိရီးယား (Toũ Koẏìyà)

tha: เกาหลีใต้ (Kaw[h]lī Tái)

lao: ເກົາຫຼີໄຕ້ (Kaw[h]ḷī Tái)

khm: កូរ៉េខាងត្បូង (Kūre Kʰāṅtbūṅ)

chr: ᏅᎦᎾᏭ ᎢᏗᏢ ᎪᎴᏯ / Nvganawu Iditlv Goleya; ᏅᎦᎾᏭ ᎢᏗᏢ ᎪᎴᎠ / Nvganawu Iditlv Golea

A small lump of clay in my hands, and that was the result... many years ago

THE LIE MACHINE (2014)

Suitcase, computer, speaker, Voice Stress Analysis software, autobiographical read-by-the author audiobooks (Palin, Obama, Clinton, Bush)

Voice Stress Analysis (VSA) is a highly contested and controversial lie detection technology. Through the detection of variations in the microtremors of speech, truthfulness is evaluated through analysis of live or recorded voice. As a result, the technique can be applied surreptitiously, even posthumously, to the vast storehouses of spoken audio available.

The Lie Machine processes recorded audio with standard Voice Stress Analysis algorithms. The archive chosen for this analysis is a set of audiobook autobiographies, each read by its author: Decision Points by George W. Bush, Going Rogue: An American Life by Sarah Palin, A Journey: My Political Life by Tony Blair, My Life by Bill Clinton, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream by Barack Obama.

The title, “The Lie Machine” is taken from a 1973 Playboy Magazine article by Craig Vetter of the same name, on the subject of the Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). The PSE was the first commercially available VSA-based instrument, “designed to fit into a Samsonite briefcase.” The algorithm gained notoriety recently in the U.S. trial of George Zimmerman for the charge of the second-degree murder of Trayvon Martin, where Zimmerman was cleared of the charges based partly on his successful passing of a CVSA test (Computer Voice Stress Analysis).

“We are not concerned with the guilt or innocence of a suspect, only in whether or not he seems to be lying. He’s either D.I. or N.D.I. -- deception indicated or no deception indicated.” (Playboy, 1973)

_____________________________________________________________

Eastern Bloc presents the second segment of our 2015-2016 three-part cycle of exhibitions and activities, BPLTC, on the general theme of biopolitics. This cycle is divided into three segments: Cellular Control, Identity Control, and Food Control. The development of computer and digital technologies enables important command of human activities, responding to major financial, corporate and political interests, sometimes for better. Advances in research and its technical applications raise complex issues that are central to communities, and are located at the heart of current political challenges. Many new media and digital contemporary artists are now incorporating theses questions into their work.

www.easternbloc.ca/exhibits-bpltc-ii-details.php

Participating Artists:

Jamie Allen, Mushon Zer-Aviv, Zach Blas

Lying down on the down platform at Kirkby Stephen, I have captured 66424 heading south. This is the daily 6K05, Carlisle - Crewe Departmental working.Taken on the 21st May 2015 at 1339

Sittingbourne is a large town up from Faversham on the A2, or the old high road.

Today it is post industrial, mostly, with a one way system and out of town big box stores.

I have seen little of worth in the town when we have passed through. So, Milton Regis was expected to be more of the same.

But the ancient borough is full of fine old timber-framed houses, narrow streets, but beyond them there are endless estates full of identical houses.

Holy Trinity sits the other side of a busy junction, at the end of a short lane, now used mostly by people visiting the large playing field so their dogs don't crap in their owner's back gardens.

Or so it seemed.

Urban churches are rarely open for causal visits, so it proved this time. The young folks paiting the parish offices didn't have a key for the church, so could not help.

So I made do with snapping the outside of the church and large collection of ancient gravestones, one I learn was connected to the Gunpowder Plot.

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The massive 14th century tower grabs attention immediately, but just by the door is a most mysterious headstone which commemorates a man killed by a rocket at an early Guy Fawke`s celebration. Inside, the south aisle is almost as wide as the nave and has a rare rood loft staircase that runs in the thickness of the wall rather than up a spiral staircase. There is little stained glass but the east window, by the firm of Ward and Hughes is rather a masterpiece, with most of the subjects being real portraits – especially the figures of St George and St Uriel. An inscription nearby tells the whole story. At the junction of nave and chancel is a rare benefactions board which is carved to look like a memorial – look out for Faith Hope and Charity. The medieval vestry at the north east corner has an original shuttered window – a rare survival indeed, whilst under the huge tower is a benefactions board recording gifts to dredgermen`s widows. Now you don’t find them very often!

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Milton+Regis

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MILTON,

OR, more properly, Middleton, lies the next parish north-westward from Sittingborne, last described, and seems to have taken its name from the Saxon Midletun, a name denoting its situation in the middle part of this county.

THE PARISH of Milton is most of it situated on low flat ground, and extends from the high London road as far as the waters of the Swale northward, adjoining to which, the marshes in this parish are both fresh and salt, of a very large extent. In the southern or upper part of the parish, next to the London road, is a small hamlet, called from the soil Chalkwell, in which there are two modern-built houses of the better sort, the lower most of which has a large tan-yard belonging to it; near it there rise some springs, which fill several large ponds, the reservoirs for a corn mill below them, after which they run along the east skirts of the town, which are a continued swamp of watry bogs, into the creek below. The town, antiently called the king's town of Milton, as being part of the antient possessions of the crown, is situated about half a mile from the high London road, at the eastern boundary of the parish, the greatest part of it on the knole of a hill, extending mostly down the east side of it to the head of the creek, which flows north-westward from hence, and at two miles distance, after several meandrings, joins the waters of the Swale. It has a very indifferent character for health, owing both to the badness of the water, and the gross unwholesome air to which it is subject from its watry situation; nor is it in any degree pleasant, the narrow streets, or rather lanes in it, being badly paved, and for the most part inhabited by seafaring persons, fishermen, and oyster-dredgers.

Its commodious situation for navigation near the Swale, to which the town then stood much nearer than it does at present, caused it to be frequented by the Danes, in their piratical excursions into this county, particularly in 893, these pirates, who had been ravaging. France and the Low Countries, being distressed for subsistence, turned their thoughts towards England, for the sake of plunder: for this purpose, with one of their fleets, they sailed up to Apledore, and with the other, consisting of about eighty ships, under the command of Hastings their captain, they entered the mouth of the river Thames, and landing in this parish built themselves a fortress or castle here. Asserius writes, anno 892, Hastengus fecit sibi firmissimum oppidum apud Middeltunam. Sax. Chron. anno 893, interpreted, Arcem extruxit. Simon Dunelm, coll. 151, H. Huntingdon, lib. 5, Florence of Worcester, p. 595, and Chron. Malros, Fecit munitionem. Spelman, in his Life of Alfred, says, Dani castra validis operibus communiunt. This fortress was erected at a place called Kemsleydowne, in the marshes, about midway between the town and the mouth of the creek, the scite of which is still visible, and being overgrown with wood and bushes, has obtained the name of Castberough. (fn. 1) It is of a square form, and is surrounded by a high bank thrown up, and a broad ditch. There is a raised causeway, very plainly to be seen, leading from it towards the seashore. From this fortress they not only made their excursions and plundered the neighbouring country, but secured themselves against such power as the king might send against them.

This town of Milton being part of the royal demesnes, was a cause of its being destroyed by earl Godwin, who being at variance with Edward the Consessor, came here, with a large force, in the year 1052, and burned this town, then of good condition, to the ground; and afterwards ransacked and spoiled many other of the king's estates throughout the county. After which it does not seem to have been ever restored to its former state.

Its condition in the reign of queen Elizabeth may be seen by the survey, made by her order in the 8th year of her reign; by which it appears, that there were then in this town, houses inhabited one hundred and thirty, persons lacking habitations six, landing-places four, one called Fluddmill keye, appertaining to Sir Henry Cheney; the second, Whitlock's key, now the Town key; the third, Reynolds's, now Page's key; and the fourth, Hamond key, appertaining to Thomas Hayward, now Huggins's key; ships and vessels twenty-six, of which twenty were under ten tons; the rest were of twelve, sixteen, and twenty tons; and persons occupied in trade and fishing twenty four.

Since which the town of Milton has considerably increased, as well in the number of its houses and inhabitants, as in its wealth and trade. The number of houses at present is about two hundred and thirty, which are supposed to contain about twelve hundred inhabitants.

The trade of it chiefly consists in the traffic carrying on weekly at the four wharfs in it, where the corn and commodities of the neighbouring country are shipped for London, and goods of every sort brought back again in return; and in the fishery for oysters, a further account of which will be given hereafter. Besides which, the several mills here do not contribute a little to the benefit of this place; four of these are employed in the grinding of corn, and dressing it into flour; and the fifth, called Perrywinckle mill, was some few years ago applied to the manufacturing of pearl-barley, which used to be imported from Holland; and it was supposed to be the only mill in the kingdom where that article was brought to the same perfection as in Holland, but this manufacture for want of due encouragement has been since discontinued.

The town of Milton is governed by a a portreve, who is chosen annually on St. James's day, by the inhabitants of the parish paying church and poor's rates; whose office is, to oversee the market, and preserve good order within the town, and to execute the office of clerk of the market in all matters, within the hundreds of Milton and Marden; he likewise sets the price of all things which come to the keys, or any other creek within the hundred, being such things as head officers in other towns may set the prices on

The market, which is a very plentiful one for all sorts of butchers meat, poultry, &c. is held on a Saturday weekly, at the shambles, in the center of the town. Adjoining to them is the market-house, having a clock, and a bell, which is rung not only for the purpose of the market, but for the calling of the parshioners to church, for funerals, and for occasional parish meetings. At a small distance northward from the shambles is a king of court-house, being a very low old-timbered tenement, where the courts of the manor are kept, and other meetings held; at other times it is made use of as the school house; underneath it is the town prison.

The school is endowed with the annual sum of nine pounds, an account of which may be seen hereafter, among the charitable benefactions to this parish. The master is appointed by the minister and churchwardens. Nine or ten poor boys are taught to read and write in it.

There is a fair, which used to be held on the feast of St. Margaret, July 13, now, by the alteration of the stile, on the 24th of that month, and the two following days.

The lands in this parish, near the town, and especially on the lower or northern part of it, are very rich and sertile. Adjoining to these are the marshes, which extend to the waters of the Swale. Below the hill westward there is another streamlet, which having turned a mill near the vicarage, runs on not far distant from the church, and court-lodge, situated about half a mile northward below the present town, near which the former one destroyed by Earl Godwin is supposed to have once stood.

In the north-west part of this parish, among the marshes, there is a decoy for wild fowl, the only one, that I know of, in this part of the county. The fowl caught in it, are much esteemed for their size and flavor. Great numbers of them are weekly taken and sent up to London.

In this parish, at a small distance northward from Bobbing-place, is a farm called the Quintin farm, which shews that diversion to have been formerly used in it. (fn. 2)

THE FISHERY belonging to the manor and hundred of Milton is of very considerable account. It seems to have been granted by king John, by his charter, in his 7th year, to the abbot and convent of Faversham, by the description of the fisheries of Milton, which the men of Seasalter then held by the yearly rent of twenty shillings, payable at his manor of Milton, and by doing therefrom the customs and service which were wont to be to it.

King Edward III. in his 4th year, confirmed this grant, as did king Henry VI. and this fishery remained part of the possessions of the abbey till its dissolution, in the 30th year of Henry VIII. when it was surrendered up into the king's hands, together with all its possessions.

After which, the fee simple of this fishery remained with the manor in the hands of the crown, till the 10th year of king Charles I. when it was passed away, with it, by the words recited in the grant then made of the manor, to Sir Ed. Browne and Christ. Favell, as will be more fully mentioned below; after which, James Herbert, esq. coming into the possession of it, by the settlement of it from his father Philip, earl of Pembroke, he in the 26th year of king Charles II. obtained a fresh grant of this fishery, against which there was a quo warranto brought in the reign of queen Anne, on a petition of the fishermen of Rochester and Stroud, to shew by what authority they, the grantees, kept courts within their manor of Milton, and restrained the fishermen of those and the adjacent towns, from fishing and dredging for oysters within this hundred and manor: but on a trial had at bar, a verdict was given in his favor. Since which it has continued down, in like manner as the manor of Milton, to the right hon. Philip, viscount Wenman, and Mrs. Anne Herbert, who are at this time proprietors of this fishery, together with the manor.

The company of Fishermen, or Dredgers, of this fishery, hold it by lease from the owners of the manor, at the yearly rent of one hundred pounds and four bushels of oysters. They are governed by their particular officers, under certain rules or bye-laws, made by antient custom at the court baron of the manor. There are now about one hundred and forty freemen belonging to it.

The oysters produced from these grounds, within the limits of this fishery, are usually called Milton Natives, and are esteemed the finest and richest flavored of any in Europe. They are supposed to be the same that Juvenal particularly describes, in his fourth satire, as being reckoned a delicacy even in his time, in these words, satire iv. l. 144:

— Rutupinove edita fundo Ostrea, callebat primo deprendere morsu.

The sum usually returned for these oysters is from 3000l. to 7000l. per annum. The Dutch have been supposed by many, to have engrossed this article of luxury; but they expend but a very small part of the above sums, and sometimes none, for the space of seven years together.

IN THE WESTERN PART of this parish there are several hundred acres of coppice-wood, which are adjoining to a much larger tract of the like sort, extending southward almost as far as Binbury pound, on the west side of Stockbury-valley, for the space of near five miles. These woods, especially those in and near this parish, are noted for the great plenty of chesnut stubs interspersed promiscuously throughout them, which, from the quick and strait growth of this king of wood, makes them very valuable. These are so numerous in them, as to give name to most of these woods near Milton, which, besides their particular names to each of them, are usually called by the general name of Chesnut-woods. And in the presentment made of the customs of the manor of Milton in 1575, it is mentioned, that the occupiers of the three mills holden of the manor should gather yearly for the lord of it nine bushels of chestenottes, in Chestnott wood, or pay eighteen-pence by the year to the queen, who then had the manor in her own hands, and was possessed of three hundred acres of chesnut wood within this hundred.

¶These chesnuts are undoubtedly the indigenuous growth of Britain, planted by the hand of nature. They are interspersed throughout the whole tract, without any form or regularity, and are many of them, by their appearance, of great age; and by numbers of them, which now seem almost worn out and perishing, being made use of as the termini or boundaries, as well of private property as of parishes, it is plain they were first pitched upon, in preference to others, for that purpose, as being the largest and most antient ones of any then existing; and as these are hardly ever cut down or altered, they must have stood sacred to this use from the first introduction of private property into this kingdom, and the first division of it into parishes. Four letters were printed in 1771, after having been read before the Royal Society, two of which were written by Dr. Ducarel, and the other two by Mr. Thorpe and Mr. Hasted, to prove that chesnut-trees were the indigenous growth of this kingdom, in answer to an idea of the hon. Daines Barrington, who had a wish to establish a contrary opinion.

DR. PLOT says, that Herba Britannica, which Twyne and Johnson think to be bistort, Trisolium acetosum, or Oxys; Empetron, quæ est petrafindula Britanniæ prope peculiaris, and Crocus, were found at Milton by Scribonius Largus, when he came into Britain with the emperor Claudius. And he further says, that Crocus sativus, saffron, was heretofore sown and gathered (as now at Walden, in Essex) at Milton, and quotes for his authority, a manuscript rental of the manor of Milton, in the library of Christ-church, Canterbury.

MILTON is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Sittingborne.

The church is dedicated to the Holy Trinity. It is a large handsome building, consisting of two isles and two chancels, the southernmost of which belongs to the manor of Northwood. It has a well built tower at the west end, in which are five bells. In this church, among others, were formerly the arms of Barry, Diggs, Finch, of the Five Ports, of Norwood and Norton, with their several crests, trophies, and banners; of Marten quartering Boteler; one coat, Barry, argent and azure, on a canton of the first, a bird of the second; Argent, three bends azure, within a bordure, eight mullets; Gules, a fess or, between three mullets, argent; and in one of the windows, a man kneeling, with a coat of arms, Six lions rampant, three and three, and underneath, Orate paia Guliel Savage Armigi.

Mauricius ap John, rector of St. George's, in Exeter, was buried in the choir of this church, as appears by his will, anno 1499.

In the year 1070, being the 5th year of his reign, William the Conqueror gave to the abbot and convent of St. Augustine, the church of Middelton, and the tenths of all the products accruing from that manor, and the tenths of all its appurtenances, of the land, wood, meadows, and water, excepting the tenths of honey, and rent paid in money. (fn. 12)

Pope Lucius XI. in 1144, at the petition of abbot Hugh de Trottesclive, confirmed the annual pension of ten marcs from this church to that abbey.

In 1168, the conventual church of St. Augustine was the greatest part of it burnt; on which account this church was allotted to the sacristy there, for the repair of it. (fn. 13) But they did not keep it long, for in 1178, at the king's instance, they gave it up, and lost all property both in the church, and the advowson of it. A composition was entered into between the archbishop and the abbot in 1182, concerning the privileges and exemptions of the latter; when it was agreed, that the archdeacon, or his official, should receive his accustomed dues and procurations from the churches of St. Augustine, excepting those of Minster, Northborne, and Chistelet, and from this church likewise, when the monks should again get possession of the appropriation of it.

Four years after which, the abbot demised to the prioress of St. Sexburg of Shepey, the tiches which his monastery possessed, in right of this church, in Bobbing, at the yearly rent of ten shillings, on condition that all housekeepers, which should be on the estates from which they arose, should yearly repair to this the mother church, with their oblations, on Christmas-day, the Purification, and Easter day. And in 1188, the abbot demised to the prioress there, the tenths of Westlonde, within her parish, for the rent of fourteen shillings, payable yearly to the sacrist of St. Augustine.

About the year 1198, the abbot and convent recovered this church, which was then become vacant by the death of one Franco, the person to whom they had given it up, at the instance of king Henry. But they had kept it but a small time, before the archbishop disturbed them in their possession of it. However, by the mediation of mutual friends, and at the king's request, that he would not molest them in their appropriation of it; he out of respect to the king, ratified this church to them, to be possessed by them for ever. (fn. 14)

There was a pension of forty shillings payably yearly from this church, with the chapel belonging to it, to the above monastery, which, with the other pensions from their several churches, was given up by agreement in 1242, for a compensation out of the profits of the church of Preston.

The abbot and convent, among the extensive privileges from the papal see, had obtained an exemption from all archiepiscopal authority, and about the year 1295 made an institution of several new deanries, and apportioned the several churches belonging to his monastery, to each of them, according to their vicinity; one of these was the deanry of Lenham, in which this church was included. This raised great contests with the several archbishops, and after more than five years altercation, the abbot was stripped of these exemptions, and was declared, by the pope's bull, to be subject to the archbishop's jurisdiction, in like manner as before; which entirely dissolved these new deanries, and that of Lenham among them. (fn. 15)

Notwithstanding the abbot and convent seem to have held the appropriation of this church almost from held the appropriation of this church almost from the first grant of it, and though there had been vicars instituted to it long before this time, for Robert de Wikes, who stiles himself vicar of Middelton, by his deed in 1247, granted seven deywerks of land, with the houses built on it, for the habitation of the vicar of Middelton, for the time being; and the abbot and convent had in 1286, assigned a portion for the maintenance of the vicar here; yet there does not appear to have been any regular endowment of a vicarage to it, till the reign of king Edward III. when archbishop Stratford, in 1345, anno 20 Edward III. by his instrument, decreed, that the vicar of the church of Middelton, and his successors, should have the usual mansion of the vicarage, with the garden adjoining to it, together with one acre of the glebe of the same; and that he should have, in the name of the vicarage, all manner of oblations in the church of Middelton, and in all places, situated within the bounds and limits or titheable places of it; and that they should have in the name of the vicarage, all tithes of sylva cædua, wool, lambs, calves, pigs, ducks, geese, swans, pidgeons, cheese, milk-meats, herbage, apples, pears, and other fruit, growing in gardens and orchards, pulse, flax, hemp, eggs, rushes, merchandizes, and of all mills built, or which might in future be built, within the bounds and limits or titheable places of the church, and all other small tithes whatsoever belonging to it, and all legacies left in future to it, which the rectors or vicars of it might of right or custom take; also, that the vicars, in right of the vicarage, should have of the religious, the annual pension of 4s. (fn. 16) sterling, one seam or quarter of corn, and three quarters or seams of barley, on the feast of St. Michael, at Middelton, by them to be yearly paid, on pain of the sequestration of the fruits and profits of the church, belonging to the religious, to be laid on as often and whenever they should cease in the payment of the pension or barley, or should not pay either of them in the time above-mentioned.

But that the vicars should undergo the burthen of serving by themselves, or some other fit priest, the church in divine services, in the finding of one lamp, to burn before the altar of St. Mary there, and the ministering of bread, wine, lights, and other things, which should be necessary for the celebration of divine rights in the church. The burthen likewise of the payment of tenths and other impositions, whenever they might be imposed on the English church, or incumbent on the church, for the taxation of twelve marcs, beyond the burthens allotted to the religious underneath, they should undergo at their own costs and expences.

But the burthen of the reparation and rebuilding of the chancel of the church, both within and without, and also the finding and repairing of books and vestments, and ornaments of the church, which were wont or ought of right or custom, to be found and repaired by the rectors of churches, and all other burthens, ordinary and extraordinary, incumbent on the church, the religious should undergo and acknowledge for ever, &c. (fn. 17)

The church and vicarage, after this, remained part of the possessions of the monastery, till the final dissolution of it, in the 30th year of Henry VIII. when it was, with all its revenues, surrendered up into the king's hands, who by his dotation-charter, in his 33d year, settled both the appropriation of this church, and the advowson of the vicarage, among other premises, on his new-founded dean and chapter of Christchurch, Canterbury, with whom the inheritance of the parsonage still remains, the interest in the lease of it being now in the heirs of John Cockin Sole, esq. deceased, but the advowson of the vicarage the dean and chapter retain in their own hands, and are the present patrons of it.

The vicarage of Milton is valued in the king's books at 13l. 2s. 6d. and the yearly tenths at 1l. 6s. 3d.

¶In 1578, there were here, dwelling-houses on hundred and eight, communicants three hundred and seventy-four. In 1640 this vicarage was valued at eighty pounds. Communicants five hundred and twenty-nine.

The antient annual pension of four shillings, one quarter of wheat, and three quarters of barley, stipulated to be paid by the religious as before-mentioned, still continues to be paid by the lessee of the parsonage, by the covenants of his lease.

The agreement made between the prior of the brethren of the hospital of St. John of Jersalem and the abbot and convent of St. Augustine, about king Henry the IId.'s reign, that whenever their chapel of Rodmersham should be dedicated, and the cemetery consecrated, they would diminish by it none of the mother church of Middleton's rights; has already been more fully mentioned in the account of that parish before. (fn. 18)

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol6/pp163-192

What Lies Beyond?

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Harvester Caterpillar tucked in a beech leaf....with plenty of Aphids to eat!

I added this border. Now If I could only think of a way to simulate a blinking cursor at the end of the text.

A village boat market in Bangladesh. Where villagers buy and sell their boats during the monsoon season. Bangladesh is a land of river and low laying area now flooded it causes boats is the only way of communications of the low-lying area.

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Amaranthus caudatus. At the Pittsburgh Zoo in Pittsburgh, PA.

"I saw the Storm and ice covered land

I saw the frozen trees so silent

I saw the blackness of their branches

under the unforgiving snow

Down down into the earth i went

Deeper and darker places surrounded me

Until the colors came

Until the swirling shapes danced around me

There the roots of life drew forth from a greater Life

This is the place of the Great Dream

Where the Garden ever pulsates

From this place the roots draw forth and sustain entire worlds

The seasons draw from on eternal Spring

changing the shapes of Infinity over and over again."

© Ganga Fondan, 2010

Unedited from a journal entry written after meditating on the "Four Eternal Principles". Focusing on the meaning of those journaled words came this artwork on digital canvas. It reminds me of how everything we touch, taste, smell, see, feel, hear....is connected to a greater Source beyond the senses and immerses us in a grander experience each time we are courageous enough to let go of all the small ways we know ourselves.

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This was in a cave at Ballintoy Harbour. I set up the shot and waited for someone to walk past.

fotografie-jozef-marcel-s.be

He said he'd never leave.

He said he loved me.

He said it would be forever.

Nothing is forever.....

Because we are social animals, we are liable to lie rather than admit not being what authority figures or peers say we should be. www.youtube.com/watch?v=W_IzYUJANfk

Ge digital camera

I am lying flat on my back motionless with my eyes closed at a local park with my arms pinned beside my head relaxing and enjoying the beautiful weather

A young (but not that young) moose lying in the snow with open mouth, showing the tongue

make up and photo by carla

I don't trust anyone and no one trusts me. I lie, just like you and everyone else.

German collectors card in the series 'Vom Werden deutscher Filmkunst - Der Tonfilm', album no. 11, picture no. 32. Photo: Cine-Allianz / Ross Verlag. Jan Kiepura and Julius Falkenstein in Das Lied einer Nacht/The Song of Night (Anatole Litvak, 1932).

Polish actor and singer Jan Kiepura (1902-1966) was one of the grand tenors of the 20th century and with his handsome smile he also became a popular film star. Solo and together with Marta Eggerth he starred in many popular film operettas of the 1930s.

For more cards of this series, check out our album Vom Werden Deutscher Filmkunst.

Ask.                 I have a book for sale.

Lion cub eating from the bone and looking at me.

Portrait of a male lion lying down and locking his nose

Lier

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