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"The building, which is situated in the centre of the city between King's and Gonville and Caius Colleges, was designed by architect James Gibbs, based to an unclear extent on designs by the gentleman-architect Sir James Burrough, and built in 1722–1730 by Gibbs in a neo-classical style using Portland stone. The ceremony to lay the first stone was performed by Thomas Crosse, then Vice-Chancellor, on 22 June 1722. The site was previously used for houses, which were purchased by an Act of Parliament, dated 11 June 1720. It was officially opened in July 1730, although the western end was not completed until 1768.
The Senate House was originally intended to be one side of a quadrangle, however the rest of the structure was never completed. It forms part of the Old Schools Site. It is a Grade I listed building.
The Senate House is now mainly used for the degree ceremonies of the University of Cambridge. It was also formerly used for meetings of the University's Council of the Senate.
Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam approximately 50 miles (80 km) north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, its population was 123,867 including 24,506 students. Cambridge became an important trading centre during the Roman and Viking ages, and there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although modern city status was not officially conferred until 1951.
The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209. The buildings of the university include King's College Chapel, Cavendish Laboratory, and the Cambridge University Library, one of the largest legal deposit libraries in the world. The city's skyline is dominated by several college buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, and the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital. Anglia Ruskin University, which evolved from the Cambridge School of Art and the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, also has its main campus in the city.
Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies born out of the university. Over 40 per cent of the workforce have a higher education qualification, more than twice the national average. The Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to house premises of AstraZeneca, a hotel, and the relocated Papworth Hospital.
The first game of association football took place at Parker's Piece. The Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fair are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads. Cambridge station is less than an hour from London King's Cross railway station." - info from Wikipedia.
Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.
Now on Instagram.
More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850. Cultivated systems (areas where at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands,shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture) now cover one quarter of Earth’s terrestrial surface.
For any form of publication, please include the link to this page:
This photo has been graciously provided to be used in the GRID-Arendal resources library by: Philippe Rekacewicz, Emmanuelle Bournay, UNEP/GRID-Arendal
I'm going to start explaining my more significant shots to a much greater extent - I feel I ought to be putting some more effort into this and all, so I think not only would it be helpful for the viewer, but for me as well to have some information available.
Intro
The main goal of the trip to Galveston was to get several successful shots of long exposures of waterscapes. I was inspired by many images of deviantArt members - Solkku, correiae, DenisOliver, londonxpress, etc. (for those who know these people, you'll realize I'm nowhere close, and for those who don't know - go look 'em up). This is my first attempt at creating a solid long exposure - or at the very least, getting the technique down. Unfortunately, due to the lack of a good ND filter, I was not capable of creating the color exposure I wanted. I was at the very least able to get it long enough (with the addition of a circular polarizer) to get some misty qualities.
Technical Comments
I managed to pull off the dreamy, relaxing atmosphere I was seeking to create in the end - but as mentioned, I wanted to do better. But this is what I had to work with, so with some white balance/tinting towards a more purple hue to complement the sunset, I achieved an acceptable image.
I was unable to get at the angle I desired, so I was forced to shoot from about 40 feet away, about 10 to 15 feet above the ocean (I was on the boardwalk shooting down towards the shore). The composition wasn't what I wanted, and what was furtherly irksome was the fact I had an obstructive dock behind the subject along with trees, beachhouses, and shoreline. Thus, I had to do some odd composing and this is what worked best. So the fact that I could be somewhat pleased with the results left me feeling somewhat successful.
I shot this at the Kemah Boardwalk - for those of you who are wondering where that place is if you've seen some of my previous shots, it's an area near Houston, not too far away. Maybe 30 minutes North of Galveston.
Post Process
I square cropped into the image due to the fact I only had a 70mm focal length (105mm effective) to work with. I didn't have to do it to an extreme however, so I still maintained most of the resolution. I mentioned briefly the white balance/tint comment - this was done in Adobe Camera RAW, a common technique of mine to tweak the image's tonality. The tones are always there, it's simply a matter of whether the white balance/tint of the camera is set to see them. So by shifting the white balance towards a cooler temperature and giving the tint a bit more purple/red by shifting it right, I was able to pull out the tones I desired.
Aside from this, I had a tweak of the contrast and exposure, with a last touch put on with the addition of a vignette. Again, all done in Adobe Camera RAW within a minute.
Other Comments
That's really all I have to say on this image. I got the technique down along with the subject, so I merely need some more tools and a more pleasing composition until I feel I have this style completely understood. I hope that it is as pleasent to you as it is to me.
This photo of the Changu Naryan temple gives some idea of the extent and quality of the decoration you can find on Hinu temples in Nepal.
Like many of the temples we visited in Nepal (and unlike most Western churches) it felt it was an important part of the residents everyday routine rather than a something that's been preserved as a tourist attraction.
More photos from my Kathmandu trip here : www.flickr.com/photos/darrellg/albums/72157709610673461
From Wikipedia : "The ancient Hindu temple of Changu Narayan is located on a high hilltop that is also known as Changu or Dolagiri. The temple was surrounded by champak tree forest and a small village known as Changu. The temple is located in Changunarayan VDC of Bhaktapur District, Nepal. This hill is about 7 miles or 12 km east of Kathmandu and a few miles north of Bhaktapur. The Manahara River flows beside the hill. This shrine is dedicated to lord Visnu and held in special reverence by the Hindu people. This temple is considered to be the oldest temple in the history of Nepal. The Kashmiri king gave his daughter, Champak, in marriage to the prince of Bhaktapur. Changu Narayan Temple is named after her."
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© D.Godliman
The extent range of the Flattened Musk Turtle is the Black Warrior River system, most of which is within the boundaries of the Bankhead National Forest in Northern Alabama. They are considered critically endangered due to habitat destruction caused by siltation and damming of the rivers they call home.
The clear, clean rivers they occupy occur above the fall line which are riddled with boulders, exposed bedrock and large cliffs. They have evolved a low-profile shell which allows them to squeeze between, and under, rocks and also aides in the their movement within the water column of these swift waters.
Deutschland - Baden-Württemberg - Kaiserstuhl
The Kaiserstuhl (German: [ˈkaɪzɐʃtuːl], lit. "Emperor’s Chair") is a range of hills in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany with a maximum height of 556.6 metres (1,826 ft). It is of volcanic origin and located in the southwest of the state in the counties of Emmendingen and Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. In terms of natural regions it is considered to be a part of the Upper Rhine Plain.
Name
The name "Kaiserstuhl" is believed to refer to King Otto III, who held court near Sasbach on 22 December 994. From then on, the whole hill range was called the Königsstuhl – the King’s Chair. In May 996, Otto III was crowned Emperor and the King’s Chair eventually became the Emperor’s Chair – "Kaiserstuhl". Reliable sources mention the name Kaiserstuhl only as early as 1304 and historians thus suppose that the term Kaiserstuhl was not coined until the 13th century.
Geography
Location
The Kaiserstuhl is situated in South Baden, mainly in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald county or district. However, the smaller northern part belongs to Emmendingen. Within the Upper Rhine Plain it is situated about 16 km northwest of the city of Freiburg, right next to the eastern bank of the Rhine and a short distance west of the Dreisam. It reaches up to 377 metres above the level of the Rhine downstream (179.5 m a.s.l.) from the weir close to Burkheim.
At its greatest extent, from the Michaelsberg near Riegel in the northeast, to the Fohrenberg, by Ihringen in the southwest, the Kaiserstuhl is about 15 km long. Its maximum width is about 12.5 km.
Hills
The hills of the Kaiserstuhl include the following (sorted by height in metres above sea level):
Totenkopf (556.6 m), 1.9 km east of Bickensohl; with the Vogtsburg 1 telecommunication tower and Neunlinden observation tower
Eichelspitze (521.3 m), 2.8 km northwest of Bötzingen
Katharinenberg (492.4 m), 1.3 km southeast of Amoltern
Bisamberg (469.0 m), 1.2 km south of Amoltern
Staffelberg (446.0 m), 1.5 km northwest of Schelingen
Badberg (432.7 m) (protected area), 1.5 km east of Oberbergen
Holzeck (431.9 m), 1.7 km northeast of Ihringen; with tower
Hochbuck (374.8 m), 900 m south of Achkarren
Schlossberg (352.1 m), 500 m northwest of Achkarren; with Höhingen Castle ruins
Böselsberg (340.1 m), 500 m northwest of Wasenweiler
Büchsenberg (283.7 m), 1.3 km west of Achkarren
Geology
The formation of the Kaiserstuhl volcano during the Tertiary was the climax and at the same time the end of volcanic activity in the Upper Rhine Valley Rift. Volcanism started as early as the Cretaceous Period. Volcanic landforms include heavily eroded volcanic vents. The Kaiserstuhl is the only larger volcano from this period in the rift valley. Geologically the Kaiserstuhl can be divided into two parts: the sedimentary and volcanic part. Due to these peculiarities the Kaiserstuhl has been labeled one of the most important national geotopes.
Sedimentary base
The horizontal sedimentary layers forming the eastern third of the Kaiserstuhl date back to the Jurassic and the Tertiary long before the volcanic activity. Important stratigraphic outcrops include the Hauptrogenstein (local oolite) which is found mainly near the village of Riegel and the Pechelbronner Schichten (local Tertiary layers in the South German Scarplands) near Bötzingen. During the formation of the Upper Rhine Plain this part of the Kaiserstuhl sloped less in respect to its surrounding area – and thus appears as a so-called horst. In terms of its geological structure and the sequence of its escarpments, the Kaiserstuhl is comparable to the nearby Tuniberg, Nimberg and also to the Schönberg, which is situated south of the city of Freiburg.
Volcanic activity
Petrologically the volcanic Kaiserstuhl is an alkali-carbonate rock formation. The volcanic rocks making up a large part of the central and western Kaiserstuhl were the result of numerous volcanic eruptions during the Miocene, about 19 to 16 million years ago. They cover parts of the sedimentary base of the eastern Kaiserstuhl, which is why in some places changes in the base’s mineralogical composition occurred. The driving force behind this process of contact metamorphism was an increase in temperature. Due to the alternate eruption of tephra and lava flows from several vents a complex stratovolcano came into existence. Some of the rising magma solidified as volcanic intrusions below the surface – and today forms the central part of the Kaiserstuhl. Laterally rising phonolite magma also intruded into the sedimentary base of the Eastern Kaiserstuhl. Several hundred metres of the original volcano have been eroded.
Volcanic rocks
The entire volcanic Kaiserstuhl consists of rock types that contain feldspathoid minerals and olivine and are undersaturated with SiO2. Most igneous rocks at the surface are leucite-tephrites, with subordinate phonolites, limburgites, and olivine-nephelinites (at the Limberg Mountain near Sasbach), the last of which is rich in xenoliths from the Earth’s mantle. Carbonatite ignimbrite and lapilli are local peculiarities; they can be found in places in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl (Henkenberg near Burkheim, Kirchberg near Oberrotweil).
The subvolcanic and intrusive rocks of the central Kaiserstuhl are plutonic equivalents of the erupted material (essexite, carbonatite and coarse-granular phonolite). Several local terms which do not carry official status with the International Union of Geological Sciences have been used for different varieties of the intrusive rocks. Of major scientific interest is the consolidated carbonatite near Altvogtsburg und Schelingen. It is a quite rare volcanic rock, which crystallized from a carbonate magmatic melt rather than a silicate one. Given its unusual composition for an igneous rock, the magmatic nature of the carbonatite was not proposed for a long time and remained doubtful subsequently. An alternative interpretation was that it was a metamorphically altered sedimentary rock, examples of which can be found nearby. Only in the 1950s and 1960s did research prove that it was a carbonatite; one of the clues was identification of the eruptive carbonatites found in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl. The carbonatite contains the niobium rich pyrochlore; attempts to mine the carbonatite rock for niobium were carried out in the middle of the 20th century, but the amount turned out to be too small to be economical.
Minerals
For a long time the Kaiserstuhl has been known for rare minerals. Examples include the quarries at the Limberg (zeolites), Badberg (carbonatites), Orberg and Fohberg. Well-crystallized minerals can be found predominantly in clefts or cavities in the volcanic rock.
Loess
The Kaiserstuhl is today largely covered by a Quaternary loess layer, a loosely cemented sediment. It is derived from other rocks through erosion and is then transported by the wind. The loess at the Kaiserstuhl – as in all the peripheral areas of the Upper Rhine Valley – was formed during the last Ice Age. Large parts were bare of vegetation and so loess was winnowed out from the Rhine sediments. It was then deposited in the periglacial area (i.e. ice-free, but surrounded by glaciers) at the Kaiserstuhl. The major process active here was frost weathering resulting in crushed rocks. The wind blew strongly, as there was no vegetation that could have moderated it – entraining the lightest material and depositing it at obstacles like the Kaiserstuhl. Deposition took place northeast of the Kaiserstuhl, as the winds blew from the southwest.
The higher the place of sedimentation, the thinner the layer of the sedimented material is. At the Kaiserstuhl the thickness of the loess layer varies between 10 and 40 metres. There are, however, also areas in the southwest where no loess has been deposited. The Northern Limestone Alps are considered the main source of the Kaiserstuhl loess. A rust-coloured band occurs at irregular intervals. It developed as a new material and did not arrive regularly but in phases of different intensities. In a phase of weak sedimentation the material on top weathered – and the calcium carbonate was washed out. It then precipitated further down and formed a particular type of soil horizon, which contains concretions of calcium carbonate.
The Kaiserstuhl loess soils are used for intensive farming, as they offer good aeration, high water storage capacities and good mechanical qualities. Besides, as a result of farming deep narrow ravine-like paths developed.
As the loess developed over time it is, furthermore, significant for flood control. Sponge-like, it absorbs and then gently releases rainfall. This quality is however lost when bulldozers, employed to construct large terraces for viticulture, compress the loess.
Climate
General
The Kaiserstuhl is one of the warmest regions in Germany. The winters are relatively mild for the area, and the summers are warm or even hot, with possible average temperatures of over 20 °C (68 °F) in July and August. Because of its loess covered volcanic soils it is a very good wine-producing region. The climatic situation of the Kaiserstuhl is outstanding in the area. It is rain-shadowed by the Vosges Mountains, under the climatic influence of the Belfort Gap and is characterized by a drier and hotter climate, which one would rather expect not to be typical of the area. Despite this, winters remain cold and dry, and summers wet, in comparison with Mediterranean climate (which instead has a rainfall peak during winter, which can see few frost days, and a dry season in summer).
Meteorological data
The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C (49.8 °F), with 50–60 days with a maximum temperature above 25 °C (77 °F) as well as 60–70 days with a minimum temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). This illustrates a special feature of the Kaiserstuhl: it is characterized by its relatively extreme climate. The average difference between the lowest and the highest average temperatures within one year is 18.5 °C (65.3 °F). The mean precipitation at the Kaiserstuhl is approximately 600–700 millimetres (24–28 in), with about 1,720 hours of sunshine per year.
Flora and fauna
The climate of the Kaiserstuhl also explains the vast richness of thermophile flora and fauna. The Kaiserstuhl is for example one of the places with the largest variety of orchids in Europe – more than 30 species have been recorded. Among the vines wild grape hyacinths sprawl and along acclivities iris plants blossom. Furthermore, sand lizards (lacerta bilineata) and praying mantis (Mantis religiosa) live here – species which mainly occur in the Mediterranean area. (However, according to the latest research results the sand lizard presumably belongs to the allochthonous species of the European green lizard (Lacerta viridis)). The pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) is a Xerophyte and normally only occurs in Southern Europe, but is also able to survive at the Kaiserstuhl. This species has a disjunct distribution, which means away from its normal habitat. It is a relict of a postglacial warm period where there had been a much warmer climate around the Kaiserstuhl. After the end of the warm period only the named species were able to survive. Besides there is a larger population of the May beetle (Melolontha melolontha). In spite of protests from conservationists the May Beetle is controlled by the use of insecticides.
Changes in landscape
The terrain of the Kaiserstuhl has been altered by the people living there since it was settled. The loam there is strongly susceptible to erosion as a result of soil cultivation, thus terraces had to be added, which were then mostly used as vineyards, as well as fruit growing or for other agricultural uses. As a result, the typical small "patio" hillsides and the streaked loess sunken roads typical of the region came into being.
To start with, it was for this reason that smaller terraces were merged in around 1950, this resulted in large scale reallocation, which turned parts of the original landscape completely upside down.
The phases of this reallocation were:-
Small-scale realignment between 1950 and 1960. At the same time the terrain was generally modified by manual labour with the help of in-house machines. During this time approximately 950 hectares were enclosed by the farmland consolidation authority.
Between 1960 and 1970 the loess slopes were more comprehensively modified, whereby large rectangular terraced areas with corresponding high embankments were made. The terraces were arranged with mountain like slopes so that now only the multiple slope edges are visible from the valley. About 650 hectares of the surface were styled in this way.
The plans to create large-scale terraces made between 1970 and 1976 were executed with the help of heavy machinery, changing the landscape radically. Before the original, naturally formed, depressions had still been visible in the gentle hillsides with only small terraces. Natural and man-made structures existed side by side. However, these small-scale structures were then obliterated completely. Monstrous areas resembling fortresses and entirely incongruous to the region were created. The total wine-growing area of the terraces was 630 ha. As the embankments and other areas exceeded the size of the wine-growing areas, the changes affected more than twice the newly created arable area. The land reforms of Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg and Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach are examples of this phase.
The last phase of wine-growing land reforms was realized between 1976 and 1982. Due, in part, to protests against plans for further large scale terraces the changes were not as radical as the previous phase: the maximum height for embankments was "limited" to 10 m and their shapes were "made smooth and adjusted to the landscape" (Mayer 1986, citation translated). This procedure was, for example, applied to about 330 ha of wine-growing area in Oberbergen-Baßgeige or in Bickensohl-Herrenstück.
From 1977 on, several longer periods of enhanced precipitation caused damage to the embankments. During one week in May 1983 for example, the amount of precipitation was so large that in some areas it was equivalent to one third of the annual average, causing great damage in the modified areas.
The surfaces of the acclivities often slid off together with the vegetation. Former valleys, which had been blocked due to re-allocation, were flushed out. In some terraces dramatic shear failures developed. In addition extensive, devastating frost damage occurred; due to the incline of the mountainside at the surfaces of the acclivities, cold air pockets were formed in which the vines in bloom were frostbitten. Additionally substantial frost damage occurred in the woody part of the vines, especially in the vineyards which were situated in lower regions. In earlier times fruit had mostly been grown here but later this was changed to vineyards.
The activity of the farmland consolidation authority was narrowed to repairing and partly to rescheduling which at least was meant to correct the most severe consequences of the transformations from 1982 on.
Hiking
There are many opportunities for hiking in the Kaiserstuhl. The best known trail is the North-South Trail (check mark: blue rhomb on yellow background) from Endingen across the Katharinenberg and the Totenkopf and the Neunlinden viewing point to Ihringen. From the trail there are panoramic views over the Black Forest, the Upper Rhine Valley and the Vosges.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kaiserstuhl ist ein bis 556,8 m ü. NHN hohes, kleines Mittelgebirge vulkanischen Ursprungs in der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene. Es erhebt sich im Südwesten von Baden-Württemberg (Deutschland), in den Landkreisen Emmendingen und Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald.
Namensdeutung
Seinen Namen hat der Kaiserstuhl vermutlich von König Otto III., der bei Sasbach am 22. Dezember 994 einen Gerichtstag abhielt. Nach diesem Gerichtstag wurde das ganze Gebirge als „Königsstuhl“ bezeichnet. Nachdem Otto III. im Mai 996 zum Kaiser gekrönt worden war, wurde aus dem „Königsstuhl“ der „Kaiserstuhl“. Nachweislich belegt ist die Bezeichnung „Kaiserstuhl“ erst seit 1304. Historiker vermuten, dass der Begriff „Kaiserstuhl“ nicht vor dem 13. Jahrhundert entstand.
Geographie
Lage
Naturräumlich wird der Kaiserstuhl zum Oberrheinischen Tiefland gezählt und stellt dort die Haupteinheit 203 dar. Er befindet sich in Südbaden zum Großteil im Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, der kleine Nordteil gehört zum Landkreis Emmendingen. Innerhalb der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene liegt er etwa 16 km nordwestlich der Großstadt Freiburg, direkt östlich des Rheins und etwas westlich der Dreisam. Er erhebt sich maximal 377,1 m über den Rhein unterhalb (179,5 m) des Stauwehrs bei Burkheim.
In seiner weitesten Ausdehnung vom Michaelsberg bei Riegel im Nordosten bis zum Fohrenberg bei Ihringen im Südwesten ist der Kaiserstuhl rund 15 km lang, seine größte Breite beträgt etwa 12,5 km.
Berge
Zu den Bergen, Erhebungen und deren Ausläufern des Kaiserstuhls gehören – sortiert nach Höhe in Meter (m) über Normalhöhennull[1]:
Totenkopf (556,8 m), 1,9 km östlich von Bickensohl; mit Fernmeldeturm Vogtsburg-Totenkopf und Aussichtsturm Neunlinden
Eichelspitze (521,3 m), 2,8 km nordwestlich von Bötzingen mit dem Eichelspitzturm
Katharinenberg (491,9 m), 1,3 km südsüdöstlich von Amoltern
Bisamberg (469,6 m), 1,2 km südlich von Amoltern
Staffelberg (447,6 m), 1,5 km nordnordwestlich von Schelingen
Badberg (432,7 m) (Naturschutzgebiet), 1,5 km östlich von Oberbergen
Holzeck (431,9 m), 1,7 km nordnordöstlich von Ihringen; mit Sendeturm
Hochbuck (375,2 m), 900 m südlich von Achkarren
Schlossberg (351,9 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Achkarren; mit Burgruine Höhingen
Böselsberg (340,1 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Wasenweiler
Hochberg, (288,7 m), 900 m nordöstlich von Jechtingen
Büchsenberg (283,7 m), 1,3 km westlich von Achkarren
Geologie
Die Entstehung des Kaiserstuhlvulkans im Tertiär stellt sowohl den Höhepunkt als auch den Schlusspunkt der vulkanischen Aktivität im Oberrheingraben dar. Diese begann schon in der Kreidezeit und zeigt sich in zahlreichen, heute tief erodierten Vulkanschloten. Der Kaiserstuhl ist der einzige größere Vulkan aus dieser Zeit im Bereich des Oberrheingrabens. Dieser trifft hier auf den Bonndorfer Graben, der über den Hegau zum Bodensee führt. Gegen Ende des Oligozäns drang Magma empor, erstarrte jedoch noch unter der Erdoberfläche. Erst im Miozän kam es zu einem Durchbruch und zu großflächigen Lavaströmen. Geologisch gesehen lässt sich der Kaiserstuhl in einen sedimentären und einen vulkanischen Teil gliedern. Aufgrund dieser Besonderheiten wurde der Kaiserstuhl als eines der bedeutendsten nationalen Geotope Deutschlands ausgezeichnet.
Sedimentärer Sockel
Die das östliche Drittel bildenden, nahezu horizontal lagernden Sedimentgesteine wurden lange vor der vulkanischen Aktivität zu Zeiten des Juras und Tertiärs gebildet. Wichtige aufgeschlossene stratigraphische Einheiten sind der Hauptrogenstein (hauptsächlich in Riegel) und die Pechelbronner Schichten (in der Gegend von Bötzingen). Dieser Teil des Kaiserstuhls wurde während der Entstehung des Oberrheingrabens weniger stark als seine Umgebung abgesenkt und stellt einen sogenannten Horst dar. Er entspricht im Aufbau und der Schichtenfolge äquivalenten Strukturen im näheren Umkreis, wie dem Tuniberg und Nimberg westlich sowie dem Schönberg südlich von Freiburg im Breisgau.
Vulkanismus
Petrologisch handelt es sich beim vulkanischen Kaiserstuhl um einen Alkaligesteins-Karbonatit-Komplex. Die den Großteil des zentralen und westlichen Kaiserstuhls aufbauenden vulkanischen Gesteine wurden vor rund 19 bis 16 Millionen Jahren im Miozän durch zahlreiche Vulkanausbrüche gebildet. Sie überlagern teilweise den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls, wodurch dieser stellenweise kontaktmetamorph, das heißt durch Einwirkung hoher Temperatur, verändert wurde. Durch abwechselnde Eruption von Tephra und Lavaströmen aus mehreren Schloten bildete sich ein komplexer Schicht- oder Stratovulkan. Emporquellendes Magma erstarrte teilweise als subvulkanische Intrusion im Vulkangebäude und baut heute den Zentralkaiserstuhl auf. Lateral aufsteigende phonolithische Schmelzen drangen auch in den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls. Bis heute wurden durch Erosion mehrere 100 m des ursprünglichen Vulkans abgetragen.
Vulkanische Gesteine
Der gesamte vulkanische Kaiserstuhl besteht aus Foid- und/oder Olivin-führenden, SiO2-untersättigten Gesteinen. Bei den Eruptivgesteinen handelt es sich zum größten Teil um Leucit-Tephrit, untergeordnet auch Phonolith, Limburgit und Olivin-Nephelinit (am Limberg bei Sasbach). Letzterer ist sehr reich an Xenolithen aus dem Erdmantel. Als Besonderheit bei den Eruptivgesteinen sind karbonatitische Ignimbrite und Lapilli zu nennen, die im Westkaiserstuhl an einigen Stellen (Henkenberg bei Burkheim, Kirchberg bei Oberrotweil) aufgeschlossen sind.
Bei den subvulkanischen Intrusionen und Ganggesteinen des zentralen Kaiserstuhls handelt es sich um die Tiefengesteinsäquivalente der Ausbruchsprodukte (Essexit, Karbonatit und grobkörnigerer Phonolith). Für verschiedene Varietäten der Ganggesteine existieren in der Literatur eine Fülle weiterer Bezeichnungen (Alvikit, Hauynophyr, Mondhaldeit, Tinguait, Monchiquit und viele andere), die aber teilweise keine allgemein anerkannten Gesteinsnamen sind. Von großem wissenschaftlichen Interesse ist der bei Altvogtsburg und Schelingen anstehende Karbonatit. Dabei handelt es sich um ein recht seltenes vulkanisches Gestein, das nicht aus einer silikatischen, sondern aus einer karbonatischen Schmelze auskristallisierte. Aufgrund dieses ungewöhnlichen Umstandes wurde die magmatische Natur des Karbonatits lange Zeit nicht erkannt oder in Zweifel gezogen. Alternative Interpretationen gingen von kontaktmetamorph veränderten Sedimentgesteinen aus, die bekanntermaßen in unmittelbarer Nähe zu finden sind. Erst in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren gelang es, das Gestein gesichert als Karbonatit zu identifizieren, unter anderem durch das Auffinden der eruptiven Karbonatite im westlichen Kaiserstuhl. Wegen des in ihm auftretenden Niob-Minerals Koppit wurde der Karbonatit in der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts versuchsweise bergmännisch abgebaut. Allerdings erwiesen sich die Gehalte als zu gering für eine Nutzung in größerem Umfang.
Minerale
Seit langer Zeit ist der Kaiserstuhl als Fundstelle für zum Teil seltene Minerale bekannt. Besondere Fundstellen sind die Steinbrüche im Limburgit des Limbergs (verschiedene Zeolithe), im Karbonatit am Badberg und Orberg (Koppit) und im Phonolith des Fohbergs und des Kirchbergs (Zeolithe, Wollastonit, Melanit). Überwiegend treten diese als Kluftminerale oder Blasenfüllungen (Mandelstein) auf.
Lössbedeckung
Der Kaiserstuhl ist heute weitgehend von einer quartären Lössschicht bedeckt. Löss ist ein Lockersediment, welches durch Erosion anderer Gesteine entsteht und durch äolischen Transport an seinen Ablagerungsort befördert wird. Der Löss entstand – wie im gesamten Randbereich der Oberrheinebene – während der letzten weitgehend vegetationsfreien Eiszeit durch Auswehung aus dem Rheinschlamm. Die Ablagerung fand im periglazialen (eisfreien, jedoch von Gletschereis umgebenen) Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl statt. Der Hauptprozess, der in dieser Region stattfindet, ist Frostsprengung von Gestein. Da keine Vegetation vorhanden ist, die den Wind bremsen könnte, weht dieser beständig stark. Er nimmt das leichteste Material mit und lagert es an Hindernissen, beispielsweise dem Kaiserstuhl, wieder ab. Hierbei ist zu beachten, dass die Ablagerung im Lee stattfindet, im Falle des Kaiserstuhls – wo der Wind aus Südwesten wehte – also im Nordosten. Je höher der Sedimentationsort liegt, desto dünner ist die Schicht tatsächlich abgelagerten Materials. Am Kaiserstuhl liegt die Mächtigkeit der Lössschicht zwischen 10 und 40 Metern, es gibt jedoch auch Orte im Südwesten, an denen kein Löss sedimentiert wurde. Der Herkunftsort des Lösses am Kaiserstuhl lag hauptsächlich in den nördlichen Kalkalpen. Auffällig im anstehenden Löss ist ein sich in unregelmäßigen Abständen wiederholender, rostfarbener Streifen. Dieser entsteht durch die phasenweise Anlieferung neuen Materials. Während einer schwachen Sedimentationsphase verwittert das obenauf liegende Material, wobei der Kalk ausgewaschen wird. Hierbei bildet sich Lösslehm. Der ausgewaschene Kalkanteil fällt weiter unten im Bodenprofil wieder aus und bildet den sogenannten Lösskindelhorizont. Zu jedem Ausfällungshorizont gehört deshalb ein Anreicherungshorizont.
Die Lössböden des Kaiserstuhls werden agrarisch intensiv genutzt, da sie eine gute Belüftung bieten und eine hohe Wasserspeicherfähigkeit sowie mechanisch gute Eigenschaften besitzen. Außerdem sind im Zuge der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung die sogenannten Lösshohlwege entstanden.
Der gewachsene Löss ist zudem für den Hochwasserschutz von Bedeutung, da er starke Niederschläge wie ein Schwamm aufnimmt und dann gleichmäßig wieder abgibt. Durch die Anlage von Großterrassen für den Weinbau am Kaiserstuhl wird der Löss jedoch mit Planierraupen verdichtet und verliert diese Eigenschaft.
Klima
Allgemeines
Klimatisch zählt der Kaiserstuhl zur temperaten (gemäßigten) Klimazone. Durch die in der Oberrheinebene vorherrschende Wärmebegünstigung gehört er jedoch zu den wärmsten Orten Deutschlands mit für Mitteleuropa vergleichsweise milden Wintern und warmen Sommern, die teilweise sogar Durchschnittstemperaturen von über 20 Grad in den Monaten Juli und August aufweisen können. Durch seine mit Löss bedeckten vulkanischen Böden ist er ein sehr gutes Weinanbaugebiet. Die klimatischen Voraussetzungen des Kaiserstuhls heben sich von seiner Umgebung deutlich ab. Er liegt im Regenschatten der Vogesen, im Einfluss der Burgundischen Pforte, und hat somit ein eher trockenes Klima.
Meteorologische Daten
Die Jahresmitteltemperatur beträgt 9,9 °C, wobei sowohl 50 bis 60 Sommertage als auch 60 bis 70 Frosttage zu verzeichnen sind. Dies spiegelt schon ein besonderes Merkmal des Kaiserstuhls wider, denn er zeichnet sich durch recht extreme Klimaverhältnisse aus, was sich besonders in der durchschnittlichen jährlichen Temperaturschwankung von 18,5 °C ausdrückt. Der mittlere Niederschlag auf dem Kaiserstuhl beträgt etwa 600 bis 700 mm, bei jährlich rund 1.720 Stunden Sonnenschein.
Flora und Fauna
Das Klima des Kaiserstuhls erklärt auch die große Fülle an wärmeliebender Flora und Fauna. Beispielsweise ist der Kaiserstuhl einer der Orte mit der größten Orchideenvielfalt in Europa – mehr als 30 Arten wurden registriert. Zwischen den Rebstöcken wuchern wilde Traubenhyazinthen, und an Böschungen blühen Schwertlilien. Außerdem leben hier Bienenfresser, Smaragdeidechsen und Gottesanbeterinnen (Mantis religiosa) – Arten, die ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt im mediterranen Bereich haben (nach neuen genetischen Studien handelt es sich bei der Smaragdeidechse allerdings um eine wahrscheinlich allochthone Population der Östlichen Smaragdeidechse). Die Flaumeiche ist ein Xerophyt und kommt sonst vor allem in Südeuropa vor, am Kaiserstuhl kann sie sich jedoch vor allem im Flaumeichenwald am Büchsenberg als Niederwald halten. Diese Arten leben in einem disjunkten Areal, also von ihrem normalen Verbreitungsgebiet abgetrennt. Dies ist ein Relikt einer postglazialen Warmzeit, zu der auch im Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl ein deutlich wärmeres Klima herrschte. Nach Ende der Warmzeit konnten die genannten Arten nur noch am Kaiserstuhl überleben. Außerdem gibt es am Kaiserstuhl größere Populationen des Maikäfers. Die Art wurde in der Vergangenheit trotz Kritik von Umweltschützern mit Insektiziden bekämpft, so etwa im Jahr 2009. Die Aktion wurde damit begründet, dass der Maikäfer ansonsten existenzbedrohende Schäden in der umliegenden Landwirtschaft auslösen könnte.
Landschaftsveränderung
Die Oberfläche des Kaiserstuhls wurde vom wirtschaftenden Menschen seit dessen Besiedlung verändert. Da Löss infolge der Bodenbearbeitung stark erosionsanfällig ist, mussten Terrassen geschaffen werden, die meist als Rebflächen, teilweise auch für Obst- oder zum Ackerbau genutzt wurden. Dadurch entstanden schon früh die typischen kleinterrassierten Hänge, die zudem von den ebenfalls durch die „Nutzung“ entstandenen Lösshohlwegen durchzogen wurden.
Im Sinne der Flurbereinigung wurde um 1950 damit begonnen, zunächst kleinere Terrassen zusammenzulegen; dies endete in Großumlegungen, welche die ursprüngliche Landschaft in Teilbereichen völlig umgestalteten. Diese Umgestaltung begann zwischen 1950 und 1960 mit kleinräumigen Neuordnungen. Dabei wurde das Gelände meist in Handarbeit bzw. mit Hilfe betriebseigener Maschinen umgestaltet. In dieser Zeit wurden rund 950 ha von den Flurbereinigungsbehörden flurbereinigt.
Zwischen 1960 und 1970 wurden die Lösshänge umfassender umgestaltet, wobei große, tiefe und möglichst rechteckige Terrassenflächen mit entsprechend hohen Böschungen entstanden. Die Terrassen wurden mit bergseitiger Neigung angelegt, so dass jetzt vom Tal aus vielfach nur noch die Kanten sichtbar sind. Auf diese Art entstanden rund 650 ha Rebfläche.
Mit umfassendem Maschineneinsatz wurden die Großterrassenplanungen der Jahre 1970 bis 1976 umgesetzt, die das Landschaftsbild deutlich veränderten. Vor diesen Maßnahmen zeichneten sich in den sanften Hängen, deren Oberflächen von den kleinen Terrassen überprägt waren, noch die ursprünglich natürlich entstandenen Senken ab. Statt diesem Nebeneinander von natürlichen und vom Menschen geschaffenen Strukturen nehmen die Kritiker nun festungsartige und landschaftsfremde Oberflächen wahr, die eine Gesamtgröße von ca. 630 ha Rebfläche bieten. Da die Böschungen und sonstigen Flächen größer waren als die Rebflächen, erstreckte sich die Landschaftsveränderung jeweils auf mehr als das Doppelte der neu geschaffenen nutzbaren Fläche. Beispiele für diese Phase sind die Flurbereinigungen Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg und Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach. Inzwischen war der Großteil der Lösshohlwege durch die Flurbereinigung verschwunden, die zuvor ökologische Nischen speziell für Wildbienen und Vögel gewesen waren.
Die letzte Phase der Rebflurbereinigung erstreckte sich auf die Zeit zwischen 1976 und 1982, in der unter anderem wegen der Proteste gegen die Großterrassenplanungen gemäßigt vorgegangen wurde: Die Böschungshöhen wurden auf maximal 10 m „beschränkt“, der Böschungsverlauf wurde „geschwungen angelegt und der Landschaft angepasst“. Mit diesen Verfahren wurden zum Beispiel in Oberbergen-Baßgeige oder in Bickensohl-Herrenstück rund 330 ha Rebfläche bearbeitet.
Nachdem ab 1977 durch länger anhaltende niederschlagsreiche Perioden Böschungsschäden entstanden waren, fielen in der Pfingstwoche des Jahres 1983 Niederschlagsmengen, die teilweise ein Drittel des Jahresmittels ausmachten. Diese führten in den umgelegten Gebieten zu Schäden: Die Böschungsoberflächen rutschten vielfach mitsamt der Vegetation ab, ehemalige, durch die Umlegungen verschüttete Talzüge wurden ausgeschwemmt, in einzelnen Terrassen entstanden tiefgreifende Grundbrüche. Überdies kam es in den Folgejahren zu Frostschäden. Durch die bergseitige Neigung der Terrassenoberflächen konnten sich Kaltluftseen bilden, in denen die Reben vor allem in der Blüte erfroren.[6] Außerdem entstanden, vor allem in den niedriger gelegenen Rebflächen, in denen zuvor meist Obst angebaut worden war, erhebliche Frostschäden am Holz der Rebbestände.
Die Tätigkeit der Flurbereinigungsbehörden beschränkte sich in der Zeit nach 1982 auf Reparaturarbeiten und partielle Umplanungen, die zumindest die schwersten Folgen der Umgestaltungen korrigieren sollten. Inzwischen hatte man auch begonnen, die verbliebenen Lösshohlwege als Naturdenkmale auszuweisen und sie zu schützen.
Seit 2021 wird auf einer Fläche von etwa einem Hektar Echter Lavendel und Lavandin angebaut. Dank der Wärme und der kalkreichen Böden gedeiht er gut. Zwei der vier Felder liegen in Bischoffingen, wo es auch einen Hofladen gibt und je eines in Königschaffhausen und Burkheim. Auf letzterem wachsen neun verschiedene Sorten.
Wandern
Der bekannteste und „klassische“ Wanderweg ist der Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg); er ist einer von acht Themenpfaden und führt von Endingen über den Katharinenberg und den Totenkopf mit Aussichtsturm Neunlinden nach Ihringen. Von den Wegen bieten sich vielerorts Ausblicke auf den Schwarzwald, die Rheinebene und die Vogesen. Auch der Querweg Schwarzwald–Kaiserstuhl–Rhein führt über den Kaiserstuhl.
Als Wissenschaftlicher Lehrpfad wurde 1977 der Limberg-Weg angelegt. Er umfasst 90 Stationen zu den Themen Geologie und Mineralogie, Geschichte, Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege, Forstwirtschaft, Wein- und Obstbau, Rheinbau und Wasserwirtschaft, sowie Landeskunde.
Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2007 mit einer Gesamtlänge von 140 km eröffnet und in das bestehende Wanderwegenetz des Schwarzwaldvereins (Markierung: gelber Rhombus auf weißem Hintergrund) integriert. Dabei wurde das Wanderwegenetz mit 430 neuen Wegweisern ausgeschildert. Große Tafeln mit einer Übersichtskarte und mit Standortinformationen sind an zentralen Punkten wie zum Beispiel an Bahnhöfen in den von den Themenpfaden verbundenen oder durchlaufenden Ortschaften aufgestellt. Jeder Themenpfad ist durch eine eigene Farbe und ein dem Namen entsprechendes Symbol auf den Eingangsportalen und den Wegweisern optisch gekennzeichnet. Weitere 120 kleinere Thementafeln erläutern entlang der Wanderwege lokale Besonderheiten. Örtliche Pfade, wie zum Beispiel der Brunnenpfad (7 km) in Bötzingen, wurden in das neue Netz der Themenpfade integriert.
Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2010 durch den Kaiserstuhlpfad ergänzt, der als Prädikatswanderweg das Gütesiegel „Qualitätsweg Wanderbares Deutschland“ erhielt. Der 21,7 km lange Kaiserstuhlpfad orientiert sich mit einigen Erweiterungen am Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg) und führt von Endingen durch das Erletal hoch zur Katharinenkapelle, entlang der Naturschutzgebiete Badberg und Haselschacher Buck zum Eichelspitzturm, weiter über den Vogelsang-Pass zum Neunlindenturm, durch den Lößhohlweg Eichgasse nach Bickensohl und über den Kreuzenbuck durch die Lenzengasse nach Ihringen.
(Wikipedia)
Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica) is widely used, for various reasons. There has been heavy harvest for skins in China and probably to some extent elsewhere. For the production of its perineal gland secretion, 'civet' musk, a raw ingredient in the perfume, medicine and other industries, large numbers are kept in India and, increasingly, Thailand; these are sourced almost entirely from the wild . It is the second most commonly traded civet in Java, Indonesia, where there is a current craze for keeping civets at pets, with the mushrooming of civet-'lovers' clubs; numbers in this trade are however dwarfed by those of Common Palm Civet, with almost 20 times as many of the latter seen . While hunting (including the use of traps for civets) seems to be rare in some of its range, such as Java , a large part of its range - North-east India, southern China and northern South-east Asia - has heavy to very heavy mammal hunting using, in great part, non-selective techniques such as snaring, for domestic consumption and, in many areas, sale into the urban and international wildlife trade. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, local people kill Small Indian Civets (for meat consumption) with poison. The demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets has increased rapidly since the 1980s and remains high. This species is perhaps somewhat insulated from the heaviest pressures because such activities are mostly within closed evergreen forest, only a marginal habitat of this species. On the other hand, its use of marginal and degraded habitats means it might suffer more than do the more closed-forest associated small carnivores from retaliatory killing , secondary accumulation of rodenticides (heavily used in some parts of its range) and killing by domestic dogs. It is reasonably clear that, in aggregate, these threats are not causing steep declines in India, Myanmar and southern China where it remains common even though most other small carnivores are severely depleted the situation is less clear in northern South-east Asia, where hunting is highest, because of the species' limited occurrence in closed evergreen forest, which hosts the majority of wildlife survey and research. It is clearly widespread even in Viet Nam and Lao PDR, but populations there are probably well below what they would be in the absence of hunting.
Forest loss and degradation are unlikely to be, overall, a threat to this species; the opening-up of large areas of closed-canopy old-growth evergreen forest in South-east Asia has probably increased the total habitat availability, more than offsetting the losses from conversion of open deciduous forest to habitats supporting lower densities of this species. Its use of agriculture-dominated landscapes, while common, is poorly understood: it is quite plausible that the rapid intensification of field crop systems in Java, Thailand, Vietnam, China and, increasingly, Lao PDR and Cambodia will be reducing habitat suitability over large areas, particularly through loss of uncultivated patches: daytime resting sites in Hlawga Park, Myanmar, were typically at ground level in dense shrubby tangles and such patches are also likely to increase food supply over that in crop monoculture.
In sum, while further information would be useful in elaborating the detail of the response to the various potential threats facing this species, its continued abundance in most of its range indicates that it is well able to survive the current levels of threats.
Fork-tailed Woodnymph
A text, in english, from Birdlife International:
Justification
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
Taxonomic source(s)
del Hoyo, J.; Collar, N. J.; Christie, D. A.; Elliott, A.; Fishpool, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International.
SACC. 2006. A classification of the bird species of South America. Available at: #http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.html#.
Population justification
The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
Trend justification
This species is suspected to lose 15.9-17.6% of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations (12 years) based on a model of Amazonian deforestation (Soares-Filho et al. 2006, Bird et al. 2011). It is therefore suspected to decline by <25% over three generations.
References
Stotz, D. F.; Fitzpatrick, J. W.; Parker, T. A.; Moskovits, D. K. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Further web sources of information
Explore HBW Alive for further information on this species
Search for photos and videos,and hear sounds of this species from the Internet Bird Collection
Text account compilers
Ekstrom, J., Butchart, S.
IUCN Red List evaluators
Butchart, S., Symes, A.
Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2015) Species factsheet: Thalurania furcata. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015.
This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife
To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.
Beija-flor-tesoura-verde
Texto, em português, da WikiAves:
O beija-flor-tesoura-verde é uma ave da ordem dos Apodiformes, da família Trochilidae.
Também é conhecido como beija-flor-de-barriga-violeta. No livro Aves do Brasil, edição Pantanal e Cerrado, consta como beija-flor-de-ventre-roxo.
Seu nome significa: do (grego) thalos = criança, descendente de; e ouranos céu, celeste, referente ao azul do céu; e do (latim) furcata, furcatus = bifurcada. ⇒ Pássaro filho do azul celeste com cauda bifurcada.
Mede cerca de 9,7 cm de comprimento. Macho com partes superiores esverdeadas, garganta verde-metálica, peito e barriga azul-violeta-brilhante; fêmea com as partes inferiores cinza.
Possui doze subespécies:
Thalurania furcata furcata (Gmelin, 1788) - ocorre no extremo Leste da Venezuela, Guianas e Norte do Brasil, ao norte do Rio Amazonas;
Thalurania furcata refulgens (Gould, 1853) - ocorre no Nordeste da Venezuela, na Península de Paría e na Serra de Cumaná;
Thalurania furcata fissilis (Berlepsch & Hartert, 1902) - ocorre no Leste da Venezuela, e na região adjacente no extremo Oeste da Guiana e Nordeste do Brasil;
Thalurania furcata nigrofasciata (Gould, 1846) - ocorre do Sudoeste da Colômbia até o extremo Sul da Venezuela e Noroeste do Brasil;
Thalurania furcata viridipectus (Gould, 1848) - ocorre do Leste da Cordilheira dos Andes na Leste da Colômbia até o Nordeste do Peru;
Thalurania furcata jelskii (Taczanowski, 1874) - ocorre na região tropical Leste do Peru e na região adjacente no Brasil;
Thalurania furcata simoni (Hellmayr, 1906) - ocorre na Amazônia ao Sul do Rio Amazonas no extremo Leste do Peru e no Oeste do Brasil;
Thalurania furcata balzani (Simon, 1896) - ocorre na região Norte e Central do Brasil ao sul do Rio Amazonas;
Thalurania furcata furcatoides (Gould, 1861) - ocorre no baixo Rio Amazonas, na região Leste do Brasil ao Sul do Rio Amazonas;
Thalurania furcata boliviana (Boucard, 1894) - ocorre nos sopés da Cordilheira dos Andes no Sudeste do Peru e no Nordeste da Bolívia;
Thalurania furcata baeri (Hellmayr, 1907) - ocorre da região Central e Nordeste do Brasil até o Sudeste da Bolívia e no Norte da Argentina;
Thalurania furcata eriphile (Lesson, 1832) - ocorre do Sudeste do Brasil, Leste do Paraguai até o Nordeste da Argentina, na região de Misiones.
Alimenta-se em flores à pouca altura, buscando também insetos na vegetação ou capturando-os no ar.
Faz ninho em forma de taça profunda, preso por teias de aranha a forquilhas ou pequenos ramos, a cerca de 2 m de altura. Põe 2 ovos brancos. Os filhotes deixam o ninho após 18 a 24 dias.
Comum no sub-bosque de florestas altas, capoeiras e florestas de várzea. Vive solitário, defendendo seu território de maneira agressiva.
Distribuição Geográfica:
Quase todo o Brasil, da Amazônia ao Paraná. Encontrado também do México à Bolívia, Paraguai e Argentina.
Referências:
Portal Brasil 500 Pássaros, Beija-flor-tesoura-verde - Disponível em webserver.eln.gov.br/Pass500/BIRDS/1birds/p159.htm Acesso em 09 mai. 2009
CLEMENTS, J. F.; The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005.
Classificação Científica
Reino: Animalia
Filo: Chordata
Classe: Aves
Ordem: Apodiformes
Família: Trochilidae
Vigors, 1825
Subfamília: Trochilinae
Vigors, 1825
Espécie: T. furcata
Nome Científico
Thalurania furcata
(Gmelin, 1788)
Nome em Inglês
Fork-tailed Woodnymph
Estado de Conservação
(IUCN 3.1)
Pouco Preocupante
London headquarters of Channel Four Television, including offices, post-production edit suites, restaurant, screening room and originally a studio. Built to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership (partner in charge, John Young), 1992-1994. Structural engineers Ove Arup and Partners.
The mapping of the listed building does not reflect the full extent of its below-ground footprint.
Reasons for Designation
124-126 Horseferry Road, built as the headquarters of Channel Four Television to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership 1992-94, is listed at Grade II for the following principal reasons:
Architectural interest:
* as an elegant work of the High-tech movement, displaying many of its key principles, such as the separation of services from the spaces served, the use of prefabricated elements and a technological aesthetic based upon expressed structure and exposed services; * for its logical L-plan with a dynamic, highly articulated corner composition and entrance sequence, dominated by a curved, top-hung, structural glass wall; * for the sophistication of its design, in which intricate details, executed in a consistent palette of materials, are integrated into a rigorous modular framework; * for its sequence of three linked interior spaces, centring on the dramatic full-height entrance atrium, to which are connected the fan-shaped restaurant and the subterranean screening room and foyer; * as a late-C20 exemplar of both a prestigious, owner-occupied headquarters building and a television centre, equipped primarily for the commissioning, but not the production of television programming, as per Channel 4’s remit; * for its designed flexibility to allow for changing technologies and operational needs, combining set-piece interiors with adaptable office workspaces; * for its degree of survival, with little alteration externally or to its key interior spaces.
Historic interest:
* as the purpose-built headquarters of Channel 4, a key player in television broadcasting history, commercially funded but with a public-service remit to provide innovative and diverse programming; * as an important British work by Richard Rogers Partnership, a practice of international renown led by one of Britain’s most celebrated architects.
History
124-126 Horseferry Road was built in 1992-1994 as the headquarters for Channel 4, a publicly owned, commercially-funded public service broadcaster, established with a remit to make innovative, experimental and distinctive programmes. After launching on 2 November 1982, its audience share gradually increased and the station soon outgrew its collection of rented offices in the West End. The switch to digital broadcasting also loomed. The chief executive, Michael Grade, and the chairman, Sir Richard Attenborough, took the decision to build a new headquarters. A suitable site was found at the junction of Horseferry Road and Chadwick Street, and a limited competition held in late 1990.
The commission was won by the Richard Rogers Partnership (RRP), who then explored the organisation’s needs through a series of workshops. As Channel 4 was a commissioner and transmitter, but not a producer of programmes, their main requirements were for offices and prestigious spaces to receive clients. The office space was specified to institutional standards so that the building could be readily let or sold in the event of a future move. A 10m deep basement already existed from a previous stalled development, so production and transmission facilities and a minimal studio occupied two subterranean levels, with provision made in the design for adding windows to the lower ground floor in the future, and flooring over the double-height studio to make the space more flexible.
RRP proposed a perimeter plan that reinforced the street pattern. Office wings at right angles were hinged by a ‘knuckle’, containing an entrance atrium and restaurant, with offices above. Behind the building a public garden was created, framed to the south and east by a separate housing development which fulfilled a planning condition set by Westminster City Council. In 2007 ‘the big 4’, a metal sculpture designed by Nick Knight and based on the channel’s current on-air identity was erected in the small piazza at the front of the building.
Richard Rogers was one of a group of British architects responsible for the High-tech movement, which originated in the 1960s with in a series of loose-fit industrial structures. By the 1980s High-tech architecture was increasingly being translated into urban contexts and cultural commissions. 124-126 Horseferry Road demonstrates many of its key principles, such as the separation of services from the spaces served, the use of prefabricated elements and a technological aesthetic based upon expressed structure and exposed services. It was Rogers’ first central London job after the Lloyd’s Building (1978-1986, listed Grade I), a seminal work of High-tech architecture. The image of Lloyds’ seems to have loomed large. For John Young, partner in charge, 124-126 Horseferry Road is ‘a building in the Lloyds mould.’ (Powell, 2001, 173).
The building’s drama is focussed on the entrance front; its transparency revealing the principal interior spaces, giving views right through the building to the public garden, and glimpses of working life within. ‘The effect, especially at night, is televisual’, commented Jonathan Glancey, (The Independent, 1994). The office wings are conventional in their planning and the building was designed to meet the bespoke needs of the client, as well as to be sufficiently adaptable should those needs change, or the building be sold.
124-126 Horseferry Road was a BBC Design Awards Finalist 1996 and won a RIBA National Award 1995; Royal Fine Art Commission Award 1995 and Civic Trust Award 1996. Since its opening the building has undergone several phases of internal refurbishment, including, in about 2010, the flooring-over of the double-height basement studio and repurposing of the space for various other uses. Externally, the building is largely unaltered.
Television as a broadcasting phenomenon began in the 1930s, with the first regular television service in the world introduced on 2 November 1936 by the BBC. The BBC’s monopoly was broken by the Television Act 1954, which created commercially funded Independent Television (ITV), served by regional franchised networks. Channel 4 arrived in 1982, established under the provisions of the 1980 Broadcasting Act. The act provided for a new, fourth, channel with a remit to ‘encourage innovation and experiment in the form and content of programmes’; its output was to be distinctive, offering programming for tastes not catered for by the commercial broadcaster ITV.
Its organisational model was equally distinctive, funded by advertising but adhering to a public service remit, it didn’t produce its own programming, instead commissioning and purchasing material from independent production companies. It employed commissioning editors to nurture the various strands and genres of the channel’s output and made particular efforts to employ people outside the television industry who could bring new and non-traditional perspectives. This meant new voices and new talents, and a greater plurality of programming and representation, including minorities. Channel 4 still proclaims its role as a ‘disruptive, innovative force in UK Broadcasting’ (Channel4.com, accessed 3 December 2021). Channel 4 has been major contributor to the British cultural landscape of the last four decades.
Richard Rogers, later Lord Rogers of Riverside, (1933-2021) was born in Florence. He trained at the Architectural Association and Yale University before setting up the Team 4 practice with Norman Foster and others in 1962. Their house for his in-laws, Creekvean in Feock, Cornwall (1964-1967) was listed Grade II in 1998 and upgraded to Grade II* in 2002. Rogers subsequently formed an architectural practice with his then wife, Su Rogers, and from 1970-1977, worked with the Italian architect Renzo Piano. Their Pompidou Centre building in Paris, which opened in 1977, is a major landmark of the High-tech style. Richard Rogers Partnership was formed the same year, with John Young, a veteran team member from Team 4 days, as one of several partners. The Lloyd’s Building together with the Pompidou sealed an international reputation. Other major works by Rogers include: the European Court of Human Rights, Strasbourg (1989-1995), Terminal 4 at Barajas Airport in Madrid (2004), the National Assembly of Wales in Cardiff (2005) and Terminal 5 at Heathrow Airport (2008). Rogers won the RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1985, was knighted in 1991 and was created Baron Rogers of Riverside in 1996. In 2007 the Richard Rogers Partnership was renamed Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners to reflect the practice‘s succession plan.
Details
Once national, now regional, headquarters of Channel Four Television, including offices, post-production edit suites, restaurant, screening room and originally a studio. Built to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership (partner in charge, John Young),1992-1994. Structural engineers Ove Arup and Partners.
MATERIALS: the majority of the building has a reinforced concrete frame with metal and glass cladding. The conference rooms have a steel pin-jointed frame and the atrium frontage is of glass, suspended from above and held in tension by a steel cabling system devised by Arup.
PLAN: the building is L-shaped in plan, occupying the corner between Horseferry Road to the west and Chadwick Street to the north, with rectangular office wings fronting each road and a concave quadrant knuckle connecting the two and framing a small piazza facing the road junction. The building has four floors above a basement and lower-ground floor levels. To the rear are two terraces; one at ground-floor level, above the larger footprint of the two lower floors, and one at third floor, where the footprint of the central knuckle is set back from the floors below.
Each office wing has two internal service cores and externally-expressed stair towers at each end. There is a lift tower at the far end of the Chadwick Street wing and three wall-climber lifts facing Horseferry Road, adjacent to the piazza. The basement level is given over to plant, storage, staff well-being facilities and edit suites. The lower-ground floor is a mixture of open-plan office space, meeting rooms and staff facilities; the main area of interest is the fan-shaped screening room with its circular foyer beneath the piazza, and stair connecting it to the atrium above. The ground floor contains the atrium reception area and large curved restaurant on a slightly lower level behind, overlooking the garden; the office blocks are given over to open-plan work space and a loading bay. First, second and third floors are mainly open-plan work space, with some meeting rooms and private offices as well. Key aspects of the building’s layout are original, including the screening room and foyer, reception atrium and restaurant. There has been reconfiguration in other parts, in particular the flooring-over of the studio, reconfiguration of the editing-suites and the removal of rows of perimeter offices.
EXTERIOR: the building’s key aspect faces onto the Horseferry Road/ Chadwick Street junction. The ends of the office wings are pulled back from the corner and the piazza is framed by a High-tech composition of glass and graphite-coloured steel, aluminium and cladding panels, punctuated by vertical flashes of red-painted structural steelwork. The full-height, concave, structural glass wall of the atrium is at the centre, suspended from above by a steel frame. Flanking it to either side are radiused stair towers. The stair towers have bands of glazing following the line of the stair within, almost uninterrupted by vertical supports because the cladding is supported internally on rods hung from above. To the left is a stack of conference rooms with glazed end walls, elevated and supported by a red pin-jointed steel frame. To the right is a stack of glazed lift lobbies serving a bank of three external ‘wall-climber’ lifts running along red steelwork; above are boxed-out service elements and a quasi-Constructivist transmission tower, creating a strong vertical element in the composition. Boiler flues add further interest to the roofline.
The piazza has shallow steps and flanking ramps which lead to a circular space immediately in front of the building. The centre of this is occupied by a circular skylight lighting the foyer of the screening room below; a bridge sheltered by a glass canopy stretches across it to a pair of revolving entrance doors. The sculpture, ‘the big 4’* stands towards the front edge of the piazza.
The office wings are clad with glazed panels of powder-coated aluminium, at ground floor these are set back behind the exposed concrete posts of the building’s frame, and above they are jettied out slightly, meeting at the corners with narrow, vertical, fully-glazed units. The panels each have four rebated horizontal glazed units divided by a fin-like transom, the lowest unit also having a band of sunscreen steel mesh in front. The floor plates are faced with panelled steel units. The facing components meet with a narrow shadow gap and the overall effect is of a modelled grid with a horizontal emphasis. The rear elevations, both to the office wings and the convexly curved knuckle, follow this aesthetic.
INTERIOR: the atrium is the building’s key public-facing interior space. The curved, full-height glazed wall is held in tension by a complex network of steel cables and suspended from above by exposed red steelwork. Set back from the wall, and above the ground-floor reception area, are curved cantilevered walkways at each floor, open to the atrium and floored in concrete panels set with circular glass blocks; behind, offices are enclosed by glazed walls.
Behind the reception, at a slightly lower level, is the staff restaurant. This has been refurbished a number of times but retains its distinctive fan shape, exposed concrete ceiling and glazed walls looking out onto the terrace.
The screening room, beneath the piazza, has a fan-shaped auditorium and circular foyer. Both spaces have been refurbished but retain perforated steel acoustic panelling and exposed concrete structural elements. The walls of the anti-room are hung with a chain curtain and the space is lit from above by the circular skylight in the piazza pavement; the glazing is held in a steel, umbrella-like structure. A concrete stair with steel balustrade leads from the foyer up to the atrium above.
The stairs in the four towers are dog-legged, red with stainless steel tubular balustrades; the treads and risers are of folded steel, supported at the half landings by flanged I-beam newels.
The interior most relevant to the building’s special interest are addressed in the paragraphs above. Throughout the rest of the building, the smooth round concrete posts and other concrete structural elements are visible, but spaces have been reconfigured and refurbished to suit operational needs.
* Pursuant to s1 (5A) of the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 (‘the Act’) it is declared that ‘the big 4’ sculpture on the building’s piazza is not of special architectural or historic interest, however any works which have the potential to affect the character of the listed building as a building of special architectural or historic interest may still require LBC and this is a matter for the LPA to determine.
Not sure what the extent of the work will be here, but there are new copper lines being installed overhead in addition to the bottom panels removed as seen here. I'll try to get another update sometime soon.
Apologies, as uploads are likely to be light at times during the early part of fall at least (due to some of my own renovations/improvements due to get underway at l_dawg headquarters) :P For this week I've resorted to just doing a few uploads from work in fact.
There is a song by Israeli artist Shlomo Artzi with the same title. It's so beautiful and poetic in Hebrew, so please bare with me and my English translation of the chorus (which is not as poetic, but I hope still beautiful):
In the heaven of childhood,
that was blooming,
I was part of the scenery,
today I am only a visitor.
Sometimes I get hit by an awareness of sorts...Like wow I am 23 and have done such and such. High school began 9 years ago for me. WOW.
Anyway, this photo represents a duality of childhood innocence - the beauty and grace, as well as the profound feeling that anything is possible... (to an extent that "shouldn't happen in adulthood" such as dying my hair purple and frolicking barefoot in a forest with swarms of red ants)
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Deutschland - Baden-Württemberg - Kaiserstuhl
Liliental
The Kaiserstuhl (German: [ˈkaɪzɐʃtuːl], lit. "Emperor’s Chair") is a range of hills in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany with a maximum height of 556.6 metres (1,826 ft). It is of volcanic origin and located in the southwest of the state in the counties of Emmendingen and Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. In terms of natural regions it is considered to be a part of the Upper Rhine Plain.
Name
The name "Kaiserstuhl" is believed to refer to King Otto III, who held court near Sasbach on 22 December 994. From then on, the whole hill range was called the Königsstuhl – the King’s Chair. In May 996, Otto III was crowned Emperor and the King’s Chair eventually became the Emperor’s Chair – "Kaiserstuhl". Reliable sources mention the name Kaiserstuhl only as early as 1304 and historians thus suppose that the term Kaiserstuhl was not coined until the 13th century.
Geography
Location
The Kaiserstuhl is situated in South Baden, mainly in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald county or district. However, the smaller northern part belongs to Emmendingen. Within the Upper Rhine Plain it is situated about 16 km northwest of the city of Freiburg, right next to the eastern bank of the Rhine and a short distance west of the Dreisam. It reaches up to 377 metres above the level of the Rhine downstream (179.5 m a.s.l.) from the weir close to Burkheim.
At its greatest extent, from the Michaelsberg near Riegel in the northeast, to the Fohrenberg, by Ihringen in the southwest, the Kaiserstuhl is about 15 km long. Its maximum width is about 12.5 km.
Hills
The hills of the Kaiserstuhl include the following (sorted by height in metres above sea level):
Totenkopf (556.6 m), 1.9 km east of Bickensohl; with the Vogtsburg 1 telecommunication tower and Neunlinden observation tower
Eichelspitze (521.3 m), 2.8 km northwest of Bötzingen
Katharinenberg (492.4 m), 1.3 km southeast of Amoltern
Bisamberg (469.0 m), 1.2 km south of Amoltern
Staffelberg (446.0 m), 1.5 km northwest of Schelingen
Badberg (432.7 m) (protected area), 1.5 km east of Oberbergen
Holzeck (431.9 m), 1.7 km northeast of Ihringen; with tower
Hochbuck (374.8 m), 900 m south of Achkarren
Schlossberg (352.1 m), 500 m northwest of Achkarren; with Höhingen Castle ruins
Böselsberg (340.1 m), 500 m northwest of Wasenweiler
Büchsenberg (283.7 m), 1.3 km west of Achkarren
Geology
The formation of the Kaiserstuhl volcano during the Tertiary was the climax and at the same time the end of volcanic activity in the Upper Rhine Valley Rift. Volcanism started as early as the Cretaceous Period. Volcanic landforms include heavily eroded volcanic vents. The Kaiserstuhl is the only larger volcano from this period in the rift valley. Geologically the Kaiserstuhl can be divided into two parts: the sedimentary and volcanic part. Due to these peculiarities the Kaiserstuhl has been labeled one of the most important national geotopes.
Sedimentary base
The horizontal sedimentary layers forming the eastern third of the Kaiserstuhl date back to the Jurassic and the Tertiary long before the volcanic activity. Important stratigraphic outcrops include the Hauptrogenstein (local oolite) which is found mainly near the village of Riegel and the Pechelbronner Schichten (local Tertiary layers in the South German Scarplands) near Bötzingen. During the formation of the Upper Rhine Plain this part of the Kaiserstuhl sloped less in respect to its surrounding area – and thus appears as a so-called horst. In terms of its geological structure and the sequence of its escarpments, the Kaiserstuhl is comparable to the nearby Tuniberg, Nimberg and also to the Schönberg, which is situated south of the city of Freiburg.
Volcanic activity
Petrologically the volcanic Kaiserstuhl is an alkali-carbonate rock formation. The volcanic rocks making up a large part of the central and western Kaiserstuhl were the result of numerous volcanic eruptions during the Miocene, about 19 to 16 million years ago. They cover parts of the sedimentary base of the eastern Kaiserstuhl, which is why in some places changes in the base’s mineralogical composition occurred. The driving force behind this process of contact metamorphism was an increase in temperature. Due to the alternate eruption of tephra and lava flows from several vents a complex stratovolcano came into existence. Some of the rising magma solidified as volcanic intrusions below the surface – and today forms the central part of the Kaiserstuhl. Laterally rising phonolite magma also intruded into the sedimentary base of the Eastern Kaiserstuhl. Several hundred metres of the original volcano have been eroded.
Volcanic rocks
The entire volcanic Kaiserstuhl consists of rock types that contain feldspathoid minerals and olivine and are undersaturated with SiO2. Most igneous rocks at the surface are leucite-tephrites, with subordinate phonolites, limburgites, and olivine-nephelinites (at the Limberg Mountain near Sasbach), the last of which is rich in xenoliths from the Earth’s mantle. Carbonatite ignimbrite and lapilli are local peculiarities; they can be found in places in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl (Henkenberg near Burkheim, Kirchberg near Oberrotweil).
The subvolcanic and intrusive rocks of the central Kaiserstuhl are plutonic equivalents of the erupted material (essexite, carbonatite and coarse-granular phonolite). Several local terms which do not carry official status with the International Union of Geological Sciences have been used for different varieties of the intrusive rocks. Of major scientific interest is the consolidated carbonatite near Altvogtsburg und Schelingen. It is a quite rare volcanic rock, which crystallized from a carbonate magmatic melt rather than a silicate one. Given its unusual composition for an igneous rock, the magmatic nature of the carbonatite was not proposed for a long time and remained doubtful subsequently. An alternative interpretation was that it was a metamorphically altered sedimentary rock, examples of which can be found nearby. Only in the 1950s and 1960s did research prove that it was a carbonatite; one of the clues was identification of the eruptive carbonatites found in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl. The carbonatite contains the niobium rich pyrochlore; attempts to mine the carbonatite rock for niobium were carried out in the middle of the 20th century, but the amount turned out to be too small to be economical.
Minerals
For a long time the Kaiserstuhl has been known for rare minerals. Examples include the quarries at the Limberg (zeolites), Badberg (carbonatites), Orberg and Fohberg. Well-crystallized minerals can be found predominantly in clefts or cavities in the volcanic rock.
Loess
The Kaiserstuhl is today largely covered by a Quaternary loess layer, a loosely cemented sediment. It is derived from other rocks through erosion and is then transported by the wind. The loess at the Kaiserstuhl – as in all the peripheral areas of the Upper Rhine Valley – was formed during the last Ice Age. Large parts were bare of vegetation and so loess was winnowed out from the Rhine sediments. It was then deposited in the periglacial area (i.e. ice-free, but surrounded by glaciers) at the Kaiserstuhl. The major process active here was frost weathering resulting in crushed rocks. The wind blew strongly, as there was no vegetation that could have moderated it – entraining the lightest material and depositing it at obstacles like the Kaiserstuhl. Deposition took place northeast of the Kaiserstuhl, as the winds blew from the southwest.
The higher the place of sedimentation, the thinner the layer of the sedimented material is. At the Kaiserstuhl the thickness of the loess layer varies between 10 and 40 metres. There are, however, also areas in the southwest where no loess has been deposited. The Northern Limestone Alps are considered the main source of the Kaiserstuhl loess. A rust-coloured band occurs at irregular intervals. It developed as a new material and did not arrive regularly but in phases of different intensities. In a phase of weak sedimentation the material on top weathered – and the calcium carbonate was washed out. It then precipitated further down and formed a particular type of soil horizon, which contains concretions of calcium carbonate.
The Kaiserstuhl loess soils are used for intensive farming, as they offer good aeration, high water storage capacities and good mechanical qualities. Besides, as a result of farming deep narrow ravine-like paths developed.
As the loess developed over time it is, furthermore, significant for flood control. Sponge-like, it absorbs and then gently releases rainfall. This quality is however lost when bulldozers, employed to construct large terraces for viticulture, compress the loess.
Climate
General
The Kaiserstuhl is one of the warmest regions in Germany. The winters are relatively mild for the area, and the summers are warm or even hot, with possible average temperatures of over 20 °C (68 °F) in July and August. Because of its loess covered volcanic soils it is a very good wine-producing region. The climatic situation of the Kaiserstuhl is outstanding in the area. It is rain-shadowed by the Vosges Mountains, under the climatic influence of the Belfort Gap and is characterized by a drier and hotter climate, which one would rather expect not to be typical of the area. Despite this, winters remain cold and dry, and summers wet, in comparison with Mediterranean climate (which instead has a rainfall peak during winter, which can see few frost days, and a dry season in summer).
Meteorological data
The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C (49.8 °F), with 50–60 days with a maximum temperature above 25 °C (77 °F) as well as 60–70 days with a minimum temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). This illustrates a special feature of the Kaiserstuhl: it is characterized by its relatively extreme climate. The average difference between the lowest and the highest average temperatures within one year is 18.5 °C (65.3 °F). The mean precipitation at the Kaiserstuhl is approximately 600–700 millimetres (24–28 in), with about 1,720 hours of sunshine per year.
Flora and fauna
The climate of the Kaiserstuhl also explains the vast richness of thermophile flora and fauna. The Kaiserstuhl is for example one of the places with the largest variety of orchids in Europe – more than 30 species have been recorded. Among the vines wild grape hyacinths sprawl and along acclivities iris plants blossom. Furthermore, sand lizards (lacerta bilineata) and praying mantis (Mantis religiosa) live here – species which mainly occur in the Mediterranean area. (However, according to the latest research results the sand lizard presumably belongs to the allochthonous species of the European green lizard (Lacerta viridis)). The pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) is a Xerophyte and normally only occurs in Southern Europe, but is also able to survive at the Kaiserstuhl. This species has a disjunct distribution, which means away from its normal habitat. It is a relict of a postglacial warm period where there had been a much warmer climate around the Kaiserstuhl. After the end of the warm period only the named species were able to survive. Besides there is a larger population of the May beetle (Melolontha melolontha). In spite of protests from conservationists the May Beetle is controlled by the use of insecticides.
Changes in landscape
The terrain of the Kaiserstuhl has been altered by the people living there since it was settled. The loam there is strongly susceptible to erosion as a result of soil cultivation, thus terraces had to be added, which were then mostly used as vineyards, as well as fruit growing or for other agricultural uses. As a result, the typical small "patio" hillsides and the streaked loess sunken roads typical of the region came into being.
To start with, it was for this reason that smaller terraces were merged in around 1950, this resulted in large scale reallocation, which turned parts of the original landscape completely upside down.
The phases of this reallocation were:-
Small-scale realignment between 1950 and 1960. At the same time the terrain was generally modified by manual labour with the help of in-house machines. During this time approximately 950 hectares were enclosed by the farmland consolidation authority.
Between 1960 and 1970 the loess slopes were more comprehensively modified, whereby large rectangular terraced areas with corresponding high embankments were made. The terraces were arranged with mountain like slopes so that now only the multiple slope edges are visible from the valley. About 650 hectares of the surface were styled in this way.
The plans to create large-scale terraces made between 1970 and 1976 were executed with the help of heavy machinery, changing the landscape radically. Before the original, naturally formed, depressions had still been visible in the gentle hillsides with only small terraces. Natural and man-made structures existed side by side. However, these small-scale structures were then obliterated completely. Monstrous areas resembling fortresses and entirely incongruous to the region were created. The total wine-growing area of the terraces was 630 ha. As the embankments and other areas exceeded the size of the wine-growing areas, the changes affected more than twice the newly created arable area. The land reforms of Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg and Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach are examples of this phase.
The last phase of wine-growing land reforms was realized between 1976 and 1982. Due, in part, to protests against plans for further large scale terraces the changes were not as radical as the previous phase: the maximum height for embankments was "limited" to 10 m and their shapes were "made smooth and adjusted to the landscape" (Mayer 1986, citation translated). This procedure was, for example, applied to about 330 ha of wine-growing area in Oberbergen-Baßgeige or in Bickensohl-Herrenstück.
From 1977 on, several longer periods of enhanced precipitation caused damage to the embankments. During one week in May 1983 for example, the amount of precipitation was so large that in some areas it was equivalent to one third of the annual average, causing great damage in the modified areas.
The surfaces of the acclivities often slid off together with the vegetation. Former valleys, which had been blocked due to re-allocation, were flushed out. In some terraces dramatic shear failures developed. In addition extensive, devastating frost damage occurred; due to the incline of the mountainside at the surfaces of the acclivities, cold air pockets were formed in which the vines in bloom were frostbitten. Additionally substantial frost damage occurred in the woody part of the vines, especially in the vineyards which were situated in lower regions. In earlier times fruit had mostly been grown here but later this was changed to vineyards.
The activity of the farmland consolidation authority was narrowed to repairing and partly to rescheduling which at least was meant to correct the most severe consequences of the transformations from 1982 on.
Hiking
There are many opportunities for hiking in the Kaiserstuhl. The best known trail is the North-South Trail (check mark: blue rhomb on yellow background) from Endingen across the Katharinenberg and the Totenkopf and the Neunlinden viewing point to Ihringen. From the trail there are panoramic views over the Black Forest, the Upper Rhine Valley and the Vosges.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kaiserstuhl ist ein bis 556,8 m ü. NHN hohes, kleines Mittelgebirge vulkanischen Ursprungs in der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene. Es erhebt sich im Südwesten von Baden-Württemberg (Deutschland), in den Landkreisen Emmendingen und Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald.
Namensdeutung
Seinen Namen hat der Kaiserstuhl vermutlich von König Otto III., der bei Sasbach am 22. Dezember 994 einen Gerichtstag abhielt. Nach diesem Gerichtstag wurde das ganze Gebirge als „Königsstuhl“ bezeichnet. Nachdem Otto III. im Mai 996 zum Kaiser gekrönt worden war, wurde aus dem „Königsstuhl“ der „Kaiserstuhl“. Nachweislich belegt ist die Bezeichnung „Kaiserstuhl“ erst seit 1304. Historiker vermuten, dass der Begriff „Kaiserstuhl“ nicht vor dem 13. Jahrhundert entstand.
Geographie
Lage
Naturräumlich wird der Kaiserstuhl zum Oberrheinischen Tiefland gezählt und stellt dort die Haupteinheit 203 dar. Er befindet sich in Südbaden zum Großteil im Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, der kleine Nordteil gehört zum Landkreis Emmendingen. Innerhalb der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene liegt er etwa 16 km nordwestlich der Großstadt Freiburg, direkt östlich des Rheins und etwas westlich der Dreisam. Er erhebt sich maximal 377,1 m über den Rhein unterhalb (179,5 m) des Stauwehrs bei Burkheim.
In seiner weitesten Ausdehnung vom Michaelsberg bei Riegel im Nordosten bis zum Fohrenberg bei Ihringen im Südwesten ist der Kaiserstuhl rund 15 km lang, seine größte Breite beträgt etwa 12,5 km.
Berge
Zu den Bergen, Erhebungen und deren Ausläufern des Kaiserstuhls gehören – sortiert nach Höhe in Meter (m) über Normalhöhennull[1]:
Totenkopf (556,8 m), 1,9 km östlich von Bickensohl; mit Fernmeldeturm Vogtsburg-Totenkopf und Aussichtsturm Neunlinden
Eichelspitze (521,3 m), 2,8 km nordwestlich von Bötzingen mit dem Eichelspitzturm
Katharinenberg (491,9 m), 1,3 km südsüdöstlich von Amoltern
Bisamberg (469,6 m), 1,2 km südlich von Amoltern
Staffelberg (447,6 m), 1,5 km nordnordwestlich von Schelingen
Badberg (432,7 m) (Naturschutzgebiet), 1,5 km östlich von Oberbergen
Holzeck (431,9 m), 1,7 km nordnordöstlich von Ihringen; mit Sendeturm
Hochbuck (375,2 m), 900 m südlich von Achkarren
Schlossberg (351,9 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Achkarren; mit Burgruine Höhingen
Böselsberg (340,1 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Wasenweiler
Hochberg, (288,7 m), 900 m nordöstlich von Jechtingen
Büchsenberg (283,7 m), 1,3 km westlich von Achkarren
Geologie
Die Entstehung des Kaiserstuhlvulkans im Tertiär stellt sowohl den Höhepunkt als auch den Schlusspunkt der vulkanischen Aktivität im Oberrheingraben dar. Diese begann schon in der Kreidezeit und zeigt sich in zahlreichen, heute tief erodierten Vulkanschloten. Der Kaiserstuhl ist der einzige größere Vulkan aus dieser Zeit im Bereich des Oberrheingrabens. Dieser trifft hier auf den Bonndorfer Graben, der über den Hegau zum Bodensee führt. Gegen Ende des Oligozäns drang Magma empor, erstarrte jedoch noch unter der Erdoberfläche. Erst im Miozän kam es zu einem Durchbruch und zu großflächigen Lavaströmen. Geologisch gesehen lässt sich der Kaiserstuhl in einen sedimentären und einen vulkanischen Teil gliedern. Aufgrund dieser Besonderheiten wurde der Kaiserstuhl als eines der bedeutendsten nationalen Geotope Deutschlands ausgezeichnet.
Sedimentärer Sockel
Die das östliche Drittel bildenden, nahezu horizontal lagernden Sedimentgesteine wurden lange vor der vulkanischen Aktivität zu Zeiten des Juras und Tertiärs gebildet. Wichtige aufgeschlossene stratigraphische Einheiten sind der Hauptrogenstein (hauptsächlich in Riegel) und die Pechelbronner Schichten (in der Gegend von Bötzingen). Dieser Teil des Kaiserstuhls wurde während der Entstehung des Oberrheingrabens weniger stark als seine Umgebung abgesenkt und stellt einen sogenannten Horst dar. Er entspricht im Aufbau und der Schichtenfolge äquivalenten Strukturen im näheren Umkreis, wie dem Tuniberg und Nimberg westlich sowie dem Schönberg südlich von Freiburg im Breisgau.
Vulkanismus
Petrologisch handelt es sich beim vulkanischen Kaiserstuhl um einen Alkaligesteins-Karbonatit-Komplex. Die den Großteil des zentralen und westlichen Kaiserstuhls aufbauenden vulkanischen Gesteine wurden vor rund 19 bis 16 Millionen Jahren im Miozän durch zahlreiche Vulkanausbrüche gebildet. Sie überlagern teilweise den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls, wodurch dieser stellenweise kontaktmetamorph, das heißt durch Einwirkung hoher Temperatur, verändert wurde. Durch abwechselnde Eruption von Tephra und Lavaströmen aus mehreren Schloten bildete sich ein komplexer Schicht- oder Stratovulkan. Emporquellendes Magma erstarrte teilweise als subvulkanische Intrusion im Vulkangebäude und baut heute den Zentralkaiserstuhl auf. Lateral aufsteigende phonolithische Schmelzen drangen auch in den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls. Bis heute wurden durch Erosion mehrere 100 m des ursprünglichen Vulkans abgetragen.
Vulkanische Gesteine
Der gesamte vulkanische Kaiserstuhl besteht aus Foid- und/oder Olivin-führenden, SiO2-untersättigten Gesteinen. Bei den Eruptivgesteinen handelt es sich zum größten Teil um Leucit-Tephrit, untergeordnet auch Phonolith, Limburgit und Olivin-Nephelinit (am Limberg bei Sasbach). Letzterer ist sehr reich an Xenolithen aus dem Erdmantel. Als Besonderheit bei den Eruptivgesteinen sind karbonatitische Ignimbrite und Lapilli zu nennen, die im Westkaiserstuhl an einigen Stellen (Henkenberg bei Burkheim, Kirchberg bei Oberrotweil) aufgeschlossen sind.
Bei den subvulkanischen Intrusionen und Ganggesteinen des zentralen Kaiserstuhls handelt es sich um die Tiefengesteinsäquivalente der Ausbruchsprodukte (Essexit, Karbonatit und grobkörnigerer Phonolith). Für verschiedene Varietäten der Ganggesteine existieren in der Literatur eine Fülle weiterer Bezeichnungen (Alvikit, Hauynophyr, Mondhaldeit, Tinguait, Monchiquit und viele andere), die aber teilweise keine allgemein anerkannten Gesteinsnamen sind. Von großem wissenschaftlichen Interesse ist der bei Altvogtsburg und Schelingen anstehende Karbonatit. Dabei handelt es sich um ein recht seltenes vulkanisches Gestein, das nicht aus einer silikatischen, sondern aus einer karbonatischen Schmelze auskristallisierte. Aufgrund dieses ungewöhnlichen Umstandes wurde die magmatische Natur des Karbonatits lange Zeit nicht erkannt oder in Zweifel gezogen. Alternative Interpretationen gingen von kontaktmetamorph veränderten Sedimentgesteinen aus, die bekanntermaßen in unmittelbarer Nähe zu finden sind. Erst in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren gelang es, das Gestein gesichert als Karbonatit zu identifizieren, unter anderem durch das Auffinden der eruptiven Karbonatite im westlichen Kaiserstuhl. Wegen des in ihm auftretenden Niob-Minerals Koppit wurde der Karbonatit in der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts versuchsweise bergmännisch abgebaut. Allerdings erwiesen sich die Gehalte als zu gering für eine Nutzung in größerem Umfang.
Minerale
Seit langer Zeit ist der Kaiserstuhl als Fundstelle für zum Teil seltene Minerale bekannt. Besondere Fundstellen sind die Steinbrüche im Limburgit des Limbergs (verschiedene Zeolithe), im Karbonatit am Badberg und Orberg (Koppit) und im Phonolith des Fohbergs und des Kirchbergs (Zeolithe, Wollastonit, Melanit). Überwiegend treten diese als Kluftminerale oder Blasenfüllungen (Mandelstein) auf.
Lössbedeckung
Der Kaiserstuhl ist heute weitgehend von einer quartären Lössschicht bedeckt. Löss ist ein Lockersediment, welches durch Erosion anderer Gesteine entsteht und durch äolischen Transport an seinen Ablagerungsort befördert wird. Der Löss entstand – wie im gesamten Randbereich der Oberrheinebene – während der letzten weitgehend vegetationsfreien Eiszeit durch Auswehung aus dem Rheinschlamm. Die Ablagerung fand im periglazialen (eisfreien, jedoch von Gletschereis umgebenen) Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl statt. Der Hauptprozess, der in dieser Region stattfindet, ist Frostsprengung von Gestein. Da keine Vegetation vorhanden ist, die den Wind bremsen könnte, weht dieser beständig stark. Er nimmt das leichteste Material mit und lagert es an Hindernissen, beispielsweise dem Kaiserstuhl, wieder ab. Hierbei ist zu beachten, dass die Ablagerung im Lee stattfindet, im Falle des Kaiserstuhls – wo der Wind aus Südwesten wehte – also im Nordosten. Je höher der Sedimentationsort liegt, desto dünner ist die Schicht tatsächlich abgelagerten Materials. Am Kaiserstuhl liegt die Mächtigkeit der Lössschicht zwischen 10 und 40 Metern, es gibt jedoch auch Orte im Südwesten, an denen kein Löss sedimentiert wurde. Der Herkunftsort des Lösses am Kaiserstuhl lag hauptsächlich in den nördlichen Kalkalpen. Auffällig im anstehenden Löss ist ein sich in unregelmäßigen Abständen wiederholender, rostfarbener Streifen. Dieser entsteht durch die phasenweise Anlieferung neuen Materials. Während einer schwachen Sedimentationsphase verwittert das obenauf liegende Material, wobei der Kalk ausgewaschen wird. Hierbei bildet sich Lösslehm. Der ausgewaschene Kalkanteil fällt weiter unten im Bodenprofil wieder aus und bildet den sogenannten Lösskindelhorizont. Zu jedem Ausfällungshorizont gehört deshalb ein Anreicherungshorizont.
Die Lössböden des Kaiserstuhls werden agrarisch intensiv genutzt, da sie eine gute Belüftung bieten und eine hohe Wasserspeicherfähigkeit sowie mechanisch gute Eigenschaften besitzen. Außerdem sind im Zuge der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung die sogenannten Lösshohlwege entstanden.
Der gewachsene Löss ist zudem für den Hochwasserschutz von Bedeutung, da er starke Niederschläge wie ein Schwamm aufnimmt und dann gleichmäßig wieder abgibt. Durch die Anlage von Großterrassen für den Weinbau am Kaiserstuhl wird der Löss jedoch mit Planierraupen verdichtet und verliert diese Eigenschaft.
Klima
Allgemeines
Klimatisch zählt der Kaiserstuhl zur temperaten (gemäßigten) Klimazone. Durch die in der Oberrheinebene vorherrschende Wärmebegünstigung gehört er jedoch zu den wärmsten Orten Deutschlands mit für Mitteleuropa vergleichsweise milden Wintern und warmen Sommern, die teilweise sogar Durchschnittstemperaturen von über 20 Grad in den Monaten Juli und August aufweisen können. Durch seine mit Löss bedeckten vulkanischen Böden ist er ein sehr gutes Weinanbaugebiet. Die klimatischen Voraussetzungen des Kaiserstuhls heben sich von seiner Umgebung deutlich ab. Er liegt im Regenschatten der Vogesen, im Einfluss der Burgundischen Pforte, und hat somit ein eher trockenes Klima.
Meteorologische Daten
Die Jahresmitteltemperatur beträgt 9,9 °C, wobei sowohl 50 bis 60 Sommertage als auch 60 bis 70 Frosttage zu verzeichnen sind. Dies spiegelt schon ein besonderes Merkmal des Kaiserstuhls wider, denn er zeichnet sich durch recht extreme Klimaverhältnisse aus, was sich besonders in der durchschnittlichen jährlichen Temperaturschwankung von 18,5 °C ausdrückt. Der mittlere Niederschlag auf dem Kaiserstuhl beträgt etwa 600 bis 700 mm, bei jährlich rund 1.720 Stunden Sonnenschein.
Flora und Fauna
Das Klima des Kaiserstuhls erklärt auch die große Fülle an wärmeliebender Flora und Fauna. Beispielsweise ist der Kaiserstuhl einer der Orte mit der größten Orchideenvielfalt in Europa – mehr als 30 Arten wurden registriert. Zwischen den Rebstöcken wuchern wilde Traubenhyazinthen, und an Böschungen blühen Schwertlilien. Außerdem leben hier Bienenfresser, Smaragdeidechsen und Gottesanbeterinnen (Mantis religiosa) – Arten, die ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt im mediterranen Bereich haben (nach neuen genetischen Studien handelt es sich bei der Smaragdeidechse allerdings um eine wahrscheinlich allochthone Population der Östlichen Smaragdeidechse). Die Flaumeiche ist ein Xerophyt und kommt sonst vor allem in Südeuropa vor, am Kaiserstuhl kann sie sich jedoch vor allem im Flaumeichenwald am Büchsenberg als Niederwald halten. Diese Arten leben in einem disjunkten Areal, also von ihrem normalen Verbreitungsgebiet abgetrennt. Dies ist ein Relikt einer postglazialen Warmzeit, zu der auch im Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl ein deutlich wärmeres Klima herrschte. Nach Ende der Warmzeit konnten die genannten Arten nur noch am Kaiserstuhl überleben. Außerdem gibt es am Kaiserstuhl größere Populationen des Maikäfers. Die Art wurde in der Vergangenheit trotz Kritik von Umweltschützern mit Insektiziden bekämpft, so etwa im Jahr 2009. Die Aktion wurde damit begründet, dass der Maikäfer ansonsten existenzbedrohende Schäden in der umliegenden Landwirtschaft auslösen könnte.
Landschaftsveränderung
Die Oberfläche des Kaiserstuhls wurde vom wirtschaftenden Menschen seit dessen Besiedlung verändert. Da Löss infolge der Bodenbearbeitung stark erosionsanfällig ist, mussten Terrassen geschaffen werden, die meist als Rebflächen, teilweise auch für Obst- oder zum Ackerbau genutzt wurden. Dadurch entstanden schon früh die typischen kleinterrassierten Hänge, die zudem von den ebenfalls durch die „Nutzung“ entstandenen Lösshohlwegen durchzogen wurden.
Im Sinne der Flurbereinigung wurde um 1950 damit begonnen, zunächst kleinere Terrassen zusammenzulegen; dies endete in Großumlegungen, welche die ursprüngliche Landschaft in Teilbereichen völlig umgestalteten. Diese Umgestaltung begann zwischen 1950 und 1960 mit kleinräumigen Neuordnungen. Dabei wurde das Gelände meist in Handarbeit bzw. mit Hilfe betriebseigener Maschinen umgestaltet. In dieser Zeit wurden rund 950 ha von den Flurbereinigungsbehörden flurbereinigt.
Zwischen 1960 und 1970 wurden die Lösshänge umfassender umgestaltet, wobei große, tiefe und möglichst rechteckige Terrassenflächen mit entsprechend hohen Böschungen entstanden. Die Terrassen wurden mit bergseitiger Neigung angelegt, so dass jetzt vom Tal aus vielfach nur noch die Kanten sichtbar sind. Auf diese Art entstanden rund 650 ha Rebfläche.
Mit umfassendem Maschineneinsatz wurden die Großterrassenplanungen der Jahre 1970 bis 1976 umgesetzt, die das Landschaftsbild deutlich veränderten. Vor diesen Maßnahmen zeichneten sich in den sanften Hängen, deren Oberflächen von den kleinen Terrassen überprägt waren, noch die ursprünglich natürlich entstandenen Senken ab. Statt diesem Nebeneinander von natürlichen und vom Menschen geschaffenen Strukturen nehmen die Kritiker nun festungsartige und landschaftsfremde Oberflächen wahr, die eine Gesamtgröße von ca. 630 ha Rebfläche bieten. Da die Böschungen und sonstigen Flächen größer waren als die Rebflächen, erstreckte sich die Landschaftsveränderung jeweils auf mehr als das Doppelte der neu geschaffenen nutzbaren Fläche. Beispiele für diese Phase sind die Flurbereinigungen Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg und Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach. Inzwischen war der Großteil der Lösshohlwege durch die Flurbereinigung verschwunden, die zuvor ökologische Nischen speziell für Wildbienen und Vögel gewesen waren.
Die letzte Phase der Rebflurbereinigung erstreckte sich auf die Zeit zwischen 1976 und 1982, in der unter anderem wegen der Proteste gegen die Großterrassenplanungen gemäßigt vorgegangen wurde: Die Böschungshöhen wurden auf maximal 10 m „beschränkt“, der Böschungsverlauf wurde „geschwungen angelegt und der Landschaft angepasst“. Mit diesen Verfahren wurden zum Beispiel in Oberbergen-Baßgeige oder in Bickensohl-Herrenstück rund 330 ha Rebfläche bearbeitet.
Nachdem ab 1977 durch länger anhaltende niederschlagsreiche Perioden Böschungsschäden entstanden waren, fielen in der Pfingstwoche des Jahres 1983 Niederschlagsmengen, die teilweise ein Drittel des Jahresmittels ausmachten. Diese führten in den umgelegten Gebieten zu Schäden: Die Böschungsoberflächen rutschten vielfach mitsamt der Vegetation ab, ehemalige, durch die Umlegungen verschüttete Talzüge wurden ausgeschwemmt, in einzelnen Terrassen entstanden tiefgreifende Grundbrüche. Überdies kam es in den Folgejahren zu Frostschäden. Durch die bergseitige Neigung der Terrassenoberflächen konnten sich Kaltluftseen bilden, in denen die Reben vor allem in der Blüte erfroren.[6] Außerdem entstanden, vor allem in den niedriger gelegenen Rebflächen, in denen zuvor meist Obst angebaut worden war, erhebliche Frostschäden am Holz der Rebbestände.
Die Tätigkeit der Flurbereinigungsbehörden beschränkte sich in der Zeit nach 1982 auf Reparaturarbeiten und partielle Umplanungen, die zumindest die schwersten Folgen der Umgestaltungen korrigieren sollten. Inzwischen hatte man auch begonnen, die verbliebenen Lösshohlwege als Naturdenkmale auszuweisen und sie zu schützen.
Seit 2021 wird auf einer Fläche von etwa einem Hektar Echter Lavendel und Lavandin angebaut. Dank der Wärme und der kalkreichen Böden gedeiht er gut. Zwei der vier Felder liegen in Bischoffingen, wo es auch einen Hofladen gibt und je eines in Königschaffhausen und Burkheim. Auf letzterem wachsen neun verschiedene Sorten.
Wandern
Der bekannteste und „klassische“ Wanderweg ist der Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg); er ist einer von acht Themenpfaden und führt von Endingen über den Katharinenberg und den Totenkopf mit Aussichtsturm Neunlinden nach Ihringen. Von den Wegen bieten sich vielerorts Ausblicke auf den Schwarzwald, die Rheinebene und die Vogesen. Auch der Querweg Schwarzwald–Kaiserstuhl–Rhein führt über den Kaiserstuhl.
Als Wissenschaftlicher Lehrpfad wurde 1977 der Limberg-Weg angelegt. Er umfasst 90 Stationen zu den Themen Geologie und Mineralogie, Geschichte, Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege, Forstwirtschaft, Wein- und Obstbau, Rheinbau und Wasserwirtschaft, sowie Landeskunde.
Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2007 mit einer Gesamtlänge von 140 km eröffnet und in das bestehende Wanderwegenetz des Schwarzwaldvereins (Markierung: gelber Rhombus auf weißem Hintergrund) integriert. Dabei wurde das Wanderwegenetz mit 430 neuen Wegweisern ausgeschildert. Große Tafeln mit einer Übersichtskarte und mit Standortinformationen sind an zentralen Punkten wie zum Beispiel an Bahnhöfen in den von den Themenpfaden verbundenen oder durchlaufenden Ortschaften aufgestellt. Jeder Themenpfad ist durch eine eigene Farbe und ein dem Namen entsprechendes Symbol auf den Eingangsportalen und den Wegweisern optisch gekennzeichnet. Weitere 120 kleinere Thementafeln erläutern entlang der Wanderwege lokale Besonderheiten. Örtliche Pfade, wie zum Beispiel der Brunnenpfad (7 km) in Bötzingen, wurden in das neue Netz der Themenpfade integriert.
Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2010 durch den Kaiserstuhlpfad ergänzt, der als Prädikatswanderweg das Gütesiegel „Qualitätsweg Wanderbares Deutschland“ erhielt. Der 21,7 km lange Kaiserstuhlpfad orientiert sich mit einigen Erweiterungen am Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg) und führt von Endingen durch das Erletal hoch zur Katharinenkapelle, entlang der Naturschutzgebiete Badberg und Haselschacher Buck zum Eichelspitzturm, weiter über den Vogelsang-Pass zum Neunlindenturm, durch den Lößhohlweg Eichgasse nach Bickensohl und über den Kreuzenbuck durch die Lenzengasse nach Ihringen.
(Wikipedia)
@Tokyo Bay Wild Birds Park, tokyo, apr/2009
Mamiya 645 Pro
Schneider Kreuznach Xenotar MF 80mm F2.8
(w/ Extention Tube)
Kodak E100G
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++++++FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++
Puri (About this soundlisten (help·info)) is a city and a Municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Sri Jagannatha Dhama after the 12th-century Jagannatha Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus.
Puri
ପୁରୀ
Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was locally known as "Sri Kshetra" and Lord Jagannatha temple is known as "Badadeula". Puri and the Jagannatha Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, from the 4th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were part of British India from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious mathas or monasteries.
The economy of Puri is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannatha Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent. The 24 festivals, including 13 major ones, held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city.
Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme of Government of India.
Geography and climateEdit
GeographyEdit
The Atharanala Bridge dating back to the 16th century at the entrance of Puri
Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the centre of the Puri district. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauza Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres (42 mi) coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres (6.3038 sq mi) spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[1]
Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (also known as "Ashokan Tosali"). Then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River, a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons, known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles (8.0 km) in an east-west direction and a width of 2 miles (3.2 km) in north-south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just 5 feet (1.5 m) and the process of siltation continues. According to a 15th-century Odia writer Saraladasa, the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up. Katakarajavamsa, a 16th-century chronicle (c.1600), attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, as done during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308) of Eastern Ganga dynasty.[2]
ClimateEdit
According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the climate of Puri is classified as Aw (Tropical savanna climate). The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C (97 °F) and during winter it is 17 °C (63 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres (52.6 in) and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C (80.4 °F). The weather data is given in the following table.[3][4]
HistoryEdit
Main article: Timeline of Puri
Names in historyEdit
Puri, the holy land of Lord Jagannatha, also known by the popular vernacular name Shrikhetra, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila Purana and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with Vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri, and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha. Sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage close to this place.[5] Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri, however, is the popular usage. It is also known by the geographical features of its location as Shankhakshetra (the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell),[6] Neelāchala ("Blue mountain" a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri.[7] In Sanskrit, the word "Puri" means town or city,[8] and is cognate with polis in Greek.[9]
Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. When the present temple was built by the Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Moghul ruler Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama Anargha Raghava Nataka as well, authored by Murari Mishra, a playwright, in the 8th century AD, it is referred to as Purushottama.[6] It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri.[7] It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti, abodes with Krishna, who is also known by the name Jagannatha.[10]
Ancient periodEdit
king Indradyumna of Ujjayani credited with building the original temple in 318 AD
According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 AD, the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta king Rakatavahu.[11] In the temple's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king Indradyumna, Ujjayani.[12]
S. N. Sadasivan, a historian, in his book A Social History of India quotes William Joseph Wilkins, author of the book Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic as stating that in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannatha which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Lord Krishna. Even during Maurya king Ashoka's reign in 240 BC, Kalinga was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.[13]
Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century. The Eastern Ganga king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha, then known as the Purushottama-Jagannatha, and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Ratha Yatra.[14]
Medieval and early modern periodsEdit
The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannatha Temple, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple, rather than for religious reasons. The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (798–814 AD), and the last took place in 1881 AD by the monotheistic followers of Alekh (Mahima Dharma) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha.[15] From 1205 AD onward [14] there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of Afghan and Moghul descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted.[16] The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple, the triad of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion.[15]
Invasion number Invader (s), year (s) AD Local rulers Status of the three images of the Jagannatha temple
1 Raktabahu or Govinda III (798–814) of the Rashtrakuta Empire King Subhanadeva of Bhaumakara dynasty Idols shifted to Gopali near Sonepur. Was brought back to Puri by Yayati I after 146 years and re-consecrated after performing Nabakalebara.[17]
2 Illias Shah, Sultan of Bengal, 1340 Narasinghadeva III Images shifted to a secret location.[18]
3 Feroz Shah Tughlaq, 1360 Ganga King Bhanudeva III Images not found, though rumored that they were thrown into the Bay Of Bengal.[18]
4 Ismail Ghazi commander of Alauddin Hussain Shah of Bengal, 1509 King Prataprudradeva Images shifted to Chandhei Guha Pahada near Chilika Lake.[18]
5 Kalapahara, army assistant general of Sulaiman Karrani of the Afghan Sultan of Bengal, 1568 Mukundadeva Harichandan Images initially hidden in an island in Chilika Lake. However, the invader took the idols from here to the banks of the Ganges River and burnt them. Bisher Mohanty, a Vaishnavite saint, who had followed the invading army, retrieved the Brahmas and hid it in a drum at Khurdagada in 1575 AD and finally re-installed it in the deities. Deities were brought back to Puri and consecrated in the Jagannatha Temple.[19]
6 Suleman, the son of Kuthu Khan and Osman, the son of Isha (ruler of Orissa), 1592 Ramachandradeva, the Bhoi dynasty ruler of Khurda Revolt was by local Muslim rulers who desecrated the images.[20]
7 Mirza Khurum, the commander of Islam Khan I, the Nawab of Bengal, 1601 Purushottamadeva of Bhoi Dynasty Image moved to Kapileswarpur village by boat through the river Bhargavi and kept in the Panchamukhi Gosani temple. Thereafter, the deities were kept in Dobandha—Pentha.[20]
8 Hasim Khan, the Subedar of Orissa, 1608 Purushottam Deva, the King of Khurda Images shifted to the Gopal temple at Khurda and brought back in 1608.[20]
9 Hindu Rajput Jagirdar Kesodasmaru, 1610 Purusottamdeva, the king of Khurda Images kept at the Gundicha Temple and brought back to Puri after eight months.[20]
10 Kalyan Malla, 1611 Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images moved to 'Mahisanasi' also known as'Brahmapura' or 'Chakanasi' in the Chilika Lake where they remained for one year.[21]
11 Kalyan Malla, 1612 Paiks of Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images placed on a fleet of boats at Gurubai Gada and hidden under the 'Lotani Baragachha' or Banyan tree) and then at 'Dadhibaman Temple'.[22]
12 Mukarram Khan, 1617 Purushottama Deva, the King of Khurda Images moved to the Bankanidhi temple, Gobapadar and brought back to Puri in 1620.[22]
13 Mirza Ahmad Beg, 1621 Narasingha Deva Images shifted to 'Andharigada' in the mouth of the river Shalia across the Chilika Lake. Moved back to Puri in 1624.[23]
14 Amir Mutaquad Khan alias Mirza Makki, 1645 Narasingha Deva and Gangadhar Not known.[24]
15 Amir Fateh Khan, 1647 Not known Not known[24]
16 Ekram Khan and Mastram Khan on behalf of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, 1692 Divyasingha Deva, the king of Khurda Images moved to 'Maa Bhagabati Temple' and then to Bada Hantuada in Banpur across the Chilika Lake, and finally brought back to Puri in 1699.[24]
17 Muhammad Taqi Khan, 1731 and 1733 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images moved to Hariswar in Banpur, Chikili in Khalikote, Rumagarh in Kodala, Athagada in Ganjam and lastly to Marda in Kodala. Shifted back to Puri after 2.5 years.[24]
18 Followers of Mahima Dharma, 1881 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images burnt in the streets. [25]
Puri is the site of the Govardhana Matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 AD, and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwarka and Jyotirmath. The Matha (monastery of various Hindu sects) is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. It is a local belief about these dhams that Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.[12][26]
In the 16th century, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal established the Bhakti movements of India, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement. He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged with the deity.[27] There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here known as Radhakanta Math.[12]
In the 17th century, for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the temple served as a landmark, being located in a plaza in the centre of the city, which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres (37 mi) away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".[27]
The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannatha temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters.[27]
Govardhana matha main gate
The city has many other Mathas as well. The Emar Matha was founded by the Tamil Vaishnava saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. This Matha, which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannatha Temple, is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of Suryavamsi Gajapatis. The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber.[28][29]
The British conquered Orissa in 1803, and, recognising the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state, they initially appointed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district.[14]
Modern historyEdit
H.H Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri
In 1906, Sri Yukteswar, an exponent of Kriya Yoga and a resident of Puri, established an ashram, a spiritual training center, named "Kararashram" in Puri. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.[30][31]
The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj, the Raj Bhavan, built in 1913–14 during the era of governors.[32]
For the people of Puri, Lord Jagannatha, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that Lord Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple (in the Amalaka part of the temple) on 14 June 1990, people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (7 tonnes (7.7 tons)), that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened, was done on 28 February 1991.[27]
Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is chosen as one of the 12 heritage cities with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017.[33]
Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library, located within the precincts of the temple, for a small donation.[34]
DemographicsEdit
See also: List of cities in Odisha
According to the 2011 Census of India, Puri is an urban agglomeration governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state, with a population of 201,026[35] This rose to 200,564 in 2011 – comprising 104,086 males, 96,478 females, and 18,471 children (under six years of age). The sex ratio is 927. The average literacy rate in the city is 88.03 percent (91.38 percent for males and 84.43 percent for females).
EconomyEdit
The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent. The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple. Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple.[36] The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people.[34] According to Colleen Taylor Sen an author on food and travel, writing on the food culture of India, the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100,000 people,.[37] According to J Mohapatra, Director, Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd (IBPIL), the kitchen is known as "a largest and biggest kitchen of the world."[38]
City management and governanceEdit
Samudra arati or worship of the sea at Swargadwar by disciples of the Govardhana matha
The Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting and infrastructure of roads. The major activity, which puts maximum pressure on these organisations, is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July. According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event. Hence, development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security, gets priority attention.[39]
The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality. The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust, which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, the Orissa Municipal Act (1950) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.[40]
LandmarksEdit
Jagannatha temple
Jagannatha Temple at PuriEdit
Main article: Jagannath Temple (Puri)
Left: Jagannath Temple at Puri Right: View of the temple at night
The Jagannatha Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture.[41] The temple tower, with a spire, rises to a height of 58 metres (190 ft), and a flag is unfurled above it, fixed over a wheel (chakra).[34][42]
Left:Ritual chakra and flags at the top shikhara of Puri temple of Jagannatha also related to Sudarsana chakra. The red flag (12 hand or 14 feet (4.3 m) denotes that Jagannath is within the temple.
Right: Statue of Aruna the charioteer of the Sun God on top of the Aruna Stambha in front of the Singhadwara
The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 420,000 square feet (39,000 m2) area),[43] 20 feet (6.1 m) above the adjacent area. The temple rises to a height of 214 feet (65 m) above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 10.7 acres (4.3 ha).[39] There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple, each gate located at the central part of the walls. These gates are: the eastern gate called the Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures. There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara, called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres (36 ft) in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of Aruṇa (Sun) in a prayer mode is mounted. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun Temple.[44] The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers, and elephants in the name and order of the gates.[34] A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which is guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya.[43][44][45] The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca, which are revered, as it is believed to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps, from top to bottom, to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple, on the left side, there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities; the kitchen is called as "the biggest hotel of the world".[43]
The main entrance of the Jagannatha Temple
According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannatha in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became part of the Mughal empire till 1751. Subsequently, it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. During the British Raj, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947.[42]
The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, His older brother, and Subhadra, His younger sister. The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms, while that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large, painted and non-carved. The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes.[27]
The Pancha Tirtha of PuriEdit
Main article: Pancha Tirtha of Puri
Markandeshwar Tank
Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, the Swetaganga Tank, and the Bay of Bengal also called the Mahodadhi, in Sanskrit 'Mahodadhi' means a "great ocean";[46] all are considered sacred bathing spots in the Swargadwar area.[47][48][49] These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water.[50]
Gundicha TempleEdit
Main article: Gundicha Temple
The Main Gate of the Gundicha Temple
The Gundicha Temple, known as the Garden House of Jagannatha, stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, bounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to the northeast of the Jagannatha Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue), which is the pathway for the Ratha Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannatha temple.[51]
The temple is built using light-grey sandstone, and, architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannatha. The entire complex, including the garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 430 by 320 feet (131 m × 98 m) with height of 20 feet (6.1 m).[52]
Except for the 9-day Ratha Yatra, when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple, otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (generally prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period.[53] The temple is under the Jagannatha Temple Administration, Puri, the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.[52]
SwargadwarEdit
The Sea at Swargadwar of Puri
Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea. Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.[54]
BeachEdit
Puri sea sunrise
Puri Sea Beach viewed from the light house
The beach at Puri, known as the "Ballighai beach, at the mouth of Nunai River, is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees.[12] It has golden yellow sand. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here.[55] Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.[27]
District museumEdit
The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannatha, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting), ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts, and local craft work.[56]
Raghunandana libraryEdit
Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Centre) is also located here. The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city.[56]
Festivals of PuriEdit
Main article: List of festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri
The Grand Road near the Jagannatha Temple
Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major. The most important of these is the Ratha Yatra, or the car festival, held in the June–July, which is attended by more than 1 million people.[57]
Ratha Yatra at PuriEdit
Main article: Ratha-Yatra (Puri)
The Ratha Yatra in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background
The Jagannatha Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (rainy season of Orissa, usually in June or July), they are brought out on the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and taken over a distance of (3 kilometres (1.9 mi)) to the Shri Gundicha Temple[58] in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (holy view). This festival is known as the Ratha Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots.[59] The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day, the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July).[60]
Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Ratha Yatra on the completion of the Jagannatha Temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early.[61] Friar Odoric, in his account of 1321, reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King, the Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.[62][63]
The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Lord Jagannatha is about 45 feet (14 m) high and 35 square feet (3.3 m2) and takes about 2 months for its construction.[64] The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 7 feet (2.1 m) diameter. The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces, the wooden carvings are of Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and red coloured cloth. The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is 44 feet (13 m) in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer, roof covered in red and green coloured cloth, and the chariot is known as Taladhwaja. The carvings on this chariot include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannatha's companions. The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra, which is 43 feet (13 m) in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth, and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi.[60][65] The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne.[59] The chariots of Jagannatha pulled during Ratha Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut.[66] The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra[60]
Pahandi bije during Ratha Yatra at Puri
Chhera PaharaEdit
The Chhera Pahara (sweeping with water) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra. During this ritual, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots. The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha. This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee.[67]
Chandan YatraEdit
The Narendra Tirtha tank where ceremonies of Chandan Yatra are performed
Main article: Chandan Yatra
The Chandan Yatra festival held every year on Akshaya Tritiya day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Ratha Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.[12]
Snana YatraEdit
Main article: Snana Yatra
Every year, on the Purnima day in the Hindu calendar month of Jyestha (June), the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later, during the night, the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi.[60] After this the Jhulana Yatra is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narendra Tirtha tank.[12]
Anavasara or AnasaraEdit
Images during the Snana Yatra.
Anasara, a derivative of the Sanskrit word "Anabasara",[68] literally means vacation. Every year after the holy Snana Yatra, the triad images, without the Sudarshana Chakra, are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar (also known as Anasara pindi, 'pindi' is Oriya term meaning "platform" [68]) where they remain for the next fortnight of (Krishna paksha); devotees are not allowed to view these images. Instead, devotees go to the nearby Brahmagiri to see the Lord in the four-handed form of Alarnath, a depiction of Vishnu.[60][69] Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Ratha Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath, and they are treated by the special servants, the Daitapatis, for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special nitis (rites) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.[70]
Naba KalebaraEdit
Main articles: Nabakalevara and Nabakalebara 2015
Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the Lord Jagannatha that takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place at an interval of 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body) in Odia, the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. During the Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015 the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood.[71][72] More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival.[73]
Suna BeshaEdit
Main article: Suna Besha
Suna Besha or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannatha
Suna Besha, ('Suna besh'in English translates to "gold dressing”[74]) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha [75] or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed five times in a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Bijayadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December).[76][77] One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Ratha Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar. The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra; Jagannatha is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.[76]
Niladri BijeEdit
Niladri Bije, celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha (June–July) on Trayodashi (13th day),[78] marks the end of the Ratha Yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically; a ritual which is known as pahandi.[72]
Sahi yatraEdit
A scene from a play being enacted during the Sahi Yatra
The Sahi Yatra, considered the world's biggest open-air theatre,[79] is an annual event lasting 11 days; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ends on Rama avishke (Sanskrit meaning : anointing). The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayana. The residents of various localities, or Sahis, are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.[80]
Samudra AratiEdit
Samudra arati of worship of the sea by disciples of the Matha at Puri
The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago.[81] The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.
TransportEdit
Earlier, when roads did not exist, people used to walk or travel by animal-drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri. Travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges up to Calcutta, and then on foot or by carriages. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri, which became operational in 1898.[82] Puri is now well-connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways which connects Puri with Calcutta, and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route. The rail distance is about 499 kilometres (310 mi) from Calcutta[83] and 468 kilometres (291 mi) from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the city with Bhubaneswar, the state capital, situated about 60 kilometres (37 mi) away. NH 203 B connects the city with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive, which is part of NH 203 A, connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is the Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar.[57] Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of the Indian Railways.[84]
Arts and craftsEdit
Sand artEdit
Sand art of a Baby Elephant
Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists. These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves. This art form has gained international fame in recent years. One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is Sudarshan Patnaik. He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995, in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal, to provide training to students interested in this art form.[85][80]
Appliqué artEdit
An applique art work
Appliqué art, which is a stitching-based craft unlike embroidery, was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of Pipili. It is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities and for sale. Maharana's family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri. They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. The appliqué works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coverings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles; these are marketed in Puri. The cloth used is made in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.[86]
CultureEdit
Odissi dancer
Cultural activities, including the annual religious festivals, in Puri are: The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year, and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year. The cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival.[87] In addition, cultural programmes are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station. Odissi dance, Odissi music and folk dances are part of this event.[87] Odissi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannatha Temple who performed dances in the Nata mandapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.[88] Some of the famous Odissi dancers are Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mayadhar Raut, Sonal Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi and many more
EducationEdit
Samanta Chandra Sekhar College, Puri
Some of the educational institutions in Puri are:
Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management
Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[89]
Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy, Puri, under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi; established in March 2006 [90]
Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University, established in July 1981[91]
Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, a college and hospital where treatment and training is based on Ayurveda school of medicine [92]
The Industrial Training Institute, a premier technical institution to provide education to skilled, committed & talented technicians was established in 1966 by the Government of India[93]
Blessed Sacrament High School established in 1952 is otherwise known as Puri convent. It is one of the best schools in the city. The school features classes 1 to 10. It is located in VIP Road, Puri.
Puri peopleEdit
Jayee Rajguru - Freedom fighter
Chakhi Khuntia (Chandan Hajuri) – Freedom fighter [94]
Utkalmani Pandit Gopabandhu Das – Social worker
Pandit Nilakantha Das – Social activist
Bhaktakabi Madhusudan Rao – Odia Poet
Padma Vibhushan Kelucharan Mohapatra – Odissi dancer
Padma Shri Pankaj Charan Das – Odissi dancer
Padma Shri Pandit Sadashiv Rathasharma – Scholar and Preacher of Shri Jagannatha Culture
Padma Vibhushan Raghunath Mohapatra – Architect and sculptor
Padma Shri Sudarshan Pattnaik – Sand Artist
Baisali Mohanty - ALC Global Fellow at University of Oxford, United Kingdom
Rituraj Mohanty – Singer
153. People’s life as a rule fails through mediocre conditions, and not through the most negative conditions - since against the latter everyone to some extent defends themselves. But against mediocre conditions the majority of people are helpless: for these are not so bad that they would revolt against them, but bad enough to impede spiritual development.
191. The spiritual path even two thousand years ago was called the »narrow path«, or was compared to the edge of a sword. However, this path is not simply narrow, but is also getting narrower and more impassable. The »wide path«, on the contrary, which many people follow quite happily, is indeed a wayless way; a wide path, which is not a real path: it leads nowhere, to nothing, to death...
151. Most people are infantile until about the midpoint of their lives, that is until the age of thirty-six, and immediately after that from one day to another grow senile.
Doel is a little village.
This village will be erase of the world with the extention of the Schelde river.
Some artists paint the houses to show on the world this uncredible fact.
Doel never die.
Doel est un petit village qui va être rasée de la carte du monde par l'extension de l'Escaut
Doel
Belgium location map.svg
Doel
Administration
Pays Belgique Belgique
Région Flandre Région flamande
Communauté Flandre Communauté flamande
Province Drapeau de la province de Flandre-Occidentale Province de Flandre-Orientale
Arrondissement Saint-Nicolas
Commune Beveren
Géographie
Coordonnées 51°18′″N 04°15′″E / Erreur d’expression : opérateur / inattendu, Erreur d’expression : opérateur / inattendu
Superficie 25,61 km²
Population 359 hab. (31/12/2007)
Densité 14 hab./km²
Autres informations
Gentilé
Code postal 9130
Zone téléphonique 03
Localisation de Doel au sein de Beveren
Localisation de Doel au sein de Beveren
modifier Consultez la documentation du modèle
Doel (appelé Den Doel dans le parler local) est un village situé dans l’extrême nord-est de la province belge de Flandre-Orientale, dans les marais du pays de Waas, sur la rive gauche de l’Escaut, large en cet endroit de quelque 1500 mètres par marée haute, en face de Lillo-Fort. Aujourd’hui intégré dans l’entité de Beveren, Doel était jusqu’en 1977 une commune autonome, d’une superficie de 25,61 km², et d’une population de quelque 1300 habitants (1972). Outre le village lui-même, l’ancienne commune de Doel comprend les hameaux de Rapenburg, Saftinge et Ouden Doel, et bien sûr, une vaste étendue de marais asséchés.
Depuis quelques décennies, le village se retrouve régulièrement projeté au centre de l’actualité belge, à double titre.
D’abord, il a été choisi, comme le village de Tihange dans la province de Liège, comme lieu d’implantation d’une des deux centrales nucléaires que compte la Belgique.
Ensuite, et plus récemment, il semble bien établi à présent que Doel doive s’ajouter à la liste des villages poldériens (si l’on nous permet ce néologisme) sacrifiés à l’expansion du port d’Anvers. En effet, l’évacuation totale de la bourgade, après expropriation de ses habitants, a été décidée en 1999 par l’autorité régionale flamande, pour faire place à de nouvelles installations portuaires. En dépit des résistances, et de la bataille juridique engagée par le comité d’action Doel 2020 (saisines du Conseil d’État, etc.), le sort de Doel paraît aujourd’hui scellé, et il faut craindre que les recours n’aient d’autre effet que d’en prolonger l’agonie. L’évacuation suit son cours, et à la date du 31 décembre 2006, Doel ne comptait déjà plus que 388 habitants.
Le nom de Doel (la combinaison oe se prononce comme un ou bref, API: /dul/) est attesté pour la première fois en 1267, sous la forme « De Doolen ». La signification précise demeure obscure; le terme pourrait être une référence à «dalen», vallées, au sens d’amas de sable creusés. Au Moyen Âge, les Doolen ont pu être des îlots au milieu de l’Escaut. Pour d’autres, Doel signifierait ‘digue, remblai, levée’. ‘Doel’ devint, après la domination française, la dénomination officielle.
La zone autour de Doel était à l’origine constituée de terres marécageuses et faisait partie d’une vaste étendue tourbeuse s’étirant d’est en ouest sur toute la Flandre zélandaise et le nord de la Flandre-Orientale. Au nord de Doel plus spécialement, dans ce qui est aujourd’hui le Verdronken Land van Saeftinghe, la couche de tourbe était particulièrement épaisse. À partir du XIIIe siècle, l’on procéda dans cette zone, qui au XIIIe siècle avait deux fois plus d’habitants que Doel, et qui hébergeait une abbaye cistercienne, à une exploitation intensive de la tourbe. Cette activité, fort lucrative, a induit une certaine prospérité dans la région.
L’extraction de tourbe dans la zone marécageuse eut pour effet d’abaisser le niveau du sol en de nombreux endroits et de rendre la zone vulnérable aux inondations. Dans le même temps, à partir du XIIe siècle, l’Escaut subissait de plus en plus l’emprise de la mer du Nord. Pour ces raisons, il advenait régulièrement à partir du XIVe siècle que Doel et les parties nord du Pays de Beveren fussent totalement inondées, déterminant la nécessité d’édifier des digues et d’aménager ainsi des polders.
Cependant, tout ce système, conjuguant poldérisation et extraction de tourbe, progressivement mis en place dans la région au cours du Moyen Âge, fut peu à peu anéanti, d’abord par une série d’inondations catastrophiques au XVIe siècle (dont la plus grave, en l’an 1570, connue sous le nom de Allerheiligenvloed, «marée de Toussaint», submergea entièrement, et à titre définitif, le marais de Saeftinghe), ensuite par les submersions, cette fois délibérément provoquées pour motifs stratégiques, durant la guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans, notamment lors du siège d’Anvers par Alexandre Farnèse. La région était en effet alors le théâtre de combats dont l’enjeu était la maîtrise d’Anvers et de l’estuaire de l’Escaut. À cette même époque, elle fut pillée par deux fois, par des gueux (protestants) de Malines et par la soldatesque catholique royale. Les submersions volontaires ne purent empêcher Farnèse de prendre Anvers en 1585, mais les forces des États-généraux ayant réussi à s’emparer du fort de Liefkenshoek, sis au sud de Doel (et existant encore aujourd’hui), le village et le marais de Doel furent à partir de 1585 sous domination des États-généraux.
Le Hooghuis (1614).
Hooghuis : portique.
Lorsqu’arriva l’intermède de paix correspondant à la Trève de douze ans (1609-1621), la région entière n’était qu’une zone de désolation où marées et inondations de l’Escaut avaient libre carrière; tout était à refaire. Doel servait de point d’appui dans les opérations de guerre, et à la hauteur de l’actuel moulin se trouvait un fort abritant une garnison hollandaise. En 1614 fut accordée, par les États-Généraux de la République des Provinces-Unies, l’autorisation d’endiguer et d’assécher toute l’étendue autour de Doel. Cette décision signe l’acte de naissance de la bourgade de Doel sous sa forme actuelle, car, outre l’aménagement du marais, fut aussi commencé la construction, planifiée sur carte, du village. La disposition en damier des rues détermina une urbanisation géométrique, fort rare en ces latitudes. Les parcelles carrées ainsi formées furent ensuite bâties systématiquement, de telle façon qu’aucun jardin ne fût visible depuis la rue; ces jardins étaient (et sont encore) accessibles par d’étroits corridors aménagés entre les maisons et clos par des portillons, qu’autrefois on verrouillait pour la nuit.
Doel et le marais de Doel ont longtemps formé, de fait, une façon d’île, délimitée par l’Escaut d’une part, par des criques et des vasières d’autre part. Le marais de Doel s’étendait sur 1090 ha. La digue nord du marais de Doel, digue subsistant encore aujourd’hui, est la limite qui sépare le marais initial d’avec les marais aménagés ultérieurement, et permet de situer en partie les contours de cette ancienne île. Jusqu’au XVIIe siècle, Doel n’était en pratique guère accessible autrement qu’en bateau. Quant au marais de Saeftinghe, on renonça à l’endiguer, ce marais demeurant ainsi un verdronken land, une zone inondable au gré des marées; à l’heure actuelle, c’est une réserve ornithologique.
Au plan ecclésiastique, Doel dépendait de la paroisse de Kieldrecht et ne devint une paroisse autonome qu’en 1792. Cette même année, Doel fut attribué à l’empereur d’Autriche et vint à faire partie définitivement des Pays-Bas du Sud.
Lors des événements qui entourèrent l’indépendance belge en 1830, Doel subit le contrecoup de la bataille d’Anvers. En décembre 1832, les Belges, aidés de troupes françaises, réussirent à contraindre les Hollandais à céder Anvers, mais, après avoir investi le polder de Doel, ne purent cependant déloger les troupes hollandaises des forts de Liefkenshoek et de Lillo. Une garnison hollandaise continua donc d’occuper le fort de Liefkenshoek, et cela jusqu’à la signature d’un traité en 1839. Doel devint ensuite une commune autonome.
À partir de 1843 et jusqu’en 1945, Doel fut le siège du service de quarantaine chargé de contrôler les navires se rendant à Anvers. Le marais s’agrandit du polder Prosper (Prosperpolder, 1051 ha de terres arables), et, quelques décennies plus tard, du polder Hedwige (300 ha). À la fin du XIXe siècle, les deux tiers environ de la population doeloise vivaient de l’agriculture, et un tiers avait la pêche pour moyen de subsistance ; d’autre part, une sucrerie occupait une quarantaine de travailleurs.
Doel fut libérée en 1944 par des soldats britanniques et polonais. Le village eut cependant encore à souffrir des meurtrières bombes volantes V1, dont 68 tombèrent sur son territoire — 59 V1 et 9 V2 —, faisant 13 morts et détruisant totalement ou partiellement 35 maisons.
En 1975, Doel fusionna avec quelques communes environnantes pour constituer l’entité de Beveren.
Dans la bourgade, les rues sont disposées en damier, phénomène à peu près unique en Belgique : le plan se compose de trois rues parallèles à la digue, et de quatre autres rues qui les croisent à la perpendiculaire. Cette disposition remonte à la décision, prise au début du XVIIe siècle après les inondations stratégiques, de procéder à une poldérisation et un remembrement des terres autour de Doel, et est demeurée inchangée depuis.
* L’agglomération comprend plusieurs fermes et maisons bourgeoises. L’immeuble le plus ancien est le Hooghuis (litt. maison haute, classé monument historique), achevé de bâtir en 1614, dans le style renaissance flamand, avec monumental encadrement de porte en style baroque. L’intérieur n’est pas sans intérêt, avec ses plafonds en chêne et deux monumentales cheminées baroques du XVIIe siècle. L’édifice était au XVIIe siècle le siège de l’administration du polder, mais a aussi été le manoir appartenant à de riches bourgeois anversois; le Hooghuis est ainsi associé au nom de Rubens, cette demeure ayant été probablement la propriété de Jan Brandt, père d’Isabelle Brandt, la première épouse du peintre, et, ultérieurement, de Jan Van Broeckhoven de Bergeyck, qu’Hélène Fourment épousa en secondes noces, après le décès de Rubens.
* Le moulin, classé monument historique depuis 1946, est encastré dans la digue de l’Escaut. Il date du milieu du XVIIe siècle et figure parmi les plus anciens moulins en brique que compte la Flandre. Hors d’usage depuis 1927, le moulin est aujourd’hui aménagé en café-restaurant.
* L’église paroissiale, dédiée à Notre-Dame de l’Assomption, fut édifiée en style néoclassique entre 1851 et 1854 selon les plans de Lodewijk Roelandt, architecte municipal de Gand. Le mobilier cependant comprend des œuvres d’art plus anciennes, telles que des statues du sculpteur anversois H. F. Verbruggen (XVIIe siècle) et de E. A. Nijs (XVIIIe siècle). L’orgue est classé monument depuis 1980. L’église, endommagée suite à affaissements, fut entièrement restaurée entre 1996 et 1998. Les couches solides du sous-sol se situent à Doel à environ 11 mètres de profondeur, alors que les palées destinées à soutenir l’édifice ne s’enfoncent en terre que de 7 mètres. Cela explique pourquoi l’église penche assez fortement aujourd'hui, son clocher en particulier.
* Au nord du village, au-delà de la centrale nucléaire, à la hauteur du hameau Ouden Doel, se situent le long de l’Escaut les dernières vasières saumâtres que compte la Belgique. Ces vasières abritent le petit port de Prosperpolder et la réserve naturelle Schor Ouden Doel (51 ha).
* Doel possède un port de plaisance, constitué d’un unique bassin à marée, et un embarcadère où vient accoster le bac de Lillo-Fort, lequel effectue la traversée de l’Escaut tous les week-ends de mars à septembre.
* Doel attire de nombreux excursionnistes, en particulier pendant la période estivale. Un événement singulier est la Scheldewijding (bénédiction rituelle de l’Escaut), qui a lieu début août chaque année depuis 1975. Les festivités commencent par une messe célébrée en plein air. Ensuite, le collège des échevins (=adjoints au maire) se rend conjointement avec les conseillers communaux à un bateau amarré, en vue de la mise à l’eau d’une couronne de fleurs en commémoration des victimes de la mer et du fleuve. L’après-midi, après un spectacle naval sur l’Escaut, un cortège folklorique se met en branle, réunissant, en provenance des villages environnants, nombre de groupes et d’associations avec leurs géants et leurs sociétés musicales. Une marche aux flambeaux clôture la journée.
* En l’an 2000, une cogue (type de navire de commerce hauturier, naviguant au Moyen Âge entre les différents ports de la ligue hanséatique, en mer du Nord et en mer Baltique) a été mise au jour lors des travaux de terrassement en vue de la construction du bassin Deurganckdok. L’épave trouvée à Doel était enfouie à une profondeur entre -7 et -5m sous le niveau de la mer, dans un ancien bras ensablé de l’Escaut, connu sous le nom de Deurganck (= passage, cf. allem. Durchgang), qui autrefois communiquait directement avec le fleuve ; pour des raisons inconnues, la cogue vint échouer dans ce bras en 1404. La cogue de Doel (ainsi qu’il est désormais convenu de l’appeler) mesure environ 21m de long et 7m de large; sa hauteur conservée est de 2,5m environ. L’analyse dendrochronologique a permis d’établir que le chêne qui a fourni le bois du vaisseau a été abattu en Westphalie pendant l’hiver 1325-1326, ce qui fait de cette cogue une des plus grandes, des mieux préservées et des plus anciennes d’Europe. Une fois terminés les travaux de remise en état, la cogue sera (probablement) exposée dans le musée de la navigation de Baasrode, non loin de la ville de Termonde ; mais une maquette est d'ores et déjà visible au bezoekerscentrum (sorte d'écomusée), ouvert depuis septembre 2007 au fort de Liefkenshoek. Une deuxième cogue découverte au même endroit, mais moins bien conservée, date de 1328.
Les premiers projets d’expansion du port d’Anvers sur la rive gauche de l’Escaut datent de 1963 et prévoyaient que l’ensemble des polders du pays de Waas ainsi que Doel disparussent pour faire place à des bassins et à des terrains industriels. En 1968, une interdiction de construire entra en vigueur dans le village. Suite à la récession économique des années 70, ces plans d’expansion furent revus à la baisse, et l’on vit apparaître sur le plan de secteur (=plan d’occupation du sol) de 1978 la ligne dite De Bondtlijn (d’après le sénateur Ferdinand De Bondt), ligne qui allait d’est en ouest, et qui, passant tout juste au sud de Doel, limitait la zone d’extension portuaire à la partie sud des polders. L’interdiction de construire fut donc levée cette même année. Dans la première moitié des années 80 fut réalisé, au sud de Doel, le bassin Doeldok, lequel cependant n'a jamais été utilisé.
L’implantation industrielle moderne la plus ancienne à Doel fut la centrale nucléaire, à 1 km au nord du village, dont la construction fut entamée en 1969. Elle héberge quatre réacteurs (Doel I, mis en service en 1974, Doel II en 1975, Doel III en 1982, et Doel IV en 1985), ainsi que deux tours de refroidissement d’environ 170 mètres de hauteur.
En 1995 furent rendus publics les projets d’extension de l’Administration des voies navigables et des affaires maritimes (Administratie Waterwegen en Zeewezen) de l’autorité flamande, lesquels projets prévoyaient l’aménagement, un peu au sud de Doel, d’un nouveau bassin pour conteneurs, dénommé Deurganckdok. Dans la perspective de la réalisation de ce bassin, l’on se mit à s’interroger sur la vivabilité de Doel, et dans les années qui suivirent une lutte acharnée s’engagea avec comme enjeu la survie du village. En 1997 fut constitué le comité d’action Doel 2020, et des personnalités connues en Flandre, telles que l’ancien sénateur Ferdinand De Bondt, le cinéaste Frank Van Passel, et les trois prêtres Luc Versteylen (fondateur du parti vert flamand Agalev), Phil Bosmans (écrivain) et Karel Van Isacker (historien) s’associèrent au mouvement de protestation. Une prise de décision opaque et des bévues juridiques donnèrent lieu à de grands retards dans la construction du Deurganckdok et entretinrent pendant de longues années un état d’incertitude quant à l’avenir de Doel. Les habitants étaient divisés en, d’une part, ceux qui souhaitaient y rester et, d’autre part, ceux qui au contraire avaient fait choix de lutter pour obtenir un règlement d’expropriation clair et équitable. Le 1er juin 1999, le gouvernement flamand décida, après une modification provisoire du plan de secteur intervenue en 1998, que Doel devait disparaître de ce plan de secteur au titre de zone de résidence, toujours au motif de l’invivabilité du village, qualificatif récusé par les opposants.
Après le changement de gouvernement de la région flamande en 1999, une étude fut effectuée, sur insistance du parti vert Agalev, concernant la vivabilité de Doel après l’achèvement du nouveau bassin Deurganckdok. Cette étude cependant ne remit pas en cause la modification du plan de secteur, ni la décision déjà prise de faire disparaître Doel à terme.
Le 30 juillet 2002, le Conseil d’État suspendit la mise à exécution du plan de secteur tel que modifié, c'est-à-dire comportant notamment la requalification de Doel comme zone industrielle. C’est donc le plan de secteur de 1978, qui classe Doel comme zone résidentielle, qui garde force de droit. Toutefois, en vertu du Décret d’urgence (Nooddecreet) ou Décret de validation, adopté le 14 décembre 2001 au parlement flamand, le gouvernement flamand est habilité à délivrer, en vue de la construction du Deurganckdok, des permis de bâtir et à les faire sanctionner par le parlement. L’on escomptait pouvoir par cette voie contourner le plan de secteur. Le Nooddecreet était la réaction du gouvernement flamand face à la suspension des travaux du Deurganckdok imposé par un arrêté du Conseil d’État ; des comités d’action avaient en effet mis au jour des vices de procédure entachant les modifications apportées au plan de secteur. Le Nooddecreet, compte tenu qu’il interférait dans les procédures en cours, et tendait à contourner partiellement la protection juridique des citoyens, est considéré par beaucoup comme contraire aux principes de l’État de droit.
En octobre 1999 fut néanmoins engagée la construction du Deurganckdok, lequel fut inauguré en juillet 2005. Dès le printemps 1999 étaient venus à être connus d’autres projets encore, prévoyant notamment un deuxième grand bassin à conteneurs, le controversé Saeftinghedok (cf. ci-dessous), qui serait creusé à l’emplacement même de la petite agglomération. La mise en œuvre de ces projets reste cependant incertaine. Une décision à ce sujet est attendue au plus tôt en 2007.
Un nouveau « plan stratégique », que la Région flamande et les autorités portuaires anversoises ont achevé de mettre au point en 2007, devrait être approuvé bientôt. Le plan prévoit de requalifier en zone portuaire toute la zone située au nord d’une ligne Kieldrecht-Kallo (et donc englobant Doel), jusqu’à la frontière néerlandaise. La construction d’un nouveau bassin à marée, le Saeftinghedok, serait alors possible, moyennant la poursuite des expropriations.
Partisans et détracteurs s’opposent à propos de l’opportunité de ce bassin. Celui-ci a un fervent défenseur en la personne de Marc Van Peel, depuis fin 2006 échevin (=adjoint au maire) aux affaires portuaires de la municipalité d’Anvers. Selon M. Van Peel, l’extension du port d’Anvers est une nécessité, compte tenu, d’une part, de la croissance prévisible du trafic de conteneurs, lequel est passé, en 2007, de 7 à 8 millions d’ÉVP, et d’autre part, de ce que le port d’Anvers sera apte, dès 2008, grâce aux travaux d’approfondissement de l’estuaire qui ont été réalisés, à accueillir des porte-conteneurs d’une capacité jusqu’à 12.500 ÉVP. Si cette croissance se poursuit à ce même rythme, on peut prévoir que le Deurganckdok sera parvenu à saturation aux alentours de 2012. Or, les seules possibilités d’expansion se trouvent sur la rive gauche, dans les marais de Doel.
Les opposants au projet vont valoir, étude récente de la Ocean Shipping Consultants à l’appui, que la conteneurisation des marchandises pourrait atteindre bientôt son plafond, et que la croissance prévisible du trafic pourrait être moindre dans les dix années à venir que dans les années récentes. Par ailleurs, à l’heure actuelle, le Deurganckdok est loin d’avoir épuisé toute sa capacité, et il apparaît de surcroît que le rendement, exprimé en ÉVP par hectare, se situe, au port d’Anvers, avec un chiffre de 18.000 seulement, très en deçà de ce qu’il est à Rotterdam ou à Hambourg, où l’on atteint les 30.000 ÉVP par hectare. Dès lors, au lieu d’un supposé manque de capacité, ce serait plutôt d’une grande réserve de capacité (resp. d'une surcapacité, si le Saeftinghedok devait être construit) qu’il pourrait être question, de sorte que moyennant certaines améliorations techniques, et éventuellement un allongement du Deurganckdok, il devrait être possible de faire face à l’augmentation du trafic conteneurs, et ce, selon les calculs du parti écologiste Groen!, au moins jusqu'en 2027.
Dès 1999, les habitants qui le désiraient pouvaient se faire exproprier. Les maisons expropriées passaient aux mains de la Maatschappij voor Grond- en Industrialisatiebeleid van het Linkerscheldeoevergebied (Société de gestion foncière et d’industrialisation de la Rive gauche de l’Escaut, en abrégé Maatschappij Linkeroever), cependant les habitants expropriés bénéficiaient d’un droit d’habitation, garanti initialement jusqu’au 1er janvier 2007. Fin 2006, l’administration fit savoir aux habitants que le droit d’habitation serait prorogé de manière provisoire.
En même temps fut nommé en 1999 un médiateur social, chargé de mettre à exécution le plan d’accompagnement social et d’assister les habitants qui quittent le village volontairement. Le 31 décembre 2003, ce plan social vint à son terme. Cette manière de procéder a permis de rendre exsangue, en seulement quelques années et sans coup férir, une grande partie du village: le 1er mai 2003 ne vivaient plus dans le centre de Doel que 214 des 645 habitants qui étaient inscrits au 20 janvier 1998. Le chiffre de population réel dans le centre s’élevait toutefois, au 1er mai 2003, à 301. Le 1er septembre 2003, l’école communale fut fermée après constatation que seuls 8 élèves s’y étaient inscrits.
Depuis lors, si le nombre d’habitants officiel a poursuivi sa baisse (plus que 202 en mars 2006), le nombre réel s’est progressivement accru. Cela s’explique, pour petite partie, par l’arrivée de nouveaux locataires dans certaines maisons expropriées, et pour majeure partie par le fait que des squatteurs avaient occupé les immeubles vacants (les estimations se situent entre 150 et 200). Cet état de choses fut longtemps toléré par la Société propriétaire des maisons vacantes et par la municipalité de Beveren.
Début 2006, les médias se sont de nouveau intéressés à Doel en raison du grand nombre de squatteurs. Cela concourut à répandre dans le public l’idée que Doel s’était dans une certaine mesure muée en une zone de non-droit, où l’on pouvait sans problème s’approprier un logement vacant, ce qui, à son tour, eut pour effet d’attirer de nouveaux squatteurs et de provoquer une vague de cambriolages. Le 22 mars 2006, le bourgmestre (=maire) de Beveren annonça que les contrôles de police seraient intensifiés à Doel et que la tolérance zéro serait dorénavant en vigueur et toute activité illégale réprimée. Certains squatteurs cependant demandent à régulariser leur situation.
Début septembre 2007, le tribunal des référés de Termonde a interdit la démolition de logements à Doel. La Maatschappij Linkeroever avait demandé quarante permis de démolition, dont une vingtaine avaient été accordés entre-temps. Le gouvernement flamand souhaite que 125 immeubles au total — soit environ une moitié des maisons du village —, déjà acquis par l’autorité flamande, aient disparu d’ici fin 2007 ; cela du reste rejoint sa décision de mettre un terme final au droit d’habitation (woonrecht) en 2009 : toutes les maisons qui viendraient ainsi à se trouver vacantes seraient ensuite démolies. Cependant, quelques habitants de Doel, soutenus en cela par le comité d’action Doel 2020, avaient saisi le tribunal de Termonde afin d’empêcher les démolitions. Sur le plan d’occupation du sol, Doel reste classé en zone d’habitation, le nouveau plan de secteur qui requalifiait Doel en zone industrielle ayant en effet quelques années auparavant été suspendu par le Conseil d’État. Le président du tribunal a jugé que les travaux de démolition seraient dommageables aux habitants restés sur place et dépasseraient les limites de la simple incommodation.
Par ailleurs, et dans le même temps, une délégation des habitants de Doel s’est rendue au Parlement européen à Bruxelles pour protester contre la démolition programmée de 125 logements. La délégation a remis une requête à la Commission des pétitions du Parlement européen.
Source wikipédia
The prospect of coming across a person that has such an appealing characteristic about them to an extent where you can't envision not capturing a portrait is one that I yearn for during every outing I take. I haven't taken as many street portraits as I have generally done in the past but I'm always in the constant lookout for that passing stranger that draws my attention. Without wanting to come across as prejudice, I love approaching people who's eyes may seem like they have an interesting backstory to possibly share. Sometimes, it’s their facial features that attracts me. Sometimes it's the setting in which they may be in. In Jimmy Webb's case, it was his punk-rock attire.
Normally I spend around 5-8 minutes chatting with the potential subject to secure an idea of who they are but unfortunately I was unable to with Jimmy although I graciously thanked him for the 2 minutes he spared me to take his portrait. Like 99% of my photographs, I published the portrait on Flickr and within a span of 2 days I began receiving emails from a receptive audience who really knew who Jimmy is.
Trash & Vaudeville opened in 1975, and has been providing Rock n' Roll clothing ever since. If there is a living embodiment of Trash & Vaudeville, it’s the store’s buyer, manager and face Jimmy Webb, who’s worked there since he was a 16-year-old runaway and has become a bit of a legend in his own right which did not know until I read this NYT article on the establishment. Talk about not knowing who you're gonna come across at any time.
++++++FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++
Puri (About this soundlisten (help·info)) is a city and a Municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Sri Jagannatha Dhama after the 12th-century Jagannatha Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus.
Puri
ପୁରୀ
Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was locally known as "Sri Kshetra" and Lord Jagannatha temple is known as "Badadeula". Puri and the Jagannatha Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, from the 4th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were part of British India from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious mathas or monasteries.
The economy of Puri is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannatha Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent. The 24 festivals, including 13 major ones, held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city.
Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme of Government of India.
Geography and climateEdit
GeographyEdit
The Atharanala Bridge dating back to the 16th century at the entrance of Puri
Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the centre of the Puri district. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauza Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres (42 mi) coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres (6.3038 sq mi) spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[1]
Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (also known as "Ashokan Tosali"). Then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River, a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons, known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles (8.0 km) in an east-west direction and a width of 2 miles (3.2 km) in north-south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just 5 feet (1.5 m) and the process of siltation continues. According to a 15th-century Odia writer Saraladasa, the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up. Katakarajavamsa, a 16th-century chronicle (c.1600), attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, as done during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308) of Eastern Ganga dynasty.[2]
ClimateEdit
According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the climate of Puri is classified as Aw (Tropical savanna climate). The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C (97 °F) and during winter it is 17 °C (63 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres (52.6 in) and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C (80.4 °F). The weather data is given in the following table.[3][4]
HistoryEdit
Main article: Timeline of Puri
Names in historyEdit
Puri, the holy land of Lord Jagannatha, also known by the popular vernacular name Shrikhetra, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila Purana and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with Vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri, and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha. Sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage close to this place.[5] Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri, however, is the popular usage. It is also known by the geographical features of its location as Shankhakshetra (the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell),[6] Neelāchala ("Blue mountain" a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri.[7] In Sanskrit, the word "Puri" means town or city,[8] and is cognate with polis in Greek.[9]
Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. When the present temple was built by the Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Moghul ruler Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama Anargha Raghava Nataka as well, authored by Murari Mishra, a playwright, in the 8th century AD, it is referred to as Purushottama.[6] It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri.[7] It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti, abodes with Krishna, who is also known by the name Jagannatha.[10]
Ancient periodEdit
king Indradyumna of Ujjayani credited with building the original temple in 318 AD
According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 AD, the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta king Rakatavahu.[11] In the temple's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king Indradyumna, Ujjayani.[12]
S. N. Sadasivan, a historian, in his book A Social History of India quotes William Joseph Wilkins, author of the book Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic as stating that in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannatha which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Lord Krishna. Even during Maurya king Ashoka's reign in 240 BC, Kalinga was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.[13]
Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century. The Eastern Ganga king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha, then known as the Purushottama-Jagannatha, and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Ratha Yatra.[14]
Medieval and early modern periodsEdit
The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannatha Temple, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple, rather than for religious reasons. The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (798–814 AD), and the last took place in 1881 AD by the monotheistic followers of Alekh (Mahima Dharma) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha.[15] From 1205 AD onward [14] there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of Afghan and Moghul descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted.[16] The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple, the triad of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion.[15]
Invasion number Invader (s), year (s) AD Local rulers Status of the three images of the Jagannatha temple
1 Raktabahu or Govinda III (798–814) of the Rashtrakuta Empire King Subhanadeva of Bhaumakara dynasty Idols shifted to Gopali near Sonepur. Was brought back to Puri by Yayati I after 146 years and re-consecrated after performing Nabakalebara.[17]
2 Illias Shah, Sultan of Bengal, 1340 Narasinghadeva III Images shifted to a secret location.[18]
3 Feroz Shah Tughlaq, 1360 Ganga King Bhanudeva III Images not found, though rumored that they were thrown into the Bay Of Bengal.[18]
4 Ismail Ghazi commander of Alauddin Hussain Shah of Bengal, 1509 King Prataprudradeva Images shifted to Chandhei Guha Pahada near Chilika Lake.[18]
5 Kalapahara, army assistant general of Sulaiman Karrani of the Afghan Sultan of Bengal, 1568 Mukundadeva Harichandan Images initially hidden in an island in Chilika Lake. However, the invader took the idols from here to the banks of the Ganges River and burnt them. Bisher Mohanty, a Vaishnavite saint, who had followed the invading army, retrieved the Brahmas and hid it in a drum at Khurdagada in 1575 AD and finally re-installed it in the deities. Deities were brought back to Puri and consecrated in the Jagannatha Temple.[19]
6 Suleman, the son of Kuthu Khan and Osman, the son of Isha (ruler of Orissa), 1592 Ramachandradeva, the Bhoi dynasty ruler of Khurda Revolt was by local Muslim rulers who desecrated the images.[20]
7 Mirza Khurum, the commander of Islam Khan I, the Nawab of Bengal, 1601 Purushottamadeva of Bhoi Dynasty Image moved to Kapileswarpur village by boat through the river Bhargavi and kept in the Panchamukhi Gosani temple. Thereafter, the deities were kept in Dobandha—Pentha.[20]
8 Hasim Khan, the Subedar of Orissa, 1608 Purushottam Deva, the King of Khurda Images shifted to the Gopal temple at Khurda and brought back in 1608.[20]
9 Hindu Rajput Jagirdar Kesodasmaru, 1610 Purusottamdeva, the king of Khurda Images kept at the Gundicha Temple and brought back to Puri after eight months.[20]
10 Kalyan Malla, 1611 Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images moved to 'Mahisanasi' also known as'Brahmapura' or 'Chakanasi' in the Chilika Lake where they remained for one year.[21]
11 Kalyan Malla, 1612 Paiks of Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images placed on a fleet of boats at Gurubai Gada and hidden under the 'Lotani Baragachha' or Banyan tree) and then at 'Dadhibaman Temple'.[22]
12 Mukarram Khan, 1617 Purushottama Deva, the King of Khurda Images moved to the Bankanidhi temple, Gobapadar and brought back to Puri in 1620.[22]
13 Mirza Ahmad Beg, 1621 Narasingha Deva Images shifted to 'Andharigada' in the mouth of the river Shalia across the Chilika Lake. Moved back to Puri in 1624.[23]
14 Amir Mutaquad Khan alias Mirza Makki, 1645 Narasingha Deva and Gangadhar Not known.[24]
15 Amir Fateh Khan, 1647 Not known Not known[24]
16 Ekram Khan and Mastram Khan on behalf of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, 1692 Divyasingha Deva, the king of Khurda Images moved to 'Maa Bhagabati Temple' and then to Bada Hantuada in Banpur across the Chilika Lake, and finally brought back to Puri in 1699.[24]
17 Muhammad Taqi Khan, 1731 and 1733 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images moved to Hariswar in Banpur, Chikili in Khalikote, Rumagarh in Kodala, Athagada in Ganjam and lastly to Marda in Kodala. Shifted back to Puri after 2.5 years.[24]
18 Followers of Mahima Dharma, 1881 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images burnt in the streets. [25]
Puri is the site of the Govardhana Matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 AD, and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwarka and Jyotirmath. The Matha (monastery of various Hindu sects) is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. It is a local belief about these dhams that Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.[12][26]
In the 16th century, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal established the Bhakti movements of India, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement. He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged with the deity.[27] There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here known as Radhakanta Math.[12]
In the 17th century, for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the temple served as a landmark, being located in a plaza in the centre of the city, which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres (37 mi) away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".[27]
The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannatha temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters.[27]
Govardhana matha main gate
The city has many other Mathas as well. The Emar Matha was founded by the Tamil Vaishnava saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. This Matha, which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannatha Temple, is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of Suryavamsi Gajapatis. The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber.[28][29]
The British conquered Orissa in 1803, and, recognising the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state, they initially appointed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district.[14]
Modern historyEdit
H.H Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri
In 1906, Sri Yukteswar, an exponent of Kriya Yoga and a resident of Puri, established an ashram, a spiritual training center, named "Kararashram" in Puri. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.[30][31]
The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj, the Raj Bhavan, built in 1913–14 during the era of governors.[32]
For the people of Puri, Lord Jagannatha, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that Lord Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple (in the Amalaka part of the temple) on 14 June 1990, people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (7 tonnes (7.7 tons)), that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened, was done on 28 February 1991.[27]
Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is chosen as one of the 12 heritage cities with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017.[33]
Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library, located within the precincts of the temple, for a small donation.[34]
DemographicsEdit
See also: List of cities in Odisha
According to the 2011 Census of India, Puri is an urban agglomeration governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state, with a population of 201,026[35] This rose to 200,564 in 2011 – comprising 104,086 males, 96,478 females, and 18,471 children (under six years of age). The sex ratio is 927. The average literacy rate in the city is 88.03 percent (91.38 percent for males and 84.43 percent for females).
EconomyEdit
The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent. The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple. Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple.[36] The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people.[34] According to Colleen Taylor Sen an author on food and travel, writing on the food culture of India, the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100,000 people,.[37] According to J Mohapatra, Director, Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd (IBPIL), the kitchen is known as "a largest and biggest kitchen of the world."[38]
City management and governanceEdit
Samudra arati or worship of the sea at Swargadwar by disciples of the Govardhana matha
The Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting and infrastructure of roads. The major activity, which puts maximum pressure on these organisations, is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July. According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event. Hence, development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security, gets priority attention.[39]
The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality. The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust, which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, the Orissa Municipal Act (1950) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.[40]
LandmarksEdit
Jagannatha temple
Jagannatha Temple at PuriEdit
Main article: Jagannath Temple (Puri)
Left: Jagannath Temple at Puri Right: View of the temple at night
The Jagannatha Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture.[41] The temple tower, with a spire, rises to a height of 58 metres (190 ft), and a flag is unfurled above it, fixed over a wheel (chakra).[34][42]
Left:Ritual chakra and flags at the top shikhara of Puri temple of Jagannatha also related to Sudarsana chakra. The red flag (12 hand or 14 feet (4.3 m) denotes that Jagannath is within the temple.
Right: Statue of Aruna the charioteer of the Sun God on top of the Aruna Stambha in front of the Singhadwara
The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 420,000 square feet (39,000 m2) area),[43] 20 feet (6.1 m) above the adjacent area. The temple rises to a height of 214 feet (65 m) above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 10.7 acres (4.3 ha).[39] There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple, each gate located at the central part of the walls. These gates are: the eastern gate called the Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures. There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara, called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres (36 ft) in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of Aruṇa (Sun) in a prayer mode is mounted. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun Temple.[44] The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers, and elephants in the name and order of the gates.[34] A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which is guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya.[43][44][45] The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca, which are revered, as it is believed to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps, from top to bottom, to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple, on the left side, there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities; the kitchen is called as "the biggest hotel of the world".[43]
The main entrance of the Jagannatha Temple
According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannatha in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became part of the Mughal empire till 1751. Subsequently, it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. During the British Raj, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947.[42]
The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, His older brother, and Subhadra, His younger sister. The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms, while that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large, painted and non-carved. The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes.[27]
The Pancha Tirtha of PuriEdit
Main article: Pancha Tirtha of Puri
Markandeshwar Tank
Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, the Swetaganga Tank, and the Bay of Bengal also called the Mahodadhi, in Sanskrit 'Mahodadhi' means a "great ocean";[46] all are considered sacred bathing spots in the Swargadwar area.[47][48][49] These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water.[50]
Gundicha TempleEdit
Main article: Gundicha Temple
The Main Gate of the Gundicha Temple
The Gundicha Temple, known as the Garden House of Jagannatha, stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, bounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to the northeast of the Jagannatha Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue), which is the pathway for the Ratha Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannatha temple.[51]
The temple is built using light-grey sandstone, and, architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannatha. The entire complex, including the garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 430 by 320 feet (131 m × 98 m) with height of 20 feet (6.1 m).[52]
Except for the 9-day Ratha Yatra, when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple, otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (generally prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period.[53] The temple is under the Jagannatha Temple Administration, Puri, the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.[52]
SwargadwarEdit
The Sea at Swargadwar of Puri
Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea. Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.[54]
BeachEdit
Puri sea sunrise
Puri Sea Beach viewed from the light house
The beach at Puri, known as the "Ballighai beach, at the mouth of Nunai River, is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees.[12] It has golden yellow sand. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here.[55] Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.[27]
District museumEdit
The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannatha, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting), ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts, and local craft work.[56]
Raghunandana libraryEdit
Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Centre) is also located here. The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city.[56]
Festivals of PuriEdit
Main article: List of festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri
The Grand Road near the Jagannatha Temple
Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major. The most important of these is the Ratha Yatra, or the car festival, held in the June–July, which is attended by more than 1 million people.[57]
Ratha Yatra at PuriEdit
Main article: Ratha-Yatra (Puri)
The Ratha Yatra in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background
The Jagannatha Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (rainy season of Orissa, usually in June or July), they are brought out on the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and taken over a distance of (3 kilometres (1.9 mi)) to the Shri Gundicha Temple[58] in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (holy view). This festival is known as the Ratha Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots.[59] The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day, the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July).[60]
Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Ratha Yatra on the completion of the Jagannatha Temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early.[61] Friar Odoric, in his account of 1321, reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King, the Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.[62][63]
The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Lord Jagannatha is about 45 feet (14 m) high and 35 square feet (3.3 m2) and takes about 2 months for its construction.[64] The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 7 feet (2.1 m) diameter. The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces, the wooden carvings are of Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and red coloured cloth. The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is 44 feet (13 m) in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer, roof covered in red and green coloured cloth, and the chariot is known as Taladhwaja. The carvings on this chariot include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannatha's companions. The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra, which is 43 feet (13 m) in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth, and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi.[60][65] The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne.[59] The chariots of Jagannatha pulled during Ratha Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut.[66] The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra[60]
Pahandi bije during Ratha Yatra at Puri
Chhera PaharaEdit
The Chhera Pahara (sweeping with water) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra. During this ritual, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots. The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha. This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee.[67]
Chandan YatraEdit
The Narendra Tirtha tank where ceremonies of Chandan Yatra are performed
Main article: Chandan Yatra
The Chandan Yatra festival held every year on Akshaya Tritiya day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Ratha Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.[12]
Snana YatraEdit
Main article: Snana Yatra
Every year, on the Purnima day in the Hindu calendar month of Jyestha (June), the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later, during the night, the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi.[60] After this the Jhulana Yatra is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narendra Tirtha tank.[12]
Anavasara or AnasaraEdit
Images during the Snana Yatra.
Anasara, a derivative of the Sanskrit word "Anabasara",[68] literally means vacation. Every year after the holy Snana Yatra, the triad images, without the Sudarshana Chakra, are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar (also known as Anasara pindi, 'pindi' is Oriya term meaning "platform" [68]) where they remain for the next fortnight of (Krishna paksha); devotees are not allowed to view these images. Instead, devotees go to the nearby Brahmagiri to see the Lord in the four-handed form of Alarnath, a depiction of Vishnu.[60][69] Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Ratha Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath, and they are treated by the special servants, the Daitapatis, for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special nitis (rites) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.[70]
Naba KalebaraEdit
Main articles: Nabakalevara and Nabakalebara 2015
Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the Lord Jagannatha that takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place at an interval of 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body) in Odia, the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. During the Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015 the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood.[71][72] More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival.[73]
Suna BeshaEdit
Main article: Suna Besha
Suna Besha or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannatha
Suna Besha, ('Suna besh'in English translates to "gold dressing”[74]) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha [75] or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed five times in a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Bijayadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December).[76][77] One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Ratha Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar. The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra; Jagannatha is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.[76]
Niladri BijeEdit
Niladri Bije, celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha (June–July) on Trayodashi (13th day),[78] marks the end of the Ratha Yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically; a ritual which is known as pahandi.[72]
Sahi yatraEdit
A scene from a play being enacted during the Sahi Yatra
The Sahi Yatra, considered the world's biggest open-air theatre,[79] is an annual event lasting 11 days; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ends on Rama avishke (Sanskrit meaning : anointing). The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayana. The residents of various localities, or Sahis, are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.[80]
Samudra AratiEdit
Samudra arati of worship of the sea by disciples of the Matha at Puri
The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago.[81] The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.
TransportEdit
Earlier, when roads did not exist, people used to walk or travel by animal-drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri. Travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges up to Calcutta, and then on foot or by carriages. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri, which became operational in 1898.[82] Puri is now well-connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways which connects Puri with Calcutta, and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route. The rail distance is about 499 kilometres (310 mi) from Calcutta[83] and 468 kilometres (291 mi) from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the city with Bhubaneswar, the state capital, situated about 60 kilometres (37 mi) away. NH 203 B connects the city with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive, which is part of NH 203 A, connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is the Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar.[57] Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of the Indian Railways.[84]
Arts and craftsEdit
Sand artEdit
Sand art of a Baby Elephant
Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists. These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves. This art form has gained international fame in recent years. One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is Sudarshan Patnaik. He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995, in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal, to provide training to students interested in this art form.[85][80]
Appliqué artEdit
An applique art work
Appliqué art, which is a stitching-based craft unlike embroidery, was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of Pipili. It is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities and for sale. Maharana's family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri. They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. The appliqué works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coverings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles; these are marketed in Puri. The cloth used is made in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.[86]
CultureEdit
Odissi dancer
Cultural activities, including the annual religious festivals, in Puri are: The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year, and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year. The cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival.[87] In addition, cultural programmes are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station. Odissi dance, Odissi music and folk dances are part of this event.[87] Odissi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannatha Temple who performed dances in the Nata mandapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.[88] Some of the famous Odissi dancers are Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mayadhar Raut, Sonal Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi and many more
EducationEdit
Samanta Chandra Sekhar College, Puri
Some of the educational institutions in Puri are:
Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management
Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[89]
Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy, Puri, under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi; established in March 2006 [90]
Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University, established in July 1981[91]
Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, a college and hospital where treatment and training is based on Ayurveda school of medicine [92]
The Industrial Training Institute, a premier technical institution to provide education to skilled, committed & talented technicians was established in 1966 by the Government of India[93]
Blessed Sacrament High School established in 1952 is otherwise known as Puri convent. It is one of the best schools in the city. The school features classes 1 to 10. It is located in VIP Road, Puri.
Puri peopleEdit
Jayee Rajguru - Freedom fighter
Chakhi Khuntia (Chandan Hajuri) – Freedom fighter [94]
Utkalmani Pandit Gopabandhu Das – Social worker
Pandit Nilakantha Das – Social activist
Bhaktakabi Madhusudan Rao – Odia Poet
Padma Vibhushan Kelucharan Mohapatra – Odissi dancer
Padma Shri Pankaj Charan Das – Odissi dancer
Padma Shri Pandit Sadashiv Rathasharma – Scholar and Preacher of Shri Jagannatha Culture
Padma Vibhushan Raghunath Mohapatra – Architect and sculptor
Padma Shri Sudarshan Pattnaik – Sand Artist
Baisali Mohanty - ALC Global Fellow at University of Oxford, United Kingdom
Rituraj Mohanty – Singer
The Warner Brothers Studios water tower marks the southern extent of North Hollywood Way in beautiful downtown Burbank.
Water towers were popular in California before earthquakes were recognized as a regular occurrence. They're very cool for creating hydraulic head: the weight of the water in the tank keeps pipes attached to it filled with water under pressure. The tower pressurizes water at 4.3 pounds per square inch for every ten feet of height (9.8 kPa per meter). Power failures don't affect pressure unless the tank runs dry.
Water in the tank exerts a static load on the tower legs. It presses straight down because of gravity. In an earthquake, a dynamic (varying) load is applied to the water tower legs. Depending on the frequency of ground motion, and whether or not the water sloshes around in the tank, the tower legs can experience more weight than they are designed to carry. In an earthquake, I try not to stand underneath one of these things.
This water tower may be empty.
I'm not the civil or mechanical engineering expert. Your corrections and comments are welcomed.
Journalism grade image.
Source: 1,200x2,700 16-bit TIF file.
Please do not copy this image for any purpose.
So some people may be seeing Deja Vu, and I guess you could be correct in some extent as this figure is exactly the same in this photo: www.flickr.com/photos/91830756@N03/14910115988/
Don't question why I called him a 'Recon' because based on BF4 which I think is realistic, 'Recons' are supposed to be snipers, so yeah.
But this photo was more of a test to try the reflection type thing, I'm still experimenting with this as the glass was a slightly tinted glass, so I had to Photoshop it to make the bottom portion of the image brighter to fit. So if the Photoshop is evident, I'm sorry.
Some may ask why are you posting a test photo including the same figure from not so long ago, good question; One reason, I need to upload.
I guess with me moving slowly away from LEGO I'll just upload figures and occasionally a build now and then.
But, to prove that I'm moving away from LEGO is that I've not bought one set this year and probably will only buy one set next year which is the McLaren P1 and maybe a small set if I feel like it.
Oh, check out my BL, there is still quite a lot of stuff on there and potentially some more stuff will be going on.
Milan is the city capital of the Lombardy and the second most populous city in Italy after Rome. Known during Roman times as "Mediolanum" it was the place, where in 313 Constantine I and Licinius met and "signed" the "Edict of Milan", giving Christianity a legal status within the Roman empire.
At the end of the Roman empire Milan was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, looted by the Huns in 452, and taken by the Ostrogoths in 539. Only 30 years later is belonged to the Kingdom of the Lombards, until in 774 Charlemagne defeated the Langobards and added Milan to the Carolingian empire. During Barbarossa´s (Frederik I) "Italian Campaigns" Milan was taken and destroyed to a great extent.
Milan came back and flourished, when in 1386 Archbishop Antonio da Saluzzo began construction of the cathedral. The construction program was strictly regulated under the "Fabbrica del Duomo", which had 300 employees led by a chief engineer. The first of these chief engineers, Simone da Orsenigo, planned to build the cathedral from brick in Lombard Gothic style. Three years later French chief engineer Nicolas de Bonaventure decided that the brick structure should be panelled with marble.
Apse and transepts were completed in 1409, the crossing tower in 1500. When in 1572 the Duomo de Milano got finally consecrated by Archbishop Carlo Borromeo, the facade was not completed. There were different designs, but none was ever finished.
Work slowed down until until in 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte, about to be crowned King of Italy here, ordered the façade to be finished. It got completed in neo Gothic style in 1813.
With an interior area of 11700m² the "Duomo di Milano" is the world´s third largest church and one of the few (I know), where the roof is open to tourists. The day I was up the roof was icy - and so the tourists were only allowed to the galery to see the pinnacles, spires, sculptures and the delicate flying buttresses.
The forthcoming service changes mean that Redmoss will once again cease as a destination as buses are extended on to Cove, reversing the service curtailment introduced in 2012. In the peaks every second bus runs to Altens.
67088 makes a less common appearance on the 18. Since they were introduced in 2016 the spare buses have wandered across the network but from next month the revised 13 service now interworks with the X40 so one of the spares should now work with the hydrogens.
Developed by St. Louis based May Centers and designed by Victor Gruen Associates, South County Center opened on May 16, 1962 as the second enclosed mall in St. Louis.
This was pretty much the extent of the xmas decorations. The only two malls in STL that really decorate are Mid Rivers and St. Clair Square.
The size and extent of the Roman Empire required a professional standing army, and although Rome was not always at war, the troops had to be in a perpetual state of readiness. Training exercises, maneuvers, and drilling thus occupied much of the Roman soldier's time. Parades or tournaments, too, played an important part in maintaining morale and fighting effectiveness. These events involved mock battles in which the fighters were provided with highly decorative equipment, including masked helmets. This mask has the features of a handsome young man wearing an elaborate diadem, but others present the faces of easterners (Parthíans), women (Amazons), or mythical figures (Medusa).
Roman, 2nd century CE. No provenance.
Met Museum (Collection of Shelby White and Leon Levy), New York (L.2007.8.1)
The Ffestiniog and Welsh Highland Railways,Tantgrisirau, Gwynedd.
Very pleased with the 70-300mm Fujinon's performance at full extention at 300mm end.
Although they can, to some extent, remember the past and plan for the future, dogs are the quintessence of living in the present. Despite having awaited the arrival of a familiar human or having fetched a ball countless times in the past, the dog is euphoric with fresh excitement whenever these simple moments come again.
We can learn from a dog's best qualities: in our current predicament, with so many wondering whether the future will bring a return to familiarity and comfort, we can choose to focus on now. We can keep our eyes fixed on the ball, and, although we can't control when it will be released, we can savor the anticipation.
Focus stack.
This little flower is 10 mm small.
Stack of 19 natural light shots.
Test of DIY focus stack system.
Onzeker Robertskruid.
The month of March covers the land of Thar desert with various types of flowers , The Semal tree (Bombax ceiba, or cotton tree) is one of the most important of all. The trees at its best in the month of March , It is in full bloom with a striking blaze of crimson, Semal tree attracts birds to quite extent There is a constant cacophony of the bird voices from the tree in full bloom. Birds like Crows, Bulbuls, Mynahs, Drongo, Babblers, Sun-birds, Parakeets, and many other quarreled for a sip of the delicious nectar. The tree is a delight to watch with its unique flowers and the variety of birds that visit it.
This visualization shows the extent of Arctic sea ice on Aug. 26, 2012, the day the sea ice dipped to its smallest extent ever recorded in more than three decades of satellite measurements, according to scientists from NASA and the National Snow and Ice Data Center. The data is from the U.S. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program’s Special Sensor Microwave/Imager. The line on the image shows the average minimum extent from the period covering 1979-2010, as measured by satellites. Every summer the Arctic ice cap melts down to what scientists call its “minimum” before colder weather builds the ice cover back up. The size of this minimum remains in a long-term decline. The extent on Aug. 26. 2012 broke the previous record set on Sept. 18, 2007. But the 2012 melt season could still continue for several weeks.
To read more go to: 1.usa.gov/PkgRuq
Image credit: Scientific Visualization Studio, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
NASA and the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) announced on Aug. 27, 2012, that the ice cap covering the Arctic Ocean is now smaller than ever recorded since consistent satellite measurements of the ice began more than three decades ago. Each year, the ice cap goes through a shrink-and-swell cycle, melting throughout the summer months before expanding through fall and winter. In the past decade in particular the minimum summertime extent of the ice cap has shown a consistent decline in size – a trend closely linked with the Arctic's warming climate. NASA and NSIDC scientists said the extent of Arctic sea ice on Aug. 26 surpassed the previous record minimum extent set in the summer of 2007. The ice cap will continue to melt and get smaller in the coming weeks before temperatures get colder and ice begins to refreeze as fall approaches.
NASA and the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) announced on Aug. 27, 2012, that the ice cap covering the Arctic Ocean is now smaller than ever recorded since consistent satellite measurements of the ice began more than three decades ago. Each year, the ice cap goes through a shrink-and-swell cycle, melting throughout the summer months before expanding through fall and winter. In the past decade in particular the minimum summertime extent of the ice cap has shown a consistent decline in size – a trend closely linked with the Arctic's warming climate. NASA and NSIDC scientists said the extent of Arctic sea ice on Aug. 26 surpassed the previous record minimum extent set in the summer of 2007. The ice cap will continue to melt and get smaller in the coming weeks before temperatures get colder and ice begins to refreeze as fall approaches.
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center enables NASA’s mission through four scientific endeavors: Earth Science, Heliophysics, Solar System Exploration, and Astrophysics. Goddard plays a leading role in NASA’s accomplishments by contributing compelling scientific knowledge to advance the Agency’s mission.
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Coronation Elsa is now fully deboxed. She is placed face down against, resting on her hands. Her cape is moved to the side and her gown expanded to show its full extent. Then her cape is placed over her gown and fully extended.
After the tissue is removed, the next step is to open up the cape. Her the skirt is put back own, and she is laid on her side, balanced on her outstretched right arm. All the tiny T-tabs pinning the cape to itself and to the dress underneath are carefully cut off, and the remnants removed from her outfit. I next remove the stand from the doll by grabbing her by the waist with one hand, while holding the base of the stand with my other hand, and then gently pulling the doll up and off the stand.
Then her skirt is raised to remove the tissue paper and wire wrapped around her legs. When the tissue paper is unwrapped, we see that she has full leg articulation (as featured in the 17'' LE doll line since Wedding Rapunzel in 2012, except for Snow Queen Elsa), with hinged knee joints and ball jointed ankles. She is wearing black flat heeled shoes, and has no underwear, except for the painted on panties.
To more easily remove the wire around her waist, I open up the layers of clothing in the back. I move the cape to the side, then undo the bodice, the skirt, and the blouse. I remove the wire. Revealed on her back are manufacturer's marks, including the edition number and size: #1875 / 5000, which matches the numbers on the Certificate of Authenticity. Also visible is the upper torso joint, which allows her bend in a limited way (perhaps 10-15 degrees) from side to side and front to back. You can also see how pale her skin is, which matches the skin tone of her face. Then her outfit is closed back up, and her back is now covered.
Next the spacer tabs are pushed through the backing, and the Elsa is removed from the backing. She is still attached to the spacers and the doll stand. She is stood up next to the backing, which has a view of the interior of Arendelle Cathedral, where her coronation took place. Then she is turned around, so I can remove the spacers from her back and arms. The next step is to remove the wires around her waist and her hair bun. I lay the doll down on a counter, with her arms outstretched to prevent her face from pressing against the counter.
The plastic tabs of the spacers have been freed by removing the tape securing them to the back of the cardboard backing. Also all the T-tabs tacking the doll's outfit to the backing have been cut off. The outfit is now free from the backing, and the bottom of the backing can be lowered to show the base of the doll stand, her shoes and the wire and tissue paper wrapped around her legs.
Deboxing my pre-ordered Elsa Limited Edition DVD Doll (that is the name of the doll on my Disney Store receipts). First the front cover is removed, revealing the clear plastic front of the inner box. The Certificate of Authenticity is below the plastic cover. She is #1875 of 5000. Then the plastic cover is removed, and the back outer cover is removed. What remains is the cardboard backing to which the doll is still attached. She is now in clear view from three sides. There were a few stray hairs in her front bangs, some of which I tucked in her bangs, some of which I trimmed.
I just got my pre-ordered Anna and Elsa Limited Edition dolls from my local Disney Store. I also got my pre-ordered Frozen Blu-ray/DVD movie combo. They had very few other Frozen items for sale, the male dolls (Classic Hans and Kristoff, and plush Kristoff) and the plush Anna and Elsa dolls. No girl's Anna or Elsa costumes, Classic Anna or Elsa dolls, or baby Sven. There were perhaps 50 people lined up in front of the entrance before the store opened at 10 am. I also got a second pre-ordered Anna from another local store today. I will take detailed photos of all my dolls, boxed, during deboxing, and fully deboxed.
Elsa Limited Edition Doll - 17'' - Frozen
US Disney Store Product Page
Updated 2014-03-18
SOLD OUT
$99.95
Item No. 6070040900983P
Cold standard
Elsa's crown glistens against her coiled blonde hair, her glamorous gown sparkling with rhinestones. Designed by Disney Store artists, this beautifully detailed limited edition doll is inspired by Frozen's coronation scene. See more
Magic in the details...
Please Note: Each Guest will be limited to ordering a maximum of one of this item per order.
• Limited Edition of 5000
• Includes Certificate of Authenticity
• Purple velvet cape with satin lining, royal crest embroidery, and sapphire blue clasp
• Teal satin floor-length gown with rosemaling embroidery, rhinestone accents, and chocolate-colored binding
• Black satin blouse with embroidery and rhinestone accents
• Satin mittens with rhinestone accents
• Patterned black slippers
• Golden coronation crown with royal gems
• Coiled blonde hair
• Rooted eyelashes
• Fully poseable
• Display stand included
• Comes in elegant window display packaging
• Inspired by Disney's Frozen
The bare necessities
• Ages 6+
• Plastic /polyester
• 17'' H
• Imported
I didn't realize the extent of the Spring Bloom here in Idaho. Balsam Root is in full bloom here right now. I was actually going to head up to the Columbia Gorge this weekend to shoot the wildflowers there, but I thought better of it, after considering the hoards of crowds and long drive time. I'm glad I didn't- what a treat I found in my own back yard (Idaho). This was another adventure with my son.
D800
16 mm
1/6 sec
f/16
ISO 100
Multiple images focus stacked for maximum depth of field.
© 2016 Chris Ross Photography. All Rights Reserved. Do not copy, share, link, or use this image in any form, digital or otherwise, on blogs, personal or professional websites or any other media form without my direct written permission.
Deutschland - Baden-Württemberg - Kaiserstuhl
Alt Vogtsburg
The Kaiserstuhl (German: [ˈkaɪzɐʃtuːl], lit. "Emperor’s Chair") is a range of hills in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany with a maximum height of 556.6 metres (1,826 ft). It is of volcanic origin and located in the southwest of the state in the counties of Emmendingen and Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. In terms of natural regions it is considered to be a part of the Upper Rhine Plain.
Name
The name "Kaiserstuhl" is believed to refer to King Otto III, who held court near Sasbach on 22 December 994. From then on, the whole hill range was called the Königsstuhl – the King’s Chair. In May 996, Otto III was crowned Emperor and the King’s Chair eventually became the Emperor’s Chair – "Kaiserstuhl". Reliable sources mention the name Kaiserstuhl only as early as 1304 and historians thus suppose that the term Kaiserstuhl was not coined until the 13th century.
Geography
Location
The Kaiserstuhl is situated in South Baden, mainly in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald county or district. However, the smaller northern part belongs to Emmendingen. Within the Upper Rhine Plain it is situated about 16 km northwest of the city of Freiburg, right next to the eastern bank of the Rhine and a short distance west of the Dreisam. It reaches up to 377 metres above the level of the Rhine downstream (179.5 m a.s.l.) from the weir close to Burkheim.
At its greatest extent, from the Michaelsberg near Riegel in the northeast, to the Fohrenberg, by Ihringen in the southwest, the Kaiserstuhl is about 15 km long. Its maximum width is about 12.5 km.
Hills
The hills of the Kaiserstuhl include the following (sorted by height in metres above sea level):
Totenkopf (556.6 m), 1.9 km east of Bickensohl; with the Vogtsburg 1 telecommunication tower and Neunlinden observation tower
Eichelspitze (521.3 m), 2.8 km northwest of Bötzingen
Katharinenberg (492.4 m), 1.3 km southeast of Amoltern
Bisamberg (469.0 m), 1.2 km south of Amoltern
Staffelberg (446.0 m), 1.5 km northwest of Schelingen
Badberg (432.7 m) (protected area), 1.5 km east of Oberbergen
Holzeck (431.9 m), 1.7 km northeast of Ihringen; with tower
Hochbuck (374.8 m), 900 m south of Achkarren
Schlossberg (352.1 m), 500 m northwest of Achkarren; with Höhingen Castle ruins
Böselsberg (340.1 m), 500 m northwest of Wasenweiler
Büchsenberg (283.7 m), 1.3 km west of Achkarren
Geology
The formation of the Kaiserstuhl volcano during the Tertiary was the climax and at the same time the end of volcanic activity in the Upper Rhine Valley Rift. Volcanism started as early as the Cretaceous Period. Volcanic landforms include heavily eroded volcanic vents. The Kaiserstuhl is the only larger volcano from this period in the rift valley. Geologically the Kaiserstuhl can be divided into two parts: the sedimentary and volcanic part. Due to these peculiarities the Kaiserstuhl has been labeled one of the most important national geotopes.
Sedimentary base
The horizontal sedimentary layers forming the eastern third of the Kaiserstuhl date back to the Jurassic and the Tertiary long before the volcanic activity. Important stratigraphic outcrops include the Hauptrogenstein (local oolite) which is found mainly near the village of Riegel and the Pechelbronner Schichten (local Tertiary layers in the South German Scarplands) near Bötzingen. During the formation of the Upper Rhine Plain this part of the Kaiserstuhl sloped less in respect to its surrounding area – and thus appears as a so-called horst. In terms of its geological structure and the sequence of its escarpments, the Kaiserstuhl is comparable to the nearby Tuniberg, Nimberg and also to the Schönberg, which is situated south of the city of Freiburg.
Volcanic activity
Petrologically the volcanic Kaiserstuhl is an alkali-carbonate rock formation. The volcanic rocks making up a large part of the central and western Kaiserstuhl were the result of numerous volcanic eruptions during the Miocene, about 19 to 16 million years ago. They cover parts of the sedimentary base of the eastern Kaiserstuhl, which is why in some places changes in the base’s mineralogical composition occurred. The driving force behind this process of contact metamorphism was an increase in temperature. Due to the alternate eruption of tephra and lava flows from several vents a complex stratovolcano came into existence. Some of the rising magma solidified as volcanic intrusions below the surface – and today forms the central part of the Kaiserstuhl. Laterally rising phonolite magma also intruded into the sedimentary base of the Eastern Kaiserstuhl. Several hundred metres of the original volcano have been eroded.
Volcanic rocks
The entire volcanic Kaiserstuhl consists of rock types that contain feldspathoid minerals and olivine and are undersaturated with SiO2. Most igneous rocks at the surface are leucite-tephrites, with subordinate phonolites, limburgites, and olivine-nephelinites (at the Limberg Mountain near Sasbach), the last of which is rich in xenoliths from the Earth’s mantle. Carbonatite ignimbrite and lapilli are local peculiarities; they can be found in places in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl (Henkenberg near Burkheim, Kirchberg near Oberrotweil).
The subvolcanic and intrusive rocks of the central Kaiserstuhl are plutonic equivalents of the erupted material (essexite, carbonatite and coarse-granular phonolite). Several local terms which do not carry official status with the International Union of Geological Sciences have been used for different varieties of the intrusive rocks. Of major scientific interest is the consolidated carbonatite near Altvogtsburg und Schelingen. It is a quite rare volcanic rock, which crystallized from a carbonate magmatic melt rather than a silicate one. Given its unusual composition for an igneous rock, the magmatic nature of the carbonatite was not proposed for a long time and remained doubtful subsequently. An alternative interpretation was that it was a metamorphically altered sedimentary rock, examples of which can be found nearby. Only in the 1950s and 1960s did research prove that it was a carbonatite; one of the clues was identification of the eruptive carbonatites found in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl. The carbonatite contains the niobium rich pyrochlore; attempts to mine the carbonatite rock for niobium were carried out in the middle of the 20th century, but the amount turned out to be too small to be economical.
Minerals
For a long time the Kaiserstuhl has been known for rare minerals. Examples include the quarries at the Limberg (zeolites), Badberg (carbonatites), Orberg and Fohberg. Well-crystallized minerals can be found predominantly in clefts or cavities in the volcanic rock.
Loess
The Kaiserstuhl is today largely covered by a Quaternary loess layer, a loosely cemented sediment. It is derived from other rocks through erosion and is then transported by the wind. The loess at the Kaiserstuhl – as in all the peripheral areas of the Upper Rhine Valley – was formed during the last Ice Age. Large parts were bare of vegetation and so loess was winnowed out from the Rhine sediments. It was then deposited in the periglacial area (i.e. ice-free, but surrounded by glaciers) at the Kaiserstuhl. The major process active here was frost weathering resulting in crushed rocks. The wind blew strongly, as there was no vegetation that could have moderated it – entraining the lightest material and depositing it at obstacles like the Kaiserstuhl. Deposition took place northeast of the Kaiserstuhl, as the winds blew from the southwest.
The higher the place of sedimentation, the thinner the layer of the sedimented material is. At the Kaiserstuhl the thickness of the loess layer varies between 10 and 40 metres. There are, however, also areas in the southwest where no loess has been deposited. The Northern Limestone Alps are considered the main source of the Kaiserstuhl loess. A rust-coloured band occurs at irregular intervals. It developed as a new material and did not arrive regularly but in phases of different intensities. In a phase of weak sedimentation the material on top weathered – and the calcium carbonate was washed out. It then precipitated further down and formed a particular type of soil horizon, which contains concretions of calcium carbonate.
The Kaiserstuhl loess soils are used for intensive farming, as they offer good aeration, high water storage capacities and good mechanical qualities. Besides, as a result of farming deep narrow ravine-like paths developed.
As the loess developed over time it is, furthermore, significant for flood control. Sponge-like, it absorbs and then gently releases rainfall. This quality is however lost when bulldozers, employed to construct large terraces for viticulture, compress the loess.
Climate
General
The Kaiserstuhl is one of the warmest regions in Germany. The winters are relatively mild for the area, and the summers are warm or even hot, with possible average temperatures of over 20 °C (68 °F) in July and August. Because of its loess covered volcanic soils it is a very good wine-producing region. The climatic situation of the Kaiserstuhl is outstanding in the area. It is rain-shadowed by the Vosges Mountains, under the climatic influence of the Belfort Gap and is characterized by a drier and hotter climate, which one would rather expect not to be typical of the area. Despite this, winters remain cold and dry, and summers wet, in comparison with Mediterranean climate (which instead has a rainfall peak during winter, which can see few frost days, and a dry season in summer).
Meteorological data
The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C (49.8 °F), with 50–60 days with a maximum temperature above 25 °C (77 °F) as well as 60–70 days with a minimum temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). This illustrates a special feature of the Kaiserstuhl: it is characterized by its relatively extreme climate. The average difference between the lowest and the highest average temperatures within one year is 18.5 °C (65.3 °F). The mean precipitation at the Kaiserstuhl is approximately 600–700 millimetres (24–28 in), with about 1,720 hours of sunshine per year.
Flora and fauna
The climate of the Kaiserstuhl also explains the vast richness of thermophile flora and fauna. The Kaiserstuhl is for example one of the places with the largest variety of orchids in Europe – more than 30 species have been recorded. Among the vines wild grape hyacinths sprawl and along acclivities iris plants blossom. Furthermore, sand lizards (lacerta bilineata) and praying mantis (Mantis religiosa) live here – species which mainly occur in the Mediterranean area. (However, according to the latest research results the sand lizard presumably belongs to the allochthonous species of the European green lizard (Lacerta viridis)). The pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) is a Xerophyte and normally only occurs in Southern Europe, but is also able to survive at the Kaiserstuhl. This species has a disjunct distribution, which means away from its normal habitat. It is a relict of a postglacial warm period where there had been a much warmer climate around the Kaiserstuhl. After the end of the warm period only the named species were able to survive. Besides there is a larger population of the May beetle (Melolontha melolontha). In spite of protests from conservationists the May Beetle is controlled by the use of insecticides.
Changes in landscape
The terrain of the Kaiserstuhl has been altered by the people living there since it was settled. The loam there is strongly susceptible to erosion as a result of soil cultivation, thus terraces had to be added, which were then mostly used as vineyards, as well as fruit growing or for other agricultural uses. As a result, the typical small "patio" hillsides and the streaked loess sunken roads typical of the region came into being.
To start with, it was for this reason that smaller terraces were merged in around 1950, this resulted in large scale reallocation, which turned parts of the original landscape completely upside down.
The phases of this reallocation were:-
Small-scale realignment between 1950 and 1960. At the same time the terrain was generally modified by manual labour with the help of in-house machines. During this time approximately 950 hectares were enclosed by the farmland consolidation authority.
Between 1960 and 1970 the loess slopes were more comprehensively modified, whereby large rectangular terraced areas with corresponding high embankments were made. The terraces were arranged with mountain like slopes so that now only the multiple slope edges are visible from the valley. About 650 hectares of the surface were styled in this way.
The plans to create large-scale terraces made between 1970 and 1976 were executed with the help of heavy machinery, changing the landscape radically. Before the original, naturally formed, depressions had still been visible in the gentle hillsides with only small terraces. Natural and man-made structures existed side by side. However, these small-scale structures were then obliterated completely. Monstrous areas resembling fortresses and entirely incongruous to the region were created. The total wine-growing area of the terraces was 630 ha. As the embankments and other areas exceeded the size of the wine-growing areas, the changes affected more than twice the newly created arable area. The land reforms of Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg and Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach are examples of this phase.
The last phase of wine-growing land reforms was realized between 1976 and 1982. Due, in part, to protests against plans for further large scale terraces the changes were not as radical as the previous phase: the maximum height for embankments was "limited" to 10 m and their shapes were "made smooth and adjusted to the landscape" (Mayer 1986, citation translated). This procedure was, for example, applied to about 330 ha of wine-growing area in Oberbergen-Baßgeige or in Bickensohl-Herrenstück.
From 1977 on, several longer periods of enhanced precipitation caused damage to the embankments. During one week in May 1983 for example, the amount of precipitation was so large that in some areas it was equivalent to one third of the annual average, causing great damage in the modified areas.
The surfaces of the acclivities often slid off together with the vegetation. Former valleys, which had been blocked due to re-allocation, were flushed out. In some terraces dramatic shear failures developed. In addition extensive, devastating frost damage occurred; due to the incline of the mountainside at the surfaces of the acclivities, cold air pockets were formed in which the vines in bloom were frostbitten. Additionally substantial frost damage occurred in the woody part of the vines, especially in the vineyards which were situated in lower regions. In earlier times fruit had mostly been grown here but later this was changed to vineyards.
The activity of the farmland consolidation authority was narrowed to repairing and partly to rescheduling which at least was meant to correct the most severe consequences of the transformations from 1982 on.
Hiking
There are many opportunities for hiking in the Kaiserstuhl. The best known trail is the North-South Trail (check mark: blue rhomb on yellow background) from Endingen across the Katharinenberg and the Totenkopf and the Neunlinden viewing point to Ihringen. From the trail there are panoramic views over the Black Forest, the Upper Rhine Valley and the Vosges.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kaiserstuhl ist ein bis 556,8 m ü. NHN hohes, kleines Mittelgebirge vulkanischen Ursprungs in der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene. Es erhebt sich im Südwesten von Baden-Württemberg (Deutschland), in den Landkreisen Emmendingen und Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald.
Namensdeutung
Seinen Namen hat der Kaiserstuhl vermutlich von König Otto III., der bei Sasbach am 22. Dezember 994 einen Gerichtstag abhielt. Nach diesem Gerichtstag wurde das ganze Gebirge als „Königsstuhl“ bezeichnet. Nachdem Otto III. im Mai 996 zum Kaiser gekrönt worden war, wurde aus dem „Königsstuhl“ der „Kaiserstuhl“. Nachweislich belegt ist die Bezeichnung „Kaiserstuhl“ erst seit 1304. Historiker vermuten, dass der Begriff „Kaiserstuhl“ nicht vor dem 13. Jahrhundert entstand.
Geographie
Lage
Naturräumlich wird der Kaiserstuhl zum Oberrheinischen Tiefland gezählt und stellt dort die Haupteinheit 203 dar. Er befindet sich in Südbaden zum Großteil im Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, der kleine Nordteil gehört zum Landkreis Emmendingen. Innerhalb der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene liegt er etwa 16 km nordwestlich der Großstadt Freiburg, direkt östlich des Rheins und etwas westlich der Dreisam. Er erhebt sich maximal 377,1 m über den Rhein unterhalb (179,5 m) des Stauwehrs bei Burkheim.
In seiner weitesten Ausdehnung vom Michaelsberg bei Riegel im Nordosten bis zum Fohrenberg bei Ihringen im Südwesten ist der Kaiserstuhl rund 15 km lang, seine größte Breite beträgt etwa 12,5 km.
Berge
Zu den Bergen, Erhebungen und deren Ausläufern des Kaiserstuhls gehören – sortiert nach Höhe in Meter (m) über Normalhöhennull[1]:
Totenkopf (556,8 m), 1,9 km östlich von Bickensohl; mit Fernmeldeturm Vogtsburg-Totenkopf und Aussichtsturm Neunlinden
Eichelspitze (521,3 m), 2,8 km nordwestlich von Bötzingen mit dem Eichelspitzturm
Katharinenberg (491,9 m), 1,3 km südsüdöstlich von Amoltern
Bisamberg (469,6 m), 1,2 km südlich von Amoltern
Staffelberg (447,6 m), 1,5 km nordnordwestlich von Schelingen
Badberg (432,7 m) (Naturschutzgebiet), 1,5 km östlich von Oberbergen
Holzeck (431,9 m), 1,7 km nordnordöstlich von Ihringen; mit Sendeturm
Hochbuck (375,2 m), 900 m südlich von Achkarren
Schlossberg (351,9 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Achkarren; mit Burgruine Höhingen
Böselsberg (340,1 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Wasenweiler
Hochberg, (288,7 m), 900 m nordöstlich von Jechtingen
Büchsenberg (283,7 m), 1,3 km westlich von Achkarren
Geologie
Die Entstehung des Kaiserstuhlvulkans im Tertiär stellt sowohl den Höhepunkt als auch den Schlusspunkt der vulkanischen Aktivität im Oberrheingraben dar. Diese begann schon in der Kreidezeit und zeigt sich in zahlreichen, heute tief erodierten Vulkanschloten. Der Kaiserstuhl ist der einzige größere Vulkan aus dieser Zeit im Bereich des Oberrheingrabens. Dieser trifft hier auf den Bonndorfer Graben, der über den Hegau zum Bodensee führt. Gegen Ende des Oligozäns drang Magma empor, erstarrte jedoch noch unter der Erdoberfläche. Erst im Miozän kam es zu einem Durchbruch und zu großflächigen Lavaströmen. Geologisch gesehen lässt sich der Kaiserstuhl in einen sedimentären und einen vulkanischen Teil gliedern. Aufgrund dieser Besonderheiten wurde der Kaiserstuhl als eines der bedeutendsten nationalen Geotope Deutschlands ausgezeichnet.
Sedimentärer Sockel
Die das östliche Drittel bildenden, nahezu horizontal lagernden Sedimentgesteine wurden lange vor der vulkanischen Aktivität zu Zeiten des Juras und Tertiärs gebildet. Wichtige aufgeschlossene stratigraphische Einheiten sind der Hauptrogenstein (hauptsächlich in Riegel) und die Pechelbronner Schichten (in der Gegend von Bötzingen). Dieser Teil des Kaiserstuhls wurde während der Entstehung des Oberrheingrabens weniger stark als seine Umgebung abgesenkt und stellt einen sogenannten Horst dar. Er entspricht im Aufbau und der Schichtenfolge äquivalenten Strukturen im näheren Umkreis, wie dem Tuniberg und Nimberg westlich sowie dem Schönberg südlich von Freiburg im Breisgau.
Vulkanismus
Petrologisch handelt es sich beim vulkanischen Kaiserstuhl um einen Alkaligesteins-Karbonatit-Komplex. Die den Großteil des zentralen und westlichen Kaiserstuhls aufbauenden vulkanischen Gesteine wurden vor rund 19 bis 16 Millionen Jahren im Miozän durch zahlreiche Vulkanausbrüche gebildet. Sie überlagern teilweise den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls, wodurch dieser stellenweise kontaktmetamorph, das heißt durch Einwirkung hoher Temperatur, verändert wurde. Durch abwechselnde Eruption von Tephra und Lavaströmen aus mehreren Schloten bildete sich ein komplexer Schicht- oder Stratovulkan. Emporquellendes Magma erstarrte teilweise als subvulkanische Intrusion im Vulkangebäude und baut heute den Zentralkaiserstuhl auf. Lateral aufsteigende phonolithische Schmelzen drangen auch in den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls. Bis heute wurden durch Erosion mehrere 100 m des ursprünglichen Vulkans abgetragen.
Vulkanische Gesteine
Der gesamte vulkanische Kaiserstuhl besteht aus Foid- und/oder Olivin-führenden, SiO2-untersättigten Gesteinen. Bei den Eruptivgesteinen handelt es sich zum größten Teil um Leucit-Tephrit, untergeordnet auch Phonolith, Limburgit und Olivin-Nephelinit (am Limberg bei Sasbach). Letzterer ist sehr reich an Xenolithen aus dem Erdmantel. Als Besonderheit bei den Eruptivgesteinen sind karbonatitische Ignimbrite und Lapilli zu nennen, die im Westkaiserstuhl an einigen Stellen (Henkenberg bei Burkheim, Kirchberg bei Oberrotweil) aufgeschlossen sind.
Bei den subvulkanischen Intrusionen und Ganggesteinen des zentralen Kaiserstuhls handelt es sich um die Tiefengesteinsäquivalente der Ausbruchsprodukte (Essexit, Karbonatit und grobkörnigerer Phonolith). Für verschiedene Varietäten der Ganggesteine existieren in der Literatur eine Fülle weiterer Bezeichnungen (Alvikit, Hauynophyr, Mondhaldeit, Tinguait, Monchiquit und viele andere), die aber teilweise keine allgemein anerkannten Gesteinsnamen sind. Von großem wissenschaftlichen Interesse ist der bei Altvogtsburg und Schelingen anstehende Karbonatit. Dabei handelt es sich um ein recht seltenes vulkanisches Gestein, das nicht aus einer silikatischen, sondern aus einer karbonatischen Schmelze auskristallisierte. Aufgrund dieses ungewöhnlichen Umstandes wurde die magmatische Natur des Karbonatits lange Zeit nicht erkannt oder in Zweifel gezogen. Alternative Interpretationen gingen von kontaktmetamorph veränderten Sedimentgesteinen aus, die bekanntermaßen in unmittelbarer Nähe zu finden sind. Erst in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren gelang es, das Gestein gesichert als Karbonatit zu identifizieren, unter anderem durch das Auffinden der eruptiven Karbonatite im westlichen Kaiserstuhl. Wegen des in ihm auftretenden Niob-Minerals Koppit wurde der Karbonatit in der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts versuchsweise bergmännisch abgebaut. Allerdings erwiesen sich die Gehalte als zu gering für eine Nutzung in größerem Umfang.
Minerale
Seit langer Zeit ist der Kaiserstuhl als Fundstelle für zum Teil seltene Minerale bekannt. Besondere Fundstellen sind die Steinbrüche im Limburgit des Limbergs (verschiedene Zeolithe), im Karbonatit am Badberg und Orberg (Koppit) und im Phonolith des Fohbergs und des Kirchbergs (Zeolithe, Wollastonit, Melanit). Überwiegend treten diese als Kluftminerale oder Blasenfüllungen (Mandelstein) auf.
Lössbedeckung
Der Kaiserstuhl ist heute weitgehend von einer quartären Lössschicht bedeckt. Löss ist ein Lockersediment, welches durch Erosion anderer Gesteine entsteht und durch äolischen Transport an seinen Ablagerungsort befördert wird. Der Löss entstand – wie im gesamten Randbereich der Oberrheinebene – während der letzten weitgehend vegetationsfreien Eiszeit durch Auswehung aus dem Rheinschlamm. Die Ablagerung fand im periglazialen (eisfreien, jedoch von Gletschereis umgebenen) Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl statt. Der Hauptprozess, der in dieser Region stattfindet, ist Frostsprengung von Gestein. Da keine Vegetation vorhanden ist, die den Wind bremsen könnte, weht dieser beständig stark. Er nimmt das leichteste Material mit und lagert es an Hindernissen, beispielsweise dem Kaiserstuhl, wieder ab. Hierbei ist zu beachten, dass die Ablagerung im Lee stattfindet, im Falle des Kaiserstuhls – wo der Wind aus Südwesten wehte – also im Nordosten. Je höher der Sedimentationsort liegt, desto dünner ist die Schicht tatsächlich abgelagerten Materials. Am Kaiserstuhl liegt die Mächtigkeit der Lössschicht zwischen 10 und 40 Metern, es gibt jedoch auch Orte im Südwesten, an denen kein Löss sedimentiert wurde. Der Herkunftsort des Lösses am Kaiserstuhl lag hauptsächlich in den nördlichen Kalkalpen. Auffällig im anstehenden Löss ist ein sich in unregelmäßigen Abständen wiederholender, rostfarbener Streifen. Dieser entsteht durch die phasenweise Anlieferung neuen Materials. Während einer schwachen Sedimentationsphase verwittert das obenauf liegende Material, wobei der Kalk ausgewaschen wird. Hierbei bildet sich Lösslehm. Der ausgewaschene Kalkanteil fällt weiter unten im Bodenprofil wieder aus und bildet den sogenannten Lösskindelhorizont. Zu jedem Ausfällungshorizont gehört deshalb ein Anreicherungshorizont.
Die Lössböden des Kaiserstuhls werden agrarisch intensiv genutzt, da sie eine gute Belüftung bieten und eine hohe Wasserspeicherfähigkeit sowie mechanisch gute Eigenschaften besitzen. Außerdem sind im Zuge der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung die sogenannten Lösshohlwege entstanden.
Der gewachsene Löss ist zudem für den Hochwasserschutz von Bedeutung, da er starke Niederschläge wie ein Schwamm aufnimmt und dann gleichmäßig wieder abgibt. Durch die Anlage von Großterrassen für den Weinbau am Kaiserstuhl wird der Löss jedoch mit Planierraupen verdichtet und verliert diese Eigenschaft.
Klima
Allgemeines
Klimatisch zählt der Kaiserstuhl zur temperaten (gemäßigten) Klimazone. Durch die in der Oberrheinebene vorherrschende Wärmebegünstigung gehört er jedoch zu den wärmsten Orten Deutschlands mit für Mitteleuropa vergleichsweise milden Wintern und warmen Sommern, die teilweise sogar Durchschnittstemperaturen von über 20 Grad in den Monaten Juli und August aufweisen können. Durch seine mit Löss bedeckten vulkanischen Böden ist er ein sehr gutes Weinanbaugebiet. Die klimatischen Voraussetzungen des Kaiserstuhls heben sich von seiner Umgebung deutlich ab. Er liegt im Regenschatten der Vogesen, im Einfluss der Burgundischen Pforte, und hat somit ein eher trockenes Klima.
Meteorologische Daten
Die Jahresmitteltemperatur beträgt 9,9 °C, wobei sowohl 50 bis 60 Sommertage als auch 60 bis 70 Frosttage zu verzeichnen sind. Dies spiegelt schon ein besonderes Merkmal des Kaiserstuhls wider, denn er zeichnet sich durch recht extreme Klimaverhältnisse aus, was sich besonders in der durchschnittlichen jährlichen Temperaturschwankung von 18,5 °C ausdrückt. Der mittlere Niederschlag auf dem Kaiserstuhl beträgt etwa 600 bis 700 mm, bei jährlich rund 1.720 Stunden Sonnenschein.
Flora und Fauna
Das Klima des Kaiserstuhls erklärt auch die große Fülle an wärmeliebender Flora und Fauna. Beispielsweise ist der Kaiserstuhl einer der Orte mit der größten Orchideenvielfalt in Europa – mehr als 30 Arten wurden registriert. Zwischen den Rebstöcken wuchern wilde Traubenhyazinthen, und an Böschungen blühen Schwertlilien. Außerdem leben hier Bienenfresser, Smaragdeidechsen und Gottesanbeterinnen (Mantis religiosa) – Arten, die ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt im mediterranen Bereich haben (nach neuen genetischen Studien handelt es sich bei der Smaragdeidechse allerdings um eine wahrscheinlich allochthone Population der Östlichen Smaragdeidechse). Die Flaumeiche ist ein Xerophyt und kommt sonst vor allem in Südeuropa vor, am Kaiserstuhl kann sie sich jedoch vor allem im Flaumeichenwald am Büchsenberg als Niederwald halten. Diese Arten leben in einem disjunkten Areal, also von ihrem normalen Verbreitungsgebiet abgetrennt. Dies ist ein Relikt einer postglazialen Warmzeit, zu der auch im Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl ein deutlich wärmeres Klima herrschte. Nach Ende der Warmzeit konnten die genannten Arten nur noch am Kaiserstuhl überleben. Außerdem gibt es am Kaiserstuhl größere Populationen des Maikäfers. Die Art wurde in der Vergangenheit trotz Kritik von Umweltschützern mit Insektiziden bekämpft, so etwa im Jahr 2009. Die Aktion wurde damit begründet, dass der Maikäfer ansonsten existenzbedrohende Schäden in der umliegenden Landwirtschaft auslösen könnte.
Landschaftsveränderung
Die Oberfläche des Kaiserstuhls wurde vom wirtschaftenden Menschen seit dessen Besiedlung verändert. Da Löss infolge der Bodenbearbeitung stark erosionsanfällig ist, mussten Terrassen geschaffen werden, die meist als Rebflächen, teilweise auch für Obst- oder zum Ackerbau genutzt wurden. Dadurch entstanden schon früh die typischen kleinterrassierten Hänge, die zudem von den ebenfalls durch die „Nutzung“ entstandenen Lösshohlwegen durchzogen wurden.
Im Sinne der Flurbereinigung wurde um 1950 damit begonnen, zunächst kleinere Terrassen zusammenzulegen; dies endete in Großumlegungen, welche die ursprüngliche Landschaft in Teilbereichen völlig umgestalteten. Diese Umgestaltung begann zwischen 1950 und 1960 mit kleinräumigen Neuordnungen. Dabei wurde das Gelände meist in Handarbeit bzw. mit Hilfe betriebseigener Maschinen umgestaltet. In dieser Zeit wurden rund 950 ha von den Flurbereinigungsbehörden flurbereinigt.
Zwischen 1960 und 1970 wurden die Lösshänge umfassender umgestaltet, wobei große, tiefe und möglichst rechteckige Terrassenflächen mit entsprechend hohen Böschungen entstanden. Die Terrassen wurden mit bergseitiger Neigung angelegt, so dass jetzt vom Tal aus vielfach nur noch die Kanten sichtbar sind. Auf diese Art entstanden rund 650 ha Rebfläche.
Mit umfassendem Maschineneinsatz wurden die Großterrassenplanungen der Jahre 1970 bis 1976 umgesetzt, die das Landschaftsbild deutlich veränderten. Vor diesen Maßnahmen zeichneten sich in den sanften Hängen, deren Oberflächen von den kleinen Terrassen überprägt waren, noch die ursprünglich natürlich entstandenen Senken ab. Statt diesem Nebeneinander von natürlichen und vom Menschen geschaffenen Strukturen nehmen die Kritiker nun festungsartige und landschaftsfremde Oberflächen wahr, die eine Gesamtgröße von ca. 630 ha Rebfläche bieten. Da die Böschungen und sonstigen Flächen größer waren als die Rebflächen, erstreckte sich die Landschaftsveränderung jeweils auf mehr als das Doppelte der neu geschaffenen nutzbaren Fläche. Beispiele für diese Phase sind die Flurbereinigungen Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg und Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach. Inzwischen war der Großteil der Lösshohlwege durch die Flurbereinigung verschwunden, die zuvor ökologische Nischen speziell für Wildbienen und Vögel gewesen waren.
Die letzte Phase der Rebflurbereinigung erstreckte sich auf die Zeit zwischen 1976 und 1982, in der unter anderem wegen der Proteste gegen die Großterrassenplanungen gemäßigt vorgegangen wurde: Die Böschungshöhen wurden auf maximal 10 m „beschränkt“, der Böschungsverlauf wurde „geschwungen angelegt und der Landschaft angepasst“. Mit diesen Verfahren wurden zum Beispiel in Oberbergen-Baßgeige oder in Bickensohl-Herrenstück rund 330 ha Rebfläche bearbeitet.
Nachdem ab 1977 durch länger anhaltende niederschlagsreiche Perioden Böschungsschäden entstanden waren, fielen in der Pfingstwoche des Jahres 1983 Niederschlagsmengen, die teilweise ein Drittel des Jahresmittels ausmachten. Diese führten in den umgelegten Gebieten zu Schäden: Die Böschungsoberflächen rutschten vielfach mitsamt der Vegetation ab, ehemalige, durch die Umlegungen verschüttete Talzüge wurden ausgeschwemmt, in einzelnen Terrassen entstanden tiefgreifende Grundbrüche. Überdies kam es in den Folgejahren zu Frostschäden. Durch die bergseitige Neigung der Terrassenoberflächen konnten sich Kaltluftseen bilden, in denen die Reben vor allem in der Blüte erfroren.[6] Außerdem entstanden, vor allem in den niedriger gelegenen Rebflächen, in denen zuvor meist Obst angebaut worden war, erhebliche Frostschäden am Holz der Rebbestände.
Die Tätigkeit der Flurbereinigungsbehörden beschränkte sich in der Zeit nach 1982 auf Reparaturarbeiten und partielle Umplanungen, die zumindest die schwersten Folgen der Umgestaltungen korrigieren sollten. Inzwischen hatte man auch begonnen, die verbliebenen Lösshohlwege als Naturdenkmale auszuweisen und sie zu schützen.
Seit 2021 wird auf einer Fläche von etwa einem Hektar Echter Lavendel und Lavandin angebaut. Dank der Wärme und der kalkreichen Böden gedeiht er gut. Zwei der vier Felder liegen in Bischoffingen, wo es auch einen Hofladen gibt und je eines in Königschaffhausen und Burkheim. Auf letzterem wachsen neun verschiedene Sorten.
Wandern
Der bekannteste und „klassische“ Wanderweg ist der Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg); er ist einer von acht Themenpfaden und führt von Endingen über den Katharinenberg und den Totenkopf mit Aussichtsturm Neunlinden nach Ihringen. Von den Wegen bieten sich vielerorts Ausblicke auf den Schwarzwald, die Rheinebene und die Vogesen. Auch der Querweg Schwarzwald–Kaiserstuhl–Rhein führt über den Kaiserstuhl.
Als Wissenschaftlicher Lehrpfad wurde 1977 der Limberg-Weg angelegt. Er umfasst 90 Stationen zu den Themen Geologie und Mineralogie, Geschichte, Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege, Forstwirtschaft, Wein- und Obstbau, Rheinbau und Wasserwirtschaft, sowie Landeskunde.
Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2007 mit einer Gesamtlänge von 140 km eröffnet und in das bestehende Wanderwegenetz des Schwarzwaldvereins (Markierung: gelber Rhombus auf weißem Hintergrund) integriert. Dabei wurde das Wanderwegenetz mit 430 neuen Wegweisern ausgeschildert. Große Tafeln mit einer Übersichtskarte und mit Standortinformationen sind an zentralen Punkten wie zum Beispiel an Bahnhöfen in den von den Themenpfaden verbundenen oder durchlaufenden Ortschaften aufgestellt. Jeder Themenpfad ist durch eine eigene Farbe und ein dem Namen entsprechendes Symbol auf den Eingangsportalen und den Wegweisern optisch gekennzeichnet. Weitere 120 kleinere Thementafeln erläutern entlang der Wanderwege lokale Besonderheiten. Örtliche Pfade, wie zum Beispiel der Brunnenpfad (7 km) in Bötzingen, wurden in das neue Netz der Themenpfade integriert.
Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2010 durch den Kaiserstuhlpfad ergänzt, der als Prädikatswanderweg das Gütesiegel „Qualitätsweg Wanderbares Deutschland“ erhielt. Der 21,7 km lange Kaiserstuhlpfad orientiert sich mit einigen Erweiterungen am Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg) und führt von Endingen durch das Erletal hoch zur Katharinenkapelle, entlang der Naturschutzgebiete Badberg und Haselschacher Buck zum Eichelspitzturm, weiter über den Vogelsang-Pass zum Neunlindenturm, durch den Lößhohlweg Eichgasse nach Bickensohl und über den Kreuzenbuck durch die Lenzengasse nach Ihringen.
(Wikipedia)
To the extent that you can, look at the eye detail. I was close to this adult bald eagle at Cherry Creek State Park, Colorado when I took this shot. I was sharpening the image with Topaz AI when I went a little further than I'd usually go when I noticed amazing details in the eye.
Thanks to Jordan Adam for the spot, First Aberdeen in error announced a new service 4 to Portlethen today. The service is effectively an extention of the 3 from Charleston to Asda Portlethen along the old Stagecoach Bluebird 8 route that ran until 2013.
The Stagecoach Bluebird 8 was launched in 2011 by then Stagecoach Bluebird MD Andrew Jarvis - now ultimately running First Aberdeen as part of the new First Scotland MD role. Jarvis spotted a gap in the market to target Cove and Charleston at a time when First were cutting the frequency of its 3 and 21 services that served the area as well as negative publicity about First fares which Stagecoach were undercutting. The area offered future passenger growth with housebuilding underway at Charleston, Marywell, and Schoolhill Portlethen and there were requests in the Cove community for a bus link to Asda and the Portlethen Retail Park. The service did exceedingly well in the peaks mainly stealing passengers off the 21 to Altens but had poor patronage offpeak. It never reached its true potential suffering from the age old problem Bluebird has had in trying to take on First - its drivers are used to just tanking the bus from A to B and are in no hurry to pull into stops unless hailed while First passengers stood back writing it off as a "country bus". The 8 was timed to run the same time as the X7 so tended to just tag behind the X7 at bus stops out of sight. Depot controllers were just as guilty by throwing on Megabus Plaxton Panther coaches with no destination displays at times when First passengers were long used to low floor buses. The journey times to Portlethen were so long it was sometimes quicker for the passenger to stand back and get a 7 bus 15 minutes later. Jarvis left Bluebird in the summer of 2013 and his successor wasted no time in axing the service that autumn.
Jarvis would appear to still believe in the link and a 4 service would be more viable than an 8 as it would still have the 3 passengers to pad it out as far as Wellington Road and then into Charleston replacing the highly unreliable and much complained about 18 service. It would be nicely timed as Stagecoach has just greatly reduced the Portlethen and Marywell services in last months service changes despite Schoolhill being a growth area for the company although AWPR works have badly damaged reliability of late. The Portlethen services have suffered for years with Bluebird poor reliability, frequent network changes and a tendancy for some drivers to run the Portlethen timing point early to compensate delays at Bridge of Dee or Stonehaven. First would certainly be welcomed into Portlethen.
The proposed service 4 could be operated by adding just one bus to the current 3/3G PVR. There would also be the potential to extend the bus to Badentoy Park in the future or to tender for the future proposed bus link to Chapleton of Elsick. The route would mark a serious departure from the gentlemans agreement of 1991 where by neither operator has encroached on the others route, although First may feel the 727 service, again conceived by Jarvis, has very much eroded the Northern Lights 17/18 service in recent years with First retaliating with the 16 service. The 16 has underperformed against the 727 so far but First seem keen to give another roll of the dice by extending it from Union Square to Balnagask allowing the 20 to revert back fixing the reliability problems that have impacted what was once the most reliable route in the network and soak up some of the excessive layover at Union Square added in September for the 16. First also seem to be thinking ahead to the new Lochside Academy that opens off Wellington Road in August for which there will be demand for travel between Torry and Lochside that the 4 will nicely fit.
The question remains as to where First would gain the extra bus for the 4 - could that be at the expense of the 8&9 rumours that continue to fuel which two weeks ago refused to deny.
The 4 move could also be seen as pre-emptive strike against Stagecoach who may be expected to retaliate now they have former First Aberdeen Commericial Manager Daniel Laird at the helm. Certainly the battle for the declining bus market in Aberdeen looks set to hot up.
Of course in true First style its grand plans have been leaked out by its own people - the proposed January 28th service changes were delayed to due to the prospect of industrial action by drivers but First web team in error loaded the timetables up unaware of the delay. Although they were quickly taken down, Google robots had archived the details and they are still on show this evening when you search for it.
Photographed above is First Aberdeen last involvement in Portlethen, as home to its redundant non PSVAR compliant bus fleet in 2016 prior to the scrap man collecting. Vandalised 62194 seen here at Portlethen in October 2016.
The Representative of Humanity (1922), a nine-meter high wood sculpture executed as a joint project with the sculptor Edith Maryon. This was intended to be placed in the first Goetheanum. It shows a central human figure, the "Representative of Humanity," holding a balance between opposing tendencies of expansion and contraction personified as the beings of Lucifer and Ahriman. It was intended to show, in conscious contrast to Michelangelo's Last Judgment, Christ as mute and impersonal such that the beings that approach him must judge themselves. The sculpture is now on permanent display at the Goetheanum.
Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner (27 or 25 February 1861– 30 March 1925) was an Austrian occultist, social reformer, architect, esotericist,and claimed clairvoyant. Steiner gained initial recognition at the end of the nineteenth century as a literary critic and published works including The Philosophy of Freedom. At the beginning of the twentieth century he founded an esoteric spiritual movement, anthroposophy, with roots in German idealist philosophy and theosophy. His ideas are largely pseudoscientific. He was also prone to pseudohistory.
In the first, more philosophically oriented phase of this movement, Steiner attempted to find a synthesis between science and spirituality. His philosophical work of these years, which he termed "spiritual science", sought to apply what he saw as the clarity of thinking characteristic of Western philosophy to spiritual questions, differentiating this approach from what he considered to be vaguer approaches to mysticism. In a second phase, beginning around 1907, he began working collaboratively in a variety of artistic media, including drama, dance and architecture, culminating in the building of the Goetheanum, a cultural centre to house all the arts. In the third phase of his work, beginning after World War I, Steiner worked on various ostensibly applied projects, including Waldorf education,biodynamic agriculture, and anthroposophical medicine.
Steiner advocated a form of ethical individualism, to which he later brought a more explicitly spiritual approach. He based his epistemology on Johann Wolfgang Goethe's world view, in which "thinking…is no more and no less an organ of perception than the eye or ear. Just as the eye perceives colours and the ear sounds, so thinking perceives ideas." A consistent thread that runs through his work is the goal of demonstrating that there are no limits to human knowledge.
Steiner first began speaking publicly about spiritual experiences and phenomena in his 1899 lectures to the Theosophical Society. By 1901 he had begun to write about spiritual topics, initially in the form of discussions of historical figures such as the mystics of the Middle Ages. By 1904 he was expressing his own understanding of these themes in his essays and books, while continuing to refer to a wide variety of historical sources.
A world of spiritual perception is discussed in a number of writings which I have published since this book appeared. The Philosophy of Freedom forms the philosophical basis for these later writings. For it tries to show that the experience of thinking, rightly understood, is in fact an experience of spirit.
(Steiner, Philosophy of Freedom, Consequences of Monism)
Steiner aimed to apply his training in mathematics, science, and philosophy to produce rigorous, verifiable presentations of those experiences. He believed that through freely chosen ethical disciplines and meditative training, anyone could develop the ability to experience the spiritual world, including the higher nature of oneself and others. Steiner believed that such discipline and training would help a person to become a more moral, creative and free individual – free in the sense of being capable of actions motivated solely by love. His philosophical ideas were affected by Franz Brentano, with whom he had studied, as well as by Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, and Goethe's phenomenological approach to science.
Steiner used the word Geisteswissenschaft (from Geist = mind or spirit, Wissenschaft = science), a term originally coined by Wilhelm Dilthey as a descriptor of the humanities, in a novel way, to describe a systematic ("scientific") approach to spirituality. Steiner used the term Geisteswissenschaft, generally translated into English as "spiritual science," to describe a discipline treating the spirit as something actual and real, starting from the premise that it is possible for human beings to penetrate behind what is sense-perceptible. He proposed that psychology, history, and the humanities generally were based on the direct grasp of an ideal reality, and required close attention to the particular period and culture which provided the distinctive character of religious qualities in the course of the evolution of consciousness. In contrast to William James' pragmatic approach to religious and psychic experience, which emphasized its idiosyncratic character, Steiner focused on ways such experience can be rendered more intelligible and integrated into human life.
Steiner proposed that an understanding of reincarnation and karma was necessary to understand psychology[81] and that the form of external nature would be more comprehensible as a result of insight into the course of karma in the evolution of humanity. Beginning in 1910, he described aspects of karma relating to health, natural phenomena and free will, taking the position that a person is not bound by his or her karma, but can transcend this through actively taking hold of one's own nature and destiny. In an extensive series of lectures from February to September 1924, Steiner presented further research on successive reincarnations of various individuals and described the techniques he used for karma research.
In his earliest works, Steiner already spoke of the "natural and spiritual worlds" as a unity. From 1900 on, he began lecturing about concrete details of the spiritual world(s), culminating in the publication in 1904 of the first of several systematic presentations, his Theosophy: An Introduction to the Spiritual Processes in Human Life and in the Cosmos. As a starting point for the book Steiner took a quotation from Goethe, describing the method of natural scientific observation,[136] while in the Preface he made clear that the line of thought taken in this book led to the same goal as that in his earlier work, The Philosophy of Freedom.
In the years 1903–1908 Steiner maintained the magazine Lucifer-Gnosis and published in it essays on topics such as initiation, reincarnation and karma, and knowledge of the supernatural world. Some of these were later collected and published as books, such as How to Know Higher Worlds (1904–5) and Cosmic Memory. The book An Outline of Esoteric Science was published in 1910. Important themes include:
the human being as body, soul and spirit;
the path of spiritual development;
spiritual influences on world-evolution and history; and
reincarnation and karma.
Steiner emphasized that there is an objective natural and spiritual world that can be known, and that perceptions of the spiritual world and incorporeal beings are, under conditions of training comparable to that required for the natural sciences, including self-discipline, replicable by multiple observers. It is on this basis that spiritual science is possible, with radically different epistemological foundations than those of natural science. He believed that natural science was correct in its methods but one-sided for exclusively focusing on sensory phenomena, while mysticism was vague in its methods, though seeking to explore the inner and spiritual life. Anthroposophy was meant to apply the systematic methods of the former to the content of the latter.
For Steiner, the cosmos is permeated and continually transformed by the creative activity of non-physical processes and spiritual beings. For the human being to become conscious of the objective reality of these processes and beings, it is necessary to creatively enact and reenact, within, their creative activity. Thus objective spiritual knowledge always entails creative inner activity. Steiner articulated three stages of any creative deed:[73]: Pt II, Chapter 1
Moral intuition: the ability to discover or, preferably, develop valid ethical principles;
Moral imagination: the imaginative transformation of such principles into a concrete intention applicable to the particular situation (situational ethics); and
Moral technique: the realization of the intended transformation, depending on a mastery of practical skills.
Steiner termed his work from this period onwards Anthroposophy. He emphasized that the spiritual path he articulated builds upon and supports individual freedom and independent judgment; for the results of spiritual research to be appropriately presented in a modern context they must be in a form accessible to logical understanding, so that those who do not have access to the spiritual experiences underlying anthroposophical research can make independent evaluations of the latter's results. Spiritual training is to support what Steiner considered the overall purpose of human evolution, the development of the mutually interdependent qualities of love and freedom.
Goethean science is not science, but pseudoscience. According to Dan Dugan, Steiner was a champion of the following pseudoscientific claims:
wrong color theory;
obtuse criticism of the theory of relativity;
weird ideas about motions of the planets;
supporting vitalism;
doubting germ theory;
weird approach to physiological systems;
"the heart is not a pump".
In his commentaries on Goethe's scientific works, written between 1884 and 1897, Steiner presented Goethe's approach to science as essentially phenomenological in nature, rather than theory- or model-based. He developed this conception further in several books, The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception (1886) and Goethe's Conception of the World (1897), particularly emphasizing the transformation in Goethe's approach from the physical sciences, where experiment played the primary role, to plant biology, where both accurate perception and imagination were required to find the biological archetypes (Urpflanze). He postulated that Goethe had sought, but been unable to fully find, the further transformation in scientific thinking necessary to properly interpret and understand the animal kingdom. Steiner emphasized the role of evolutionary thinking in Goethe's discovery of the intermaxillary bone in human beings; Goethe expected human anatomy to be an evolutionary transformation of animal anatomy. Steiner defended Goethe's qualitative description of color as arising synthetically from the polarity of light and darkness, in contrast to Newton's particle-based and analytic conception.
Particular organic forms can be evolved only from universal types, and every organic entity we experience must coincide with some one of these derivative forms of the type. Here the evolutionary method must replace the method of proof. We aim not to show that external conditions act upon one another in a certain way and thereby bring about a definite result, but that a particular form has developed under definite external conditions out of the type. This is the radical difference between inorganic and organic science.
— Rudolf Steiner, The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception, Chapter XVI, "Organic Nature"
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner
Rudolf Steiner developed exercises aimed at cultivating new cognitive faculties he believed would be appropriate to contemporary individual and cultural development. According to Steiner's view of history, in earlier periods people were capable of direct spiritual perceptions, or clairvoyance, but not yet of rational thought; more recently, rationality has been developed at the cost of spiritual perception, leading to the alienation characteristic of modernity. Steiner proposed that humanity now has the task of synthesizing the rational and contemplative/spiritual components of cognition, whereby spiritual perception would be awakened through intensifying thinking. He considered this relevant not only to personal development, but as a foundation for advanced scientific research
Moral background of spiritual development[edit]
A central principle of Steiner's proposed path to spiritual development is that self-development - inner transformation - is a necessary part of the spiritual path: "for every step in spiritual perception, three steps are to be taken in moral development." According to the spiritual philosophy Steiner founded, anthroposophy, moral development: reveals the extent to which a person has achieved control over his or her inner life;
ensures that he or she lives in harmony with the surrounding natural and social world;
correlates with his or her progress in spiritual development, the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception; and
guarantees the capacity to distinguish between true perceptions and illusions, or to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements and objective realities.
Meditative path.
Steiner described three stages of meditative progress: imaginative cognition, inspiration and intuition.
In imaginative cognition, the meditant aims to achieve thinking independent of sensory perception through concentration on either visual forms of symbolic significance never encountered in the sensory world (e.g. a black cross with a circle of seven red roses superimposed upon it), metamorphoses (e.g. the growth cycle of a plant from seed to mature flower), or mantric verses spoken aloud or silently (e.g. verses for each week of the year intended to connect the meditant with the rhythms of nature).
In inspiration, the meditant seeks to eliminate all consciously chosen meditative content to open a receptive space in which objective spiritual content (impressions stemming from objective spiritual beings) may be encountered. The meditative activity established in inspirative cognition is set forth without concrete content.
The stage of intuition is achieved through practicing exercises of will (e.g. reviewing the sequence of the day's events in reverse order). At this stage, the meditant seeks unity with the creative forces of the cosmos without any loss of his or her individualized consciousness.
This sequence of meditative stages has the ultimate goal of the meditant experiencing his or her own karma and previous incarnations, as well as the "Akashic record" of historical events.
Preliminary requirements for embarking on a spiritual training[edit]
Steiner believed that in order for a spiritual training to bear "healthy fruits," a person would have to attend to the following:
Striving to develop a healthy body and soul.
Feeling connected with all of existence; to recognize oneself in everything, and everything in oneself; not to judge others without standing in their shoes.
Recognizing that one's thoughts and feelings have as significant an influence as one's deeds, and that work on one's inner life is as important as work on one's outer life.
Recognizing that the true essence of a human being does not lie in the person's outer appearance, but rather in the inner nature, in the soul and spiritual existence of this person.
Finding the genuine balance between having an open heart for the demands of the outer world and maintaining inner strength and "unshakeable endurance."
The ability to be true to a decision once made, even in the face of daunting adversity, until one comes to the conclusion that it was or is made in error.
Developing thankfulness for everything that meets us, and that universal love which allows the world to reveal itself fully to oneself.
Supplementary exercises
Steiner suggested that certain exercises should accompany all meditational practices as a measure of protection against possible negative influences caused by the meditation in the life of the individual. These six exercises, meant to foster positive soul qualities, are:
Practice self-control over one's thinking. For example: for a period of time -at least five minutes- contemplate any object and concentrate one's thoughts exclusively on this object. (A pencil or a paper clip might do.)
Exercise willpower by choosing any free deed, i.e. one that nothing is influencing you to do, and choose a regular time of day or day of the week to practice this. (E.g. water plants at the same time each day.)
Practice equanimity: foster calm emotional responses.
Try to see positive aspects in everything and to make the best out of every situation.
Practice being open to new experiences and ideas, never letting expectations based upon the past close your mind to the lessons of the moment.
Find a harmonious, balanced relationship between the above five qualities, practicing each regularly and becoming able to move dynamically between them.
The initial three exercises are intended to enable a person to attain self-discipline in thinking, willing and feeling.[1] The second group of three involve cultivating attitudes toward the world.
Individual exercises
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Exercises developed in anthroposophy include:
Review of the day. Each evening, going backwards through the day recalling its events, its sequential unfolding (experienced here reversed in time), the people one has met, etc.
Experiencing the year's unfolding. Exercises Steiner suggested here include:[citation needed]
Drawing the same plant or tree or landscape over the course of a year.
Meditating the sequence of 52 mantric verses that Steiner wrote to deepen one's experience of the course of the seasons and the year and to bring the inner life of the soul into dialogue with nature, the Soul Calendar.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner%27s_exercises_for_sp...