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Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Ionic capital rows from the Artemision
Artemision
End of the 3rd century BC
Magnesia ad Maeandrum, Ionia
Turkey
St Anne, Wandsworth
In 1818 an Act of Parliament was passed to set up a Commission for “promoting the building of churches and chapels in populous parishes”, the so-called Commissioners churches. The first of these churches were also termed Waterloo churches because they were looked upon as national monuments built in thanksgiving for the victory over Napoleon at Waterloo. St Anne’s was the fifth Waterloo church, initially a Chapel of Ease for All Saints, Wandsworth parish, until becoming a parish in its own right in 1850.
Designed by Robert Smirke – architect of the British Museum – it was completed on 29th July 1822. Developed on high ground above the Wandle valley on the (then) edge of the suburbs, it became known variously as ‘St Anne’s in the Fields’ and as the ‘Pepper-pot Church’ because of the shape of its tower. (It was St Ann, from the hill on which it stands, not St Anne until at least 1847!) The main body of the church is built of yellow gault bricks with stone dressings and sits behind a giant stone Ionic portico above which a round tower rises from a square base (considered by Pevsner to be “exactly twice as high as it should be”).
The church as Smirke originally conceived it differs from today’s church: the east end was much smaller with three lancet windows, the nave was fitted out with high Georgian box-pews, and the gallery extended at the west end to the next pair of pillars, where it housed the organ. (The north-west corner of the nave under the gallery has since been closed off to provide a servers and clergy vestry.)
Although the building was completed structurally on 29th July 1822, it remained unconsecrated until 1st May 1824 because of a dispute between the Bishop of Winchester (the then diocese) and the parish over whether the churchyard should be enclosed by a wall or a fence. The churchyard remains unconsecrated to this day and thus never became a graveyard.
In 1890 the vicar, Edward Granger Hall, began a whole series of alterations (completed under Norman Campbell) – the removal of the box-pews, the narrowing of the gallery, and the building of the apsidal chancel with its associated side chapels. Edward Mountford – architect of the Old Bailey – designed the chancel which was completed in 1896. Pevsner describes the chancel as a fairly conservative neo Wren but John Betjeman calls it swaggering baroque. Most agree however that the late Victorian chancel sits remarkably well with the Regency nave. A bas-relief of The Last Supper over the high altar is attributed to Doulton & Co, of Lambeth.
Mountford was a churchwarden and the Mountford Memorial chapel on the south side of the chancel (now re-designated the Lady Chapel) is a memorial to his wife, Jessie. The decoration (particularly the hanging lamps) is heavily influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement. The painting behind the altar is an amalgam of several famous works of art.
The north east chapel was originally a vestry but was converted (1925) to the Blessed Sacrament chapel and is now dedicated to St Faith to recognise the rejoining of St Faith’s to St Anne’s parish (split from it in 1884). Behind the altar hangs a 16th C Italian painting of the adoration of Christ by the wise men.
A Flying Bomb in 1944 blew out almost all the windows and rendered the tower and nave unsafe. St Anne’s had very little stained glass and all that survived the 1939-45 war is in the Lady Chapel. The church was restored in 1947. However in 1950, a fire again devastated the church, completely destroying the roof. This was reconstructed using a steel framework instead of wooden purlins. A wooden internal porch on the south door was erected. The church was finally re-dedicated in Dec 1951.
By the late 1970′s the fabric of the church was in a very poor state. The exterior was covered in grime, and the stonework crumbling and the interior paintwork had become very dirty. The building looked redundant. Repairs were carried out to the most seriously eroded stonework, to the copper and lead roofs, and to eradicate long-horn beetle and dry rot. It was also found possible to overhaul the electrics, replacing the lightning conductor, long since stolen for its lead. This work was completed by 1983. Internal redecoration in traditional Georgian colours was made possible by parish donations and a legacy from Clifford Hobbs who had been Church Organist.
In 1985, a very large legacy from a parishioner, Elsie Nightingale, provided money for many general repairs, including at this time a complete overhaul of the heating system. A Repairs Fund was established.
In 1991 a second extensive restoration exercise was embarked upon. With a substantial grant from English Heritage, it was possible to clean and fully restore the exterior. The church was rewired. The organ (Forster and Andrew, 1890s) was rebuilt in 1996 by Rushworth and Dreaper of Liverpool. The organ console that had been moved from above the Lady Chapel to the chancel, was now moved again to the nave. At the same time the eagle lectern was moved from the south to the north aisle in front of the console.
After the rebuilding of the organ, the chancel was reordered. The fixed choir stalls were removed, and the wooden floor where they stood has been replaced by marble, matching the existing pattern. At the request of English Heritage, a thin brass strip marks where the stalls stood. A free-standing altar is now used.
The lighting and electrical system was totally redesigned and replaced in 2005.
There are many memorials around the church. The pulpit (1893) is a memorial to the Dubuisson brother and sister, James and Elizabeth. The choir stalls (now in the nave) are also Dubuisson memorials. The family held the patronage of St Anne’s until 1902. They gave generously to many local causes, including large sums to the fighting fund to save Wandsworth Common from development.
The brass lectern (1894) is a memorial to Edward Grainger Hall, Vicar from 1890 -1894. Its stand is made from fossil–rich Frosterley marble, mined in Weardale, Yorks, and valued for its beauty when polished.
At the back of the nave, at either side of the entrance is the 1914-18 war memorial (erected 1920). On it are the names of the 313 men of the parish who died in the 1914-18 war, including Frank Harvey VC. A small brass memorial in the chancel gives the names of those who were members of the Church.
The most important addition to Villa Borghese was a Ionic temple on an islet in an artificial pond; the whole complex was surrounded by rocks and caves and it was accessed through serpentine walks. This setting was modified by the Borghese in 1823 and by the Italian State after the acquisition of the villa.
Il tempio di Esculapio è sito nell'isolotto artificiale del lago sito nel Giardino del Lago a Villa Borghese (Roma).Trattasi di un tempietto in stile ionico realizzato nel 1786 da Antonio e Mario Asprucci e da Cristoforo Unterperger.Consta di un portico con 4 capitelli ionici che sorreggono un frontone triangolare.Fra il frontone e le colonne vi è una scritta in greco [Ασκληπιωι Σωτηρι (pronuncia: Asclepioi Soteri)].
Sul tetto vi sono varie statue ellenistiche.Dietro il portico vi è l'edicoletta con la statua di Esculapio.
Villa Borghese is a large landscape garden in the naturalistic English manner in Rome, containing a number of buildings, museums and attractions. It is the second largest public park in Rome (80 hectares or 148 acres) after that of the Villa Doria Pamphili. The gardens were developed for the Villa Borghese Pinciana ("Borghese villa on the Pincian Hill"), built by the architect Flaminio Ponzio, developing sketches by Scipione Borghese, who used it as a villa suburbana, a party villa, at the edge of Rome, and to house his art collection. The gardens as they are now were remade in the early nineteenth century.
In 1605, Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of Pope Paul V and patron of Bernini, began turning this former vineyard into the most extensive gardens built in Rome since Antiquity. The vineyard's site is identified with the gardens of Lucullus, the most famous in the late Roman republic. In the 19th century much of the garden's former formality was remade as a landscape garden in the English taste. The Villa Borghese gardens were long informally open, but were bought by the commune of Rome and given to the public in 1903. The large landscape park in the English taste contains several villas. The Spanish Steps lead up to this park, and there is another entrance at the Porte del Popolo by Piazza del Popolo. The Pincio (the Pincian Hill of ancient Rome), in the south part of the park, offers one of the greatest views over Rome.
Villa Borghese è un grande parco della città di Roma che comprende sistemazioni a verde di diverso tipo, dal giardino all'italiana alle ampie aree di stile inglese, edifici, piccoli fabbricati, fontane e laghetti.
È il terzo più grande parco pubblico a Roma (circa 80 ettari), dopo Villa Doria-Pamphili e Villa Ada e si estende in gran parte sul quartiere Pinciano e in piccola parte sul rione Campo Marzio, divisi dalle Mura aureliane.
Il nucleo della tenuta era già di proprietà dei Borghese nel 1580, sul sito nel quale è stata identificata anche la posizione dei Giardini di Lucullo (o horti luculliani).
Il possedimento fu ampliato con una serie di acquisti e acquisizioni dal cardinale Scipione Borghese, nipote di papa Paolo V e futuro patrono di Gianlorenzo Bernini, con l'intento di crearvi una "villa di delizie" e il più vasto giardino costruito a Roma dall'antichità. Nel 1606 la realizzazione degli edifici fu affidata dal cardinale agli architetti Flaminio Ponzio e, dopo la morte del predecessore, a Giovanni Vasanzio (Jan van Santen); gli architetti furono affiancati dal giardiniere Domenico Savini da Montelpulciano e dall'intervento anche altri artisti, quali Pietro e Gianlorenzo Bernini. La villa era completata nel 1633.
Nel 1766 lavori di trasformazione furono intrapresi dal principe Marcantonio IV Colonna, nel "Casino nobile" (ora sede della Galleria Borghese) e nel "Casino dei giuochi d'acqua" (attuale "Aranciera" e sede del Museo Carlo Bilotti), e soprattutto nel parco, con la sistemazione del "Giardino del lago", ad opera degli architetti Antonio e Mario Asprucci. Tutto il giardino venne ornato di fontane e piccole fabbriche che permettevano di godere di scorci prospettici suggestivi.
Agli inizi del XIX secolo la villa venne ulteriormente ampliata da Camillo Borghese con l'acquisto di terreni verso Porta del Popolo e Porta Pinciana, che furono integrati alla villa con l'intervento dell'architetto Luigi Canina. Nel corso del secolo gran parte della precedente giardino formale fu trasformato in giardino di paesaggio di gusto inglese. Durante tutto il secolo i giardini furono aperti per il passeggio festivo e vi erano ospitate feste popolari con canti e balli.
Il complesso fu acquistato dallo Stato italiano nel 1901 e ceduto al comune di Roma nel 1903 per essere stabilmente aperto al pubblico, mentre iniziava la lottizzazione della confinante Villa Ludovisi sui cui terreni stava sorgendo l'omonimo quartiere. La villa fu acquistata per 3 milioni di lire dell'epoca (equivalenti a circa 10 milioni di euro attuali), e denominata ufficialmente "Villa comunale Umberto I già Borghese". I romani non smisero mai di chiamarla Villa Borghese.
Il grande parco contiene diversi edifici ed ha 9 ingressi: tra i più frequentati quello di Porta Pinciana, quello dalla scalinata di Trinità dei Monti, quello dalle rampe del Pincio a piazza del Popolo e l'ingresso monumentale di Piazzale Flaminio. Il "giardino del Pincio" (corrispondente al colle Pincio), nella parte sud del parco, offre un noto panorama su Roma.
L'edificio della villa ("Villa Borghese Pinciana"), oggi sede della Galleria Borghese, fu costruita dall'architetto Flaminio Ponzio, che sviluppò gli schizzi di Scipione Borghese. Ora è la sede della Galleria Borghese. Alla morte di Ponzio, i lavori furono terminati dal fiammingo Giovanni Vasanzio. L'edificio fu destinato da Camillo Borghese a contenere le sculture di Bernini, tra cui il David e Apollo e Dafne, e di Antonio Canova (Paolina Borghese) nonché le pitture di Tiziano, Raffaello e del Caravaggio.
Contigua a Villa Borghese, ma oggi fuori dal perimetro vero e proprio del parco, ai piedi del colle, è Villa Giulia, costruita nel 1551 - 1555 come residenza estiva per papa Giulio III, che ora ospita il Museo nazionale etrusco. Era legata a Villa Borghese anche Villa Medici, sede dell'Accademia francese a Roma. Altri edifici sparsi nei giardini di Villa Borghese, su viale delle Belle Arti, sono stati edificati in occasione della Esposizione internazionale tenutasi a Roma nel 1911 per festeggiare il primo cinquantenario dell'Unità d'Italia. La Galleria nazionale d'arte moderna risale a questo periodo.
La villa ospita anche lo zoo di Roma trasformato recentemente in bioparco ed il Museo civico di zoologia, mentre la "Casina delle Rose" è oggi la sede della Casa del Cinema. Nei pressi di quest'ultima si trova il Cinema dei Piccoli, la sala cinematografica più piccola al mondo.
È sede del concorso ippico Piazza di Siena, giunto nel 2009 alla 77ma edizione.
Nel 2003 è stato inaugurato il Silvano Toti Globe Theatre, una ricostruzione del Globe Theatre di Shakespeare a Londra.
Font : Wikipedia
Just kind of messing around, it's nothing serious. :x I'm on my desktop, shitty graphics. But yeh, it's my yard :3 All things Ionic & Hideki
Flickr member CLYDEBRAE wrote this about sister ship the Bardic Ferry...
Delivered in 1957 to the Atlantic Steam Navigation Co Ltd, this was a strategically important new building. Fifty years on and much of our trade is by roll on roll off ferry and we are used to seeing foreign trucks trundling up and down our motorways. This vessel was hailed as the first ro-ro vessel to be built in the UK. There had been earlier examples able to carry a limited number of vehicles and the Landing Ship Tank conversions of ASN proved a demand. This vessel was a hybrid - the vehicle deck was accessed by a stern door, as illustrated here. This deck extended below and forward of the accommodation to the collision bulkhead. The weather deck, with containers on deck shown here, was entirely lift on lift off with no ramp access to the vehicle deck. A 20 ton deck crane was fitted on deck capable of slewing through 360 degrees at a radius of 40ft - giving an outreach of 12ft 6ins beyond ships side. It is reported the vessel was built with Ministry of Defence requirements in mind, including the ability to carry tanks on her vehicle deck. Capable of carrying 15 first class and 38 second class passengers within Home Trade limits, she was also classed for Middle Trades to the Baltic and Mediterranean but as a cargo vessel limited to 12 passengers. Plans of the vessel hint at her possible military role - two of the second class cabins having alternative uses as an operating theatre and hospital. These were the only two passenger cabins on the Promenade Deck, placed immediately forward of the Second Class Lounge which no doubt would have been converted to hold casualties, in case of need. Built before the era of bow thrust units, she was equipped with a bow rudder but needed tug assistance in Preston. In today's world of short sea crossings and fast turnrounds her schedule was leisurely and tidally dependent. Light draughted there were still occasions when poor neap tides imposed restrictions. At 12ft 8ins her draught would have been similar to the vessel loading coal in the next photograph even though the latter looks much smaller. Within a couple of years the Preston by-pass opened and our motorway network rapidly expanded. As with the railways a century before, an established motorway network favoured the short sea route and transfer of the service to Cairnryan, close to Stranraer, in 1974 allowed a much reduced passage time and more intensive use of this ship and its successors.
Both she and her sister, Ionic Ferry delivered in 1958, did pretty well, lasting for 30 years. Both were sold in 1976, the Bardic Ferry being renamed Nasim II and the Ionic Ferry the Kamasin and later Tamerlane. Both ships ended their days within months of each other at Turkish shipbreakers in Aliaga. The Bardic Ferry in November 1988 and the Ionic Ferry a little earlier, in April of the same year.
Photo by Tony Pettit
Image courtesy of the Preston Historical Society. www.prestonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/
© Preston Historical Society.
The old front of the town hall, taken down and reassembled at Heaton Park. The capitals of the Columns highlighted by the beams of the evening sun, with clouds floating in the background.
Robert Brown, 1825. Classical tenement range with advanced 3-bay canted pavilion with Ionic columns to ground floor to junction with Annandale Street; symmetrical 3-storey, attic and basement elevations; 15 bays to Haddington Place, 3 bays to corner elevation. Polished ashlar (some painted sections to ground floor); droved ashlar to basement of Haddington Place elevation and right section of SW elevation. Dividing band between basement and ground floor; continuous cornice to ground floor; continuous cast iron trellis balconette to 1st floor; cill band to 2nd floor; band course and main cornice between 2nd and attic floor; eaves cornice; balustraded parapet (solid parapet to pavilions, with sunk panelling and St Andrews cross detail to centre; to curved elevation, canted panel with rosette, flanked by large scrolls). Regular fenestration; architraved and corniced windows to 1st floor (consoled pediments to windows to central bay of pavilions and corner elevation); architraved windows to 2nd floor.
Haddington Place is built on land which once formed part of Edinburgh's Botanic Gardens. These had been transferred to the west side of Leith Walk by Professor John Hope, Professor of Botany, 1763. In 1820, the botanic gardens were moved again to their present site at Inverleith. Professor Hope died in 1786 and by 1817, the land is marked on Kirkwood's map as 'the property of Dr Hopes representatives', suggesting that his wife had since died and the land been inherited by his children, of which he had three sons and one daughter. In 1824-5, Sasines show that the lands were being feued for building to an agreed scheme by a Major John Hope (probably Professor Hope's second son). It seems likely that he was influenced by the success of the neighbouring Gayfield estate. However, like the Calton scheme, the Hope scheme suffered badly from the rise in popularity of the West End, and very little of Brown's scheme was actually built. Only the south section of Haddington Place was completed, Annandale Street was left uncompleted to the NW end, and the only other street of the scheme to begin building, Hope (now Hopetoun) Crescent, has only two pairs of houses built to Brown's designs.
Topcon RE Super
Tokyo Kogaku RE.Auto-Topcor 58mm f1.8
Agfaphoto APX 100 at EI 100
Adox Adonal 1+50 11 min at 21°C
Agitation 1 min + 5 sec/ 30 sec
Heinola, Finland 2025.
The Celtic Cross , or Ionic Cross, date back as much as 5,000 years before Christ’s birth, and are considered to be a variation on “sun crosses,” an old symbol that honored the pagan thunder god Taranis.
Near Kinsale, Ireland
Borrowed texture
1911, James Knox Taylor, Supervising Architect of the U.S. Treasury; 1936 rear addition. 40 W. Piccadilly St.
From its corner site this two-story Classical Revival brick former post office presents two facades. The principal one facing Piccadilly Street features a stone two-story flat-topped portico with four Ionic columns. Behind the portico, Ionic pilasters frame the bays, and rectangular panels with stone swags further accent the facade. A narrower, less-detailed portico with Ionic columns is on the side elevation. The building is now used for office and commercial purposes.
NRHP - Winchester Historic District - 67000027
*Ionic* Into the Others instrument props (The 24)
Exile: Akio hair
-slouch-poses still rings-Gold& Ivory rare (The 24 Gacha)
*P- Inca moon Ring,Necklace and Earrings (The 24)
[DD] High Elegance Boots
DRBC- Beetlejuice Bardot Dress (The 24 Gacha)
Summer shack by MIASNOW
Items Used:
*ionic* Abandoned Warehouse RARE
*ionic* Water Tank
HPMD* Sweet Garden Grass02 - green
{vespertine} - little plants 19
[ARIA] Bella Book Pile
Apple Fall Crumpled Newspaper
not so bad . BOGDAN table
junk. morrison wire lamp.
junk. bartlet daybed. leather. pg.
junk. half man(nequin).
Bazar - Stockholm-Bedroom Books 01
Cheeky Pea - :CP: Quinn Sofa (Adult)
Hideki - Tree Stump Table
-tres blah- Salad Days - Passing Time
-tres blah- Salad Days - Fox Tail Agave
Con.&floorplan. bean bag chair (blanket) / olive A
junk. barrel table.
junk. windmill light.
42_8f8 - La Petite Joie Cafe - Cigarettes SECRET
junk. tripod lamp.
The Loft - York Chair
[Commoner] California Dreamin' / Salvaged Console
[ARIA] Signe zamioculcas potted plant
Kalopsia - Flat TV
*ionic* Reclaimed frame {wood}
*aG* tree of Hobbit B summer
Hayabusa Design Populus Serotina Peuplier OPTHD-F M20 v1-1 T1
the Grand Lodge of Maryland Masonic Temple
second permanent headquarters of the Maryland Freemasons, 1866-1996
also known as: Grand Historic Venue, Tremont Suites Hotel & Embassy Suites Baltimore Downtown
architectural style: French & Italian Renaissance, Beaux-Arts
architect: Edmund G. Lind
Joseph Evans Sperry, Beaux Arts sixth story, attic & elaborate entryway
cornerstone laid: November 20, 1866, President Andrew Johnson was among the attendees
Grand Historic Venue
225 North Charles Street
Baltimore, MD
You can now enter this area.
Don't miss to get your mice :)
今なら入れます。
区画入れないようになってました。ごめんね。
いっぱいあるからおいでやす。
The Temple of Zeus in the western part of the Temple Terrace is oriented to the east. It had 6 Ionic columns on the front and back, and 8 columns on the flanks and measured 13.87 x 18.71 m between the corners of the stylobate. That there were only 8 columns on the long sides is unusual; a normal temple would have had between 11 and 13 columns on the flanks.
www.labraunda.org/Labraunda.org/Temple_of_Zeus_eng.html
Labranda – Labraunda – Lambraunda – or Labraynda.
www.labraunda.org/Labraunda.org/Foreword_eng.html
In ancient times the people living in south-western Anatolia were known as the Karians. They had their own language, Karian, which was an Indo-European language related to that of their neighbours in Lykia to the east. Their country Karia was bordered to the north by the river Maeander (Büyük Menderes Çayı) and in the east by the river Indos (Dalaman Çayı). From 546 BC Karia formed part of the Persian empire, and was ruled by satraps appointed by the Great King at Persepolis in Persia. In the 4th century, Karia was ruled by satraps of a local dynasty. The first one was Hekatomnos (392-377 BC). As rulers after him followed his five sons and daughters, one after the other. They are called the Hekatomnids, which means the descendants of Hekatomnos. After the oldest, Maussollos (377-352), came his wife and sister Artemisia (352-351), then Idrieus (351-344), followed by Ada, who was also his sister and wife (344-341) and, after her, the youngest brother Pixodaros (341-336). Alexander the Great put Ada back in charge in 334 BC.
The most important sanctuary in western Karia was Labraunda, especially in the 4th century BC, since the Hekatomnids favoured it more than any other shrine in Karia. At that time the sanctuary of Labraunda does not seem to have belonged to any city. It was probably an independent shrine and a place for pilgrimage, ruled by its priests and belonging to the people of all surrounding villages.
More;
www.labraunda.org/Labraunda.org/Introduction_eng.html
Labraunda Team;
If you have a good memory, you may remember the Corinthian column I made some time ago. I got a lot of good comments on that one (thank you!), and I wanted to build some more... stuff.
If you have a perfect memory, you may remember that I said the Ionic column was hard to do because of its spirals (volutes, if you prefer fancy terms). I did have a go at designing one however, but I began to think the spirals were impossible to do. And if you don't get those right, your column is not right.
If you have a good eyesight, you may have noticed that I'm presenting now an Ionic column nontheless. What happened? Some would call it a miracle, some just inspiration. I found the Indiana Jones whip.
Once I had my spiral (the only spirally part in LEGO, I believe), the column flowed onto my LDD screen. At almost the first try, I had something I was happy with.
And that's what you see in front of you. Before anyone asks: the column should be buildable in real life. I know the whips aren't available in white, but everything else apart form the One Rings I used, is available in white (now even the croissant!). Furthermore, I believe the column's quite stable. It uses the same technique that I learned from Jamie, in the designer video on the LEGO Creator website. This is my tribute to that video, because it made me want to make columns. And I've come a long way.
So I hope you enjoy this Ionic column in minifig scale. And I looked it up for you: this is the first one in LEGO to appear on the internet.
Here's the topic on Eurobricks: www.eurobricks.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=88953&hl=
An Ionic Octahedron, from Gwen Fisher's new Ionic Polyhedra pattern at www.beadinfinitum.com. Czech glass and Japanese seed beads. Created September 2010.
My sister and I used to go around identifying Grecian columns in our Philly childhood. (These are Corinthian.)
Athena Nike Temple view from the Propylaea North wing.
The temple has a tetrastyle (four columns) Ionic structure with a colonnaded portico at both front (East) and rear (West) facades. The columns were monolithic columns. Approximately, the temple dimensions are 8,2 meters long by 5,6 meters wide. The total height from the stylobate, the top step of the stepped basement supporting the temple, to the acme of the pediment is 7,0 m. The ratio of height to diameter of the columns is 7:1. This slender proportion contributes to the elegant appearance of building.
This temple, probably designed by the architect Kallikrates in 437 BC and constructed in the following years, was built over an earlier temple. It is probable that a temple for Athena was established here as early as the time of the Peisistratids (561—510 BC). After the destruction of the Acropolis by the Persians in 480 BC (the cult figure was taken to Salamis for safety) a new shrine with a larger altar of Aiginetan limestone was built and the ancient cult figure was set up in it again. The building was not enlarged until the time of Perikles, when the cult was made one of the city cults of Athens through the appointment of a priestess elected from the people.
The architects disagreed on the proposed building plans of the Propylaea and the Nike Temple. A compromise was reached between the two architectural plans and a tower-like substructure, the Nike Bastion, was set up for the Nike Temple. On one side the Nike Bastion was flanked by the ramp of the Propylaea.
Source: H.R. Goette, “Athens, Attica and the Megarid – An Archaeological Guide”
Athens Acropolis, Athena Nike Temple
Designed by Kallikrates
437 – 420 BC
"The Masonic Temple is a historic Masonic building in Philadelphia. Located at 1 North Broad Street, directly across from Philadelphia City Hall, it serves as the headquarters of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, Free and Accepted Masons. The Temple features the Masonic Library and Museum of Pennsylvania, and receives thousands of visitors every year to view the ornate structure, which includes seven lodge rooms, where today a number of Philadelphia lodges and the Grand Lodge conduct their meetings.
The Temple was designed in the medieval Norman style by James H. Windrim, who was 27 years old at the time he won the design competition. The massive granite cornerstone, weighing ten tons, was leveled on St. John the Baptist's Day, June 24, 1868. The ceremonial gavel used on that day by Grand Master Richard Vaux was the same gavel used by President George Washington in leveling the cornerstone of the nation's Capitol building in 1793.
The construction was completed five years later, in 1873. The interior, designed by George Herzog, was begun in 1887 and took another fifteen years to finish.
The bold and elaborate elevations on Broad and Filbert Streets, especially the beautiful portico of Quincy granite, make it one of the great architectural wonders of Philadelphia. The exterior stone of the building on Broad and Filbert Streets is Cape Ann Syenite from Syne in Upper Egypt.
On May 27, 1971, the Temple was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985. It was cited in its landmark designation as one of the nation's most elaborate examples of Masonic architecture.
Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City, and the 68th-largest city in the world. Since 1854, the city has been coextensive with Philadelphia County, the most populous county in Pennsylvania and the urban core of the Delaware Valley, the nation's seventh-largest and world's 68th-largest metropolitan region, with 6.245 million residents as of 2020. The city's population as of the 2020 census was 1,603,797, and over 56 million people live within 250 mi (400 km) of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia was founded in 1682 by William Penn, an English Quaker. The city served as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony during the British colonial era and went on to play a historic and vital role as the central meeting place for the nation's founding fathers whose plans and actions in Philadelphia ultimately inspired the American Revolution and the nation's independence. Philadelphia hosted the First Continental Congress in 1774 following the Boston Tea Party, preserved the Liberty Bell, and hosted the Second Continental Congress during which the founders signed the Declaration of Independence, which historian Joseph Ellis has described as "the most potent and consequential words in American history". Once the Revolutionary War commenced, both the Battle of Germantown and the Siege of Fort Mifflin were fought within Philadelphia's city limits. The U.S. Constitution was later ratified in Philadelphia at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787. Philadelphia remained the nation's largest city until 1790, when it was surpassed by New York City, and served as the nation's first capital from May 10, 1775, until December 12, 1776, and on four subsequent occasions during and following the American Revolution, including from 1790 to 1800 while the new national capital of Washington, D.C. was under construction.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Philadelphia emerged as a major national industrial center and railroad hub. The city’s blossoming industrial sector attracted European immigrants, predominantly from Germany and Ireland, the two largest reported ancestry groups in the city as of 2015. In the 20th century, immigrant waves from Italy and elsewhere in Southern Europe arrived. Following the end of the Civil War in 1865, Philadelphia became a leading destination for African Americans in the Great Migration. In the 20th century, Puerto Rican Americans moved to the city in large numbers. Between 1890 and 1950, Philadelphia's population doubled to 2.07 million. Philadelphia has since attracted immigrants from East and South Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America.
With 18 four-year universities and colleges, Philadelphia is one of the nation's leading centers for higher education and academic research. As of 2021, the Philadelphia metropolitan area was the nation's ninth-largest metropolitan economy with a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of US$479 billion. Philadelphia is the largest center of economic activity in Pennsylvania and the broader multi-state Delaware Valley region; the city is home to five Fortune 500 corporate headquarters as of 2022. The Philadelphia skyline, which includes several globally renowned commercial skyscrapers, is expanding, primarily with new residential high-rise condominiums. The city and the Delaware Valley are a biotechnology and venture capital hub; and the Philadelphia Stock Exchange, owned by NASDAQ, is the nation's oldest stock exchange and a global leader in options trading. 30th Street Station, the city's primary rail station, is the third-busiest Amtrak hub in the nation, and the city's multimodal transport and logistics infrastructure, including Philadelphia International Airport, the PhilaPort seaport, freight rail infrastructure, roadway traffic capacity, and warehouse storage space, are all expanding.
Philadelphia is a national cultural hub, hosting more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the same watershed, is 2,052 acres (830 ha), representing one of the nation's largest contiguous urban parks and the 45th largest urban park in the world. The city is known for its arts, culture, cuisine, and colonial and Revolution-era history; in 2016, it attracted 42 million domestic tourists who spent $6.8 billion, representing $11 billion in total economic impact to the city and surrounding Pennsylvania counties.
With five professional sports teams and a hugely loyal fan base, the city is often ranked as the nation's best city for professional sports fans. The city has a culturally and philanthropically active LGBTQ+ community. Philadelphia also has played an immensely influential historic and ongoing role in the development and evolution of American music, especially R&B, soul, and rock.
Philadelphia is a city of many firsts, including the nation's first library (1731), hospital (1751), medical school (1765), national capital (1774), university (by some accounts) (1779), stock exchange (1790), zoo (1874), and business school (1881). Philadelphia contains 67 National Historic Landmarks, including Independence Hall. From the city's 17th century founding through the present, Philadelphia has been the birthplace or home to an extensive number of prominent and influential Americans. In 2021, Time magazine named Philadelphia one of the world's greatest 100 places." - info from Wikipedia.
The fall of 2022 I did my 3rd major cycling tour. I began my adventure in Montreal, Canada and finished in Savannah, GA. This tour took me through the oldest parts of Quebec and the 13 original US states. During this adventure I cycled 7,126 km over the course of 2.5 months and took more than 68,000 photos. As with my previous tours, a major focus was to photograph historic architecture.
Now on Instagram.
Circular building – tholos - with a peripteral colonnade of 18 Ionic columns located to west of the temple of Hera. Its diameter measures 15,34 meters.
The building was commenced by Philip of Macedon to commemorate his victory at Chaironeia in 338 B.C., and probably finished by Alexander. The semi-circular statue base inside the tholos held chryselephantine statues of Alexander, his parents Philip and Olympias, and his grandparents Amyntas and Eurydike. The entire structure and its ornamentation were carefully based on divisions of a circle. Examples of this include the 36 stylobate blocks centered under and between the 18 Ionic columns, and floors decoratively flagged in rhomboids arranged at regular degree divisions of a circle.
Honorific building
339 – 300 BC
Olympia, Peloponnese
Ionic columns doing their job ... heh!
Couldn't resist adding a bit to the column on the left, as the one on the right was in perfect position :-p
Happy 2016 Everyone!
Hand of Fate sweater from REDRUM (mesh)
Misfits Leggings from Emery
Firenze Shoes from Similar Fashion
Hair from [kik]
taken at *ionic*