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I think this is the most important chart in technology business.
(It's an updated version of Ray Kurzweil's published work, posted with permission, and updated here through 2016. Further UPDATE here, post Tesla AI Day.)
In this abstraction of Moore’s Law, Kurzweil plots computational power on a logarithmic scale, and finds a double exponential curve that holds over 100 years (a straight line would represent a geometrically compounding curve of progress).
In the modern era of accelerating change in the tech industry, it is hard to find even five-year trends with any predictive value, let alone trends that span the centuries.
Ray argues that through five paradigm shifts – such as electro-mechanical calculators and vacuum tube computers – the computational power that $1000 buys has doubled every two years. For the past 30 years, it has been doubling every year.
Each dot is the frontier of computational price performance of the day. One machine was used in the 1890 Census; one cracked the Nazi Enigma cipher in World War II; one predicted Eisenhower’s win in the 1956 Presidential election.
Each dot represents a human drama. They did not realize that they were on a predictive curve. Each dot represents an attempt to build the best computer with the tools of the day. Of course, we use these computers to make better design software and manufacturing control algorithms. And so the progress continues.
Notice that the pace of innovation is exogenous to the economy. The Great Depression and the World Wars and various recessions do not introduce a meaningful change in the long-term trajectory of Moore’s Law. Certainly, the adoption rates, revenue, profits and economic fates of the computer companies behind the various dots on the graph may go though wild oscillations, but the long-term trend emerges nevertheless.
Any one technology, such as the CMOS transistor, follows an elongated S-shaped curve of slow progress during initial development, upward progress during a rapid adoption phase, and then slower growth from market saturation over time. But a more generalized capability, such as computation, storage, or bandwidth, tends to follow a pure exponential – bridging across a variety of technologies and their cascade of S-curves.
Moore’s Law is commonly reported as a doubling of transistor density every 18 months. But this is not something the co-founder of Intel, Gordon Moore, has ever said. It is a nice blending of his two predictions; in 1965, he predicted an annual doubling of transistor counts in the most cost effective chip and revised it in 1975 to every 24 months. With a little hand waving, most reports attribute 18 months to Moore’s Law, but there is quite a bit of variability. The popular perception of Moore’s Law is that computer chips are compounding in their complexity at near constant per unit cost. This is one of the many abstractions of Moore’s Law, and it relates to the compounding of transistor density in two dimensions. Others relate to speed (the signals have less distance to travel) and computational power (speed x density).
Unless you work for a chip company and focus on fab-yield optimization, you do not care about transistor counts. Integrated circuit customers do not buy transistors. Consumers of technology purchase computational speed and data storage density. When recast in these terms, Moore’s Law is no longer a transistor-centric metric, and this abstraction allows for longer-term analysis.
What Moore observed in the belly of the early IC industry was a derivative metric, a refracted signal, from the bigger trend, the trend that begs various philosophical questions and predicts mind-bending futures.
Moore’s Law is a primary driver of disruptive innovation, such as the iPod usurping the Sony Walkman franchise , and it drives not only IT and Communications and has become the primary driver in drug discovery and bioinformatics, medical imaging and diagnostics. As Moore’s Law crosses critical thresholds, a formerly lab science of trial and error experimentation becomes a simulation science and the pace of progress accelerates dramatically, creating opportunities for new entrants in new industries.
This non-linear pace of progress has been the primary juggernaut of perpetual market disruption, spawning wave after wave of opportunities for new companies.
I just watched Transcendent Man, so I have Kurzweil on the mind.
Fairy tales are important for the child's personality, the problem of evil, one of the great taboos of our era must be faced and not hidden, if the child is faced only with a fantasy world, without contrasts, difficulties, his balance between good and it will be distorted badly. If we pretend that "the dark side of man does not exist", advocating a corny philosophy of improvement, we are not doing him any good. In the fairy tale it is important that the child faces obstacles and harsh trials "together" with the protagonist to arrive at an outcome positive. Life is not "they lived happily ever after..." but a continuous lesson made of trials, obstacles and pitfalls....
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IMPORTANT NOTE: This is NOT a true original image. It is produced virtually via the Zyler shopping website that allows you to see how you might look in an item before purchasing. You just upload a clear middle-distance image showing your face, provide a few basic vital statistics (height, bra size and dress size) and then away you go. And it's free!.
EU troopers watch and wait at the highest floor of the Neptune Geo-Engineering Facility
"As the sun set down, almost at dusk, I could see a sliver of light shimmer on the shattered glass that surrounded me. We made it past the main division guarding that Neptune Geo-Engineering Facility, undetected. But I have a feeling DARKWATER will be coming soon. When the main EU division gave the call, I picked up the sniper, gazed in the scope, glaring at a DARKWATER trooper. Slipped my finger around the trigger and then…"
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My entry for the Purge challenge, I hope I did well for my first scene :)
On the pavement of the Raekoja plats (Town Hall square) in Tallinn there is a stone disk with compass bearings and the text "Raekoja platsil asus vana Tallinna nullpunkt" - may not be visible with snow cover. The text translates to "Zero point of old Tallinn was located on the Town Hall Square". That is the place determining house numbering direction in all streets of Tallinn.
Town Hall Square is also the starting point of the oldest streets in Tallinn: Apteegi, Dunkri, Kinga, Kullassepa, Saiakang, Vanaturu kael, Voorimehe, Raekoja.
Tallinn, Estonia, 2018
Do y’all think I should use 1 or 1.5 wide tracks for the arl-44? I’m not gonna use 2 wide because that doesn’t fit my scale. The arl-44 has the same width as the centurion but it has a much wider hull. In order to keep it within 9 studs(the same width as my centurion), with 1.5 I would make its hull 6 wide and with 1 I would make it 7. Please let me know what you think. Also, I will be finishing up that tortoise I’ve been talking about as well as the ac Mk 2 aa that I promised to Zachary Young a looong time ago. I’m back in Texas but I am hella busy right now. I should be able to send that Beaverette to you ( The Duke of Ghent ) by Wednesday. Anyway, expect more from me in the next couple weeks. God bless y’all!
-Van
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Teaches my son to make a campfire, happiness was great when it caught fire, now it was hot dogs and marsmelows.This is an important knowledge in Norwegian winter forests to.
"I didn't write this. I founf it on facebook adn though i should share it"
Dear All,
I would like to bring to your attention a terrible incident which happened to me on Friday 2nd February 2007 at approximately 18.05. I had left work ( 8 King Street , Manchester ) and I proceeded up King St . There were plenty of people around finishing work for the weekend and about half way up King Street (outside The White Company) a woman had come out of the walk through from St Ann 's Square and said to me she was having a terrible day as she had just found her husband in bed with another woman. I thought it was strange that she would tell a complete stranger this information so I carried on walking. She then stopped me and asked for 32 pence to catch the bus home.
I was immediately suspicious of the situation as I would imagine a bus to anywhere would be more than 32 pence and she wasn't the stereotypical person that normally asks you for change for the bus. She was clean, well dressed and well spoken. She also had a handbag. Feeling uncomfortable with the situation I agreed to give her some change, just so I could get away as promptly as possible. I gave her what change I had which was approximately 80 pence. She then said she was grateful and she'd send me £20 back. I thought she was going to ask for my address (which I wouldn't have given) but she didn't. She said thank you and squeezed my arm as a token of appreciation. As she walked away she dropped some of the money & didn't retrieve it which certainly aroused suspicions; if she didn't need the money why did she stop me?
I proceeded up King St towards Cross Street but realised something was wrong. My left hand side had gone completely numb and my arm went into a spasm. I knew she had done something to me when she touched my arm. I needed to tell someone quickly what had happened as I assumed in a few seconds I would be unconscious and what I assume would be her accomplice would be waiting for me to be completely helpless and do the unthinkable to me. I managed to get my phone out of pocket and just pressed last number re-dial. At the same time I stopped a lady and realised I sounded stupid at what I was saying but she could also hear me on the phone so she realised I was genuine. I started to lose the power of speech. She stayed with me and we got to Bootle Street police station.
My arm was hurting but whatever I was injected with couldn't have penetrated completely so I got the feeling back about 10 minutes later. The fact it had a coat, suit jacket and blouse to get through must've saved me. I had the smallest scratch mark on my arm, there is an identical one on my coat and suit jacket.
It will probably be impossible to tell what I was injected with, and although I still await the results of blood tests they are only checking for diseases I may have been given. The police are confident it will be caught on CCTV and I await father information in that regard.
The reason for sending this e-mail is to please ask you to warn EVERYONE you know, not just women but men too and ask them to tell girlfriends, wives, sisters & mothers. The message needs to get through to be extra vigilant. I was one of the lucky ones (blood results pending) and if I can make people aware of these people then I'd like to think it can make a difference.
Thank you.
This incident has been confirmed
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Note: This Moc/story introduces my Secondary Character, Lenfel spy Skyelia Murdale.
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My name is Skyelia Murdale, (Skye for short), and today is probably the most important, and harrowing, of my whole life.
Why?
Because I am a spy for Lenfald.
And today I am in Dalmanutha, The capital of Loreos, our arch-rival, to meet with a Loreesi sympathetic to Lenfald.
The Loreesi, going by “Mr Jal” (a fake name, obviously), contacted me, saying he had vital information, and instructed me to meet him in Dalmanutha, at the tavern Desert Rat, (a fitting name, given the nature of our meeting) at noon exactly.
I had received tips and info from him many times, but never actually met him, so this was going to be rather interesting. Little did I know just how interesting, (and dangerous), this would be!
So here I was, four days later, disguised as a moderately wealthy Loreesi heiress, roaming the docks of Dalmanutha, looking for anything that would signify a tavern with the name I was looking for.
Although so far unsuccessful in that area, the trip had provided beneficial results, as my roaming had taken me all along Dalmanutha’s docks, giving me a detailed look at the fleet that Prince Hilarious was amassing for the “conquest” of the new islands.
I had been stopping periodically to jot down details of the spectacle before me in a small notebook I always carried, for about an hour and a half, when I noticed a smallish, old-looking building squished between two fancy shops. The sign hanging above the door was of a faded, poorly-rendered rat sitting in a patch of almost faded-off sand.
“Jackpot,” I muttered under my breath, and, putting away my notebook, opened the door and went inside.
Several heads turned to stare as I walked in, and almost immediately I realized a serious problem with my disguise. It was far too fancy for this dingy, dirty establishment, and consequently made me stand out far more than I would have liked. That was not a good thing for a spy.
Stepping inside, my mind racing, I quickly scanned the room before me, looking for my contact as well as getting the layout down. To my right was the bar, consisting of about half-a-dozen old barstools, a long, tall counter, and a large cabinet behind the bar, full of different types of alcohol. Directly in front of me was a modest-sized common room, with a dozen or so tables. Along the wall behind this was a row of booth tables, unbroken except for the worn stairwell at the far end. To my left was a fireplace and mantle.
Inhabiting the whole thing were about ten or twelve mean-looking sailors, and one bartender.
I was the only woman in the place.
That didn’t bother me however, as besides the razor-sharp dirk at my side, there were also about twenty different things around the room that I could turn into deadly weapons in the blink of an eye.
Completing my scan, my eyes alighted on a hooded figure sitting well back in the shadows of the furthermost booth from the door.
It was my contact, “Mr. Jal”.
He saw me and started to rise.
I made a show of rushing over to him, and throwing my arms around him as he did.
“Ah, there you are my love,” I said loudly, giving him an exaggerated kiss on the cheek.
Pulling back, I gave “Mr. Jal” a look that said, play along, hoping he would understand.
He did.
“Ah, my sweet, what took you so long?” He responded, as we broke apart and sat down in his booth.
I gave a flippant laugh. “Oh, I had to escape my betrothed. It took awhile.” I looked around casually. “He’ll never find us here though.”
We both then lowered our voices, like lovers conspiring together. As we did so, I looked at the room from the corner of my eye.
Our little show had the desired double effect. It served to explain why I was dressed so nice, yet coming into a dingy place like this, and, the other patrons were now going back to their drinks and conversations, no longer paying us any attention.
I got the feeling this was rather common.
Only now did I take a closer look at my contact.
Not much of him was visible under the hood he still wore, but I did catch a glimpse of fancy red clothes and a well-groomed goatee.
“That was very clever.” Mr. Jal said in a whisper.
“Thanks. I wasn’t sure it would work.” I said in an equally quiet tone.
“I’m very glad it did." The other responded.
I nodded. “On to other business. You said you had important information.” I made it a statement, not a question.
“I do,” Mr. Jal said, and then, raising his voice a bit, “I think we should order a drink first, however.”
I nodded my assent. It would be wise to keep up our charade.
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Once the bartender had brought us a chipped tankard full of ale each, Mr. Jal passed me a sealed envelope under the table. I took it without comment and slipped it into a waterproof bag in my robes.
We sat for several minutes, sipping our ale and studying each other silently, wondering who each other really was, and where they been, what they’d done, etc.
I was about ninety percent sure “Mr. Jal”, was a textiles merchant, and not a poor one either, judging by the fact that what little of his clothes I could see were of a obviously high quality.
His real name, I had no clue about, but that didn’t really matter.
For his part, I was a complete mystery, of which he hadn’t the faintest clue about.
And that suited me just fine.
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Our tankards emptied, we rose and prepared to leave. We would walk out the door together, and then immediately go in different directions.
Walking out the door, I turned right, and Mr. Jal turned left. I began walking back the way I had come earlier with fast, confident strides, easily moving through the crowds.
I had gone about a hundred feet done the dock, when something compelled me to casually turn around and locate my contact. I did within seconds. He was not far from the tavern we had met in, taking in the crisp sea breeze blowing in the harbor. Stop being paranoid, I told myself, there’s nothing wrong with breathing the sea air.
I was about to turn away and continue walking, when all of a sudden Mr. Jal gave a cry, and pitched forward onto the cobbles, motionless.
Several people gasped and moved away from his body, giving me a better look, from which I instantly could tell he was dead.
Instincts screaming at me to get the heck out of here, I spun around…..and came face-to-face with two guards, armed with long, spear-sword combo weapons, scowling down at me.
“Eh, hi fellas. What’s wrong?” I asked, feigning innocence.
“You’re not fooling us, spy” the bigger one said.
I pretended to be shocked. “Spy?? Me?”
“Yeah, you,” the other one sneered, “There’s a ‘nice’ interrogation room waiting for you in the Prince’s dungeon, and I’m sure the Prince himself will want to talk to you, too.”
I held out my hand placatingly.
“Now hold on a minute gentlemen, I can explain everything.”
They both laughed. It wasn’t a friendly laugh.
“Oh, I’m sure the Prince will be thrilled to have you ex-.” He never got a chance to finish, as his weapon seemed to suddenly shoot into my outstretched hand, and I swung it viciously in the same smooth movement, taking both out with one motion.
“Sorry boys, got to go.” I said, and ran.
Behind me I heard someone shout, “Stop her! She’s a spy!!”
I didn’t stop to look, but I could here the tramp of armored boots coming after me.
Shoving shocked bystanders aside, I dashed along the docks, frantically looking for an escape route. There were people everywhere, not to mention far more guards then I would have liked.
Weaving around parked wagons, clusters of people and market stalls, I spotted a pair of Loreesi soldiers rushing at me from the side. As they reached me, I planted one foot firmly on the cobbles and pivoted in a half-circle, slamming the butt of the spear into the first soldier’s face, then, reversing my grip, I plunged the head into the second soldier’s back, before charging down the docks again, my pursuers hot on my tail.
Bolting into a open space in the crowd, I increased my pace, and thus widened my lead, though only by a little bit. People all around me yelled and cursed as I (and the guards pursuing me) breezed by them, sometimes knocking them out of the way, in our wild chase through the city docks.
Up ahead, I spotted a large crane, engaged in the process of loading a small warship pulled up alongside the dock. Aiming for this, I dodged around a pair of unwashed peasants and a mother and her son, eliciting a torrent of angry words directed at my fleeing back.
Rounding the crane’s large stone pedestal, I was confronted by a pair of startled guards who had been watching the ship. The first one never had time to lift his shield before I body-slammed him into the ground, and the second had barely any more warning than the first, for I cut him down before he even registered his companion’s demise.
A peasant was also slammed aside in the sudden tussle.
A third guard, behind the first two, and thus having advanced warning, blocked my first strike, and thrust his spear at my chest in a surprisingly fast reaction, but then his spear was suddenly and violently deflected away from me, seeming to the guard as if my left hand had somehow warded it away, before I swung my weapon down in a powerful arc, slicing through his flimsy tunic and cutting deep into his torso, where it stuck there.
I left the weapon in the guard, seeing as I wouldn’t be needing it any longer, and charged across the dock and onto the ship. As I ran across the bow, the captain stepped in front of me, one hand out to stop me.
“Hold on a minute there beatifu-.” He started to say, right before I shoulder-rammed him aside, and, reaching the far gunwale, dove off the ship in a shallow dive.
Plunging beneath the water, I allowed myself to sink to the bottom, before swimming underneath the ship, and silently surfacing under the dock, hidden from view by the hull of the ship.
Holding onto a dock piling, I brushed my now-wet shoulder-length blonde hair away from my eyes, and waited for my breathing to steady, and my heart to stop racing, while listening to the angry shouts of my would-be pursuers, venting their frustration at being unable to find me.
That, I thought, Had been way too close for comfort.
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Apologizes for the long story, I just got so caught up in (and was enjoying) the story, I forgot to look at how long it had gotten.
Hope you all like it anyway! :)
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liable to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liable to prosecution.
The clouds looks so colorful during sunset.
Shot with Mamiya M645 1000S, 80mm f/2.8, Fujifilm Provia 100F.
© Important notice: Do not use my images without my written permission, even for a non commercial use. If you're interested in any of my photos you must contact me first. All my images are under full copyright.
© All rights reserved.
Ｍｙ HomePage 『gentle*time』 & Ｍｙ photography BLOG
Please look at a lot of photographs on my homepage.
(The language is Japanese but you can see the photos.)
Eid al-Adha ("festival of sacrifice"), also called Feast of the Sacrifice, the Major Festival, theGreater Eid is an important 3-day religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide to honour the willingness of the prophet ʾIbrāhīm (Abraham) to sacrifice his young first-born son Ismā'īl (Ishmael) as an act of submission to God's command and his son's acceptance to being sacrificed, before God intervened to provide Abraham with a ram to sacrifice instead.
Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr. The basis for the Eid al-Adha comes from the 196th verse of the 2nd sura of the Quran. The word "Eid" appears once in the 5th sura of the Quran, with the meaning "solemn festival".[5] The 3 days and 2 nights of Eid al-Adha are celebrated annually on the 10th, 11th and 12th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the twelfth and last month of the lunar Islamic calendar. In the international Gregorian calendar, the dates vary from year to year, drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year.
Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a Sunnah prayer of two rakats followed by a sermon (khuṭbah). Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hajj from Mount Arafat, a hill east of Mecca. Ritual observance of the holiday lasts until sunset of the 12th day of Dhu al-Hijjah. Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day. The days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as "days of remembrance". The days of Tashriq are from the Fajr of the 9th of Dhul Hijjah up to the Asr of the 13th of Dhul Hijjah (5 days and 4 nights).
Let me take this opportunity to wish my Flickr Friends a Happy Eid. May His blessings be upon all of you!! Eid Mubarak!!
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"An important historic house on the square with a rich late Baroque facade with Rococo elements from the 3rd quarter of the 18th century (probably after the fire of 1774). It is a predominantly Baroque-style building, in which Gothic substructures have also been preserved." - info from the National Monument Institute.
"Vysoké Mýto (Czech pronunciation: [ˈvɪsokɛː ˈmiːto]; German: Hohenmaut, also Hohenmauth) is a town in Ústí nad Orlicí District in the Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 12,000 inhabitants. Its town square is the largest example of its type in the country. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.
The predecessor of the town was a small settlement by a trade route called Mýto (literally "toll"). After a new town was founded, it adopted the privilege of collecting the toll. The old settlement was renamed to Staré Mýto ("Old Toll") and the new town was called Vysoké Mýto ("High Toll"), probably referring to its location above the old settlement.
Vysoké Mýto is located about 27 km (17 mi) southeast of Pardubice. It lies in the Svitavy Uplands. The highest point is at 436 m (1,430 ft) above sea level. The Loučná river flows through the town.
The first written mention of Vysoké Mýto is from 1265. It was founded shortly before this year by King Ottokar II as one of the trading centres on the trade route from Bohemia to Moravia, and was inhabited by German settlers. The town square and the network of streets were built in a regular shape, which is preserved to this day. Stone walls with three gates were gradually built around the whole town.
In the early 14th century, Vysoké Mýto became a dowry town administered by Elizabeth Richeza of Poland. Thanks to its location on a busy mercantile road it soon became rich. During the Hussite Wars, the town was occupied several times. Most of the German population left the town and Czech citizens became the majority. After the wars, it became royal town of King Sigismund, who donated it to his wife Barbara of Cilli and it became again a dowry town.
Vysoké Mýto was devastated by fires between 1461 and 1517. Thanks to its wealth, the town recovered and new buildings were building, including stone houses on the square, the new town hall, and the Church of the Holy Trinity. In the 16th century, the town prospered and crafts developed. Cloth and knives were exported abroad. The prosperity ended with the Thirty Years' War and several fires in the 18th century.
During the 19th century, new development occurred, and the town became a cultural centre. A Czech-language theatre was established in 1825, the first public library in the region was established in 1839, and the town museum was founded in 1871. At the end of the 19th century, Vysoké Mýto was industrialized and two big engineering and machine-building companies were founded.
Until 1918, Vysoké Mýto was part of Austria-Hungary, head of the district of the same name, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia.
Bohemia (Latin Bohemia, German Böhmen, Polish Czechy) is a region in the west of the Czech Republic. Previously, as a kingdom, they were the center of the Czech Crown. The root of the word Czech probably corresponds to the meaning of man. The Latin equivalent of Bohemia, originally Boiohaemum (literally "land of Battles"), which over time also influenced the names in other languages, is derived from the Celtic tribe of the Boios, who lived in this area from the 4th to the 1st century BC Bohemia on it borders Germany in the west, Austria in the south, Moravia in the east and Poland in the north. Geographically, they are bounded from the north, west and south by a chain of mountains, the highest of which are the Krkonoše Mountains, in which the highest mountain of Bohemia, Sněžka, is also located. The most important rivers are the Elbe and the Vltava, with the fertile Polabean Plain extending around the Elbe. The capital and largest city of Bohemia is Prague, other important cities include, for example, Pilsen, Karlovy Vary, Kladno, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, Hradec Králové, Pardubice and České Budějovice, Jihlava also lies partly on the historical territory of Bohemia." - info from Wikipedia.
Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.
Now on Instagram.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Another character that won't be appearing, but is a somewhat important part of JL: Overlords. Prepare yourself, his story is kinda out there.
Jor-El
Born during the height of Kryptons era of great expansion, Jor-El was one of the first to know something was wrong with Krypton. As one of Kryptons elite scientists, he had been chosen to crew one of Kryptons most important and well equipped space stations, 'Rao's hand'
From his orbit above Krypton, Jor-El could see that something terrible was happening to the planet. His instruments confirmed his suspicions when they found that Krypton was wobbling on its axis, and its core had become unstable. Naturally, he rushed back to Krypton to inform the high council of his concerns.
So, Jor-El stood before the high council and made his case. He urged them to seriously consider evacuating the planet, and resettling on one of Kryptons many colonies. They laughed at him. They dismissed his concerns by fobbing them off as 'Gravitational re-alignment'. But Jor-El new they were wrong. He had estimated that there was around 3 years until the planets core would destabilise, and cause the planet to be destroyed.
So, for three years, he planned. Eventually, he came to a conclusion: the council must be removed. Luckily, he was friends with one of Kryptons great military leaders, General Zod. Although Zod, being a soldier, didn't entirely understand the matter at hand, he agreed with Jor-El that the high council were incompetent.
And so, the general and the scientist led a revolution, to remove the high council, and assume command of the planet, and give the evacuation order. Suffice to say, they failed. They were outnumbered and Zod was arrested, imprisoned in the Phantom zone for high treason.
Jor-El, however, was lucky. His wife, Lara, was pregnant, and he knew that if he couldn't save Krypton, he could at least save their child. Jor-El managed to escape, and went into hiding. He made a recording, of himself, explaining his sons heritage, and preparing a message for whoever found him. He also created an interface based on himself, to help guide his child as he grew up. He was able to build a ship, load his child on it, and blast him off to a planet called 'Earth'. Once this was done, he loaded a second rocket with the codex, a device that stored all of Krypton. Culture, customs, all the important aspects of Kryptonian life. He set this rocket upon its course and headed to the roof. As he entered the turbo-lift, the ground shook. Violently. Kryptons destruction had begun.
The first rocket, containing his son, named Kal-El, set upon its course, taking it straight to Earth. However, the second rocket, went off course, still on track to Earth, but the long way round.
As Jor-El and Lara watched their son head off into the blackness of space, a look of horror swept across Jor-Els face. He had mixed up the messages. He had meant to put the interface on his sons ship, and his message on the other. He had made a mistake, which could have devastating consequences. He was powerless to fix his mistake, so he did the only thing he could do. He held his wife, as his world burned. He could only hope his son would live to see a brighter future.
Town Hall Square (Vienna)
The inner part of the town square
Street sign town square
The Town Hall Square is located in the first District of Vienna, Inner City. It is named after the erected here (new) Vienna City Hall. Due to its size, design and architecture of the buildings bordering the square it is considered one of the most important places in the center of Vienna.
History
Vienna City Hall, View from 1891
In the area of today's town square was once the Josefstädter Glacis, a meadow terrain held as a free field of fire before the walls of Vienna and later the parade and drill ground of the Imperial Army. During the construction of the Ring Road from 1858 this military site remained untouched for some time until the army after long efforts of Mayor Cajetan Felder had renounced and the City Expansion Found could develop a Baulinienplan (building line plan) for the area. During this time, other locations were considered for the City Hall.
Now the Town Hall Square, the largest square in the recessed ring road zone was provided. The northern and southern part of the square shaped city gardener Rudolf Siebeck 1872/1873 as City Hall Park, the central part of the square, the axis Town Hall-Burgtheater, was kept free. 1873, the foundation stone was laid for the construction of the New Town Hall. 1874, work began on the Town Hall at the former Franzensring opposite the Burgtheater and the south of the square adjacent parliament building (north side front: Town Square 6). From 1877 on, the new main building of the University of Vienna (southern side front: Town Square 5 ) was built. Are installed on the three sides of the square five blocks with nine house numbers (No. 1 to No. 9), the fourth side is bordered by the Ring.
In course of time the name of the place changed four times. In 1870 it was created as Town Hall Square, renamed in 1907 after the incumbent Christian Social mayor in Dr.-Karl-Lueger square. The since 1919 dominant Red Vienna this appeared to be inappropriate, as Lueger in Vienna had prevented the universal and equal male suffrage, in 1907 introduced at state level. Therefore, the of a private committee donated Lueger monument under the rule of mayor Karl Seitz was not, as intended by the Committee, on the Town Square erected but built in 1926 on a previously unnamed square corner Wool Line/Stubenring and this place in the same year named Dr.-Karl-Lueger square named. The Town Square was returned its original name. In 1938, the place was again renamed into Adolf Hitler square, what was reversed in 1945.
Christmas Market at City Hall
The large space between City Hall and the Burgtheater was used by all the rulers for political rallies. Since 1921, its current form dating back to 1929 and interrupted from 1933 to 1945, it is the traditional final rally of the Vienna SPÖ Maiaufmarsches (May-Procession) on 1 In May at the Town Hall Square. In addition, the space is exploited for most of the year for cultural and social events. The most important of them since 1975, the Christmas market in November and December, the Vienna Ice Dream in January and February, the opening of the Vienna Festival in May and open-air cinema screenings with classical music in July and August. The Life Ball at Vienna City Hall refers also to the town square. Traditionally, a since 1959 every year from one of the states erected large Christmas tree as a gift to the federal capital.
Location and characteristics
The Town Hall Square is located between the extended Grillparzer street to the north, the University Ring to the east, the extended Stadion alley in the south and the extended Reichsrats street in the West. Except the ring on which there are no buildings on this side of the street, bear the buildings that are in the course of these streets at the place, house numbers of the Town Square. Stadion alley and Grillparzer street end before the square, the Reichsrats street is interrupted by the square.
About two-thirds of the space area of 40,000 m² are occupied by the City Hall park which is divided by a blocked to traffic, very wide access road between the Burgtheater and the Rathaus, offering space for events, into a northern and southern half. The Town Square is lined by some of the most important monumental Rings Road constructions in historicist style. In the square itself is a large number of monuments and statues. Thus, the town square is one of the most representative places in Vienna.
The tram lines 1 and D operate on the Ring Road and have at the City Hall Square opposite the Burg Theatre and at the corner of Parliament stops. Coming from the south and turning from the ring, operates tram line 2 on the southern edge of the Town Square to Stadiongasse. The individual passage traffic runs heading north on the eastern edge of the square on the Ring Road in the opposite direction behind the Town Hall on the two-line (Zweierlinie). Cycling trails pass off on the Ring Road and at the Grillparzer street and Stadion alley. Behind the Town Hall runs the subway line U2 to the City Hall with the subway station as shuttle to City Hall and City Hall Square.
Building
City hall
The central building in the middle of the west side of the Town Square is the City Hall, built in 1873-1883 by Friedrich von Schmidt, New Town Hall, Town Hall called only since about 1970. The powerful, dominating the square building was designed by the Dutch Gothic models. It should express the political power of the strengthened bourgeosie against the monarch and the aristocracy.
The City Council has at the Town Hall no main entrance or direct access to the arcade court, they are located on the side fronts of Felder Street and Lichtenfels alley, another entrance is at the rear front at the Friedrich-Schmidt square. From the Town Hall itself essentially the so-called People's Hall on the ground floor of the Town Hall via a staircase outdoors is accessible (entrances centered under the Town Hall Tower and left and right). The People's Hall is occasionally used for exhibitions. At the corner towards Felder street there is the exit to the restaurant Rathauskeller/Town hall cellar.
Arcade, Town Hall Square 2-4
Foyer with ceiling painting Apotheosis of Vindobona, Town Hall Square 4
No. 2, 3 and 4: Arcade Shops
The block north of City Hall was built in 1880-1883 by Franz von Neumann. Plan requirement was to equip the buildings (such as on the west side of the Imperial Parliament Street, in the course of which they are) at the town square with arcades. Held in the old German style, houses have remarkable corner projections made with domes. At the central projection there are respectively balconies on herma. The attic floor is decorated with stucco relief female figures. The rib-vaulted arcades are painted with grotesques by Franz and Carl Jobst and equipped with cast iron lanterns. Particularly important are the foyers on No. 4 (and at the back of the block on the Ebendorfer street 4). Frieze reliefs show the allegories of commerce, the arts and trading. A large ceiling painting depicts the apotheosis of Vindobona. Lanterns and railings are made of wrought iron.
No. 5: University of Vienna, Main Building
Town Hall Square and front side of the university's main building in 1900
The Town Hall Square side facing the front of the main university building today (2007 )
On the north side of the town square is the front side of the main building of the University of Vienna. The main work of the late phase of the strict historicism was built in 1873-1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The 29-axle side facade is broken repeatedly by risalits as well as by half and full columns. Statues of Anton Schmidgruber and Franz Koch stand in relation to the Philosophical faculty. The building has no open entrance here.
No. 6: Parliament
On the south side of the town square is the side front of the parliament building, which was built as Reichsratsgebäude for Cisleithania. It is the most important work of the architect Theophil von Hansen that the latter one founded 1871-1883 by ancient Greek models. At the Town Hall Square, the Parliament has a covered side entrance, originally a carriage way.
No. 7, 8 and 9 houses with arcades
Dome on the corner risalt, Town Hall Square 7
South of the Town Hall is located one block of houses with arcades, built 1877/1878 of City Hall architect Friedrich von Schmidt and Franz Neumann in old German forms. These were the first houses with arcades of City Hall district. Dominant are domes on corner risalit and central dome, bay windows, balconies, putti frieze and statues of Venus and Mars on the facade. In the rib-vaulted arcades are embedded gates with half column portals and acroterion figures. The lobbies are decorated with stucco ceilings, among other rich and grotesque painting. At No. 8 is located under the arcades the in City Hall circles famous café and pastry shop Sluka.
City Hall Park
At the request of Mayor Felder the City Hall Park was created as a complementary recreation area in the Ring Road zone. It is a strictly historicist Park, which was created as the city park of city gardener Rudolf Siebeck. The green area is north and south of a link road from the Burgtheater on the Ring to the City Hall laid out, which extends space-like in front of City Hall. In each of the two parts is a Rondeau Park with fountains, which are intended to highlight the two Viennese spring water lines and were financed by the builder Antonio Gabrielli.
Orientation plan
Under the old trees of the park there are five trees that are designated as natural monuments in Vienna. A lime in the southern part of the park was planted on the occasion of the 50th anniversary jubilee of Emperor Franz Joseph I in 1898, an oak tree, also in the southern part of the park in 1906 for the then incumbent mayor Karl Lueger. Winding paths lead through the two parts of the park. The garden fence is original historicist. In the northern part of the park is a large children's play area. A 1890 in the southern part of the park built weather house, destroyed during the Second World War, was renewed in 1955 with mosaics of Mary Biljan-Bilger. The modern toilet facilities were designed by Luigi Blau.
Monuments
Waldmüllerdenkmal (Monument) by Josef Engelhart, 1913
The Town Hall Square is home of a number of monuments, they are described here from the ring road starting.
(Disabled) access from the Burgtheater to City Hall
At the beginning of this approach is, turning off the Ring Road, left the monument to Theodor Körner, mayor, then President of the Second Republic, by Hilde Uray, bronze statue, 1963,
right of the monument to Karl Seitz, first head of state of the First Republic, then mayor in Red Vienna, by Gottfried Buchberger, bronze statue, 1962.
Directly between the two parts of the park in 1902 eight stone monuments of significant figures in the history of Vienna were placed four at each park side facing each other. They had been established in 1867 on the balustrades of the former Elizabeth Bridge over the river (Wienfluss) on Karlsplatz. When in 1897 the bridge was demolished in this area because of the light rail construction and the resulting vaulting of the Wienfluss, the eight monuments first have been put along the then still in the incision extending new light rail line on the Karlsplatz, where they but heavily by the soot of steam locomotives polluted monuments were popularly called eight chimney sweepers. Therefore, they were transferred to the town square later:
left ( south side):
Margrave Henry II Jasomirgott from the House of Babenberg, by Franz Melnitzky
Duke Rudolf the founder of the House of Habsburg, of Josef Gasser
Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg, defender of Vienna (second Turkish siege), by Johann Baptist Fessler
Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Baroque architect, Josef Cesar
right (north side):
Duke Leopold the Glorious from the House of Babenberg, by Johann Preleuthner
Niklas Graf Salm, defender of Vienna (first siege of Vienna), by Matthias Purkartshofer
Archbishop Charles Leopold of Kollonitsch, spiritual leader of Vienna (second Turkish siege), Vincenz Pilz
Joseph of Sonnenfels, judicial and administrative reformer of Maria Theresa, by Hanns Gasser (replaced in the Nazi era in 1939 by a statue of the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck, re-erected after 1945)
Next to the town hall (tower), outside of the southern part of the park: replica of the Vienna City Hall man at the top of City Hall tower in scale 1: 1, by Fritz Tiefenthaler, 1985
Southern part of the city hall park (towards Parliament)
At the corner of Park Ring/Parliament, addressed to the ring: Karl Renner, the first Chancellor of the First and first president of the Second Republic, portrait head of Alfred Hrdlicka on monument structure of Josef Krawina, 1965-1967
Josef Popper-Lynkeus, social ethicist, stone bust of Hugo Taglang, 1926. As artist and represented were Jews, the bust was removed in the Nazi regime in 1938, restored in 1951 according to the plaster model.
Johann Strauss (father ) and Joseph Lanner, statues of Franz Seifert, 1905, Art Nouveau, the bronze sculptures stand in front of a curved wall with marble reliefs of ball scenes and a poem by Edward von Bauernfeld. This concept and the architecture created Robert Oerley.
Northern part of the city hall park (towards the University)
Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, marble monument of Josef Engelhart, 1913, Art Nouveau
Ernst Mach, physicist, of Heinz Peteri, 1926
Adolf Schärf, vice chancellor, then president of the Second Republic, bronze bust of Alfred Hrdlicka, 1985
The most recent monument in the park, built in 1993, commemorates the wartime destruction of Vienna in 1945 and was by Hubert Wilfan under the title Yesterday - Today created from stone.
To the Zion Narrows and Wall Street! Sony A7RII Fine Art Zion National Park Autumn Winter Hike! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Landscape Photography!
An important thing to remember is that even though pixel sizes keep getting smaller and smaller, the technology is advancing, so the smaller pixels are more efficient at collecting light. For instance, the Sony A7rII is back-illuminated which allows more photons to hit the sensor. Semiconductor technology is always advancing, so the brilliant engineers are always improving the signal/noise ratio. Far higher pixel counts, as well as better dynamic ranger, are thus not only possible, but the future!
Yes I have a Ph.D. in physics! I worked on phototranistors and photodiodes as well as an artificial retina for the blind. :)
You can read more about my own physics theory (dx4/dt=ic) here: herosodysseyphysics.wordpress.com/
And follow me on instagram! @45surf
Facebook!
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Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Photography!
I love shooting fine art landscapes and fine art nature photography! :) I live for it!
Feel free to ask me any questions! Always love sharing tech talk and insights! :)
And all the best on Your Epic Hero's Odyssey!
The new Lightroom rocks!
Beautiful magnificent clouds!
View your artistic mission into photography as an epic odyssey of heroic poetry! Take it from Homer in Homer's Odyssey: "Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the famous town of Troy. Many cities did he visit, and many were the nations with whose manners and customs he was acquainted; moreover he suffered much by sea while trying to save his own life and bring his men safely home; but do what he might he could not save his men, for they perished through their own sheer folly in eating the cattle of the Sun-god Hyperion; so the god prevented them from ever reaching home. Tell me, too, about all these things, O daughter of Jove, from whatsoever source you may know them. " --Samuel Butler Translation of Homer's Odyssey
All the best on your Epic Hero's Odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
Sony A7RII Fine Art Zion National Park Autumn Winter Subway Hike! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Landscape Photography! Sony A7R2 & Sony 16-35mm Vario-Tessar T FE F4 ZA OSS E-Mount Lens!
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Musica... Steve Hackett - Kim
www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjQHGrm2m48
Defferrari
Defferrari es una estación ferroviaria, ubicada en el Partido de San Cayetano, en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Fue una importante estación del Ferrocarril del Sud, como punto de conexión de ramales provenientes de Tres Arroyos, Tandil, Necochea y Coronel Dorrego. Clasificada como de primera clase, operaba en tráfico de pasajeros, encomiendas, cargas y hacienda y prestaba servicio telegráfico. Con la nacionalización de los ferrocarriles en 1946, pasó a formar parte de la red del Ferrocarril General Roca. En sus inmediaciones se construyeron 30 casas para el personal ferroviario y sus familias, una casa para personal soltero o transitorio, y galpones para depósito y servicio de locomotoras. En la década de 1950 llegó a contar con 120 trabajadores.
Ya no presta servicios, y las antiguas instalaciones se encontraban en 2008 en muy mal estado de conservación.
El ramal desde Lobería hasta Barrow se encuentra concesionado a la empresa de cargas Ferrosur Roca
Debe su nombre al Dr Luis DeFerrari
TRASLATOR
Defferrari
Defferrari is a railway station, located in the San Cayetano Party, in the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. It was an important station of the Ferrocarril del Sud, as a point of connection of branches coming from Tres Arroyos, Tandil, Necochea and Coronel Dorrego. Classified as first class, it operated in the traffic of passengers, parcels, cargo and treasury and provided telegraphic service, and with the nationalization of the railways in 1946, it became part of the General Roca Railroad network. In its surroundings, 30 houses were built for railway personnel and their families, a house for single or transient personnel, and warehouses for locomotives depot and service. In the 1950s it reached 120 workers.
It no longer provides services, and the old facilities were in 2008 in very poor condition.
The branch line from Lobería to Barrow is granted to the freight company Ferrosur Roca
It owes its name to Dr Luis DeFerrari
Bridges are an intermittent but important theme in French painter Claude Monet's art, as seen from the docks of La Grenouillere to the end of his career, with the extended series of paintings he devoted to the Japanese bridge in his garden at Giverny. It was in Argenteuil, though, that the theme first rose to prominence, in the years 1872-1878. The bridge pictured here had been erected in the early 1830's, but it was damaged during the Franco-Prussian War by French troops to hinder the opposing force's march on Paris. Scaffolding can be seen on the right side, indicating the structure's repair.
This Monet original was photographed on exhibition ('Monet, The Early Years') at The Legion of Honor in San Francisco. This was the first major US exhibition devoted to the initial phase of Claude Monet’s career.
AGORA ( COMMERCIAL ) --EPHESUS
The most important trade centre of Ephesus, Agora was built in the 3RD century B.C in the Hellenistic Period, but the ruins date from the reign of Caracalla (211-217 C.E)
It is in the form of a square, each side 110 meters, and surrounded by columns. The Agora has 3 gates, one from the front of the theatre on the northeast, the other one opening to the harbor on the west and the third one – the MAZEUS- MITHRIDATES from the Celsius Library. ( seen on upper left hand side ) .
The north side of the Agora is left open, and the other three sides had rows of Storerooms -2 storied , surrounded by a portico, in which there are rows of shops.
It is located next to the harbour street and was the city's main commercial centre .
At the centre of the Agora was a sundial and a water-clock.
Only 15% of Ephesus has been uncovered --- treasures still to be found.
I was there for 3 hours --- you need at least 8 hours to see and enjoy the beauty and history .
A place that should be on everyone's WISH LIST
I will visit again --
Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony South African Zulu Cultural Singing and Dancing Umlazi Durban November 2019
Umemulo also known as the Coming of Age is an important Zulu ritual that celebrates a young girl's journey into womanhood. The ceremony indicates that the young girl has transitioned from a child and into an adult woman who can now get married
There are Nine Nights of Worship of Female Power. Navratri it is called and is a very important period in the Hindu calendar of Gods and yes Goddesses now.
I was at a loss to figure out whether this lady enmeshed in decaying iron by a male Hindu priest in Bhoginandishwara temple near Bangalore was a symbol of fertility what with the two betel leaves lying on the plinth of the alcove where she balanced delicately atop the head of a big horned buffalo.
I thought of asking some friends, versed rather well in matters esoteric. Then I let that urge pass. I checked images of a Hindu deity who would be on the top of a buffalo and from there I could get the thread as to who this voluptuous lady was and what was her story in Hindusim, her physical form so near perfection.
Whether the wire mesh prevented theft or the greedy advances of the worshipers, I am in no position to tell. She stood smeared in yellow powder as is the custom in temples in South India.
Meet Durga as she is popularly known or Goddess Mahalakshmi, the ultimate embodiment of a female created by all the Hindu Gods many millennia ago who imbued her with their own qualities and their own choicest weapons with 18 arms to go along in fight mode. ( In popular iconography she is generally shown with 4 or 8 arms as 18 would be impossible to accommodate in an aesthetic sculpture)
All this to vanquish Mahishasur, a demon who had attained near immortality by seeking a boon which made him immune from being killed by any man or God. The demon laughed off the suggestion that a woman could ever defeat him and that they were mere chattels. After he got his boon of immortality from the Gods, Mahishasur went off on an all conquering spree till there was nothing left to conquer on Earth. He then marched to Heaven and conquered the very Gods themselves and ruled the Heavens. The vanquished Gods wandering in the wilderness of nothingness, plotted and schemed and got together in their intrigue to manufacture a female figure who would be able to fight and get rid of the demon so that they could get on with the job of ruling their very own Heaven and Universe.
They ( Shiva, Brahma, Indra, Vishnu and others ) all gathered for the unique process of creating an entity out of nothing. A physical and metaphysical impossibility. The laws of physics can however allow light energy to be condensed and create matter. This the Gods did and created Mahalakshmi or Durga who was the epitome of feminine form and figure but imbued with a fighting spirit and armed with 18 choicest weapons of war.
Now this is a great scientific breakthrough which I am sure my fundamentally strong right wing Hindu fanatics would call superior Vedic or Pre Vedic science that precedes anything that the current day particle physics can come up with. Mind you it is easy to create light and heat energy from fission or fusion of
matter but current day science is yet to master the principle of creating matter out of light energy. We in India or let us say Indian Gods did this more than 2000 years ago and shaped a female figure of exquisite and superlative celestial beauty.
I am waiting for a Hindu scientist to come up with such a thought process and present a paper in a scientific community to highlight the glories of the Hindu civilization. I will not be surprised to see that happen in this atmosphere of over zealous interpretation of Hinduism that is ruling the roost these days.
On Fashion, read on in the comments..
_DSC3957 from jpeg
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
The Queensland Cultural Centre (QCC), located on the south bank of the Brisbane River opposite the central business district, is the state's principal cultural venue and an important example of late 20th century modernist architecture. Constructed between 1976 and 1998, this ambitious complex, a milestone in the history of the arts in Queensland and the evolution of the state, was designed by renowned Queensland architect Robin Gibson in conjunction with the Queensland Department of Public Works, for the people of Queensland.
The Cultural Centre includes the Queensland Art Gallery (1982), the Queensland Performing Arts Centre (1984), the Queensland Museum (1986), the State Library and The Fountain Room Restaurant and Auditorium (The Edge in 2015) (1988). The substantially altered State Library and the Gallery of Modern Art are part of the broader cultural precinct but are not included in the heritage register boundary.
South Brisbane before the Queensland Cultural Centre (QCC)
By the late 1960s, much of South Brisbane, especially along the river, was in economic decline. Prior to European settlement, the whole of the South Brisbane peninsula was known as Kurilpa, an important meeting place for the Yuggera/Jagera people. The tip of the South Brisbane peninsula was a traditional river crossing. After the establishment of the Moreton Bay Penal settlement in 1825, convicts cleared the river flats to grow grain for the settlement and during the 1830s, timber from the south bank was exported to Sydney.
From the 1840s, South Brisbane developed as one of Queensland's key location for portside activity, initially advantaged by its more direct access to the Darling Downs and Ipswich. As maritime trade expanded, wharfs and stores were progressively established adjacent to the river. Over time, a range of commercial, light industrial and manufacturing activities also occurred, along with civic and residential land uses. The area prospered in the 1880s and South Brisbane became a municipality in 1888. Along with the development boom, a dry dock was opened in 1881, coal wharves and associated rail links were constructed and South Brisbane was established as the passenger terminus for suburban and country train lines.
By the end of the 19th century, the area had evolved into a substantial urban settlement, with Stanley Street a major retail centre and thoroughfare. Such development however, could not arrest a gradual 20th century decline which accelerated after World War II, influenced by the reorientation of economic activity and transport networks in Brisbane. Post-war, wharves, stores and railway sidings closed and were subsequently demolished, with the progressive relocation of shipping downriver. The decline of such a centrally located area in the capital city presented an opportunity for significant urban renewal.
Impetus for the Queensland Cultural Centre
The pressure to address the lack of adequate cultural facilities in Queensland increased in the 1960s, as public awareness of the importance of the arts to the cultural health of the community was rising. At this time, the Queensland's principal cultural institutions were located in buildings and sites in Brisbane that did not meet their existing or future requirements. The first purpose-built Museum had opened in William Street in 1879 but proved inadequate from the outset. It was converted to the Public Library of Queensland (the State Library from 1971) in 1900-02, after the 1889 Exhibition Building at Bowen Hills was converted for use as a Museum in 1900. From 1895, the Queensland Art Gallery was housed in the Brisbane Town Hall, moving in 1905 to a purpose designed room on the third floor in the new Executive Building overlooking George Street. When the new City Hall was completed in 1930, the Concert Hall at the Museum building was remodelled to house the art gallery.
Until the opening of the Queensland Cultural Centre, there were no Queensland government-operated performing arts facilities. Most musical and theatrical performances were initially held in local venues such as schools of arts, church halls or town halls, of varying suitability. Purpose-built facilities were limited and only erected in major centres. By the 1880s, Brisbane had four theatres, with the Opera House (later Her Majesty's Theatre), erected in 1888, the most lavish and prestigious, with seating for 2700. The Exhibition Building was one of the first buildings specifically designed for musical performances and contained a concert hall complete with a four-manual pipe organ. It became the centre for major musical events until the opening of the Brisbane City Hall in 1930.
Across Australia, the post-war era saw governments on all tiers commit to large projects related to developing the arts, including standalone and integrated landmark projects for institutions such as libraries, theatres and art galleries. Sites for such projects were often in centrally located areas, where previous uses and activities were in decline, or had become redundant. This type of urban renewal offered a blank slate for development, where the existing layout could be reconfigured and the built environment transformed. The construction of Sydney's Opera House had commenced in 1959; preliminary investigations for Adelaide Festival Centre started in 1964; the National Gallery of Australia was established in 1967; the first stage of the Victorian Arts Centre, the National Gallery of Victoria, was completed in 1969 and Perth's Civic Centre was also developed during the 1960s.
In Queensland, an earlier phase of civic construction (mostly town halls and council chambers) occurred in the 1930s, often incorporating spaces for arts and cultural activities. By the early 1950s, architect and town planner Karl Langer was designing civic centre complexes for larger regional centres such as Mackay, Toowoomba and Kingaroy.
Several attempts were made to secure stately cultural facilities in Queensland's capital but each came to nothing. Construction of an art gallery and museum near the entrance to the Government Domain, on a site granted in 1863, never eventuated. In the 1890s a major architectural competition for a museum and art gallery on a site in Albert Park sought to address the need for sufficient premises. In 1934, on a nearby site along Wickham Park and Turbot Street, an ambitious urban design proposal to incorporate a public art gallery, library and dental hospital resulted only in the construction of the Brisbane Dental Hospital. Post-WWII plans to incorporate the art gallery in the extensions to the original Supreme Court Building did not eventuate. The Queensland Art Gallery Act 1959 paved the way for a new Board of Trustees to establish a gallery with public funds subsidized by Government. The proposal at that time, for a gallery and performance hall at Gardens Point, to mark Queensland's centenary, was not realised; however, an extension to the State Library proceeded and included an exhibition hall and reading rooms.
A proposal for a State Gallery and Centre for Allied Arts, on the former municipal markets site adjacent to the Roma Street Railway station, formed part of a government backed plan for the redevelopment of the Roma Street area. Prepared by Bligh Jessup Bretnall & Partners in 1967, this substantial development over a number of city blocks, inspired by the redevelopment of redundant inner city areas in Europe and new towns in America, incorporated a significant commercial component. The plan was abandoned in 1968 due to conflicting local and state interests, together with the lack of an acceptable tender.
The following year, the Treasury Department initiated a formal investigation into a suitable site for an art gallery, led by Treasurer, Deputy Premier and Liberal Party Leader, Gordon Chalk. An expert committee, including Coordinator-General Charles Barton as chair, Under-Secretary of Works David Mercer and Assistant Under-Secretary Roman Pavlyshyn, considered 12 sites, including those from previous proposals. Three sites were shortlisted: The Holy Name Cathedral site in Fortitude Valley; upstream of the Victoria Bridge at South Brisbane; and the BCC Transport Depot in Coronation Drive. The South Brisbane site was preferred, considered to be the most advantageous for the city and the most architecturally suitable. The recommendation was accepted and work on progressing a design commenced.
Architectural competition and concept (1289)
In April 1973, Robin Gibson and Partners Architects won a two-staged competition to design the new Queensland Art Gallery at South Brisbane, with a sophisticated scheme considered superior in its simplicity and presentation. While this design was never realised, the art gallery that was built as part of the Cultural Centre was in many ways very similar, including the palette of materials and modernist design details inspired by the 1969 Oaklands Museum in California. The original design occupied the block bounded by Melbourne, Grey, Stanley and Peel Streets. Over Stanley Street, a pedestrian walkway connected the gallery to the top of an amphitheatre leading to sculpture gardens along the river.
The development of cultural facilities was reconsidered during 1974, evolving into a much more ambitious project. In early November, Deputy Premier Sir Gordon Chalk (who had a real interest and commitment to developing the arts in Queensland) announced as an election policy, a proposal for a $45 million dollar cultural complex. While the development of the Art Gallery had been progressing, Chalk, with the assistance of Under Treasurer Leo Hielscher, had covertly commissioned Robin Gibson to produce a master plan for an integrated complex of buildings which would form the Queensland Cultural Centre (QCC). The plan included an Art Gallery, Museum, Performing Arts Centre, State Library and an auditorium and restaurant. The devastating floods of January, which had further hastened the decline of South Brisbane, provided a timely opportunity to utilise more space adjacent to the river, through resumptions of flood prone land.
When the proposal was submitted to Cabinet by Chalk in late November, it was initially opposed by Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen. However, the support of Brisbane's Lord Mayor, Clem Jones, (who gifted council-owned allotments on what became the QPAC site); influential public servants Hielscher, Pavlyshyn; Mercer, and Sir David Muir, Director of the Department of Commercial and Industrial Development, helped the project gain momentum. After winning the December 7 election, the proposal was formally adopted by the Bjelke-Petersen government. Muir was appointed chairman of the planning committee and became the first chairman of the QCC Trust.
Gibson's November 1974 Cultural Centre master plan differed significantly from his winning competition design for the Gallery and gave Gibson the opportunity to further demonstrate his planning principles for inner city development. Stanley Street was to be diverted under the Victoria Bridge through to Peel Street, with the Art Gallery and Museum occupying one large block. The scheme included building forms with oblique angles to the street grid, to address the main approaches. The Performing Arts building, comprising a single, multi-purpose hall, and the Art Gallery, extending from the Museum to the river's edge, were aligned diagonally around a Melbourne Street axis to address the approach from the Victoria Bridge. Pedestrian bridges provided access across the site over Melbourne Street and to the South Brisbane Railway Station over Grey Street.
Gibson's design of the QCC sought to convey a relaxed atmosphere reflective of Queensland's lifestyle. A simple, disciplined palette of materials, and design elements was adopted and rigorously maintained throughout the lengthy construction program to unify the complex: off-white sandblasted concrete; cubic forms with deeply recessed glazing; a constancy of structural elements, fixtures and finishes; repetitive stepped profiles and extensive integrated landscaping.
A fundamental conceptual aspect of the Cultural Centre's design was its relationship to the Brisbane River and the natural environment. Gibson saw the Cultural Centre as an opportunity for ‘amalgamating a major public building with the river on the South Bank'. The external landscaping and built form was carefully articulated to ‘step up' from the river. The comparatively low form of the complex was consciously designed so that the profile of the Taylor Range behind would remain visible when viewed from the city.
Retaining the approved general placement of the individual buildings, subsequent changes to the complex plan included: the orthogonal realignment of each of the buildings; the duplication of the multipurpose hall to create separate purpose-built facilities for musical and theatrical performances; the extension of an existing diversion in Stanley Street upstream to Peel Street and under the Victoria Bridge, which was bridged by a wide plaza as a forecourt to the Gallery.
Robin Gibson & Partners
Robin Gibson (1930-2014) attended Yeronga State School and Brisbane State High before studying architecture at the University of Queensland (UQ). After graduating in 1954, Gibson travelled through Europe and worked in London in the offices of architects, Sir Hugh Casson, Neville Conder, and James Cubitt and Partners. Returning to Brisbane in 1957, he set up an architectural practice commencing with residential projects, soon expanding into larger commercial, public and institutional work. Notable Queensland architects employed by his practice included Geoffrey Pie, Don Winsen, Peter Roy, Allan Kirkwood, Bruce Carlyle and Gabriel Poole.
Gibson's creative, administrative and diplomatic talents were widely recognised. His buildings were consistently simple, refined, and carefully executed, often comprehensively detailed to include fabrics, finishes and furnishings. Characteristically crisp, logical and smoothly functional, his works employed a limited palette of materials and were carefully integrated into their setting.
Robin Gibson & Partners' contribution to Queensland's built environment is significant. Other major architectural projects include: Mayne Hall, University of Queensland (UQ) (1972), Central Library, UQ (1973) Library and Humanities building at Nathan Campus, Griffith University (1975), Post Office Square (1982), Queen Street Mall (1982), Wintergarden building (1984), Colonial Mutual Life (1984) and 111 George Street (1993). Over time, Gibson and his body of work has been highly acclaimed and recognised through numerous awards including: 1968 Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) Building of the Year award, Kenmore Church; 1982 RAIA Sir Zelman Cowen Award (for public buildings) QAG; 1982 RAIA Canberra Medallion - Belconnen Library, ACT; 1982 Queenslander of the Year; 1983 Order of Australia; 1986 Honorary Doctorate - Griffith University; 1988 Advance Australia Award; 1989 RAIA Gold Medal for outstanding performance and contributions; 2000, and the 2007 25 year RAIA award for Enduring Architecture.
Construction and completion
The design development, documentation and the multifaceted construction program for the entire complex was administered by Roman Pavlyshyn, Director of Building, Department of Public Works. Pavlyshyn had previously overseen the selection of the site and had run the competition for the Queensland Art Gallery. The Cultural Centre was to continue the Department of Public Works' tradition in providing buildings of high quality in design, materials and construction throughout the state.
The funding of the QCC came entirely from the government-owned Golden Casket. The revenue derived from the Golden Casket was effectively ‘freed up' from health funding after Medicare was introduced by the Whitlam government. The then annual income of $4 million was projected to fund the QCC's construction over 10 years. By the early 1980s, inflationary impacts had blown out the cost to $175 million. Under Hielscher's guidance, Treasury looked at other ways to raise revenue. In response, Instant Scratch-Its and mid-week lotto were introduced to Queensland. This successful increase in gambling revenue enabled the QCC to be built at no extra cost to the state's existing budget and without going into debt.
The construction of the Cultural Centre was a complex undertaking and involved a multifaceted program staged over 11 years with a workforce of thousands, from design consultants to onsite labourers. Pavlyshyn guided Stages One, Two and Three to completion and the commencement of Stage Four, before retiring in July 1985. With the number of contractors and suppliers involved, quality control was a critical factor for a successful outcome. For example, the consistent quality of the concrete finish was achieved by securing a guaranteed supply of the principal materials, South Australian white cement, Stradbroke Island sand and Pine River aggregates, for the duration of the project and the strict control of colour and mix for each contract.
The program commenced with the construction of the Art Gallery, the most resolved of the building designs. Stage One also included the underground carpark to the Gallery and Museum and the central services plant facility on the corner of Grey and Peel Streets. Contractors, Graham Evans & Co, commenced construction in March 1977 and the Art Gallery was officially opened by Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen on 21 June 1982. When awarding the art gallery the Sir Zelman Cowen Award that year, the RAIA jury declared the art gallery would enrich the fabric of Brisbane for many years to come, praising: the sustained architectural expertise and masterly articulation of space; avoidance of rhetorical gestures and fussy details, noting the building would enrich the fabric of the city for many years to come.
A development plan for the largest component of the complex, the Queensland Performing Arts Centre (QPAC), built as Stage Two, was released in 1976. The project architect for the Centre was Allan Kirkwood from Robin Gibson and Partners and contributors to the development and design of the Centre were theatre consultants, Tom Brown and Peter Knowland, the Performing Arts Trust and user committees. Completed in November 1984 by contractors Barclay Bros Pty Ltd, a concert for workers and the first public performance were held in December ahead of the official opening by the Duke and Duchess of Kent on 20 April 1985.
The Centre comprised three venues, each specifically designed for particular performance types. The Lyric Theatre and Concert Hall shared an entrance off Melbourne Street with shared and mimicked foyers, bars, circulation and ancillary facilities. The Studio theatre, now the Cremorne, had a separate entrance and foyer off Stanley Street with its own discreet ancillary facilities.
The Lyric Theatre, (2200 seats) was designed for large-scale dramatic productions including opera, operettas, musicals, ballets and dance performances. It had an orchestra pit, stalls, two balconies and side aisles. The 1800 seat Concert Hall was designed for orchestral concerts, choral performances, chamber music, recitals, popular entertainment and ceremonies. A Klais Grand Organ, featuring 6500 pipes, was built into the stage area. Its ‘shoe box' form, designed to enhance natural acoustics, incorporated an orchestral pit, stalls, single balcony, side galleries and side aisles. The Studio Theatre was built to accommodate up to 300 seats for dramatic performances and could be configured in 6 different ways, from conventional set-ups to theatre-in-the-round. It had stalls and a balcony level with an internal connection to the other two theatres.
Opened in 1986, the Queensland Museum, (Stage Three), was connected to the Art Gallery by a covered walkway and to the Performing Arts Complex by a footbridge over Melbourne Street. The entrance on the Melbourne Street side of the building was accessed from street level and the Melbourne Street footbridge. Built over the Stage One carpark, the six-level Museum building had four floors open to the public, with the two top levels dedicated to offices, laboratories , library and artefact storage. The first floor was designed for a variety of uses, including lecture halls, back of house, preparatory area and workshops. Levels 2 to 4 showcased collections in galleries situated on either side of a central circulation core comprising walkways, stairs, lifts and escalators. The outdoor area contained a geological garden on Grey Street side (in 2014 the Energex Playasaurus Place). Stage Four included the State Library and adjacent restaurant and auditorium building (The Edge) completed in 1988.
Public artworks
As part of the construction of the QCC, several pieces of public art were commissioned from Australian artists. Five outdoor sculptures were purchased and installed in 1985, the largest commission of public sculpture at one time in Australia. Four were directly commissioned: Anthony Pryor's Approaching Equilibrium (Steel, painted. River plaza-upper deck); Leonard and Kathleen Shillam's Pelicans (Bronze. QAG Water Mall); Ante Dabro's Sisters (Bronze. Melbourne Street plaza) and Rob Robertson-Swann's Leviathan Play (Steel, painted. Melbourne Street plaza). Clement Meadmore's Offshoot (Aluminium, painted. Gallery plaza) was an existing work.
Other public artworks commissioned at the time of construction are located at QPAC: Lawrence Daws' large interior mural, Pacific Nexus and Robert Woodward's Cascade Court Fountain.
Use and modifications
Since opening, the institutions of the QCC have played a dominant role in fostering and enabling cultural and artistic activities of Queensland - through performances, exhibitions, collections and events. The purpose built world class facilities of the complex, with their careful consideration of both front and back of house requirements, have enabled Queensland to host national and international performances, events and exhibitions, and expand and display collections, in a way that was not possible previously. In addition to the QCC's artistic endeavours, the role of the Queensland Museum in science disciplines has also been an important activity. The QCC (as part of the larger Cultural Precinct) is a major visitor destination in Brisbane; millions of people from Queensland and elsewhere have visited the site.
The successful development of the Cultural Centre was the catalyst for the broader renewal of South Brisbane along the Brisbane River. In 1983 Queensland won the right to hold the 1988 World Exposition (Expo 88). The site for Expo 88 was directly adjacent to the Cultural Centre and underwent a major transformation to host the event. Robin Gibson designed the Queensland Pavilion. Expo 88 was a highly successful for Brisbane and Queensland. After Expo, the site was again comprehensively redeveloped, opening in 1992 as the South Bank Parklands, now a major public space in Brisbane. More widely, the Cultural Centre's direct relationship with the Brisbane River influenced the way the city has come to engage with its dominant natural feature along its edges.
With the exception of The Edge, each of the buildings within the QCC retains its original use. Subsequent modifications to cater for changing requirements have altered the buildings within the complex to varying degrees. The most significant of these changes were the addition of the Playhouse to QPAC and the multimillion dollar Millennium Arts Project, which provided for a refurbishment of the entire complex.
QPAC was well utilised from the outset and the need for a mid-sized theatre was soon realised. Plans for Stage Five, a 750-850 seat Playhouse theatre, designed by Gibson, were produced with input from the same committees and advisers as Stage Two. Completed in 1998, the Playhouse, attached at the eastern end of QPAC, incorporated stalls, balcony, mid-stalls and balcony boxes for patron seating. It had a separate entrance off Russell Street and was separated from the rest of the complex by the loading dock. The Playhouse was refurbished between 2011-12.
The key features of the Millenium Arts Project (2002-2009) were: the addition of a new Gallery of Modern Art and public plaza; the major redevelopment of the SLQ including the addition of a fifth floor; a new entrance to the QAG, and refurbishment of the QM and QPAC.
At the north-western end of the complex, the Gallery of Modern Art, completed in 2006 was built to house Queensland's growing art collection and is linked to the rest of the complex by a public plaza.
The major refurbishment of the Library in 2006 included the addition of a fifth storey and substantial alterations to both the interior and exterior. A new entrance and new circulation patterns were established and the stepped terraces were removed, replaced by a large extension toward the river.
New entrances to QAG and QM were designed by Gibson and completed in 2009.
The new art gallery entrance provided alternative access from Peel Street and included the partial enclosure of the courtyard, a new staircase, and a lift. At the Museum, in addition to the new entrance provided on the eastern end of the Museum, a café was added to the western end, the internal circulation was rearranged and a new entrance on the Grey Street elevation was created to provide access to the Sciencentre, relocated from George Street to the ground floor of the museum in 2009.
In 2009 QPAC was refurbished to meet safety standards and to improve access. A setdown area was added along Grey Street to replace the drop off tunnel which was closed in 2001. Changes to circulation included the installation of lifts and the replacement and reorientation of staircases. The lobby book shop was replaced with a bar and other bars and lobbies were refurbished, removing the salmon colour scheme in higher traffic areas. Brown carpet was installed and the red marble bar finishes were replaced with black in the Lyric Theatre foyer and white in the Concert Hall foyer. Many seats were also replaced in the Lyric and Concert Hall. The Cremorne Theatre remains largely unchanged.
The Edge, operated and managed by SLQ, was reopened in 2010 as a new facility containing workshops, spaces for creative activities, events and exhibitions. The dropped restaurant floor was filled and new lifts installed. Wide scale changes were made to interior fit-out and finishes. The auditorium floor was replaced, and new openings were created in the rear and side elevations. The external structure was modified at ground level with changes to access and the loading dock which was made obsolete by changes to SLQ car park entry. The major external change was cosmetic and involved the enclosure of the open verandah with pre-fabricated steel window bays to create riverfront study and meeting spaces.
Source: Queensland Heritage Register.
Graben (en alemán, zanja, foso) es una de las calles más importantes del Innere Stadt, el centro de la ciudad de Viena, Austria. Empieza en Stock-im-Eisen-Platz, junto al Palais Equitable, y termina en la intersección de Kohlmarkt y Tuchlauben. En el centro de Viena hay otra calle llamada Tiefer Graben («zanja profunda»), que es cruzada por Wipplinger Straße mediante el célebre Hohe Brücke, un puente a unos diez metros por encima del nivel de la calle.
El origen de Graben se remonta al antiguo campamento romano de Vindobona. La muralla suroeste del asentamiento se extendía a lo largo de los actuales Graben y Naglergasse; antes de la muralla se dispuso un foso (Graben). Este foso siguió existiendo frente a las murallas medievales. A finales del siglo XII, la ciudad fue ampliada por los Duques de Babenberg. En esta época, el foso fue rellenado y nivelado. Graben se convirtió así en una de las primeras calles residenciales de la ampliación de la ciudad. En esta zona de la ciudad aún había disponibles grandes zonas sin urbanizar, lo que probablemente contribuyó a que se haya conservado el nombre Graben hasta la actualidad.
Aunque la forma de Graben siguió siendo prácticamente la misma, su carácter empezó a cambiar. Esto fue marcado sobre todo por la construcción del Arkadenhof, un llamativo edificio renacentista, que en 1873 fue sustituido por el actual Grabenhof. Graben se convirtió en el lugar de celebración de varias festividades, incluidas demostraciones públicas de homenaje a la dinastía reinante. Esto impulsó a los residentes a reconstruir sus casas y engalanar sus fachadas. En 1701 se demolió la antigua Iglesia de San Pedro para ser reconstruida, y la nueva estructura se completó en 1708.
Con el aumento del tráfico rodado, Graben también se convirtió en una calle con mucho tráfico. Sin embargo, el tráfico fue limitado a la mitad sur de la calle. El 4 de diciembre de 1950, se instalaron aquí las primeras luces de neón de Viena.
En el siglo XX se han propuesto numerosos proyectos para la remodelación de Graben. El 22 de noviembre de 1974 Graben se convirtió, de manera provisional, en la primera zona peatonal de Viena. Durante la construcción del metro, Graben fue remodelado en fases sucesivas, y la zona peatonal fue expandida gradualmente. Para esta remodelación, se encargaron propuestas a cinco arquitectos y estudios de arquitectura. La propuesta de Gruppe M para la cubrición de Graben fue debatida acaloradamente.
En la actualidad, Graben sigue siendo una de las calles y zonas de tiendas más importantes de Viena.
En Graben hay dos fuentes. Ya en 1455, se encuentran gastos para una fuente en los libros de contabilidad de la ciudad. Esta fuente se situaba en el extremo noroeste de Graben y servía principalmente para apagar incendios. Debido a que estaba decorada con cuatro cabezas de león, era conocida como Löwenbrunnen («fuente de los leones»).
La segunda fuente, en el suroeste, fue construida probablemente en 1561. Cuando en 1638 se decidió establecer nuevas regulaciones contra incendios, se consideraron necesarias del mismo modo nuevas fuentes en Freyung y Graben. Las dos fuentes fueron por tanto reconstruidas. A instancias de Leopoldo I, las fuentes estaban adornadas con esculturas de los santos José y Leopoldo, que fueron realizadas por el escultor Johann Frühwirth. Estas fueron sustituidas posteriormente con figuras de plomo de Johann Martin Fischer. Las estatuas de Frühwirth se han perdido.
A partir del 1 de marzo de 1912, la primera línea de autobús de la ciudad discurría desde Stephansplatz hasta la Volksoper pasando por Graben. Posteriormente, numerosas líneas de autobús atravesarían Graben. En conexión con la construcción del metro, Graben se convirtió en una zona peatonal. En el desfile de Navidad del 27 de noviembre de 1971 se inauguró una prueba de la zona peatonal. El proyecto final para el establecimiento de la zona peatonal fue obra de Hermann Stiegholzer, y fue inaugurado en 1978. El proyecto fue completado en 1988 con la incorporación del tramo entre la Iglesia de San Pedro y el Kohlmarkt. Sin embargo, la línea de autobús A1 todavía atraviesa este tramo.
La línea U3 del Metro discurre bajo la sección entre Stock-im-Eisen-Platz y Jungferngasse desde 1991. La estación de Stephansplatz ya se había construido durante la construcción original de la línea U1, haciendo necesaria su extensión bajo Graben. Una salida de esta estación conduce a Graben. Esta salida no tiene techo, en un intento de hacerla lo menos invasiva visualmente posible. La incorporación de la salida en los edificios vecinos no fue posible debido a los altos pagos compensatorios que hubieran sido necesarios.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graben_(Viena)
The Graben is one of the most famous streets in Vienna's first district, the city centre. It begins at Stock-im-Eisen-Platz next to the Palais Equitable and ends at the junction of Kohlmarkt and Tuchlauben. Another street in the first district is called Tiefer Graben (deep ditch). It is crossed by Wipplinger Straße by means of the Hohe Brücke, a bridge about ten metres above street level.
The Graben traces its origin back to the old Roman encampment of Vindobona. The south-western wall of the settlement extended along the length of the present-day Graben and Naglergasse; before the wall lay a trench (Graben). This trench still stood in front of the medieval city walls. At the end of the 12th century, the city was enlarged by the Babenberg Dukes, using the ransom money for Richard the Lionheart. At this time the trench was filled in and levelled. The Graben thereby became one of the first residential streets in the new section of the city. In this area of the city large unbuilt areas were still available, which probably contributed to the maintenance of the name "Graben" up until the present day.
Although the form of the Graben remained more or less the same, its character began to change. It was marked above all by the construction of the Arkadenhof, a striking Renaissance building, which in 1873 was replaced by the present-day Grabenhof. The Graben became the site of various festivities, including public displays of homage to the ruling house. This prompted the residents to rebuild their houses and to deck out their facades. In 1701 the old Peterskirche was torn down, and the new structure was completed in 1708.
In the course of the 18th century the use of the Graben as a market was suppressed. In 1753 the produce-sellers were removed, and in 1772 the Christmas market was relocated. The Graben became the most fashionable promenade, the chief arena for the self-display of the urban elite. This was not limited to the nobility, but included the entrepreneurial class as well, who were most visibly represented by the construction of the Trattnerhof by the printer Thomas von Trattner. Prostitutes were also in evidence — the famous Grabennymphen.
With the increase in car traffic, the Graben also became a heavily traveled street. However, traffic was limited, as previously, to the southern half of the street. On December 4, 1950, the first neon lights in Vienna were installed here.
Numerous plans for the development of the Graben were proposed, including two for its surveillance. On November 22, 1974, the Graben became, on a provisional basis, Vienna's first pedestrian zone. In the course of the construction of the U-Bahn, the Graben was rebuilt in successive phases, and the pedestrian zone was gradually expanded. In this connection, development proposals from five architects and architectural firms were commissioned. The proposal of Gruppe M for the roofing of the Graben was hotly debated.
Today the Graben is again one of the most important promenades and shopping streets in Vienna.
Two fountains are found on the Graben. Already in 1455, expenditures for a fountain are found in the city account books. This fountain stood on the northwestern end of the Graben and served primarily to put out fires. As it was decorated with four lion's heads, it was known as the Löwenbrunnen (lion fountain). The second, southwestern, fountain was presumably built in 1561. When in 1638 it was decided to establish new fire regulations, new fountains on the Freyung and the Graben were likewise deemed necessary. The two fountains were therefore rebuilt. At the behest of Leopold I, the fountains were adorned with sculptures of Saints Joseph and Leopold, which were executed by the sculptor Johann Frühwirth. These were later replaced with lead figures by Johann Martin Fischer. Frühwirth's statues have since been lost.
The church stands on a plain at the foot of the road. It is a building with a single nave with a semicircular apse oriented east, the two bodies together directly through the opening arc of the apse. The nave is covered with a barrel vault point, reinforced by two arcs that twist off a simple imposta. The apse is covered by a fourth round of a sphere. Four windows give light to the interior: two in front of the lunch, one in the west and the center of the apse, all with double-stroke and a round arch, the inner monolithic adovellat and a la outside. The entrance gate is located on one side of the south wall and is composed of two semicircular arches adovellats and degradation. The walls that enclose the sides of the ship lift and speaker, beyond the height of the roof with a gable double arc located on the west. This wall was a door open late to edge which was walled up in the restoration done by the Barcelona between 1970 and 1973, while reopening the door for lunch. The work is arranged in small blocks horizontal rows and tied with lime mortar rather sandy. Front door, a bastion of low wall was a small close where there is a sink stone named above were on the inside. We must remember that in the era of the house there are Santamaria anthropomorphic tombs that are part of the ancient necropolis of the church and is now hidden.
The first document which mentions Santa Maria is the consecration of the church of the monastery of San Lorenzo near Bagà, dated 21 November 983, in which the count of Cerdanya-Oliba Besalú and his wife Ermegarda donations made between some underwater the Sta. Maria has five houses, lands, tithes and first, and in a more clear: "Et in Avizano ecclesiam Sanctae Marie et hamlets V et terras et vineas, cum suas decimas et primitias (Parchment n. 1110, AM). The church was therefore within the limits of the old county of Berga and under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of Urgell, depending on the Benedictine monastery of San Lorenzo near Bagà. The 1003 Count Oliba Cabreta the cedi to the monastery of Santa Maria de Serrateix (which depended on St. Lawrence nearly Bagà). In the tenth century Bishop of Urgell religious communities became the rule of Saint Benedict, taking care of the Benedictine parishes dependents. For this reason, some historians believe that Santamaria's house, next to the church, could have been the seat of a monastery that women would care about the cult of the Virgin Mary. The year 1312 remained the category of the parish as confirmed at the deanery of Berga. Currently depends on the parish of St. Martí as a covered (BENEDICT, 1993). During the Civil War (1936-1939) was leaving the cult and was converted into storage until 1970, the Heritage Service of the Barcelona are carried out important restoration work, returning the cult on 14 May 1973 . From inside the church comes to the front altar of Santa Maria attributed to the Master of Avià, preserved in the National Art Museum of Catalonia and which n'exposa back inside the church . The Virgin Mary was venerated Avià of this church and was known as Our Lady of La Leche, because it calls for pregnant women to assist in the delivery and give them strength to have the baby milk (Joys of Santa Maria de Avià).
Heidelberg - Heidelberger Schloss
Heidelberg Castle (German: Heidelberger Schloss) is a ruin in Germany and landmark of Heidelberg. The castle ruins are among the most important Renaissance structures north of the Alps.
The castle has only been partially rebuilt since its demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is located 80 metres (260 ft) up the northern part of the Königstuhl hillside, and thereby dominates the view of the old downtown. It is served by an intermediate station on the Heidelberger Bergbahn funicular railway that runs from Heidelberg's Kornmarkt to the summit of the Königstuhl.
The earliest castle structure was built before 1214 and later expanded into two castles circa 1294; however, in 1537, a lightning bolt destroyed the upper castle. The present structures had been expanded by 1650, before damage by later wars and fires. In 1764, another lightning bolt caused a fire which destroyed some rebuilt sections.
Before destruction
Early history
Heidelberg was first mentioned in 1196 as "Heidelberch". In 1155 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was made the Count Palatine by his half-brother Frederick Barbarossa, and the region became known as the Electoral Palatinate. The claim that Conrad's main residence was on the Schlossberg (Castle Hill), known as the Jettenbühl, cannot be substantiated. The name "Jettenbühl" comes from the soothsayer Jetta, who was said to have lived there. She is also associated with Wolfsbrunnen (Wolf's Spring) and the Heidenloch (Heathens' Well). The first mention of a castle in Heidelberg (Latin: "castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri") is in 1214, when Louis I, Duke of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach received it from Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II. The last mention of a single castle is in 1294. In another document from 1303, two castles are mentioned for the first time:
The upper castle on Kleiner Gaisberg Mountain, near today's Hotel Molkenkur (destroyed in 1537);
The lower castle on the Jettenbühl (the present castle site).
All that is known about the founding of the lower castle is that it took place sometime between 1294 and 1303. The oldest documented references to Heidelberg Castle are found during the 1600s:
The Thesaurus Pictuarum of the Palatinate church counsel Markus zum Lamb (1559 to 1606);
The "Annales Academici Heidelbergenses" by the Heidelberg librarian and professor Pithopoeus (started in 1587);
The "Originum Palatinarum Commentarius" by Marquard Freher (1599);
The "Teutsche Reyssebuch" by Martin Zeiller (Strasbourg 1632, reprinted in 1674 as the "Itinerarium Germaniae").
All of these works are for the most part superficial and do not contain much information. In 1615, Merian's Topographia Palatinatus Rheni described Prince Elector Ludwig V as he "started building a new castle one hundred and more years ago". Most of the descriptions of the castle up until the 18th century are based on Merian's information. Under Ruprecht I, the court chapel was erected on the Jettenbühl.
Palace of kings
When Ruprecht became the King of Germany in 1401, the castle was so small that on his return from his coronation, he had to camp out in the Augustinians' monastery, on the site of today's University Square. What he desired was more space for his entourage and court and to impress his guests, but also additional defences to turn the castle into a fortress.
After Ruprecht's death in 1410, his land was divided between his four sons. The Palatinate, the heart of his territories, was given to the eldest son, Ludwig III. Ludwig was the representative of the emperor and the supreme judge, and it was in this capacity that he, after the Council of Constance in 1415 and at the behest of Emperor Sigismund, held the deposed Antipope John XXIII in custody before he was taken to Burg Eichelsheim (today Mannheim-Lindenhof).
On a visit to Heidelberg in 1838, the French author Victor Hugo took particular pleasure in strolling among the ruins of the castle. He summarised its history in this letter:
But let me talk of its castle. (This is absolutely essential, and I should actually have begun with it.) What times it has been through! Five hundred years long it has been victim to everything that has shaken Europe, and now it has collapsed under its weight. That is because this Heidelberg Castle, the residence of the counts Palatine, who were answerable only to kings, emperors, and popes, and was of too much significance to bend to their whims, but couldn't raise his head without coming into conflict with them, and that is because, in my opinion, that the Heidelberg Castle has always taken up some position of opposition towards the powerful. Circa 1300, the time of its founding, it starts with a Thebes analogy; in Count Rudolf and Emperor Ludwig, these degenerate brothers, it has its Eteocles and its Polynices [warring sons of Oedipus]. Then the prince elector begins to grow in power. In 1400 the Palatine Ruprecht II, supported by three Rhenish prince electors, deposes Emperor Wenceslaus and usurps his position; 120 years later in 1519, Count Palatine Frederick II was to create the young King Charles I of Spain Emperor Charles V.
Reformation and the Thirty Years Wars
It was during the reign of Louis V, Elector Palatine (1508–1544) that Martin Luther came to Heidelberg to defend one of his theses (Heidelberg Disputation) and paid a visit to the castle. He was shown around by Louis's younger brother, Wolfgang, Count Palatine, and in a letter to his friend George Spalatin praises the castle's beauty and its defenses.
In 1619, Protestants rebelling against the Holy Roman Empire offered the crown of Bohemia to Frederick V, Elector Palatine who accepted despite misgivings and in doing so triggered the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. It was during the Thirty Years War that arms were raised against the castle for the first time. This period marks the end of the castle's construction; the centuries to follow brought with them destruction and rebuilding.
Destruction
After his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620, Frederick V was on the run as an outlaw and had to release his troops prematurely, leaving the Palatinate undefended against General Tilly, the supreme commander of the Imperial and Holy Roman Empire's troops. On 26 August 1622, Tilly commenced his attack on Heidelberg, taking the town on 16 September, and the castle a few days later.
When the Swedes captured Heidelberg on 5 May 1633 and opened fire on the castle from the Königstuhl hill behind it, Tilly handed over the castle. The following year, the emperor's troops tried to recapture the castle, but it was not until July 1635 that they succeeded. It remained in their possession until the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years War was signed. The new ruler, Charles Louis (Karl Ludwig) and his family did not move into the ruined castle until 7 October 1649.
Victor Hugo summarized these and the following events:
In 1619, Frederick V, then a young man, took the crown of the kings of Bohemia, against the will of the emperor, and in 1687, Philip William, Count Palatine, by then an old man, assumes the title of prince-elector, against the will of the king of France. This was to cause Heidelberg battles and never-ending tribuluations, the Thirty Years War, Gustav Adolfs Ruhmesblatt and finally the War of the Grand Alliance, the Turennes mission. All of these terrible events have blighted the castle. Three emperors, Louis the Bavarian, Adolf of Nassau, and Leopold of Austria, have laid siege to it; Pio II condemned it; Louis XIV wreaked havoc on it.
— quoted from Victor Hugo: "Heidelberg"
Nine Years' War
After the death of Charles II, Elector Palatine, the last in line of the House of Palatinate-Simmern, Louis XIV of France demanded the surrender of the allodial title in favor of the Duchess of Orléans, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine who he claimed was the rightful heir to the Simmern lands. On 29 September 1688, the French troops marched into the Palatinate of the Rhine and on 24 October moved into Heidelberg, which had been deserted by Philipp Wilhelm, the new Elector Palatine from the line of Palatinate-Neuburg. At war against the allied European powers, France's war council decided to destroy all fortifications and to lay waste to the Palatinate (Brûlez le Palatinat!), in order to prevent an enemy attack from this area. As the French withdrew from the castle on 2 March 1689, they set fire to it and blew the front off the Fat Tower. Portions of the town were also burned, but the mercy of a French general, René de Froulay de Tessé, who told the townspeople to set small fires in their homes to create smoke and the illusion of widespread burning, prevented wider destruction.
Immediately upon his accession in 1690, Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine had the walls and towers rebuilt. When the French again reached the gates of Heidelberg in 1691 and 1692, the town's defenses were so good that they did not gain entry. On 18 May 1693 the French were yet again at the town's gates and took it on 22 May. However, they did not attain control of the castle and destroyed the town in attempt to weaken the castle's main support base. The castle's occupants capitulated the next day. Now the French took the opportunity to finish off the work started in 1689, after their hurried exit from the town. The towers and walls that had survived the last wave of destruction, were blown up with mines.
Removal of the court to Mannheim
In 1697 the Treaty of Ryswick was signed, marking the end of the War of the Grand Alliance and finally bringing peace to the town. Plans were made to pull down the castle and to reuse parts of it for a new palace in the valley. When difficulties with this plan became apparent, the castle was patched up. At the same time, Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine played with the idea of completely redesigning the castle, but shelved the project due to lack of funds. He did, however, install his favorite court jester, Perkeo of Heidelberg to famously watch over the castle's wine stock. Perkeo later became the unofficial mascot of the city. In 1720, he came into conflict with the town's Protestants as a result of fully handing over the Church of the Holy Spirit to the Catholics (it had previously been split by a partition and used by both congregations), the Catholic prince-elector moved his court to Mannheim and lost all interest in the castle. When on 12 April 1720, Charles announced the removal of the court and all its administrative bodies to Mannheim, he wished that "Grass may grow on her streets".
The religious conflict was probably only one reason for the move to Mannheim. In addition, converting the old-fashioned hill-top castle into a Baroque palace would have been difficult and costly. By moving down into the plain, the prince-elector was able to construct a new palace, Mannheim Palace, that met his every wish.
Karl Phillip's successor Karl Theodor planned to move his court back to Heidelberg Castle. However, on 24 June 1764, lightning struck the Saalbau (court building) twice in a row, again setting the castle on fire, which he regarded as a sign from heaven and changed his plans. Victor Hugo, who had come to love the ruins of the castle, also saw it as a divine signal:
One could even say that the very heavens had intervened. On 23 June 1764, the day before Karl Theodor was to move into the castle and make it his seat (which, by the bye, would have been a great disaster, for if Karl Theodor had spent his thirty years there, these austere ruins which we today so admire would certainly have been decorated in the pompadour style); on this day, then, with the prince's furnishings already arrived and waiting in the Church of the Holy Spirit, fire from heaven hit the octagonal tower, set light to the roof, and destroyed this five-hundred-year-old castle in very few hours.
— Victor Hugo, Heidelberg
In the following decades, basic repairs were made, but Heidelberg Castle remained essentially a ruin.
Since destruction
Slow decay and Romantic enthusiasm
In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria in addition to the Palatinate and removed his court from Mannheim to Munich. Heidelberg Castle receded even further from his thoughts and the rooms which had still had roofs were taken over by craftsmen. Even as early as 1767, the south wall was quarried for stone to build Schwetzingen Castle. In 1784, the vaults in the Ottoheinrich wing were filled in, and the castle used as a source of building materials.
As a result of the German mediatisation of 1803, Heidelberg and Mannheim became part of Baden. Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden welcomed the addition to his territory, although he regarded Heidelberg Castle as an unwanted addition. The structure was decaying and the townsfolk were helping themselves to stone, wood, and iron from the castle to build their own houses. The statuary and ornaments were also fair game. August von Kotzebue expressed his indignation in 1803 at the government of Baden's intention to pull down the ruins. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ruined castle had become a symbol for the patriotic movement against Napoleon.
Even before 1800, artists had come to see the river, the hills and the ruins of the castle as an ideal ensemble. The best depictions are those of England's J. M. W. Turner, who stayed in Heidelberg several times between 1817 and 1844, and painted Heidelberg and the castle many times. He and his fellow Romantic painters were not interested in faithful portrayals of the building and gave artistic licence free rein. For example, Turner's paintings of the castle show it perched far higher up on the hill than it actually is.
The saviour of the castle was the French count Charles de Graimberg. He fought the government of Baden, which viewed the castle as an "old ruin with a multitude of tasteless, crumbling ornaments", for the preservation of the building. Until 1822, he served as a voluntary castle warden, and lived for a while in the Glass Wing (Gläserner Saalbau), where he could keep an eye on the courtyard. Long before the origin of historic preservation in Germany, he was the first person to take an interest in the conservation and documentation of the castle, which may never have occurred to any of the Romantics. Graimberg asked Thomas A. Leger to prepare the first castle guide. With his pictures of the castle, of which many copies were produced, Graimberg promoted the castle ruins and drew many tourists to the town.
Planning and restoration
The question of whether the castle should be completely restored was discussed for a long time. In 1868, the poet Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter argued for a complete reconstruction, leading to a strong backlash in public meetings and in the press.
In 1883, the Grand Duchy of Baden established a "Castle field office", supervised by building director Josef Durm in Karlsruhe, district building supervisor Julius Koch and architect Fritz Seitz. The office made a detailed plan for preserving or repairing the main building. They completed their work in 1890, which led a commission of specialists from across Germany to decide that while a complete or partial rebuilding of the castle was not possible, it was possible to preserve it in its current condition. Only the Friedrich Building, whose interiors were fire damaged, but not ruined, would be restored. This reconstruction was done from 1897 to 1900 by Karl Schäfer at the enormous cost of 520,000 Marks.
Castle ruins and tourism
The oldest description of Heidelberg from 1465 mentions that the city is "frequented by strangers", but it did not really become a tourist attraction until the beginning of the 19th century. Count Graimberg made the castle a pervasive subject for pictures which became forerunners of the postcard. At the same time, the castle was also found on souvenir cups. Tourism received a big boost when Heidelberg was connected to the railway network in 1840.
Mark Twain, the American author, described the Heidelberg Castle in his 1880 travel book A Tramp Abroad:
A ruin must be rightly situated, to be effective. This one could not have been better placed. It stands upon a commanding elevation, it is buried in green woods, there is no level ground about it, but, on the contrary, there are wooded terraces upon terraces, and one looks down through shining leaves into profound chasms and abysses where twilight reigns and the sun cannot intrude. Nature knows how to garnish a ruin to get the best effect. One of these old towers is split down the middle, and one half has tumbled aside. It tumbled in such a way as to establish itself in a picturesque attitude. Then all it lacked was a fitting drapery, and Nature has furnished that; she has robed the rugged mass in flowers and verdure, and made it a charm to the eye. The standing half exposes its arched and cavernous rooms to you, like open, toothless mouths; there, too, the vines and flowers have done their work of grace. The rear portion of the tower has not been neglected, either, but is clothed with a clinging garment of polished ivy which hides the wounds and stains of time. Even the top is not left bare, but is crowned with a flourishing group of trees & shrubs. Misfortune has done for this old tower what it has done for the human character sometimes – improved it.
— Mark Twain
In the 20th century, Americans spread Heidelberg's reputation outside Europe. Thus, Japanese also often visit the Heidelberg Castle during their trips to Europe. Heidelberg has, at the beginning of the 21st century, more than three million visitors a year and about 1,000,000 overnight stays. Most of the foreign visitors come either from the USA or Japan. The most important attraction, according to surveys by the Geographical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, is the castle with its observation terraces.
Chronology
Timeline of events for Heidelberg Castle:
1225: first documented mention as "Castrum".
1303: mention of two castles.
1537: destruction of the upper castle by lightning bolt.
1610: creation of the palace garden ("Hortus Palatinus").
1622: Tilly conquers city and castle in the Thirty Years War.
1642: renewal of the Castle plants.
1688/1689: destruction by French troops.
1693: renewed destruction in the Palatinate succession war.
1697: (start) reconstruction.
1720: transfer of the residence to Mannheim.
1742: (start) reconstruction.
1764: destruction by lightning bolt.
1810: Charles de Graimberg dedicates himself to the preservation of the Castle ruins.
1860: first Castle lighting.
1883: establishment of the "office of building of castles of Baden."
1890: stocktaking by Julius Koch and Fritz Seitz.
1900: (circa) restorations and historical development.
(Wikipedi)
Das Heidelberger Schloss ist eine der berühmtesten Ruinen Deutschlands und das Wahrzeichen der Stadt Heidelberg. Bis zu seiner Zerstörung im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg war es die Residenz der Kurfürsten von der Pfalz. Seit den Zerstörungen durch die Soldaten Ludwigs XIV. 1689 und der Sprengung durch französische Pioniere am 6. September 1693 wurde das Heidelberger Schloss nur teilweise restauriert. Nachdem am 24. Juni 1764 Blitze die teilweise renovierte Anlage in Brand gesetzt hatten, wurde die Wiederherstellung aufgegeben. Die Schlossruine aus rotem Neckartäler Sandstein erhebt sich 80 Meter über dem Talgrund am Nordhang des Königstuhls und dominiert von dort das Bild der Altstadt. Der Ottheinrichsbau, einer der Palastbauten des Schlosses, zählt zu den bedeutendsten Bauwerken des deutschen Manierismus. In der kulturgeschichtlichen Epoche der Romantik wurde die Schlossruine zu einem Inbegriff einer vergangenen und bewundernswerten Epoche stilisiert. Es zählt heute zu den meistbesuchten touristischen Sehenswürdigkeiten Europas.
Geschichte
Bis zu den Zerstörungen
Erste Erwähnungen
Um das Jahr 1182 verlegte Konrad der Staufer, Halbbruder von Kaiser Friedrich I. Barbarossa und seit 1156 Pfalzgraf bei Rhein, seine Hofhaltung von der Burg Stahleck bei Bacharach am Mittelrhein auf die Burg Heidelberg, seinem Sitz als Vogt des Klosters Schönau im Odenwald.
Die Stadt Heidelberg wird im Jahr 1196 zum ersten Mal in einer Urkunde genannt. Eine Burg in Heidelberg („castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri“) wird im Jahr 1225 erwähnt, als Ludwig der Kelheimer diese Burg vom Bischof Heinrich von Worms als Lehen erhielt. 1214 waren die Herzöge von Bayern aus dem Haus Wittelsbach mit der Pfalzgrafschaft belehnt worden.
Von einer Burg ist zuletzt im Jahr 1294 die Rede. In einer Urkunde des Jahres 1303 werden zum ersten Mal zwei Burgen aufgeführt: die obere Burg auf dem Kleinen Gaisberg bei der jetzigen Molkenkur und die untere Burg auf dem Jettenbühl. Lange Zeit hatte sich deshalb in der Forschung die Auffassung durchgesetzt, dass die Gründung der unteren Burg zwischen 1294 und 1303 entstanden sein müsse, zumal die vom Schlossbaubüro in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts akribisch durchgeführte Bauaufnahme zum Schluss gelangte, dass die Bausubstanz keine Datierung des Schlosses vor das 15. Jahrhundert gerechtfertigt habe. Aufgrund von Architekturfunden und neueren bauarchäologischen Untersuchungen wird in der jüngeren Forschung zum Heidelberger Schloss die Entstehung der unteren Burg dagegen mittlerweile auf die erste Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts datiert. Bereits 1897 wurde ein vermauertes spätromanisches Fenster in der Trennwand zwischen Gläsernem Saalbau und Friedrichsbau entdeckt. 1976 förderten Ausschachtungsarbeiten an der Nordostecke des Ruprechtbaues in einer um 1400 abgelagerten Schutt- und Abbruchschicht ein Fensterfragment in Form eines Kleeblattbogens zutage, wie es sich in ähnlicher Form in den Arkadenfenstern der Burg Wildenberg findet. Eine im Jahr 1999 im Bereich des Ludwigsbaus durchgeführte archäologische Untersuchung verdichtete die Hinweise auf eine Bebauung des Schlossareals in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts.
Die ältesten Werke, die das Heidelberger Schloss erwähnen, sind:
der Thesaurus Picturarum des pfälzischen Kirchenrats Markus zum Lamb (1559 bis 1606)
die Annales Academici Heidelbergenses des Heidelberger Bibliothekars und Professors Pithopoeus (1587 begonnen)
der Originum Palatinarum Commentarius von Marquard Freher (1599)
das Teutsche Reyssebuch von Martin Zeiller (Straßburg 1632, als Itinerarium Germaniae 1674 wieder abgedruckt)
Alle diese Werke sind meist oberflächlich und enthalten nichts Ernsthaftes. Anders verhält es sich mit Matthäus Merian Topographia Palatinatus Rheni aus dem Jahr 1615, in der Kurfürst Ludwig V. als derjenige genannt wird, der „vor hundert und etlichen Jahren hat ein neu Schloß angefangen zu bauen“. Auf Merians Angaben stützen sich die meisten Beschreibungen des Schlosses bis ins 18. Jahrhundert hinein. Das Bestreben, die Gründungszeit des Schlosses weiter rückwärts zu verlegen, führt später zu Hinweisen, dass bereits unter Ruprecht I. die berühmte Hofkapelle auf dem Jettenbühl errichtet worden sei.
Königsschloss und Papstgefängnis
Als Ruprecht III. im Jahr 1401 Deutscher König (Ruprecht I.) wurde, herrschte im Schloss so großer Raummangel, dass er bei seiner Rückkehr von der Königskrönung sein Hoflager im Augustinerkloster (heute: Universitätsplatz) aufschlagen musste. Jetzt galt es, Raum zur Repräsentation und zur Unterbringung des Beamten- und Hofstaates zu schaffen. Gleichzeitig musste die Burg zu einer Festung ausgebaut werden. Etwa aus der Zeit Ruprechts III. stammen die ältesten heute sichtbaren Teile des Schlosses.
Nach Ruprechts Tod im Jahr 1410 wurde der Herrschaftsbereich unter seinen vier Söhnen aufgeteilt. Die pfälzischen Stammlande gingen an den ältesten Sohn Ludwig III. Nach dem Konzil von Konstanz brachte dieser als Stellvertreter des Kaisers und oberster Richter im Jahr 1415 im Auftrag König Sigismunds den abgesetzten Papst Johannes XXIII. auf dem Schloss in Gewahrsam, bevor er auf Burg Eichelsheim (heute Mannheim-Lindenhof) gebracht wurde.
Der französische Dichter Victor Hugo besuchte 1838 Heidelberg und spazierte dabei besonders gerne in den Ruinen des Schlosses herum, dessen Geschichte er in einem Brief zusammenfasst:
„Lassen Sie mich nur von seinem Schloß sprechen. (Das ist absolut unerläßlich, und eigentlich hätte ich damit beginnen sollen). Was hat es nicht alles durchgemacht! Fünfhundert Jahre lang hat es die Rückwirkungen von allem hinnehmen müssen, was Europa erschüttert hat, und am Ende ist es darunter zusammengebrochen. Das liegt daran, daß dieses Heidelberger Schloß, die Residenz des Pfalzgrafen, der über sich nur Könige, Kaiser und Päpste hatte und zu bedeutend war, um sich unter deren Füßen zu krümmen, aber nicht den Kopf heben konnte, ohne mit ihnen aneinanderzugeraten, das liegt daran, meine ich, daß das Heidelberger Schloß immer irgendeine Oppositionshaltung gegenüber den Mächtigen eingenommen hat. Schon um 1300, der Zeit seiner Gründung, beginnt es mit einer Thebais; in dem Grafen Rudolf und dem Kaiser Ludwig, diesen beiden entarteten Brüdern, hat es seinen Eteokles und seinen Polyneikes. Darin nimmt der Kurfürst an Macht zu. Im Jahre 1400 setzt der Pfälzer Ruprecht II., unterstützt von drei rheinischen Kurfürsten, Kaiser Wenzeslaus ab und nimmt dessen Stelle ein; hundertzwanzig Jahre später, 1519, sollte Pfalzgraf Friedrich II. den jungen König Karl I. von Spanien zu Kaiser Karl V. machen.“
– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg
Badisch-Pfälzischer Krieg
Im Badisch-Pfälzischen Krieg 1462 setzte Kurfürst Friedrich I. von der Pfalz (der „Pfälzer Fritz“) den Markgrafen Karl I. von Baden, den Bischof Georg von Metz und den Grafen Ulrich V. von Württemberg auf dem Schloss fest. Friedrich ließ die Gefangenen bei harter Kost in Ketten legen, bis sie bereit waren, die geforderten Lösegeldzahlungen zu leisten. Markgraf Karl I. musste zur Freilassung 25.000 Gulden zahlen, seinen Anteil an der Grafschaft Sponheim als Pfand abgeben und Pforzheim zum pfälzischen Lehen erklären. Der Metzer Bischof musste 45.000 Gulden zahlen. Das Wichtigste war aber, dass Friedrich I. von der Pfalz seinen Anspruch als Kurfürst gesichert hatte. Die Sage berichtet, Friedrich habe seinen unfreiwilligen Gästen das Fehlen von Brot bei der Mahlzeit dadurch begreiflich gemacht, dass er sie durch das Fenster auf das verwüstete Land hinab blicken ließ. Dies wird in einem Gedicht von Gustav Schwab mit dem Titel „Das Mahl zu Heidelberg“ nacherzählt.
Reformation und Dreißigjähriger Krieg
Während der Regierung Ludwigs V. besichtigte Martin Luther, der zu einer Verteidigung seiner Thesen (Heidelberger Disputation) nach Heidelberg gekommen war, das Schloss. Er wurde dabei von Pfalzgraf Wolfgang, dem Bruder Ludwigs V., herumgeführt und lobte später in einem Brief an seinen Freund Georg Spalatin vom 18. Mai 1518 die Schönheit und kriegerische Ausrüstung des Schlosses.
Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg flogen zum ersten Mal Kugeln gegen das Heidelberger Schloss. Hiermit endet auch die eigentliche Geschichte des Schlossbaus. Die folgenden Jahrhunderte bringen hauptsächlich Zerstörungen und Wiederherstellungen.
Friedrich V. von der Pfalz nahm – trotz vieler Bedenken – die Königswürde von Böhmen an und löste damit eine Katastrophe aus. Nach der Schlacht am Weißen Berg war er als Geächteter auf der Flucht und hatte voreilig seine Truppen entlassen, so dass General Tilly, der Oberbefehlshaber der katholischen Liga-Truppen im Dienst des Kurfürsten von Bayern, eine unverteidigte Pfalz vor sich hatte. Am 26. August 1622 eröffnete er die Beschießung Heidelbergs und nahm am 16. September die Stadt und wenige Tage darauf das Schloss ein. Nachdem die Schweden am 5. Mai 1633 die Stadt Heidelberg eingenommen und vom Königstuhl aus das Feuer auf das Schloss eröffnet hatten, übergab der kaiserliche Kommandant am 26. Mai 1633 die Festung an die Schweden. Nach der schweren Niederlage der Schweden in der Schlacht bei Nördlingen im September 1634 besetzten Truppen des Kaisers erneut die Stadt. In der Absicht, das Schloss zu sprengen, wurden innerhalb von 14 Tagen 24 Tonnen Pulver in Stollen unter den Mauern des Schlosses deponiert. Das überraschende Erscheinen einer französischen Armee mit 30.000 Mann verhinderte die geplante Sprengung. Erst im Juli 1635 kam die Stadt erneut in die Gewalt der kaiserlichen Truppen, in der es dann bis zum Friedensschluss blieb. Erst am 7. Oktober 1649 zog der neue Herrscher wieder in das zerstörte Stammschloss seiner Familie ein.
Im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg
Der französische König Ludwig XIV. verlangte nach dem Tode des kinderlosen Kurfürsten Karl II., des letzten Fürsten der Linie Pfalz-Simmern, im Namen der Herzogin von Orléans die Herausgabe des pfälzischen Allodialgutes. Am 29. September 1688 rückten die französischen Heere im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg in die Pfalz und zogen am 24. Oktober in das von Philipp Wilhelm, dem neuen Kurfürsten aus der Linie Pfalz-Neuburg, verlassene Heidelberg ein.
Gegen die verbündeten europäischen Mächte beschloss der französische Kriegsrat, durch Zerstörung aller Festungswerke und durch Verwüstung des pfälzischen Landes dem Feinde die Möglichkeit des Angriffes von dieser Gegend her zu entziehen. Beim Ausrücken aus der Stadt am 2. März 1689 steckten die Franzosen das Schloss und auch die Stadt an vielen Ecken zugleich in Brand.
Johann Wilhelm ließ sofort nach seinem Einzug in die verwüstete Stadt die Mauern und Türme wiederherstellen. Als die Franzosen 1691 und 1692 erneut bis vor die Tore Heidelbergs gelangten, fanden sie die Stadt in einem so guten Verteidigungszustand vor, dass sie unverrichteter Dinge abziehen mussten. Am 18. Mai 1693 standen die Franzosen allerdings wieder vor der Stadt und nahmen sie am 22. Mai ein. Sie versuchten vermutlich, mit der Zerstörung der Stadt die Hauptoperationsbasis gegen das Schloss zu schaffen. Am folgenden Tage kapitulierte die Schlossbesatzung, und nun holten die Franzosen nach, was sie 1689 in der Eile ihres Abzugs nur unvollständig ausgeführt hatten: Sie sprengten nun durch Minen die Türme und Mauern, die beim letzten Mal der Zerstörung entgangen waren. Das Heidelberger Schloss wurde eine Ruine.
Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim
Der Frieden von Rijswijk, mit dem der Pfälzische Erbfolgekrieg beendet wurde, brachte im Jahr 1697 endlich etwas Ruhe. Es war geplant, das Schloss abzureißen und die brauchbaren Teile zur Errichtung eines neuen Palastes im Tal zu verwenden. Als sich aber der Durchführung dieses Planes Schwierigkeiten entgegenstellten, wurde das Schloss notdürftig wiederhergestellt. Gleichzeitig trug sich Karl Philipp mit dem Gedanken eines vollständigen Umbaues des Schlosses, aber der Mangel an finanziellen Mitteln schob dieses Projekt auf, und als der Kurfürst 1720 mit den Protestanten der Stadt wegen Überlassung der Heiliggeistkirche an die Katholiken in Streit geriet, der die Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim zur Folge hatte, endete das Interesse des Kurfürsten am Heidelberger Schloss. Seine Absicht war es, die Heiliggeistkirche zur katholischen Hofkirche umzuwidmen, was die Heidelberger Reformierten mit allen Mitteln zu verhindern suchten. Als er am 12. April 1720 die Verlegung seiner Residenz mit allen Behörden nach Mannheim verkündete, überließ der Kurfürst die alte Hauptstadt ihrem Schicksal und wünschte ihr, dass „Gras auf ihren Straßen wachsen“ solle. Der religiöse Konflikt war vermutlich aber nur der letzte Anstoß gewesen, das alte, schwer zu einer barocken Anlage umzubauende Bergschloss aufzugeben und in die Ebene zu ziehen, wo er eine ganz seinem Willen entspringende Neugründung vornehmen konnte.
Sein Nachfolger Karl Theodor plante vorübergehend, seinen Wohnsitz wieder ins Heidelberger Schloss zu verlegen. Er nahm davon allerdings wieder Abstand, als am 24. Juni 1764 der Blitz zweimal hintereinander in den Saalbau einschlug und das Schloss abermals brannte. Victor Hugo hielt dies später für einen Wink des Himmels:
„Man könnte sogar sagen, daß der Himmel sich eingemischt hat. Am 23. Juni 1764, einen Tag, bevor Karl-Theodor in das Schloß einziehen und es zu seiner Residenz machen sollte (was, nebenbei gesagt, ein großes Unglück gewesen wäre; denn wenn Karl-Theodor seine dreißig Jahre dort verbracht hätte, wäre die strenge Ruine, die wir heute bewundern, sicher mit einer schrecklichen Pompadour-Verzierung versehen worden), an diesem Vortag also, als die Möbel des Fürsten bereits vor der Tür, in der Heiliggeistkirche, standen, traf das Feuer des Himmels den achteckigen Turm, setzte das Dach in Brand und zerstörte in wenigen Stunden dieses fünfhundert Jahre alte Schloß.“
– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg.
In den folgenden Jahrzehnten wurden zwar noch notwendige Erneuerungen vorgenommen, aber das Heidelberger Schloss blieb von nun an hauptsächlich eine Ruine.
Seit den Zerstörungen
Langsamer Zerfall und romantische Begeisterung
Im Jahr 1777 verlegte Kurfürst Karl Theodor seine Residenz von Mannheim nach München. Damit verlor er das Heidelberger Schloss noch mehr aus den Augen. Die überdachten Räume wurden nun von Handwerksbetrieben genutzt. Schon 1767 hatte man begonnen, die Quader des Südwalles als Baumaterial für das Schwetzinger Schloss zu verwenden. Im Jahr 1784 wurden gar die Gewölbe im Erdgeschoss des Ottheinrichsbaus eingelegt und das Schloss als Steinbruch verwendet.
Durch den Reichsdeputationshauptschluss von 1803 gingen Heidelberg und Mannheim an Baden über. Der große Gebietszuwachs war Großherzog Karl Friedrich willkommen, das Heidelberger Schloss betrachtete er jedoch als unerwünschte Zugabe. Die Bauten verfielen, Heidelberger Bürger holten aus dem Schloss Steine, Holz und Eisen zum Bau ihrer Häuser. Auch Figuren und Verzierungen wurden abgeschlagen. August von Kotzebue äußerte sich 1803 voller Empörung über die Absicht der badischen Regierung, die Ruinen abtragen zu lassen. Das zerstörte Schloss wurde am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts zum Sinnbild für die patriotische Gesinnung, die sich gegen die napoleonische Unterdrückung richtete.
Schon vor 1800 erkannten Maler und Zeichner in der Schlossruine und der bergigen Flusslandschaft ein idealtypisches Ensemble. Den Höhepunkt bilden die Gemälde des Engländers William Turner, der sich zwischen 1817 und 1844 mehrfach in Heidelberg aufhielt und etliche Gemälde von Heidelberg und dem Schloss anfertigte. Ihm und anderen Künstlern der Romantik ging es dabei nicht um eine detailgetreue Bauaufnahme. Sie pflegten eher einen recht freien Umgang mit der Wirklichkeit. So ist bei seinem Gemälde des Schlosses das Gelände mehrfach überhöht dargestellt.
Der Begriff Romantik wurde von dem Philosophen Friedrich Schlegel Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts zu einer Universalpoesie erklärt – ein literaturtheoretischer Begriff aus der Frühromantik. In ihr würden alle Künste und Gattungen zu einer Form verschmelzen. Jedoch wandelte sich dies im allgemeinen Verständnis zu einem verklärenden sentimentalen Gefühl der Sehnsucht. Diese Empfindung fand insbesondere in der sogenannten Heidelberger Romantik ihren Ausdruck. So zum Beispiel in Liedersammlungen der Autoren Achim von Arnim und Clemens Brentano, die sich oft in Heidelberg aufhielten. Landschaftsmaler machten die Schlossreste zum zentralen Motiv ihrer Gemälde, in denen häufig das Anmutige der umgebenden Landschaft in Kontrast gestellt wurde zum Feierlich-Düsteren der Ruine. Clemens Brentano dichtete:
„Und da ich um die Ecke bog, – ein kühles Lüftlein mir entgegen zog – Der Neckar rauscht aus grünen Hallen – Und giebt am Fels ein freudig Schallen, – Die Stadt streckt sich den Fluss hinunter, – Mit viel Geräusch und lärmt ganz munter, – Und drüber an grüner Berge Brust, – Ruht groß das Schloss und sieht die Lust.“
– Clemens Brentano: Lied von eines Studenten Ankunft in Heidelberg und seinem Traum auf der Brücke, worin ein schöner Dialogus zwischen Frau Pallas und Karl Theodor.
Die auf Poetik beruhenden Konzepte der Romantik wurden in brieflichen Diskussionen zwischen Achim und Jacob Grimm über das Verhältnis von Natur- und Kunstpoesie entwickelt. Abkehrend von den Elementen der Reflexion, Kritik und Rhetorik in der Kunstpoesie, beschäftigt sich die „Heidelberger Romantik“ mit der Naturpoesie. Im Laufe des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde Heidelberg mit seinem Schloss und der heimischen Natur auch bei Reisenden und Wanderern zunehmend bekannt und beliebt. Stadt und Schloss wurden zum Inbegriff romantischer Stimmung.
Der Retter des Schlosses war der französische Graf Charles de Graimberg. Er kämpfte gegen Pläne der badischen Regierung, für die das Heidelberger Schloss das „alte Gemäuer mit seinen vielfältigen, geschmacklosen, ruinösen Verzierungen“ war, für die Erhaltung der Schlossruinen. Er versah bis 1822 das Amt eines freiwilligen Schlosswächters und wohnte eine Zeit lang im Vorbau des Gläsernen Saalbaues, von dem aus er den Schlosshof am besten übersehen konnte. Lange bevor es in Deutschland eine Denkmalpflege gab, war er der erste, der sich um den Erhalt und die Dokumentation des Schlosses kümmerte, als bei der romantischen Schwärmerei noch niemand daran dachte, den Verfall zu unterbinden. In Auftrag Graimbergs verfasste Thomas A. Leger den ersten Schlossführer. Mit seinen in hoher Auflage produzierten druckgraphischen Ansichten verhalf Graimberg der Schlossruine zu einem Bekanntheitsgrad, der den Tourismus nach Heidelberg lenkte.
Bestandsaufnahme und Restaurierung – der Heidelberger Schlossstreit
Die Frage, ob das Schloss vollständig wiederhergestellt werden solle, führte zu langen Diskussionen. Der Dichter Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter machte sich im Jahr 1868 für eine vollständige Erneuerung stark und rief damit heftige Reaktionen hervor, die in der Presse und in Versammlungen ausgetragen wurden. Aus dem Streit um den richtigen Umgang mit der Schlossruine entwickelte sich eine Grundsatzdiskussion über die Aufgaben der Denkmalpflege. Die Ergebnisse dieser Debatte, die als der „Heidelberger Schlossstreit“ in die Geschichte eingegangen sind, prägten die Prinzipien der Bewahrung historischer Bauwerke nachhaltig.
Die Großherzogliche badische Regierung errichtete im Jahr 1883 ein Schloßbaubüro, das unter Oberaufsicht des Baudirektors Josef Durm in Karlsruhe vom Bezirksbauinspektor Julius Koch und dem Architekten Fritz Seitz geleitet wurde. Aufgabe des Büros war es, eine möglichst genaue Bestandsaufnahme zu machen und zugleich Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung oder Instandsetzung der Hauptgebäude vorzuschlagen. Die Arbeiten dieses Büros endeten 1890 und bildeten die Grundlage für eine Kommission von Fachleuten aus ganz Deutschland. Die Kommission kam zu der einhelligen Überzeugung, dass eine völlige oder teilweise Wiederherstellung des Schlosses nicht in Betracht komme, dagegen eine Erhaltung des jetzigen Zustandes mit allen Mitteln zu erstreben sei. Nur der Friedrichsbau, dessen Innenräume zwar durch Feuer zerstört worden waren, der aber nie Ruine war, sollte wiederhergestellt werden. Diese Wiederherstellung geschah schließlich in der Zeit von 1897 bis 1900 durch Carl Schäfer mit dem enormen Kostenaufwand von 520.000 Mark. Im Jahr 2019 entspricht der Aufwand Inflationsbereinigt 3.700.000 €.
Schlossruine und Tourismus
Schon die älteste Beschreibung Heidelbergs aus dem Jahr 1465 erwähnt, dass die Stadt „vielbesucht von Fremden“ sei. Doch ein eigentlicher Städtetourismus setzte frühestens zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts ein. Graf Graimberg sorgte mit seinen Zeichnungen dafür, dass das Schloss als Bildmotiv eine große Verbreitung fand. Sie wurden praktisch zu Vorläufern der Postkarte. Zur gleichen Zeit gab es auch schon das Schloss als Souvenir auf Tassen. Den entscheidenden Schub erhielt der Tourismus aber erst mit dem Anschluss Heidelbergs ans Eisenbahnnetz im Jahr 1840.
Mark Twain beschrieb 1878 in seinem Buch Bummel durch Europa (A Tramp Abroad) das Heidelberger Schloss folgendermaßen:
„Um gut zu wirken, muss eine Ruine den richtigen Standort haben. Diese hier hätte nicht günstiger gelegen sein können. Sie steht auf einer die Umgebung beherrschenden Höhe, sie ist in grünen Wäldern verborgen, um sie herum gibt es keinen ebenen Grund, sondern im Gegenteil bewaldete Terrassen, man blickt durch glänzende Blätter in tiefe Klüfte und Abgründe hinab, wo Dämmer herrscht und die Sonne nicht eindringen kann. Die Natur versteht es, eine Ruine zu schmücken, um die beste Wirkung zu erzielen.“
– Mark Twain: Bummel durch Europa.
Bei einem am 18. Mai 1978 verübten Brandanschlag, der den Revolutionären Zellen zugerechnet wird, entstand ein Sachschaden von 97.000 DM am Schloss.
Im 20. Jahrhundert verfielen die US-Amerikaner noch mehr dem Heidelberg-Mythos und trugen ihn hinaus in die Welt. So kommt es, dass auch viele andere Nationalitäten das Heidelberger Schloss auf ihren Kurzreisen durch Europa zu den wenigen Zwischenstopps zählen.
Heidelberg hat zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts jährlich mehr als eine Million Besucher und etwa 900.000 Übernachtungen. Wichtigster Anlaufpunkt ist laut einer Befragung des geografischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg das Schloss mit seinen Aussichtsterrassen.
Das Heidelberger Schloss zählt heute zu den landeseigenen Monumenten und wird von der Einrichtung „Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg“ betreut. Aus dem Landesinfrastrukturprogramm Baden-Württemberg wurden für den Neubau eines von Max Dudler entworfenen Besucherzentrums 3 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung gestellt. Es wurde 2012 eröffnet.
Zudem ist das Schloss nach Angaben der Schlösserverwaltung das größte Fledermaus-Winterquartier in Nordbaden. Wegen der dort überwinternden Zwergfledermaus sowie dem Großen Mausohr wurde im Jahr 2016 der im Stückgarten vor dem Schloss stattfindende Teil des Weihnachtsmarktes auf den Friedrich-Ebert-Platz verlegt.
(Wikipdia)
The Bara Gumbad, or "big dome," is a large domed structure grouped together with the Friday mosque of Sikander Lodi and a mehman khana (guesthouse), located in New Delhi's Lodi Gardens. The buildings were constructed at different times during the Lodi era and occupy a common raised platform. Formerly an outlying area of Delhi, the Lodi Gardens are a British-planned landscaped garden which includes a number of monuments (primarily tombs) from the Sayyid and the Lodi dynasties. Originally called Willingdon Park, the gardens were located in the former village of Khairpur, now on the edge of Lutyen's Delhi, the colonial capital built by the British in the early 20th century. The gardens, which cover approx. 70 acres, have come to be surrounded by institutional buildings and some of contemporary Delhi's most expensive real estate.
Although they were built under the same dynasty, each of the three structures was undertaken separately. The Bara Gumbad, completed in 1490, is considered to have the first full dome constructed in Delhi. Its original purpose is contested; although it appears to be a freestanding tomb, it contains no tombstone. This causes the speculation that the building might have been intended as a gateway for the Friday mosque; however, their respective placements, stylistic differences, and construction dates do not support this theory. The Friday mosque, completed in 1494, is the first example of the new mosque type that developed during the Lodi era. Characterized by a relatively simple five bay prayer hall building adjacent to a simple open courtyard, this type was an important precedent for mosque architecture in the Lodi and Mughal eras.
The complex can be accessed from various points along the roads bordering the Lodi Gardens, with the access from the Lodi road towards the south most prominent. The buildings are situated at a distance of about 300 meters from Muhammad Shah's tomb towards the south and about 380 meters from Sikander Lodi's tomb towards the north. Another prominent structure, the Shish Gumbad, is located facing the Bara Gumbad at a distance of about seventy-five meters towards the north. The area surrounding the buildings is landscaped with manicured grass lawns. Few trees are planted in the immediate vicinity, leaving the view of the structures unobscured. The path winding through the Lodi Gardens approaches the buildings axially from the north, although the building plinth is accessible all from all sides.
The buildings are sited on a three-meter-high platform, measuring approximately 30 meters (east-west) by 25 meters (north-south). The Friday mosque is located along the western edge of the platform; the guesthouse is sited opposite it, occupying the eastern edge, while the Bara Gumbad is located along the southern edge. Stone masonry walls, about six meters high, connect the three structures along the southern edge. The northern edge is provided with staircases for accessing the platform. A centrally located straight flight comprising of eight steps, about ten meters wide, connects the ground to a generous mid landing. Another 'C' shaped flight of eight steps wraps around the landing, creating an amphitheatre-like space and reaching the top of the platform. The current arrangement of steps appears to be more recent, and the remains of walls adjoining the southern face of the guesthouse and the mosque indicate that the northern edge might have originally been walled. In the center of the raised court, with its southern edge along the staircase, are the remains of a square shaped platform, 8 meters wide, which appears to be a grave.
Friday mosque:
The Friday mosque is a single aisled, rectangular building, approx. 30 meters (north-south) by 8 meters (east-west). The mosque is organized in five unequal bays, which correspond to the five arched doorways on the eastern (entry) elevation. The width of the arched doorways decreases from the center towards the sides. The arches span across grey granite piers. The central arch is framed within a projecting rectangular portal, measuring about 8 meters in height by 6 meters wide. The piers of the rectangular frame are cased in dressed granite and have three shallow arched niches in red sandstone, occurring vertically above the springing point of the arch, on either side. The doorway itself is described by four receding planes of ogee arches, the outermost one being in line with the external face of the rectangular portal. The doorways immediately to the side of the central portal are about 5 meters wide, while those at the two ends are approx. 1.5 meters wide with two receding planes of ogee arches, adding to the prominence of the central doorway. The apex of each innermost arch is constant, measuring approx. 5 meters from the top of the platform. Each arch is finished in plaster and embellished with intricate carved Arabic inscriptions. The spandrels are also heavily carved with geometric motifs, and their the corners are adorned with round inscribed plaster medallions. Red sandstone eaves (chajjas) on stone brackets top the arches, interrupted only by the central projecting portal that extends above them. There is a blank plastered frieze above the eaves, followed by the projecting horizontal bands of the cornice that is topped by a blind masonry parapet adorned with petal shaped crenellations with inscribed plaster medallions.
The interior of the prayer hall reflects the five bay division of the eastern elevation. It is a rectangular space, measuring about 27 meters (north-south) by about 7 meters (east-west). Additional arches spanning between the piers on the eastern elevation and the engaged piers of the western wall emphasize the demarcation of the interior space into bays. These internal ogee arches reach a height of about five meters. They are finished in plaster and profusely decorated with carvings of Arabic inscriptions. The piers are unornamented, dressed gray granite.
The qibla (western) wall of the prayer hall is a blind wall divided into five unequal bays expressed as recessed ogee arched niches, reflecting the arched openings on the eastern wall. The two bays adjacent to the central bay have three equal niches carved out from the portion below the springing line of the main arch. These niches are separated by granite piers, which have smaller arched niches in the top third of their elevation. The three niches are made of two layers of ogee arches framed by the piers. The external layer is in gray-yellow granite, while the interior arch is made of red sandstone. The central niche is mildly distinguishable from the others because its arched portion is curved and the imposts are engraved, while those of the adjacent arches are plain. The innermost rectangular portion of the central niche is blank, while that of the adjoining niches has the carving of a vase and flora inscribed in it. The tympanum of the main outer arch is finished in plaster and has an additional niche directly above the central niche which is embellished heavily with plaster carvings of Arabic inscriptions. A band of similar inscriptions runs along the interior perimeter of the arch and around the upper niche in a closed loop. The voussoirs of the outer arch are plastered and embellished with another layer of carvings. The central bay of the western wall also has three niches, each made of four recessed planes of alternating rectangular and arched profiles. The central mihrab niche is taller and wider. It is also shallower and the innermost plane is blank, while the other two niches are deeper set with relief work. A stone minbar with three steps has been provided abutting the northern pier of the central niche.
Hemispherical domes cover the three central bays, while the terminal bays are covered by low flat vaulted ceilings. The square plan of the three central bays transitions into an octagonal drum through the application of corbelled pendentives at the corners. The corbelling occurs in four layers, which increases in width from the bottom up. The layers are further embellished with curved niches set into rectangular frames, which also increase in number, the lowest corbel having one and the last corbel having five such niches. The last layers of the pendentives form alternate edges of the octagonal drum; the remaining edges being formed by the extension of the walls and are also provided with similar curved niches. The octagonal drum transitions into a hexadecagon, followed by a thirty-two-sided polygon by the provisions of small struts. Each face of the hexadecagon is provided with shallow niches, while the thirty-two-sided polygon is described by a projecting band of red sandstone, followed by a band of inscriptions finally topped by the hemispherical dome. The dome is finished in plain plaster. The voussoirs of the arches, the pendentives and the tympanum are all covered by intricate stucco Arabic inscriptions. The central dome is relatively higher that the other two domes.
The northern and southern walls of the mosque are punctured by ogee arch doorways below the springline of the main arch. Each opening leads to a projecting balcony, comprising of red sandstone posts supporting a tiered roof. The balconies protrude out from the faade and are supported on red sandstone brackets, whose profiles and carvings are characteristic of Hindu architecture. An elaborately carved arched niche is provided above each opening on the interior wall. It is set into a rectangular frame embossed with Arabic text.
The plasterwork on the external northern and southern walls of the mosque has fallen off, exposing the stone masonry, while that on the western wall has survived. The central bay of the western wall projects out and is marked by two solid towers at the corners. These towers are divided vertically into four layers; the first two layers from the bottom are orthogonal, while the third layer has alternating curved and angular fluting; the top layer, extending over the parapet of the mosque, has a circular section. The corners of the mosque are marked by similar tapering towers, which are divided into four layers. Each layer is circular in plan except the third layer, which is described by alternating curved and angular fluting. All the towers have the remains of finials at their apex. The central projecting wall has four red sandstone brackets in its upper third portion, which may have supported a projecting balcony similar to those on the north and south elevations.
The plasterwork on the walls of the plinth is now gone, exposing the rubble masonry construction below. The western face of the plinth is punctured by five ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames, one in the center and two each on the sides. These openings provide access to the basement within the plinth.
The roof has three domes corresponding to the three central bays of the prayer hall and the three central arches on the eastern elevation. The extrados of the domes are finished in plaster. The octagonal drums supporting the domes protrude out over the roof level, above which the circular bases of the domes are decorated with blind crestings having floral motifs. The central dome is marginally larger than the adjacent domes and all three have the remains of lotus finials at their apex.
Bara Gumbad:
Square in plan, the Bara Gumbad measures approx. 20 meters per side. Set on a plinth 3 meters high, it joins the common plinth on the north and projects beyond it to the south. Its plinth is decorated on the east, south, and west with ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames. These provide access to a basement.The walls of the Bara Gumbad are approx. 12 meters tall, above which a hemispherical dome on a hexadecagonal drum extends another 14 meters from the roof level, for a total building height of 29 meters above ground level.
Each of its elevations is nearly identical and divided into 2 horizontal sections. A projecting portal composed of an ogee arch set in a rectangular frame (approx. 8 meters wide), is centered in each elevation and rises approximately 75 cm above the parapet line of the building. The 1.5 meter wide frame is made of dressed gray granite. Each vertical pier of the frame has six shallow red sandstone niches arranged atop one another at varying heights; nine niches continue in a line along the horizontal portion of the frame. The portal is described by two receding planes of grey granite ogee arches; the spandrels are cased with black granite with a thin projecting edge of red sandstone. Two round plaster medallions adorn the spandrels. The lower layer of the portal has a central doorway, spanned by two red sandstone brackets that form a trabeated arch supporting a black granite lintel. These brackets are supported on grey granite posts. An intricately carved red sandstone frame adorns the brackets and the lintel; it starts at the springing point of the arch and frames the lintel of the doorway. The entire composition is set in a rectangular yellow sandstone frame. An ogee arch window has been provided above the trabeated entrance. The portal is crowned by the arched crenellations of the blind parapet. Solid turrets mark the projecting corners of the portal.
The remainder of the elevation, that flanking the central portal on either side and recessed behind it, is divided vertically into two equivalent parts by projecting horizontal bands of stone. Each part is described by two equal arched panels set into rectangular frames. Both the panels of the upper part on either side of the portal are blind and filled with granite masonry. The lower panels located adjacent to the portal are windows, while the lower panels at the edges are filled in. The parapet, like the portal, is decorated with arched crenellations, and the roof has solid turrets at each corner.
A single hemispherical dome surmounted on a sixteen-sided drum crowns the building. Each face of the drum is described by an ogee arched niche set in a rectangular frame. The voussoirs of the arches are gray granite, while the spandrels are clad with red sandstone. The top edge of the drum is decorated with a band of arched crenellations, similar to those on the roof parapets, running above a projecting band of stone that surrounds the drum. Below this projection is band of leaves carved in relief. The extrados of the dome are finished in smooth plaster. The lotus base, possibly for a vanished calyx finial, is still extant.
The structure can be entered either from the raised courtyard via the north elevation or from a double flight of steps located on the western elevation. Inside, the square building measures about seven meters per side. An 80 cm high, 45 cm wide solid seat runs continuously along the interior perimeter of the building. Light streams in from all four walls, which are punctured by the openings of the doorway at the ground level and the ogee arch window above. The interior surfaces of the Gumbad are unornamented and finished in dressed granite. The square plan of the room transitions into an octagon via squinches, which then support the thirty-two-sided drum and the dome. The apex of the dome has two bands of floral inscriptions; otherwise, the dome is finished in plaster. The absence of historical inscriptions has contributed to the confusion over the original purpose of the Bara Gumbad.
Mehman Khana:
The third structure in the group is rectangular in plan, measuring about 27 meters (north-south) by 7 seven meters (east-west). Located along the eastern edge of the common plinth, it faces the mosque and is connected to the Bara Gumbad by a masonry wall along its northern face. The structure is believed to have either been a mehman khana, (guesthouse) or a majlis khana (assembly hall).
The building is accessed from the common plinth through its western wall, which is divided into five bays, mirroring the eastern elevation of the mosque opposite it. The three central bays are considerably larger and have ogee arch doorways, giving access to the interior, while windows puncture the smaller end bays. The arches are set in rectangular frames, which are recessed from the face of the elevation. Each opening is composed of two recessed planes of arches. The spandrels are clad in red sandstone, contrasting with the gray granite of the elevation, and are decorated with round plaster medallions with lotus motifs. The window openings have an additional tie beam or lintel at the springline. The tympanum of the window towards the south has been filled with stone, while that of the window towards the north has been left open. A continuous chajja, supported on equidistant stone brackets, projects from the western wall above the rectangular frame. The cornice is unornamented and is topped by the projecting horizontal band of the parapet, which reaches a height of approximately five meters from the top of the raised plinth. The roof of the structure is flat. The exterior of the building lacks decoration and is finished in dressed granite.
The interior is divided into seven chambers occurring from north to south; the central chamber is the largest, measuring about 5 meters (north-south) long. It is abutted by relatively narrow chambers (approx. 2.5 meters long). The outside chambers which flank the 2.5 meter wide chambers on either side are approximately the size of the central chamber, and correspond to the arched openings in the western wall. The chambers are separated from each other by gray granite walls, punctured by simple ogee arched doorways set in rectangular frames. Square in plan, the outer rooms are separated from the adjacent chambers by stone walls with rectangular door openings with blind ogee arches and rectangular frames. Each doorway has shallow rectangular recesses on either side, as well as a small arched window set into a rectangular recess and a stone jali screen set above the doorway within the tympanum of the main arch. The eastern wall of the building has blind ogee arches, occurring as two successive planes, reflecting the arched openings of the western elevation.
The roof of the central chamber is flat and supported on arches located on four sides; flat stone brackets appear at the corners. The two adjacent rooms are covered by shallow domes supported on squinches. The interior domes are finished in plaster with carved concave fluting. The exterior of the domes has been filled to blend with the flat roof of the central room.
Certain stylistic continuities are recognizable in the three buildings; each was constructed with (local) gray granite and lime mortar. However, the degree and type of embellishment, both interior and exterior, on the mosque differs substantially from that found on the other two, relatively unadorned, buildings.
Apart from the grouping of the three structures and their stylistic similarities, the buildings do not appear to have been planned as a complex. The Friday mosque is the first example of the panchmukhi building type, where "panch" (five) and "mukhi " (facade) characterize a five-bay prayer hall. This approach was influential in both the Lodi and the Mughal periods. The Bara Gumbad is significant for having the first complete hemispherical dome in Delhi.
The differences in the surface ornament of the buildings suggest that the buildings were constructed at different times, with the Bara Gumbad and the guesthouse being similar in style and decoration, without the multilayered arches of the Friday mosque. The function of the Bara Gumbad is still unknown; its geometry and form aligns with the predominant tomb architecture of the period (like the neighboring Shish Gumbad). However, there is no grave or cenotaph in the building, and rather than being blank, its qibla wall (like its other walls) is punctured by an entrance. While the continuous stone bench in the interior is also found in gateway architecture, (as in the Alai Darwaza at the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Mehrauli), the size of the Bara Gumbad vis-a-vis the Friday mosque does not support this conjecture. Some scholars surmise that the structure might have been a gateway to the larger complex of tombs within the Lodi Gardens.
Lodi Dynasty
-----------------
The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty. All three of them have been discussed in detail in the following lines. So read on about the Lodi dynasty history.
Buhlul Khan Lodi
Buhlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and the first Afghan ruler of Delhi. He was an Afghan noble who was a very brave soldier. Buhlul Khan seized the throne without much resistance from the then ruler, Alam Shah. His territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern Uttar Pradesh. During his reign in 1486, he appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur. Though he was an able ruler, he really couldn't decide as to which son of his should succeed him as the heir to the throne.
Sikandar Lodi
After the death of Buhlul Khan, his second son succeeded him as the king. He was given the title of Sultan Sikander Shah. He was a dedicated ruler and made all efforts to expand his territories and strengthen his empire. His empire extended from Punjab to Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Alauddin Hussain Shah. He was the one who founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared for his subjects.
Ibrahim Lodhi
Ibrahim Lodhi was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death. Due to the demands of the nobles, his younger brother Jalal Khan was given a small share of the kingdom and was crowned the ruler of Jaunpur. However, Ibrahim's men assassinated him soon and the kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. Ibrahim was known to be a very stern ruler and was not liked much by his subjects. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodhi was thus killed in a battle with Babur who was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. With the death of Ibrahim Lodhi, the Lodhi dynasty also came to an end.
ODC-Small & Important
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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakech
Marrakech or Marrakesh (Amazigh: Murakush, Arabic مراكش Murrākush), known as the "Red City", is an important and former imperial city in Morocco. It has a population of 1,070,838 (as of 2004),[1] and is the capital of the mid-southwestern economic region of Marrakech-Tensift-Al Haouz, near the foothills of the snow-capped Atlas Mountains.
Like many North African and Middle Eastern cities, Marrakech comprises both an old fortified city (the médina) and an adjacent modern city (called Gueliz). It is served by Ménara International Airport (RAK is the code for the airport) and a rail link to Casablanca and the north. Marrakech is the third largest city in Morocco after Casablanca and Rabat.[citation needed]
Marrakech has the largest traditional market (souk) in Morocco and also has one of the busiest squares in Africa and the world, Djemaa el Fna.[2] The square bustles with acrobats, story-tellers, water sellers, dancers, and musicians. By night, the square turns into food stalls, becoming a huge open-air restaurant with busy life.
The probable origin of its name is from the Amazigh (Berber) words mur (n) akush, which means "Land of God". (The root "mur" is used now in the Berber languages mostly in the feminine form "tamurt"). The same word "mur" appears in the country Mauritania, but this interpretation is still unproven to this day.
Until a few decades ago, Morocco was known as Kingdom of Marrakech by Arabs, Persians and Europeans. The European names of Morocco, Marruecos, Maroc, Marokko are directly derived from the Berber word Murakush. The city is spelled "Marrakech" in French, "Marrakech" or "Marrakesh" in English, "Marrakesch" in German and "Marakeş" in Turkish.
Prior to the advent of the Almoravids in the 11th century, the area was ruled from the city of Aghmat. The Almoravid leader, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar decided Aghmat was becoming overcrowded and chose to build a new capital. He decided to build it in the plains near the Tansift river. He chose the site of Marrakech, because it was in neutral territory between two tribes who were vying for the honor of hosting the new capital.[citation needed] Work started in May 1070, but Abu-Bakr was recalled to the Sahara to put down a rebellion in January 1071 and the city was completed by his deputy and eventual successor Yusuf ibn Tashfin.[3] The city experienced its greatest period under the leadership of Yacoub el Mansour, the third Almohad sultan. A number of poets and scholars entered the city during his reign and he began the construction of the Koutoubia Mosque and a new kasbah.
Prior to the reign of Moulay Ismail, Marrakech was the capital of Morocco. After his reign, his grandson moved the capital back to Marrakech from Meknès.
For centuries Marrakech has been known for its 'seven saints.' When sufism was at the height of its popularity, during the reign of Moulay Ismail, the festival of the 'seven saints' was founded by Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi at the request of the sultan. The tombs of several renowned figures were moved to Marrakech to attract pilgrims in the same way Essaouira did at that time with its Regrega festivals. The 'seven saints' (sebaatou rizjel) is now a firmly established institution, attracting visitors from everywhere. The seven saints include Sidi Bel Abbas (the patron saint of the city), Sidi Muhammad al-Jazuli, Sidi Abu al-Qasim Al-Suhayli, Cadi Ayyad ben Moussa, Abdelaziz al-Tebaa and Abdallah al-Ghazwani.
Marrakech was dominated in the first half of the 20th century by T'hami El Glaoui, Lord of the Atlas and Pasha of Marrakech. The poet of the city was Mohammed Ben Brahim, his favorite place was café Al-Masraf. The poems and songs of Ben Brahim are still known by heart by many Marrakshi.
Marrakech had an official number of population of 1,070,838 in 2004.[1] There is a very large international community consisting mainly of Europeans estimated at 10,700 people, mostly retired.
Many tourists take a trip from Marrakech to visit the valley of the Ourika River in the Atlas Mountains or the valley of the Draa River in the south near the Sahara desert, but also to Middle Atlas Mountains: Waterfalls of Beni Mellal, and to Essaouira on the Atlantic ocean.
Menara International Airport serves as the main airport for the city and receives flights from Europe and neighboring Arab countries.
A toll-paying motorway connects Marrakech with Casablanca.
CTM coaches (intercity buses) and various private lines run services to most notable Moroccan towns as well as a number of European cities, from the Gare Routière on Rue Bab Doukkala in downtown Marrakech.
Marrakech is the southern terminus of the ONCF, the Moroccan railway network, and Marrakech is well served by trains heading to Tangier, Rabat, Casablanca, and Fes. The train station is located on Avenue Hassan II.
The ONCF owned "Supratours" bus company serves towns not served by the train. The bus timetable coordinates with the train timetable and the bus terminal is right beside the station.
York was already an important centre in Roman times, when it was known under the name of Eboracum. The Vikings, who took over the area later from the Angels , in turn adapted the name to Norse Jórvík.
After the Anglian settlement York was first capital of Deira and later Northumbria, and by the early 7th century, York was an important royal centre for the Northumbrian kings. Following the Norman Conquest York was substantially damaged in response to regional revolt. Two castles were erected in the city on either side of the River Ouse. In time York became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the county of Yorkshire, as the seat of an archbishop, and at times in the later 13th and 14th centuries as an alternative seat of royal government. It was an important trading centre.
York prospered during much of the later medieval era; the later years of the 14th and the earlier years of the 15th centuries were characterised by particular prosperity. During the English Civil War, the city was regarded as a Royalist stronghold and was besieged and eventually captured by Parliamentary forces under Lord Fairfax in 1644. After the war, York retained its pre-eminence in the North, and, by 1660, was the third-largest city in England after London and Norwich.
Thank God the devil is chained up in York.
Jenna looked across at Jake, taking a minute from the cleaning of her automatic rifle, "If it moves I can shoot it! If I can hit it, it will bleed., and if it bleeds, I can kill it!" smiled Jenna.
Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències / City of Arts and Sciences
The City of Arts and Sciences (Valencian: Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències), (Spanish: Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias) is an entertainment-based cultural and architectural complex in the city of Valencia, Spain. It is the most important modern tourist destination in the city of Valencia.
The City of Arts and Sciences is situated at the end of the former riverbed of the river Turia, which was drained and rerouted after a catastrophic flood in 1957. The old riverbed was turned into a picturesque sunken park.
Designed by Santiago Calatrava and Félix Candela, the project underwent the first stages of construction in July 1996 and the finished "city" was inaugurated April 16, 1998 with the opening of L'Hemisfèric. The last great component of the City of Arts and Sciences, El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia, was presented on October 9, 2005, Valencian Community Day.
The complex is made up of the following buildings, in order of their inauguration:
L'Hemisfèric — an Imax Cinema, Planetarium and Laserium. The building is meant to resemble a giant eye, and has an approximate surface of 13,000 m². The Hemesferic also known as the planetarium or the “eye of knowledge,” is the centerpiece of the City of Arts and Sciences. It was the first building completed in 1998. Its design resembles an eyelid that opens to access the surrounding water pool. The bottom of the pool is glass, creating the illusion of the eye as a whole. This planetarium is a half-sphere composed of concrete 110 meters long and 55.5 meters wide. The shutter is built of elongated aluminum awnings that fold upward collectively to form a brise soleil roof that opens along the curved axis of the eye. It opens to reveal the dome, the pupil of the eye, which is the Ominax theater. The City of Arts and Sciences is divided in half by a set of stairs that descend into the vaulted concrete lobby. The underground spaces are illuminated with the use of translucent glass panels within the walking path. The transparent roof is supported by concrete arches that connect to the sunken gallery. There is a miraculous echo inside of the building and if two people stay on the two opposite pillars inside of the eye they can seamlessly speak with each other.
El Museu de les Ciències Príncipe Felipe — Is an interactive museum of science that resembles the skeleton of a whale. It occupies around 40,000 m² on three floors. The hotch-potch of exhibits is designed more for 'entertainment value' than for science education. The building is much more impressive outside than inside and its meagre contents show how little thought was put into the whole project. Much of the ground floor is taken up by a basketball court sponsored by a local team and various companies. The building is made up of three floors of which 26,000 square meters is used for exhibitions. The first floor has a beautiful view of the Turia Garden that surrounds it; which is over 13,500 square meters of water. The second floor hosts “The Legacy of Science” exhibition by the researchers; Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Severo Ochoa y Jean Dausset. The third floor is known as the “Chromosome Forest” which shows the sequencing of human DNA. Also on this floor is the “Zero Gravity,” the “Space Academy,” and “Marvel Superheroes” exhibitions. The building’s architecture is known for its geometry, structure, use of materials, and its design around nature. The building is about 42,000 square meter and 26,000 square meters of is exhibition space, which is currently the largest in Spain. It has 20,000 square meters of glass, 4,000 panes, 58,000 m³ of concrete, and 14.000 tons of steel. This magnificent building stands 220 meters long, 80 meters wide and 55 meters high.
El Museu de les Ciències Príncipe FelipeL'Umbracle — a landscaped walk with plant species indigenous to Valencia (such as rockrose, lentisca, romero, lavender, honeysuckle, bougainvillea, palm tree). It harbors in its interior The Walk of the Sculptures, an outdoor art gallery with sculptures from contemporary artists. (Miquel from Navarre, Francesc Abbot, Yoko Ono and others). The Umbracle is a space that is a home to numerous sculptures surrounded by nature. It was designed as an entrance to the City of Arts and Sciences. It is 320 meters long and 60 meters wide, located on the southern side of the complex. It 55 fixed arches and 54 floating arches that stand 18 meters high. The plants in the garden were carefully picked to change color with the seasons. The garden consists of 99 palm trees, 78 small palm trees, 62 bitter orange trees. There are 42 varieties of shrubs from the Region of Valencia including Cistuses, Mastics, Buddleia, Pampas grass, and Plumbagos. In the garden there are 16 plants of Beauty of the Night. Honeysuckle and hanging Bougainvilea are two of the 450 climbing plants in the umbracle. It also has 5,500 carpet plants such as Lotus, Agateas, Spanish Flags, and Fig Marigolds. There are over a hundred aromatic plants including Rosemary and Lavender.
L'UmbracleL'Oceanogràfic — an open-air oceanographic park. It is the largest oceanographic aquarium in Europe with 110,000 square meters and 42 million liters of water. It was built in the shape of a water lily and is the work of architect Félix Candela. Each building represents different aquatic environments including the Mediterranean, Wetlands, Temperate and Tropical Seas, Oceans, the Antarctic, the Artctic, Islands and the Ted Sea. This aquarium is a home to over 500 different species including dolphins, belugas, sawfish, jellyfish, starfish, sea urchins, walruses, sea lions, seals, penguins, turtles, sharks,and rays. It also inhabits wetland bird species.
El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia — an opera house and performing arts center. It contains four large rooms: a Main Room, Magisterial Classroom, Amphitheater and Theater of Camera. It is dedicated to music and the scenic arts. It is surrounded by 87,000 square meters of landscape and water, as well as 10,000 square meters of walking area. The Palau de Les Arts has four sections; the main hall, the master hall, the auditorium, and the Martin y Soler theatre. It holds many events such as opera, theatre and music in its auditoriums. Panoramic lifts and stairways connect platforms at different heights on the inside of the metallic frames of the building. The building has an metallic feather outer roof that rests on two supports and is 230 meters long and 70 meters high. One of the supports allows for part of the building to overhang. The building is supported by white concrete. Two laminated steel shells cover the building weighing over 3,000 tons. These shells are 163 meters wide and 163 meters long.
El Pont de l'Assut de l'Or — a suspension bridge that connects the south side with Minorca Street, whose 125 meters high pillar is the highest point in the city.
L'Àgora — a covered plaza in which concerts and sporting events (such as the Valencia Open 500) are held.The Agora is a space designed to hold a variety of events such as concerts, performances, exhibitions, conventions, staging of congresses, and international sports meetings. Many important events have been held in this building including the Freestyle Burn Spanish Cup in 2010 and the Christmas Special Program.
Torres de València — forming part of a project of the construction of three skyscrapers of 308, 266 and 220 m. The project has been put on hold and the possibilities that it will be finished are seen by many as doubtful.
The Architects: Santiago Calatrava and Felix Candela.
Santiago Calatrava was born in Valencia Spain on the July 28, 1951. He is a qualified architect and engineer and also known for his artist skills in painting and sculpting. He attended the Art Academy in Valencia in the mid-1960s, then he earned a degree in architecture and a post graduate course in city planning at the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Arquitecturea, studied civil engineering at the Federal Polytechnic University of Zurich, and participated in academic research investigating The Foldability of Space Frames. Calatrava’s architecture is aimed to unite structure and movement. Early in his career, Calatrava was the winner to design The Stadelhofen Station in Zurich. He was recognized for his achievement in creating poetics of movement and integrating public transportation in a natural setting and urban context. Another theme in his work was moving contraptions in his buildings. The dome for the Reichstag Conversion Competition in Berlin that open and closes like a flower. The Planetarium in the City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia opens and closes like eyelids.
Felix Candela was born on January 27, 1910 in Madrid Spain and died December 7, 1997. His architectural designs composed of reinforced-concrete structures distinguished by thin, curved shells. His popularity sprung from his design, in collaboration with Jorge Gonzales Reyna, of the Cosmic Ray Pavilion in Mexico. He used his signature design of the reinforced concrete roof that varies in thickness from only 5/8 inch to 2 inches. He also built the church of La Virgin Milagrosa in Mexico City and the church of San Vicente de Paul. His designs consisted of warped-shell industrial buildings, thin-shell centenary, and barrel-vaulted factories and warehouses. Candela was also a teacher at Harvard University and University of Illinois. Felix Candela designed the underwater city, L’Oceanografic, located in the City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia and is reminiscent of Antoni Gaudi work in Barcelona.