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IN ENGLISH BELOW THE LINE
La Folding Pocket Kodak és una càmera força important. En primer lloc, és una de les primeres càmeres de rodet del món, i molt en especial, la primera que realment es podia portar a la butxaca, com clàrament indica el seu nom. Hi havia ja aleshores càmeres més petites, però no de rodet de pel·licula.
La FPK es començà a produir el 1897, i inicià una gràn familia de càmeres plegables de la marca Kodak que s'allargaren fins poc abans de la Segona Guerra Mundial, amb infinitat de variants. És, pertant la "avia" de totes elles. Emprava el format 105, fent fotos de 2 1/4 x 3 1/4; de fet és molt similar al actual format 120, pel que amb certa traça, es pot fer servir en aquesta càmera.
L'obturador i l'objectiu eren molt senzills, integrats en l'estructura i que no permetien quasi cap variació en la fotografia. De fet, aquesta càmera no té gaires més possibilitats que una molt més senzilla i ubicua Brownie de caixa, però gràcies a la manxa, és molt més compacta.
El 1899, pràcticament sense canviar la estructura, la càmera canvià de nom, incorporant el No.1 davant de "Folding Pocket Kodak"; així es diferenciava de altres variants de mides diferents que s'anaven incorporant al cataleg, com la No.0 o la No.1A. Tot i que hi ha diversos "sub-models" de trancisió, crec que aquesta és encara una FPK original, ja que s'en fabricaren 75.000, i el seu nº de serie està entre els 44.000. Igualment, en el text al interior de la càmera no parla de cap patent posterior al 1894 (n'he vista altres que si ho fan), ni incorpora visors tipus "brilliant", tipics de les primeres "No.1". Tot plegat, dona una cronologia de fabricació del 1898-1899, just quan la Guerra de Cuba!
Algú, potser el primer propietari, gravà les lletres AP en un dels extensors cromats, segurament les seves inicials.
Ah, i no es podia pas aguantar en aquesta posició, ho he aconseguit amb la "magia" del Photoshop; així la puc comparar amb les altres Folding Pocket de la col·lecció.
camerapedia.fandom.com/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
camera-wiki.org/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
www.kodaksefke.nl/folding-pocket-kodak.html
redbellows.co.uk/CameraCollection/Kodak/FoldingPocketKoda...
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The Folding Pocket Kodak is a very historically important camera. First and foremost, it is one of the first roll-film cameras in the world, and especially the first that could really be carried in your pocket, as the name implies. At that time there were smaller cameras, but using glass plates.
The FPK began production in 1897, and launched a large family of Kodak-branded folding cameras that lasted until shortly before World War II, with countless variants. It is, as such, the "grandmother" of all of them. It used the 105 format roll film, taking 2 1/4 x 3 1/4 photos; in fact it is very similar to the current format 120, so with some adaptations it can be used in this camera.
The shutter and lens were very simple, integrated in the structure and allowed almost no variation in photography. In fact, this camera does not have much more possibilities than a much simpler and ubiquitous Brownie box camera, but thanks to the bellows, it is much more compact.
In 1899, with almost no change in structure, the camera was renamed, incorporating No.1 in front of "Folding Pocket Kodak"; Thus it differed from other variants of different sizes that were being incorporated into the catalog, such as No.0 or No.1A. Although there are several trance "sub-models", I think this is still an original FPK and not a No.1, as 75,000 were manufactured, and its serial number is between the 44,000. Also, in the text inside the camera it does not speak of any patent since 1894 (I have seen others than they do), nor does it incorporate "brilliant" viewfinders, typical of the first "No.1". All in all, it gives a manufacturing timeline of 1898-1899, just when the Cuban War!
Someone, maybe the first owner, wrote the letters AP on one of the chrome extenders, probably his initials.
camerapedia.fandom.com/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
camera-wiki.org/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
www.kodaksefke.nl/folding-pocket-kodak.html
redbellows.co.uk/CameraCollection/Kodak/FoldingPocketKoda...
"Convertendo e mudando a leitura!", 04 fotografias. Usei a Canon 60D e objetiva 18x55mm (padrão).
"Converting and changing reading!", 04 photographs. I used Canon 60D and 18x55mm lens (standard).Todos os direitos reservados para Vivaldo Armelin Júnior.
Por insignificante que parezca, cada criatura en la tierra tiene su papel y aunque lo desconozcamos realiza una función en el ecosistema, esto es una muestra de ese pequeño mundo dificil de percibir a simple vista.
Uso un objetivo 35-105mm f/3,5 - 4,5 análogo con extensores para lograr este aumento y ademas en este caso, tiene 3 fotos apiladas!!
Vega 5U 105 mm f4. Antigua lente rusa de ampliadora, ha sido necesaria la ayuda de un fuelle extensor para enfocar.
GSPで買ったスキンが思いのほかセクスイでお気に入り❤
黒×ピンクの組み合わせ大好物（ｏ´∀｀ｏ）
そして自分とこの宣伝兼ねてと思ったのに足写ってないし 笑
Skin : [MyDear]Skin 3 For GSP 95L$
Eye makeup : Mock Champange Foil Eyeshadow (Mynerva Giftie)
Hair : ::Exile:: Drucilla:Roots-Goldrush
Glasses : -NALA-*HARPS*
Necklace1 : A.M.K.R Explosion Pink set
Necklace2 : :Fusion: Chained Pearl Necklace (Silver)
*ﾛｺさんありがとう❤お気に入り過ぎてずーっと付けっぱですｗ*
Tattoo : ::Para Designs:: Sweet Tooth Tattoo
Top : =Razorblade Jacket= Mute Black Dress
Watch : K_gs ARMY_Watch/Pink Kiss
Belt : *BC322 Pyramid studs Belt Pink (Part of *BC322 Bad Girl outfit* set.Promotion Special SALE!!)
Bottom : A.M.K.R Zebra pants *Group gift*
Nyctinasty in Hibiscus[edit]
Nyctinasty is the circadian rhythmic nastic movement of plants in response to the onset of darkness, or a plant "sleeping". Hibiscus, a nyctinastic plant, has a circadian cycle in which they open their leaflets during the day, and close them at night. The movement of the hibiscus flower is accomplished through changes in electrolyte concentrations that cause water movement and changes in turgor pressure throughout the plant.
An initial stimulus such as lack of light on photoreceptors triggers an electrical signal to be propagated along neighboring cells in the plant.[10] This causes a change in turgor pressure of specific cells at the pulvinus to allow for bending of the petals upward. Upon the stimulus calcium-permeable anion channels open to allow a flux of calcium ions into the cytoplasm of the cell causing it to depolarize. This electrical signal is propagated down the phloem to neighboring cells as sequential voltage calcium channels open. In response to the change in membrane potential voltage, gated potassium and chlorine channels open causing an efflux of ions. The increased concentration of ions outside of the cell creates an electrochemical gradient that pulls water out of the cell through osmosis. Aquaporins and hydrogen ion ATPase also help with the movement of water molecules. This causes a change in turgor pressure as water flows out of the flexor cells on the pulvinus and into the extensor cells to allow for bending of petals up to close the flower.[11] The mechanism for hibiscus nyctinasty is an example of plant movement to improve fitness.
Not all plant species exhibit nyctinasty, some only observed in leaf movement while others in flowers. Nyctinasty in flowers alone can be split into a few subcategories: day blooming vs. night blooming, singular vs. repeated blooming cycle, or different combinations in between.[12] In Genus Hibiscus we mostly observe singular day blooming flowers with some hybrids that can achieve repeating cycles. It is believed that the specific blooming cycle of flowers is a self-protective and reproductive mechanism, many species in the colder region close their flowers at night to prevent frosting while some desert species have night blooming flowers to prevent extensive water loss. Predators and Pollinators are also major factors contributing to blooming cycles; some flowers will close at night to prevent nocturnal predators in contrast with night blooming flowers that rely on nocturnal pollinators.[13]
An experiment conducted by Darwin explored foliar nyctinasty to show it is an evolutionary mechanism to improve fitness. His experiments suggest FN can affect leaves' ability to balance their radiative heat by reducing exposure of the leaf to the cold night sky and increasing the exposure to other lateral plants that radiate more heat in order to avoid frost damage and stay warm. He performed experiments where he pinned the leaves of Oxalis and Trifolium down horizontally versus pinning the leaves down vertically to show that the horizontal, more exposed leaves displayed greater frost damage than the warmer, vertical counterparts.[12]
Nyctinasty in hibiscus plants is a mechanism to protect against adverse conditions such as cool temperatures that can be damaging. Through a lack of light stimulus and circadian rhythms the plant is able to trigger the molecular movement of ions to allow for the closing of the flower. Wikipedia
"Convertendo e mudando a leitura!", 04 fotografias. Usei a Canon 60D e objetiva 18x55mm (padrão).
"Converting and changing reading!", 04 photographs. I used Canon 60D and 18x55mm lens (standard).Todos os direitos reservados para Vivaldo Armelin Júnior.
IN ENGLISH BELOW THE LINE
Estic enamora d'aquesta càmera. Poques vegades pots trobar una càmera antiga amb aquesta espectacularitat en aspectes molt diversos (aspecte, volum, detalls, sò) i a sobre funcionant. Per acabar-ho d'adobar no funcionaba bé del tot i això fou un extra d'amor-odi fins aconseguir reparar-la. I aprenent a soldar, entremig.
Aquesta meravellosa i no precisament petita càmera és la Revolving Back Auto Graflex, en format 4x5 polzades. Es tracta del model original de la RB Auto Graflex, molt més nombrós en variacions posteriors, també molt boniques, però just un punt menys que aquesta. En efecte, mentre que la majoria de RB Auto Graflex que es veuen per la xarxa son dels models de 1909 (en tinc una) o sobretot el fabricat entre 1916 i 1941 (amb apertura superior cap a darrera).
Aquesta càmera és la RB Auto fabricada entre 1906 i 1908, només en format 4x5, i de fet té un aspecte molt més arcaic que els models posteriors, asemblant-se a la original "Graflex" del 1901, o també a la inmensa Press Graflex del 1907. La millor informació al respecte és el llibre de R. P. Paine (1981): The All-American Cameras. A Review of Graflex.
Tant el visor de xemeneia amb el nom estampat, com l'extensor del objectiu estampat en acer li donen un aire unic. I a això cal sumar-hi el inconfusible so del obturador de pla focal Graflex, originariament amb velocitats de fins 1/1000 (tot i que no la penso forçar pas tant, que té més de 110 anys!). L'objectiu és un B&L Zeiss Protar f6.3 / 10".
Sobre la relació amb les Hasselblad que apunto, ho dic perquè fins i tot aquesta càmera del 1906 ja podia emprar xassis de pel·licula intercanviables amb portaplaques dobles o multiples, era reflex i també podia canviar d'objectiu facilment. Vaja, que només li calia poder intercanviar els visors per ser com una Hasselblad gegant i antiquissima.
L'unic però important problema que tenia era que el conector entre el moviment del mirall (i pertant el disparador) i l'obturador, estava desencaixat, i calia soldar-lo. Ha costat deu i ajuda, però crec que ara aguanta bé.
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I'm in love with this camera. Rarely can you find an old camera with this awesomeness in very diverse aspects (appearance, size, details, sound) and on top of that in working condition. The only minor glitch was that the link between release & shutter was damaged, but that was an extra love-hate issue until I managed to fix it. And learning to torch solder, in between.
This wonderful and not exactly small camera is the Revolving Back Auto Graflex, in glorious 4x5" format. This is the original model of the RB Auto Graflex, much more usual in later variations, also very beautiful, but just a point less than this one. In fact, all of the RB Auto Graflex that are seen on the net are models of 1909 (I have one of these) or especially the ones made between 1916 and 1941 (with rear-opening top). And remember, those are SLR, reflex cameras, like a modern DSLR, but huge and archaic.
This is the RB Auto Graflex made between 1906 and 1908, only in 4x5 format, and in fact has a much more archaic look than later models, resembling the original "Graflex" of 1901; or also the huge 5x7 Press Graflex of 1907. The best information in this regard is the book by R. P, Paine (1981): "The All-American Cameras. A Review of Graflex".
I see this wonder as a giantic and antique prequel to the modular camera concept by Hasselblad because, as unbeliebable as it seems, shares several key characteristics with the Swedish ultimate cameras: it's a SLR, film backs can be interchanged with plate holders (that even the Hasselblad can't do, as far as I know) and the lens are changeable too. Don't mention that this is not a leaf shutter camera, as the Hasselblads began as the 1600 focal plane camera.
Both the chimney hood with gilded name & fur edge and the steel-stamped lens struts give it a unique air. Full steampunk. And to this must be added the unmistakable sound of the Graflex focal plane shutter, originally with speeds of up to 1/1000 (although I don't plan on forcing it so much, it's over 110 years old!). The lens is a Bausch&Lomb Zeiss Protar f6.3 / 10 ".
The only but important problem I had was that the link between the movement of the mirror (and therefore the release lever) and the shutter, was dislodged, and had to be soldered with a butane torch. I had to learn the trade a bit, and got several days nowhere, till I managed to assemble all again, but I think it holds up well now.
This is the typical later RB Auto Graflex:
www.earlyphotography.co.uk/site/entry_C299.html
www.camarassinfronteras.com/articulos/rochester/graflex.html
camera-wiki.org/wiki/Auto_Graflex
A lot of SLR Graflex here, but not a single one of the same model:
"Flores e a luz da tarde", 04 fotos. Objetiva 28x135mm com extensor macro +2.
"Flowers and the afternoon light", 04 photos. 28x135mm lens with +2 macro extender. Todos os direitos reservados para Vivaldo Armelin Júnior.
"O que os olhos quase não veem! Extensor Macro 35mm, Objetiva 85mm", 3 fotos. Usei a Canon 60D.
"What the eyes hardly see! Macro extender 35mm, Objective 85mm", 3 photos. I used the Canon 60D.
Todos os direitos reservados para Vivaldo Armelin Jr.
Jaime Garzón (1960, 1999) Rio, Fonso, Satiro. En compañia y buena energia con la pareja Bicromo y los compañeros argentinos.
Vinilo, rodillo, extensor.
2013
Aularches miliaris is a monotypic grasshopper species of the genus Aularches, belonging to the family Pyrgomorphidae; it is found in India and Indo-China. The bright warning colours keep away predators and their defense when disturbed includes the ejection of a toxic foam. There are two subspecies:
A. miliaris miliaris (Linnaeus, 1758)
A. miliaris pseudopunctatus Kevan, 1974
The insect has been called by a variety of names including coffee locust, ghost grasshopper, northern spotted grasshopper, and foam grasshopper, and enjoys some popularity as a pet insect.
DESCRIPTION
The head and thorax are dark green with a canary-yellow band on the side. The tegmina are green with many yellow spots; the legs are blue, with a yellow serrated pattern on the hind femora. The abdomen is black with bright red bands. Two subspecies have been designated, the nominate and pseudopunctatus.
HABITS
It swarms in October, the mating and egg-laying season, collecting on bushes and grasses. It is heavy and sluggish, able to make only short leaps, very visible on vegetation. Outbreaks leading to this species damaging cultivated crops are uncommon.
When A. miliaris (of either sex) is disturbed or grabbed, it emits a sharp rasping noise from its thoracic segments. If its thorax is pinched, it also squirts a clear viscous mucus with unpleasant smell and a bitter taste, faintly alkaline, with many embedded bubbles. This foam comes out as a strong jet from apertures in the thorax, and more gently from other openings in the body (ten in total); it heaps up around the insect and partly covers it.
CONSERVATION
Autarchies miliaris, like most other grasshoppers, are considered a pest in agricultural areas; however it is also endangered or near threatened in South India. A. miliaris lays eggs in the soil which aerates the soil promoting biodiversity and creates ecosystem value. Their interactions and natural process contribute to the health of the soil. The presence of a variety of insects in the soil are indicators of soil quality. There are a few conservation efforts for this species. At times of high population, growth can be controlled by tilling the area where they deposit their egg pods or collecting the grasshoppers; pesticides are effective; however they are normally not environmentally friendly and can cause damage to other animals and vegetation.
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Grasshoppers are insects of the suborder Caelifera within the order Orthoptera, which includes crickets and their allies in the other suborder Ensifera. They are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which enable them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. They are hemimetabolous insects (they do not undergo complete metamorphosis) which hatch from an egg into a nymph or "hopper" which undergoes five moults, becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage. At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change colour and behaviour and form swarms. Under these circumstances they are known as locusts.
Insects in the group are plant-eaters, with a few species at times becoming serious pests of cereals, vegetables and pasture, especially when they swarm in their millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas. They protect themselves from predators by camouflage; when detected, many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly-coloured wing-flash while jumping and (if adult) launching themselves into the air, usually flying for only a short distance. Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators. Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases, and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults. The eggs are the subject of attack by parasitoids and predators.
Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts can have devastating effects and cause famine, and even in smaller numbers, the insects can be serious pests. They are used as food in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia. They feature in art, symbolism and literature.
CHARACTERISTICS
Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head, thorax and abdomen. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, with the mouth at the bottom. The head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws.
The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin. The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The forewings, known as tegmina, are narrow and leathery while the hindwings are large and membranous, the veins providing strength. The legs are terminated by claws for gripping. The hind leg is particularly powerful; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end. The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the wings and legs.
The abdomen has eleven segments, the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the tympanal organ and hearing system. Segments two to eight are ring-shaped and joined by flexible membranes. Segments nine to eleven are reduced in size; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven house the reproductive organs. Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males, with short ovipositors. The name of the suborder "Caelifera" comes from the Latin and means chisel-bearing, referring to the shape of the ovipositor.
Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind legs against the edges of the forewings (stridulation). These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females, though in some species the females also stridulate.
Grasshoppers may be confused with Ensifera (crickets, etc.), but they differ in many aspects; these include the number of segments in their antennae and the structure of the ovipositor, as well as the location of the tympanal organ and the methods by which sound is produced. Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20–24 segments, while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter, stouter antennae.
PHYLOGENY
Grasshoppers belong to the suborder Caelifera. Although, "grasshopper" is sometimes used as a common name for the suborder in general, some sources restrict it to the more "advanced" groups. They may be placed in the infraorder Acrididea and have been referred-to as "short-horned grasshoppers" in older texts to distinguish them from the also-obsolete term "long-horned grasshoppers" (now bush-crickets or katydids) with their much longer antennae. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera, Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic.
In evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic. Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings.
The Caelifera includes some 2,400 valid genera and about 11,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical wet forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones, but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide. They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects.
The most diverse superfamily is the Acridoidea, with around 8,000 species. The two main families in this are the Acrididae (grasshoppers and locusts) with a worldwide distribution, and the Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), found chiefly in the New World. The Ommexechidae and Tristiridae are South American, and the Lentulidae, Lithidiidae and Pamphagidae are mainly African. The Pauliniids are nocturnal and can swim or skate on water, and the Lentulids are wingless. Pneumoridae are native to Africa, particularly southern Africa, and are distinguished by the inflated abdomens of the males.
BIOLOGY
DIET AND DIGESTION
Most grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating vegetation from multiple plant sources, but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops. The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes.
SENSORY ORGANS
Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive set of external sense organs. On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement, shape, colour and distance. There are also three simple eyes (ocelli) on the forehead which can detect light intensity, a pair of antennae containing olfactory (smell) and touch receptors, and mouthparts containing gustatory (taste) receptors. At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception. There are numerous fine hairs (setae) covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors (touch and wind sensors), and these are most dense on the antennae, the palps (part of the mouth), and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen. There are special receptors (campaniform sensillae) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion. There are internal "chordotonal" sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton. The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons, and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself.
CIRCULATION AMD RESPIRATION
Like other insects, grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph. A heart-like structure in the upper part of the abdomen pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen. This system circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut. Other functions of the haemolymph include wound healing, heat transfer and the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange. Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system.
JUMPING
A large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (twenty body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g. Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air. They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. However, a fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with both high force and high velocity at the same time. Grasshoppers overcome this apparent contradiction by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles.
The jump is a three-stage process. First, the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg (tibia) against the upper part (femur) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle (the back legs of the grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position). Second, there is a period of co-contraction in which force builds up in the large, pennate extensor tibiae muscle, but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle. The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle, but the latter is aided by specializations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed. Co-contraction can last for up to half a second, and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg. The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow (almost isometric), which allows it to develop high force (up to 14 N in the desert locust), but because it is slow only low power is needed. The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle, which releases the tibia from the flexed position. The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures, rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle. In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult, or the bow of a bow-and-arrow. Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction, and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures.
STRIDULATION
Male grasshoppers spend much of the day stridulating, singing more actively under optimal conditions and being more subdued when conditions are adverse; females also stridulate, but their efforts are insignificant when compared to the males. Late-stage male nymphs can sometimes be seen making stridulatory movements, although they lack the equipment to make sounds, demonstrating the importance of this behavioural trait. The songs are a means of communication; the male stridulation seems to express reproductive maturity, the desire for social cohesion and individual well-being. Social cohesion becomes necessary among grasshoppers because of their ability to jump or fly large distances, and the song can serve to limit dispersal and guide others to favourable habitat. The generalised song can vary in phraseology and intensity, and is modified in the presence of a rival male, and changes again to a courtship song when a female is nearby. In male grasshoppers of the family Pneumoridae, the enlarged abdomen amplifies stridulation.
LIFE CYCLE
In most grasshopper species, conflicts between males over females rarely escalate beyond ritualistic displays. Some exceptions include the chameleon grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), where males may fight on top of ovipositing females; engaging in leg grappling, biting, kicking and mounting.
The newly emerged female grasshopper has a preoviposition period of a week or two while she increases in weight and her eggs mature. After mating, the female of most species digs a hole with her ovipositor and lays a batch of eggs in a pod in the ground near food plants, generally in the summer. After laying the eggs, she covers the hole with soil and litter. Some, like the semi-aquatic Cornops aquaticum, deposit the pod directly into plant tissue. The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species. After a few weeks of development, the eggs of most species in temperate climates go into diapause, and pass the winter in this state. Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature, with development resuming as soon as the ground warms above a certain threshold temperature. The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other. They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden. These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators.
Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis: they repeatedly moult (undergo ecdysis), each instar becoming larger and more like an adult, with the wing-buds increasing in size at each stage. The number of instars varies between species but is often six. After the final moult, the wings are inflated and become fully functional. The migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, spends about 25 to 30 days as a nymph, depending on sex and temperature, and lives for about 51 days as an adult.
SWARMING
Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the grasshopper to change colour, feed more and breed faster. The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period.
Following this transformation, under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs known as "hoppers" can occur, producing pheromones which attract the insects to each other. With several generations in a year, the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues, devouring all the vegetation they encounter. The largest recorded locust swarm was one formed by the now-extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875; the swarm was 2,900 km long and 180 km wide, and one estimate puts the number of locusts involved at 3.5 trillion. An adult desert locust can eat about 2 g of plant material each day, so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive, stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and consuming stems, flowers, fruits, seeds and bark.
PREDATORS, PARASITES D PAHOGENS
Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their lives; eggs are eaten by bee-flies, ground beetles and blister beetles; hoppers and adults are taken by other insects such as ants, robber flies and sphecid wasps, by spiders, and by many birds and small mammals.
The eggs and nymphs are under attack by parasitoids including blow flies, flesh flies, and tachinid flies. External parasites of adults and nymphs include mites. Female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring than unaffected individuals.
The grasshopper nematode (Mermis nigrescens) is a long slender worm that infects grasshoppers, living in the insect's hemocoel. Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host becomes infected when the foliage is eaten. Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts. When the worms are sufficiently developed, the grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns, thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle, which takes place in water.
Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The bacteria Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers, as has the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world, but although it infects grasshoppers, the infection is not usually lethal because basking in the sun has the result of raising the insect's temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus. The fungal pathogen Entomophaga grylli is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host, causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies. This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse.
The fungal pathogen Metarhizium acridum is found in Africa, Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers. It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control. The microsporidian fungus Nosema locustae, once considered to be a protozoan, can be lethal to grasshoppers. It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait-based commercial microbial pesticide. Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut.
ANTI-PREDATOR DEFENCES
Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti-predator adaptations, enabling them to avoid detection, to escape if detected, and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured. Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight; some species can change their coloration to suit their surroundings.
Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai (Eumastacoidea) are detailed mimics of leaves. Stick grasshoppers (Proscopiidae) mimic wooden sticks in form and colouration. Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings, giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight.
Some species are genuinely aposematic, having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators. Dictyophorus productus (Pyrgomorphidae) is a "heavy, bloated, sluggish insect" that makes no attempt to hide; it has a bright red abdomen. A Cercopithecus monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species. Another species, the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona, Dactylotum bicolor (Acridoidea), has been shown by experiment with a natural predator, the little striped whiptail lizard, to be aposematic
RELATIONSHIP WITH HUMANS
IN ART AND MEDIA
Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks, such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast's still life oil painting, Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects, c. 1630, now in the National Gallery, London, though the insect may be a bush-cricket.
Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch's still life Flowers in a Vase, c. 1685. The seemingly static scene is animated by a "grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring", according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman, with other invertebrates including a spider, an ant, and two caterpillars.
Grasshoppers are also featured in cinema. The 1957 film Beginning of the End portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago.[59] In the 1998 Pixar film A Bug's Life, the heroes are the members of an ant colony, and the lead villain and his henchmen are grasshoppers.
SYMBOLISM
Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols, as in Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street, London, dating from 1563;[a] the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange, but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust.
When grasshoppers appear in dreams, these have been interpreted as symbols of "Freedom, independence, spiritual enlightenment, inability to settle down or commit to decision". Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers; figuratively as "wicked men and women" for non-farmers; and "Extravagance, misfortune, & ephemeral happiness" by "gypsies".
AS FOOD
In some countries, grasshoppers are used as food. In southern Mexico, grasshoppers, known as chapulines, are eaten in a variety of dishes, such as in tortillas with chilli sauce. Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets, like the Donghuamen Night Market. Fried grasshoppers (walang goreng) are eaten in the Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Java in Indonesia. In Native America, the Ohlone people burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food.
It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey (Greek: ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, akrídes kaì méli ágrion) while living in the wilderness; attempts have been made to explain the locusts as suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, but the plain meaning of ἀκρίδες is the insects.
AS PESTS
Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development, and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies. Pasture, grain, forage, vegetable and other crops can be affected. Grasshoppers often bask in the sun, and thrive in warm sunny conditions, so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations. A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a massive population increase, but several successive dry seasons can do so, especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive. Although sunny weather stimulates growth, there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population. This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth, prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development.
Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment. Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging luxurious growth beside ditches and on roadside verges. With increasing numbers of grasshoppers, predator numbers may increase, but this seldom happens sufficiently rapidly to have much effect on populations. Biological control is being investigated, and spores of the protozoan parasite Nosema locustae can be used mixed with bait to control grasshoppers, being more effective with immature insects. On a small scale, neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development. Insecticides can be used, but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill, and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth, crops may soon become reinfested.
Some grasshopper species, like the Chinese rice grasshopper, are a pest in rice paddies. Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field, to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies. Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place.
Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations, causing famines and population upheavals. They are mentioned in both the Koran and the Bible and have also been held responsible for cholera epidemics, resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches. The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world. Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers from forming before dense swarms of adults can build up. Besides conventional control using contact insecticides, biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum, which specifically infects grasshoppers, has been used with some success.
IN LITERATURE
The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written snḥm in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system. The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts: "They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude."
One of Aesop's Fables, later retold by La Fontaine, is the tale of The Ant and the Grasshopper. The ant works hard all summer, while the grasshopper plays. In winter, the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves. Somerset Maugham's short story "The Ant and the Grasshopper" explores the fable's symbolism via complex framing. Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper's behaviour. So an unfaithful woman (hopping from man to man) is "a grasshopper" in "Poprygunya", an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov, and in Jerry Paris's 1969 film The Grasshopper.
In mechanical engineering
The name "Grasshopper" was given to the Aeronca L-3 and Piper L-4 light aircraft, both used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II. The name is said to have originated when Major General Innis P. Swift saw a Piper making a rough landing and remarked that it looked like a "damned grasshopper" for its bouncing progress.
Grasshopper beam engines were beam engines pivoted at one end, the long horizontal arm resembling the hind leg of a grasshopper. The type was patented by William Freemantle in 1803.
WIKIPEDIA
:: _Lona reciclada + Imanes + Extensor_ ::
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Bogotá* Abril 2011// Fotografía original desde San Andrés Islas* Marzo 2011*
Mise en place du dôme d'une hauteur de 13,80 mètres avec un diamètre de 17 mètres pour un poids de 34 tonnes sur le toit du nouveau bâtiment.
Réalisation d'un centre thermal et aquatique comprenant des espaces de stationnement et une résidence hôtelière dans le cadre du projet Grand Nancy Thermal.
• Réhabilitation et extension de la piscine intérieure.
• Réhabilitation et extension du bâtiment de la piscine ronde.
• Création de nouveaux bassins extérieurs.
• Création d'espaces verts et de stationnements (découverts et souterrains).
Pays : France 🇫🇷
Région : Grand Est (Lorraine)
Département : Meurthe-et-Moselle (54)
Ville : Nancy (54000)
Quartier : Nancy Sud
Adresse : rue du Maréchal Juin
Fonction : Piscine
Construction : 2020 → 2023
► Architecte : Architectures Anne Démians / Chabanne & Partenaires
► Gros œuvre : Bouygues Construction
► PC n° 54 395 19 R0043 délivré le 20/09/2019
Niveaux : R+3
Hauteur maximale : 26.66 m
Surface de plancher totale : 16 547 m²
Superficie du terrain : 37 248 m²
IN ENGLISH BELOW THE LINE
La Folding Pocket Kodak és una càmera força important. En primer lloc, és una de les primeres càmeres de rodet del món, i molt en especial, la primera que realment es podia portar a la butxaca, com clàrament indica el seu nom. Hi havia ja aleshores càmeres més petites, però no de rodet de pel·licula.
La FPK es començà a produir el 1897, i inicià una gràn familia de càmeres plegables de la marca Kodak que s'allargaren fins poc abans de la Segona Guerra Mundial, amb infinitat de variants. És, pertant la "avia" de totes elles. Emprava el format 105, fent fotos de 2 1/4 x 3 1/4; de fet és molt similar al actual format 120, pel que amb certa traça, es pot fer servir en aquesta càmera.
L'obturador i l'objectiu eren molt senzills, integrats en l'estructura i que no permetien quasi cap variació en la fotografia. De fet, aquesta càmera no té gaires més possibilitats que una molt més senzilla i ubicua Brownie de caixa, però gràcies a la manxa, és molt més compacta.
El 1899, pràcticament sense canviar la estructura, la càmera canvià de nom, incorporant el No.1 davant de "Folding Pocket Kodak"; així es diferenciava de altres variants de mides diferents que s'anaven incorporant al cataleg, com la No.0 o la No.1A. Tot i que hi ha diversos "sub-models" de trancisió, crec que aquesta és encara una FPK original, ja que s'en fabricaren 75.000, i el seu nº de serie està entre els 44.000. Igualment, en el text al interior de la càmera no parla de cap patent posterior al 1894 (n'he vista altres que si ho fan), ni incorpora visors tipus "brilliant", tipics de les primeres "No.1". Tot plegat, dona una cronologia de fabricació del 1898-1899, just quan la Guerra de Cuba!
Algú, potser el primer propietari, gravà les lletres AP en un dels extensors cromats, segurament les seves inicials.
camerapedia.fandom.com/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
camera-wiki.org/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
www.kodaksefke.nl/folding-pocket-kodak.html
redbellows.co.uk/CameraCollection/Kodak/FoldingPocketKoda...
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The Folding Pocket Kodak is a very historically important camera. First and foremost, it is one of the first roll-film cameras in the world, and especially the first that could really be carried in your pocket, as the name implies. At that time there were smaller cameras, but using glass plates.
The FPK began production in 1897, and launched a large family of Kodak-branded folding cameras that lasted until shortly before World War II, with countless variants. It is, as such, the "grandmother" of all of them. It used the 105 format roll film, taking 2 1/4 x 3 1/4 photos; in fact it is very similar to the current format 120, so with some adaptations it can be used in this camera.
The shutter and lens were very simple, integrated in the structure and allowed almost no variation in photography. In fact, this camera does not have much more possibilities than a much simpler and ubiquitous Brownie box camera, but thanks to the bellows, it is much more compact.
In 1899, with almost no change in structure, the camera was renamed, incorporating No.1 in front of "Folding Pocket Kodak"; Thus it differed from other variants of different sizes that were being incorporated into the catalog, such as No.0 or No.1A. Although there are several trance "sub-models", I think this is still an original FPK and not a No.1, as 75,000 were manufactured, and its serial number is between the 44,000. Also, in the text inside the camera it does not speak of any patent since 1894 (I have seen others than they do), nor does it incorporate "brilliant" viewfinders, typical of the first "No.1". All in all, it gives a manufacturing timeline of 1898-1899, just when the Cuban War!
Someone, maybe the first owner, wrote the letters AP on one of the chrome extenders, probably his initials.
camerapedia.fandom.com/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
camera-wiki.org/wiki/Folding_Pocket_Kodak
www.kodaksefke.nl/folding-pocket-kodak.html
redbellows.co.uk/CameraCollection/Kodak/FoldingPocketKoda...
Otra prueba del Magnon 28mm, pero esta vez con el anillo extensor EX-25. Con el tubo, el rango de distancias de trabajo se limitaba una barbaridad, la mínima a unos 2 cm. y la máxima (con el anillo a infinito) a menos de 4 cm.
Me fue imposible fotografiarla de frente y no darle sombra a la vez. Un flash hubiese venido perfecto para evitar el ruido generado al levantar las sombras. Además, me ha dado unas aberraciones magentas que no he podido quitar del todo.
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Es un apilado de 2 fotos, hecho "artesanalmente".
Argiope bruennichi (wasp spider) is a species of orb-web spider distributed throughout central Europe, northern Europe, north Africa, parts of Asia, and the Azores archipelago. Like many other members of the genus Argiope (including St Andrew's Cross spiders), it shows striking yellow and black markings on its abdomen.
WEB
The spider builds a spiral orb web at dawn or dusk, commonly in long grass a little above ground level, taking it approximately an hour. The prominent zigzag shape called the stabilimentum, or web decoration, featured at the centre of the orb is of uncertain function, though it may be to attract insects.
When a prey item is first caught in the web, Argiope bruennichi will quickly immobilise its prey by wrapping it in silk. The prey is then bitten and then injected with a paralysing venom and a protein-dissolving enzyme.
POPULATION
During Summer 2006, research was carried out in the UK to find that there has been an influx of these spiders to the UK. The colour is still similar, although the yellow stripes are a bit more cream-coloured.
Besides the nominate subspecies, there is one subspecies currently recognised:
Argiope bruennichi nigrofasciata Franganillo, 1910 (Portugal)
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
Argiope bruennichi display a rather large distinction between males and females with males averaging length of approximately 4.5 mm and females averaging 15 mm. The reasons for this large difference has evolutionary and fitness background with regards to mating as well as cannibalism by the females towards the males after copulation.
MATING
The differences of size of these male spiders actually allows the males to come into contact with the females in relation to their orb webs. The male Argiope bruennichi are able to enter into the female's orb and thus make their webs without being detected as prey and thus eaten before they are able to mate, a major fitness advantage.
PLUGGING
Certain male Argiope bruennichi have an adaptation that they have developed to ensure that they will be the only mate with whom the female can produce offspring. Certain males are able to "plug" the female after they have mated with her to prevent other males from copulating with the female. This plugging involves losing one of his pedipalps, thus allowing him to only mate twice. This is a major reason as to why these males are always in a rush to mate after the female has completed her final moult. With males always waiting around for the female to reach full maturity, the race is on for the male who is small enough to not be detected, yet is also able to "plug" the female so that other males have a lower chance of competing for fertilization of her eggs. These spiders have evolved to become monogamous for the most part after mating because of this damage.
If the females are only able to reproduce once they must develop a method to produce more offspring at one time (per clutch). This can be caused by multiple things, including a sex ratio that forces these males to make sure they have at least one female to produce their offspring simply because there are not as many females present.[5] If these females are only able to mate one time, they need to develop this larger clutch size to ensure that their genes are passed down from the surviving of her first clutch.
Females that consumed a small supplement of dietary essential amino acids produced offspring that survived simulated overwintering conditions significantly longer than offspring of other treatments. Results suggest that dietary essential amino acids, which may be sequestered by males from their diet, could be valuable supplements that increase the success of the offspring of cannibalistic females.
CANNIBALISM
The species Argiope bruennichi displays cannibalism when it comes to mating. We can see this because the sex ratio is so biased towards females later in the mating season. With so few females available, the males need to develop their own ways to potentially find and secure a successful mating like small size and proper time to find an immature female. The females, typically much larger in size when compared to the males, almost always consume their male counterpart after copulation. Males can often be seen in or near a female's web waiting for her to complete her final moult, at which time she reaches sexual maturity. At this time her chelicerae (jaws) will be soft for a short time and the male may mate with the female without the danger of being eaten. These males obviously want to avoid getting eaten and this is more or less the only time that they are able to take advantage. Although the cause for this type of dimorphism between sexes seems to have a much larger benefit for the females.
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Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every habitat with the exceptions of air and sea colonization. As of November 2015, at least 45,700 spider species, and 114 families have been recorded by taxonomists. However, there has been dissension within the scientific community as to how all these families should be classified, as evidenced by the over 20 different classifications that have been proposed since 1900.
Anatomically, spiders differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen, and joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel. Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by hydraulic pressure.
Their abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of glands. Spider webs vary widely in size, shape and the amount of sticky thread used. It now appears that the spiral orb web may be one of the earliest forms, and spiders that produce tangled cobwebs are more abundant and diverse than orb-web spiders. Spider-like arachnids with silk-producing spigots appeared in the Devonian period about 386 million years ago, but these animals apparently lacked spinnerets. True spiders have been found in Carboniferous rocks from 318 to 299 million years ago, and are very similar to the most primitive surviving suborder, the Mesothelae. The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appeared in the Triassic period, before 200 million years ago.
A herbivorous species, Bagheera kiplingi, was described in 2008,[5] but all other known species are predators, mostly preying on insects and on other spiders, although a few large species also take birds and lizards. Spiders use a wide range of strategies to capture prey: trapping it in sticky webs, lassoing it with sticky bolas, mimicking the prey to avoid detection, or running it down. Most detect prey mainly by sensing vibrations, but the active hunters have acute vision, and hunters of the genus Portia show signs of intelligence in their choice of tactics and ability to develop new ones. Spiders' guts are too narrow to take solids, and they liquefy their food by flooding it with digestive enzymes and grinding it with the bases of their pedipalps, as they do not have true jaws.
Male spiders identify themselves by a variety of complex courtship rituals to avoid being eaten by the females. Males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Females weave silk egg-cases, each of which may contain hundreds of eggs. Females of many species care for their young, for example by carrying them around or by sharing food with them. A minority of species are social, building communal webs that may house anywhere from a few to 50,000 individuals. Social behavior ranges from precarious toleration, as in the widow spiders, to co-operative hunting and food-sharing. Although most spiders live for at most two years, tarantulas and other mygalomorph spiders can live up to 25 years in captivity.
While the venom of a few species is dangerous to humans, scientists are now researching the use of spider venom in medicine and as non-polluting pesticides. Spider silk provides a combination of lightness, strength and elasticity that is superior to that of synthetic materials, and spider silk genes have been inserted into mammals and plants to see if these can be used as silk factories. As a result of their wide range of behaviors, spiders have become common symbols in art and mythology symbolizing various combinations of patience, cruelty and creative powers. An abnormal fear of spiders is called arachnophobia.
BODY PLAN
Spiders are chelicerates and therefore arthropods.[6] As arthropods they have: segmented bodies with jointed limbs, all covered in a cuticle made of chitin and proteins; heads that are composed of several segments that fuse during the development of the embryo. Being chelicerates, their bodies consist of two tagmata, sets of segments that serve similar functions: the foremost one, called the cephalothorax or prosoma, is a complete fusion of the segments that in an insect would form two separate tagmata, the head and thorax; the rear tagma is called the abdomen or opisthosoma. In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are connected by a small cylindrical section, the pedicel. The pattern of segment fusion that forms chelicerates' heads is unique among arthropods, and what would normally be the first head segment disappears at an early stage of development, so that chelicerates lack the antennae typical of most arthropods. In fact, chelicerates' only appendages ahead of the mouth are a pair of chelicerae, and they lack anything that would function directly as "jaws". The first appendages behind the mouth are called pedipalps, and serve different functions within different groups of chelicerates.
Spiders and scorpions are members of one chelicerate group, the arachnids. Scorpions' chelicerae have three sections and are used in feeding. Spiders' chelicerae have two sections and terminate in fangs that are generally venomous, and fold away behind the upper sections while not in use. The upper sections generally have thick "beards" that filter solid lumps out of their food, as spiders can take only liquid food.[8] Scorpions' pedipalps generally form large claws for capturing prey, while those of spiders are fairly small appendages whose bases also act as an extension of the mouth; in addition, those of male spiders have enlarged last sections used for sperm transfer.
In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel, which enables the abdomen to move independently when producing silk. The upper surface of the cephalothorax is covered by a single, convex carapace, while the underside is covered by two rather flat plates. The abdomen is soft and egg-shaped. It shows no sign of segmentation, except that the primitive Mesothelae, whose living members are the Liphistiidae, have segmented plates on the upper surface.
CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION
Like other arthropods, spiders are coelomates in which the coelom is reduced to small areas round the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows. The heart is a tube in the upper part of the body, with a few ostia that act as non-return valves allowing blood to enter the heart from the hemocoel but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front end. However, in spiders, it occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching arteries that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts of the cephalothorax. Hence spiders have open circulatory systems. The blood of many spiders that have book lungs contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin to make oxygen transport more efficient.
Spiders have developed several different respiratory anatomies, based on book lungs, a tracheal system, or both. Mygalomorph and Mesothelae spiders have two pairs of book lungs filled with haemolymph, where openings on the ventral surface of the abdomen allow air to enter and diffuse oxygen. This is also the case for some basal araneomorph spiders, like the family Hypochilidae, but the remaining members of this group have just the anterior pair of book lungs intact while the posterior pair of breathing organs are partly or fully modified into tracheae, through which oxygen is diffused into the haemolymph or directly to the tissue and organs. The trachea system has most likely evolved in small ancestors to help resist desiccation. The trachea were originally connected to the surroundings through a pair of openings called spiracles, but in the majority of spiders this pair of spiracles has fused into a single one in the middle, and moved backwards close to the spinnerets. Spiders that have tracheae generally have higher metabolic rates and better water conservation. Spiders are ectotherms, so environmental temperatures affect their activity.
FEEDING, DIGESTION AND EXCRETION
Uniquely among chelicerates, the final sections of spiders' chelicerae are fangs, and the great majority of spiders can use them to inject venom into prey from venom glands in the roots of the chelicerae. The family Uloboridae has lost its venom glands, and kills its prey with silk instead. Like most arachnids, including scorpions, spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food and spiders have two sets of filters to keep solids out. They use one of two different systems of external digestion. Some pump digestive enzymes from the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut, eventually leaving behind the empty husk of the prey. Others grind the prey to pulp using the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps, while flooding it with enzymes; in these species, the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the food they are processing.
The stomach in the cephalothorax acts as a pump that sends the food deeper into the digestive system. The mid gut bears many digestive ceca, compartments with no other exit, that extract nutrients from the food; most are in the abdomen, which is dominated by the digestive system, but a few are found in the cephalothorax.
Most spiders convert nitrogenous waste products into uric acid, which can be excreted as a dry material. Malphigian tubules ("little tubes") extract these wastes from the blood in the hemocoel and dump them into the cloacal chamber, from which they are expelled through the anus. Production of uric acid and its removal via Malphigian tubules are a water-conserving feature that has evolved independently in several arthropod lineages that can live far away from water, for example the tubules of insects and arachnids develop from completely different parts of the embryo. However, a few primitive spiders, the sub-order Mesothelae and infra-order Mygalomorphae, retain the ancestral arthropod nephridia ("little kidneys"), which use large amounts of water to excrete nitrogenous waste products as ammonia.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The basic arthropod central nervous system consists of a pair of nerve cords running below the gut, with paired ganglia as local control centers in all segments; a brain formed by fusion of the ganglia for the head segments ahead of and behind the mouth, so that the esophagus is encircled by this conglomeration of ganglia. Except for the primitive Mesothelae, of which the Liphistiidae are the sole surviving family, spiders have the much more centralized nervous system that is typical of arachnids: all the ganglia of all segments behind the esophagus are fused, so that the cephalothorax is largely filled with nervous tissue and there are no ganglia in the abdomen; in the Mesothelae, the ganglia of the abdomen and the rear part of the cephalothorax remain unfused.
Despite the relatively small central nervous system, some spiders (like Portia) exhibit complex behaviour, including the ability to use a trial-and-error approach.
Sense organs
EYES
Most spiders have four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the cephalothorax, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The pair at the front are of the type called pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), which in most arthropods are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup. However, the main eyes at the front of spiders' heads are pigment-cup ocelli that are capable of forming images. The other eyes are thought to be derived from the compound eyes of the ancestral chelicerates, but no longer have the separate facets typical of compound eyes. Unlike the main eyes, in many spiders these secondary eyes detect light reflected from a reflective tapetum lucidum, and wolf spiders can be spotted by torch light reflected from the tapeta. On the other hand, jumping spiders' secondary eyes have no tapeta. Some jumping spiders' visual acuity exceeds by a factor of ten that of dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects; in fact the human eye is only about five times sharper than a jumping spider's. They achieve this by a telephoto-like series of lenses, a four-layer retina and the ability to swivel their eyes and integrate images from different stages in the scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are relatively slow.
There are spiders with a reduced number of eyes, of these those with six-eyes are the most numerous and are missing a pair of eyes on the anterior median line, others species have four-eyes and some just two. Cave dwelling species have no eyes, or possess vestigial eyes incapable of sight.
OTHER SENSES
As with other arthropods, spiders' cuticles would block out information about the outside world, except that they are penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system. In fact, spiders and other arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various touch sensors, mostly bristles called setae, respond to different levels of force, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell, often by means of setae. Pedipalps carry a large number of such setae sensitive to contact chemicals and air-borne smells, such as female pheromones. Spiders also have in the joints of their limbs slit sensillae that detect forces and vibrations. In web-building spiders, all these mechanical and chemical sensors are more important than the eyes, while the eyes are most important to spiders that hunt actively.
Like most arthropods, spiders lack balance and acceleration sensors and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up. Arthropods' proprioceptors, sensors that report the force exerted by muscles and the degree of bending in the body and joints, are well understood. On the other hand, little is known about what other internal sensors spiders or other arthropods may have.
LOCMOTION
Each of the eight legs of a spider consists of seven distinct parts. The part closest to and attaching the leg to the cephalothorax is the coxa; the next segment is the short trochanter that works as a hinge for the following long segment, the femur; next is the spider's knee, the patella, which acts as the hinge for the tibia; the metatarsus is next, and it connects the tibia to the tarsus (which may be thought of as a foot of sorts); the tarsus ends in a claw made up of either two or three points, depending on the family to which the spider belongs. Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton to flex their limbs, spiders and a few other groups still use hydraulic pressure to extend them, a system inherited from their pre-arthropod ancestors. The only extensor muscles in spider legs are located in the three hip joints (bordering the coxa and the trochanter). As a result, a spider with a punctured cephalothorax cannot extend its legs, and the legs of dead spiders curl up. Spiders can generate pressures up to eight times their resting level to extend their legs, and jumping spiders can jump up to 50 times their own length by suddenly increasing the blood pressure in the third or fourth pair of legs. Although larger spiders use hydraulics to straighten their legs, unlike smaller jumping spiders they depend on their flexor muscles to generate the propulsive force for their jumps.
Most spiders that hunt actively, rather than relying on webs, have dense tufts of fine hairs between the paired claws at the tips of their legs. These tufts, known as scopulae, consist of bristles whose ends are split into as many as 1,000 branches, and enable spiders with scopulae to walk up vertical glass and upside down on ceilings. It appears that scopulae get their grip from contact with extremely thin layers of water on surfaces.[8] Spiders, like most other arachnids, keep at least four legs on the surface while walking or running.
SILK PRODUCTION
The abdomen has no appendages except those that have been modified to form one to four (usually three) pairs of short, movable spinnerets, which emit silk. Each spinneret has many spigots, each of which is connected to one silk gland. There are at least six types of silk gland, each producing a different type of silk.
Silk is mainly composed of a protein very similar to that used in insect silk. It is initially a liquid, and hardens not by exposure to air but as a result of being drawn out, which changes the internal structure of the protein. It is similar in tensile strength to nylon and biological materials such as chitin, collagen and cellulose, but is much more elastic. In other words, it can stretch much further before breaking or losing shape.
Some spiders have a cribellum, a modified spinneret with up to 40,000 spigots, each of which produces a single very fine fiber. The fibers are pulled out by the calamistrum, a comb-like set of bristles on the jointed tip of the cribellum, and combined into a composite woolly thread that is very effective in snagging the bristles of insects. The earliest spiders had cribella, which produced the first silk capable of capturing insects, before spiders developed silk coated with sticky droplets. However, most modern groups of spiders have lost the cribellum.
Tarantulas also have silk glands in their feet.
Even species that do not build webs to catch prey use silk in several ways: as wrappers for sperm and for fertilized eggs; as a "safety rope"; for nest-building; and as "parachutes" by the young of some species.
REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE
Spiders reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal but indirect, in other words the sperm is not inserted into the female's body by the male's genitals but by an intermediate stage. Unlike many land-living arthropods, male spiders do not produce ready-made spermatophores (packages of sperm), but spin small sperm webs on to which they ejaculate and then transfer the sperm to special syringe-like structures, palpal bulbs or palpal organs, borne on the tips of the pedipalps of mature males. When a male detects signs of a female nearby he checks whether she is of the same species and whether she is ready to mate; for example in species that produce webs or "safety ropes", the male can identify the species and sex of these objects by "smell".
Spiders generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent the large females from eating the small males before fertilization, except where the male is so much smaller that he is not worth eating. In web-weaving species, precise patterns of vibrations in the web are a major part of the rituals, while patterns of touches on the female's body are important in many spiders that hunt actively, and may "hypnotize" the female. Gestures and dances by the male are important for jumping spiders, which have excellent eyesight. If courtship is successful, the male injects his sperm from the palpal bulbs into the female's genital opening, known as the epigyne, on the underside of her abdomen. Female's reproductive tracts vary from simple tubes to systems that include seminal receptacles in which females store sperm and release it when they are ready.
Males of the genus Tidarren amputate one of their palps before maturation and enter adult life with one palp only. The palps are 20% of male's body mass in this species, and detaching one of the two improves mobility. In the Yemeni species Tidarren argo, the remaining palp is then torn off by the female. The separated palp remains attached to the female's epigynum for about four hours and apparently continues to function independently. In the meantime, the female feeds on the palpless male. In over 60% of cases, the female of the Australian redback spider kills and eats the male after it inserts its second palp into the female's genital opening; in fact, the males co-operate by trying to impale themselves on the females' fangs. Observation shows that most male redbacks never get an opportunity to mate, and the "lucky" ones increase the likely number of offspring by ensuring that the females are well-fed. However, males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Some even live for a while in their mates' webs.
Females lay up to 3,000 eggs in one or more silk egg sacs, which maintain a fairly constant humidity level. In some species, the females die afterwards, but females of other species protect the sacs by attaching them to their webs, hiding them in nests, carrying them in the chelicerae or attaching them to the spinnerets and dragging them along.
Baby spiders pass all their larval stages inside the egg and hatch as spiderlings, very small and sexually immature but similar in shape to adults. Some spiders care for their young, for example a wolf spider's brood cling to rough bristles on the mother's back, and females of some species respond to the "begging" behaviour of their young by giving them their prey, provided it is no longer struggling, or even regurgitate food.
Like other arthropods, spiders have to molt to grow as their cuticle ("skin") cannot stretch. In some species males mate with newly molted females, which are too weak to be dangerous to the males. Most spiders live for only one to two years, although some tarantulas can live in captivity for over 20 years.
SIZE
Spiders occur in a large range of sizes. The smallest, Patu digua from Colombia, are less than 0.37 mm in body length. The largest and heaviest spiders occur among tarantulas, which can have body lengths up to 90 mm and leg spans up to 250 mm.
COLORATION
Only three classes of pigment (ommochromes, bilins and guanine) have been identified in spiders, although other pigments have been detected but not yet characterized. Melanins, carotenoids and pterins, very common in other animals, are apparently absent. In some species, the exocuticle of the legs and prosoma is modified by a tanning process, resulting in brown coloration. Bilins are found, for example, in Micrommata virescens, resulting in its green color. Guanine is responsible for the white markings of the European garden spider Araneus diadematus. It is in many species accumulated in specialized cells called guanocytes. In genera such as Tetragnatha, Leucauge, Argyrodes or Theridiosoma, guanine creates their silvery appearance. While guanine is originally an end-product of protein metabolism, its excretion can be blocked in spiders, leading to an increase in its storage. Structural colors occur in some species, which are the result of the diffraction, scattering or interference of light, for example by modified setae or scales. The white prosoma of Argiope results from hairs reflecting the light, Lycosa and Josa both have areas of modified cuticle that act as light reflectors.
ECOGOGY AND BEHAVIOR
NON-PREDATORY FEEDING
Although spiders are generally regarded as predatory, the jumping spider Bagheera kiplingi gets over 90% of its food from fairly solid plant material produced by acacias as part of a mutually beneficial relationship with a species of ant.
Juveniles of some spiders in the families Anyphaenidae, Corinnidae, Clubionidae, Thomisidae and Salticidae feed on plant nectar. Laboratory studies show that they do so deliberately and over extended periods, and periodically clean themselves while feeding. These spiders also prefer sugar solutions to plain water, which indicates that they are seeking nutrients. Since many spiders are nocturnal, the extent of nectar consumption by spiders may have been underestimated. Nectar contains amino acids, lipids, vitamins and minerals in addition to sugars, and studies have shown that other spider species live longer when nectar is available. Feeding on nectar avoids the risks of struggles with prey, and the costs of producing venom and digestive enzymes.
Various species are known to feed on dead arthropods (scavenging), web silk, and their own shed exoskeletons. Pollen caught in webs may also be eaten, and studies have shown that young spiders have a better chance of survival if they have the opportunity to eat pollen. In captivity, several spider species are also known to feed on bananas, marmalade, milk, egg yolk and sausages.
METHODS OF CAPTURING PREY
The best-known method of prey capture is by means of sticky webs. Varying placement of webs allows different species of spider to trap different insects in the same area, for example flat horizontal webs trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath while flat vertical webs trap insects in horizontal flight. Web-building spiders have poor vision, but are extremely sensitive to vibrations.
Females of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica build underwater "diving bell" webs that they fill with air and use for digesting prey, molting, mating and raising offspring. They live almost entirely within the bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the threads that anchor it. A few spiders use the surfaces of lakes and ponds as "webs", detecting trapped insects by the vibrations that these cause while struggling.
Net-casting spiders weave only small webs, but then manipulate them to trap prey. Those of the genus Hyptiotes and the family Theridiosomatidae stretch their webs and then release them when prey strike them, but do not actively move their webs. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have shown that Deinopis spinosus has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects, whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of Deinopis subrufa appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.
Mature female bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora build "webs" that consist of only a single "trapeze line", which they patrol. They also construct a bolas made of a single thread, tipped with a large ball of very wet sticky silk. They emit chemicals that resemble the pheromones of moths, and then swing the bolas at the moths. Although they miss on about 50% of strikes, they catch about the same weight of insects per night as web-weaving spiders of similar size. The spiders eat the bolas if they have not made a kill in about 30 minutes, rest for a while, and then make new bolas. Juveniles and adult males are much smaller and do not make bolas. Instead they release different pheromones that attract moth flies, and catch them with their front pairs of legs.
The primitive Liphistiidae, the "trapdoor spiders" of the family Ctenizidae and many tarantulas are ambush predators that lurk in burrows, often closed by trapdoors and often surrounded by networks of silk threads that alert these spiders to the presence of prey. Other ambush predators do without such aids, including many crab spiders, and a few species that prey on bees, which see ultraviolet, can adjust their ultraviolet reflectance to match the flowers in which they are lurking. Wolf spiders, jumping spiders, fishing spiders and some crab spiders capture prey by chasing it, and rely mainly on vision to locate prey.Some jumping spiders of the genus Portia hunt other spiders in ways that seem intelligent, outflanking their victims or luring them from their webs. Laboratory studies show that Portia's instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly how to overcome new prey species. However, they seem to be relatively slow "thinkers", which is not surprising, as their brains are vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators.Ant-mimicking spiders face several challenges: they generally develop slimmer abdomens and false "waists" in the cephalothorax to mimic the three distinct regions (tagmata) of an ant's body; they wave the first pair of legs in front of their heads to mimic antennae, which spiders lack, and to conceal the fact that they have eight legs rather than six; they develop large color patches round one pair of eyes to disguise the fact that they generally have eight simple eyes, while ants have two compound eyes; they cover their bodies with reflective hairs to resemble the shiny bodies of ants. In some spider species, males and females mimic different ant species, as female spiders are usually much larger than males. Ant-mimicking spiders also modify their behavior to resemble that of the target species of ant; for example, many adopt a zig-zag pattern of movement, ant-mimicking jumping spiders avoid jumping, and spiders of the genus Synemosyna walk on the outer edges of leaves in the same way as Pseudomyrmex. Ant-mimicry in many spiders and other arthropods may be for protection from predators that hunt by sight, including birds, lizards and spiders. However, several ant-mimicking spiders prey either on ants or on the ants' "livestock", such as aphids. When at rest, the ant-mimicking crab spider Amyciaea does not closely resemble Oecophylla, but while hunting it imitates the behavior of a dying ant to attract worker ants. After a kill, some ant-mimicking spiders hold their victims between themselves and large groups of ants to avoid being attacked.
DEFENSE
There is strong evidence that spiders' coloration is camouflage that helps them to evade their major predators, birds and parasitic wasps, both of which have good color vision. Many spider species are colored so as to merge with their most common backgrounds, and some have disruptive coloration, stripes and blotches that break up their outlines. In a few species, such as the Hawaiian happy-face spider, Theridion grallator, several coloration schemes are present in a ratio that appears to remain constant, and this may make it more difficult for predators to recognize the species. Most spiders are insufficiently dangerous or unpleasant-tasting for warning coloration to offer much benefit. However, a few species with powerful venoms, large jaws or irritant hairs have patches of warning colors, and some actively display these colors when threatened.
Many of the family Theraphosidae, which includes tarantulas and baboon spiders, have urticating hairs on their abdomens and use their legs to flick them at attackers. These hairs are fine setae (bristles) with fragile bases and a row of barbs on the tip. The barbs cause intense irritation but there is no evidence that they carry any kind of venom. A few defend themselves against wasps by including networks of very robust threads in their webs, giving the spider time to flee while the wasps are struggling with the obstacles. The golden wheeling spider, Carparachne aureoflava, of the Namibian desert escapes parasitic wasps by flipping onto its side and cartwheeling down sand dunes.
SOCIAL SPIDERS
A few spider species that build webs live together in large colonies and show social behavior, although not as complex as in social insects. Anelosimus eximius (in the family Theridiidae) can form colonies of up to 50,000 individuals. The genus Anelosimus has a strong tendency towards sociality: all known American species are social, and species in Madagascar are at least somewhat social. Members of other species in the same family but several different genera have independently developed social behavior. For example, although Theridion nigroannulatum belongs to a genus with no other social species, T. nigroannulatum build colonies that may contain several thousand individuals that co-operate in prey capture and share food. Other communal spiders include several Philoponella species (family Uloboridae), Agelena consociata (family Agelenidae) and Mallos gregalis (family Dictynidae). Social predatory spiders need to defend their prey against kleptoparasites ("thieves"), and larger colonies are more successful in this. The herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi lives in small colonies which help to protect eggs and spiderlings. Even widow spiders (genus Latrodectus), which are notoriously cannibalistic, have formed small colonies in captivity, sharing webs and feeding together.
WEB TYPES
There is no consistent relationship between the classification of spiders and the types of web they build: species in the same genus may build very similar or significantly different webs. Nor is there much correspondence between spiders' classification and the chemical composition of their silks. Convergent evolution in web construction, in other words use of similar techniques by remotely related species, is rampant. Orb web designs and the spinning behaviors that produce them are the best understood. The basic radial-then-spiral sequence visible in orb webs and the sense of direction required to build them may have been inherited from the common ancestors of most spider groups. However, the majority of spiders build non-orb webs. It used to be thought that the sticky orb web was an evolutionary innovation resulting in the diversification of the Orbiculariae. Now, however, it appears that non-orb spiders are a sub-group that evolved from orb-web spiders, and non-orb spiders have over 40% more species and are four times as abundant as orb-web spiders. Their greater success may be because sphecid wasps, which are often the dominant predators of spiders, much prefer to attack spiders that have flat webs.
ORB WEBS
About half the potential prey that hit orb webs escape. A web has to perform three functions: intercepting the prey (intersection), absorbing its momentum without breaking (stopping), and trapping the prey by entangling it or sticking to it (retention). No single design is best for all prey. For example: wider spacing of lines will increase the web's area and hence its ability to intercept prey, but reduce its stopping power and retention; closer spacing, larger sticky droplets and thicker lines would improve retention, but would make it easier for potential prey to see and avoid the web, at least during the day. However, there are no consistent differences between orb webs built for use during the day and those built for use at night. In fact, there is no simple relationship between orb web design features and the prey they capture, as each orb-weaving species takes a wide range of prey.
The hubs of orb webs, where the spiders lurk, are usually above the center, as the spiders can move downwards faster than upwards. If there is an obvious direction in which the spider can retreat to avoid its own predators, the hub is usually offset towards that direction.
Horizontal orb webs are fairly common, despite being less effective at intercepting and retaining prey and more vulnerable to damage by rain and falling debris. Various researchers have suggested that horizontal webs offer compensating advantages, such as reduced vulnerability to wind damage; reduced visibility to prey flying upwards, because of the back-lighting from the sky; enabling oscillations to catch insects in slow horizontal flight. However, there is no single explanation for the common use of horizontal orb webs.
Spiders often attach highly visible silk bands, called decorations or stabilimenta, to their webs. Field research suggests that webs with more decorative bands captured more prey per hour. However, a laboratory study showed that spiders reduce the building of these decorations if they sense the presence of predators.
There are several unusual variants of orb web, many of them convergently evolved, including: attachment of lines to the surface of water, possibly to trap insects in or on the surface; webs with twigs through their centers, possibly to hide the spiders from predators; "ladder-like" webs that appear most effective in catching moths. However, the significance of many variations is unclear.
In 1973, Skylab 3 took two orb-web spiders into space to test their web-spinning capabilities in zero gravity. At first, both produced rather sloppy webs, but they adapted quickly.
TANGLEWEB SPIDERS (COBWEB SPIDERS)
Members of the family Theridiidae weave irregular, tangled, three-dimensional webs, popularly known as cobwebs. There seems to be an evolutionary trend towards a reduction in the amount of sticky silk used, leading to its total absence in some species. The construction of cobwebs is less stereotyped than that of orb-webs, and may take several days.
OTHER TYPES OF WEBS
The Linyphiidae generally make horizontal but uneven sheets, with tangles of stopping threads above. Insects that hit the stopping threads fall onto the sheet or are shaken onto it by the spider, and are held by sticky threads on the sheet until the spider can attack from below.
EVOLUTION
FOSSIL RECORD
Although the fossil record of spiders is considered poor, almost 1000 species have been described from fossils. Because spiders' bodies are quite soft, the vast majority of fossil spiders have been found preserved in amber. The oldest known amber that contains fossil arthropods dates from 130 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous period. In addition to preserving spiders' anatomy in very fine detail, pieces of amber show spiders mating, killing prey, producing silk and possibly caring for their young. In a few cases, amber has preserved spiders' egg sacs and webs, occasionally with prey attached; the oldest fossil web found so far is 100 million years old. Earlier spider fossils come from a few lagerstätten, places where conditions were exceptionally suited to preserving fairly soft tissues.
The oldest known exclusively terrestrial arachnid is the trigonotarbid Palaeotarbus jerami, from about 420 million years ago in the Silurian period, and had a triangular cephalothorax and segmented abdomen, as well as eight legs and a pair of pedipalps. Attercopus fimbriunguis, from 386 million years ago in the Devonian period, bears the earliest known silk-producing spigots, and was therefore hailed as a spider at the time of its discovery. However, these spigots may have been mounted on the underside of the abdomen rather than on spinnerets, which are modified appendages and whose mobility is important in the building of webs. Hence Attercopus and the similar Permian arachnid Permarachne may not have been true spiders, and probably used silk for lining nests or producing egg-cases rather than for building webs. The largest known fossil spider as of 2011 is the araneid Nephila jurassica, from about 165 million years ago, recorded from Daohuogo, Inner Mongolia in China. Its body length is almost 25 mm.
Several Carboniferous spiders were members of the Mesothelae, a primitive group now represented only by the Liphistiidae. The mesothelid Paleothele montceauensis, from the Late Carboniferous over 299 million years ago, had five spinnerets. Although the Permian period 299 to 251 million years ago saw rapid diversification of flying insects, there are very few fossil spiders from this period.
The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appear in the Triassic well before 200 million years ago. Some Triassic mygalomorphs appear to be members of the family Hexathelidae, whose modern members include the notorious Sydney funnel-web spider, and their spinnerets appear adapted for building funnel-shaped webs to catch jumping insects. Araneomorphae account for the great majority of modern spiders, including those that weave the familiar orb-shaped webs. The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods provide a large number of fossil spiders, including representatives of many modern families.
WIKIPEDIA
"Convertendo e mudando a leitura!", 04 fotografias. Usei a Canon 60D e objetiva 18x55mm (padrão).
"Converting and changing reading!", 04 photographs. I used Canon 60D and 18x55mm lens (standard).Todos os direitos reservados para Vivaldo Armelin Júnior.
Reprodução proibida.
© Todos os direitos reservados.
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Testando o tubo extensor no Bosque da Barra.
Tras pasar por el Hospital con mi hijo y luego con mi esposa, parece que todo va volviendo a su cauce y los males van "sanando" (mi mujer sigue mal). Hoy he podido hacer algunas fotos...
Menudo Comienzo de Mes :((((((((((
Datos Foto
Tokina 28-70 2.8 Makro (Old Lens without electrical contacs)
Tubos extensores kenko 36mm , 12mm y 20
ISO 200
F 8
1/125
3 Flash
All manual (Todo Manual)
Crop (Recorte)
Handheld
Anatomically, spiders differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen, and joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel. Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by hydraulic pressure.
Photo: Matt www.flickr.com/photos/cheaterfive/
1. Pectoralis Major
Latin, pectoralis, chest; major, large.
Along with pectoralis minor, it forms the anterior wall of the axilla.
Origin
Clavicular head: Medial half or two-thirds of front of clavicle. Sternocostal portion: Sternum and adjacent upper six costal cartilages.
Insertion
Upper shaft of humerus.
Action
Adducts and medially rotates the humerus.
Clavicular portion Flexes and medially rotates the shoulder joint, and horizontally adducts the humerus towards the opposite shoulder. Sternocostal portion: Obliquely adducts the humerus toward the opposite hip. The pectoralis major is one of the main climbing muscles, pulling the body up to the fixed arm.
Nerve
Nerve to upper fibres: Lateral pectoral nerve, C5, 6, 7.
Nerve to lower fibres: Lateral and medial pectoral nerves, 6, 7, 8, T1.
Basic functional movement
Clavicular portion: Brings arm forwards and across the body, as in applying deodorant to opposite armpit.
Sternal portion: Pulling down from above, such as a rope in bell ringing.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Examples: Racket sports such as tennis. Golf. Baseball pitching. Gymnastics (rings and high bar). Judo. Wrestling.
Movements or injuries that may damage this muscle
Indian wrestling and other strength activities that force medial rotation and adduction can damage the insertion of this muscle.
Common problems when muscle is tight
Rounds the back and restricts expansion of chest, restricting lateral rotation and abduction of the shoulder.
Strengthening exercises
Bench press
Dumb-bell flyes
Vertical flyes ('pec deck' machine/ seated butterfly)
Pull-overs
Dips
Self stretches
Fix arm against a door frame. Step forward keeping your back lengthened, not arched. Raising or lowering arm will stretch different parts of the muscle.
2. Seratus anterior
Latin, serratus, notched; anterior, before.
The serratus anterior forms the medial wall of the axilla, along with the upper five ribs. It is a large muscle composed of a series of finger-like slips. The lower slips interdigitate with the origin of the external oblique.
Origin
Outer surfaces and superior borders of upper eight or nine ribs, and the fascia covering their intercostal spaces.
Insertion
Anterior (costal) surface of the medial border of scapula and inferior angle of scapula.
Action
Protracts scapula (pulls it forward on the ribs and holds it closely into the chest wall). Rotates scapula for abduction and flexion of arm.
Nerve
Long thoracic nerve, C5, 6, 7, 8.
Basic functional movement
PUshing or reaching forwards for something barely within reach.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Examples: Boxing. Shot put.
Common problems when muscle is weak
'Winged scapula' (looking like an angel's wing), especially when holding a weight in front of the body. This is also a feature when the nerve to this muscle is damaged.
Strengthening exercises
Bench press (including inclined version)
Shoulder press
Press ups
Self stretch
In a seated position, hold seat of chair with one arm while turing in the opposite direction.
*Sorrel's note: This muscle is also known as the "super hero muscle" because it is always huge on super heros. The animators have the right idea, because one of the best ways to strengthen this muscle is by punching.
3. Rectus abdominus
Latin, rectum, straight; abdominis, belly/ stomach.
The rectus abdominis is divided into three or four bellies by tendinous muscles. These fibres converge centrally to form the linea alba. Situated anterior to the lower part of rectus abdominis is a frequently absent muscle called pyramidalis, which arises from the pubic crest and inserts into the linea alba. It tenses the linea alba, for reasons unknown. Associated with the six-pack muscles seen in conditioned athletes.
Origin
Pubic crest and symphysis (front of pubic bone).
Insertion
Xiphoid process (base of sternum). Fifth, sixth and seventh costal cartilages.
Action
Flexes lumbar spine. Depresses ribcage. Stabilizes the pelvis during walking.
Nerve
Ventral rami of thoracic nerves, T5-T12.
Basic functional movement
Example: Initiating getting out of a low chair.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
All sports.
Common problems when muscle is weak
Injury to lumbar spine, because abdominal muscle tone contributes to stability of lumbar spine.
Strengthening exercises
Sit-ups
Abdominal machine crunch (for upper fibres)
Reverse sit-up (for lower fibres_
Hanging leg raise
4. External (and internal) oblique
Latin, obliquus, diagonal, slanted.
The posterior fibres of the external oblique are usually overlapped by the latissimus dorsi, but in some cases there is a space between the two, known as the lumbar triangle, situated just above the iliac crest. The lumbar triangle is a weak point in the abdominal wall.
Origin
External oblique: Lower eight ribs.
Internal oblique: Iliac crest. Lateral two-thirds of inguinal ligament.
Thoracolumbar fascia (i.e. sheet of connective tissue in lower back).
Insertion
External oblique: Anterior half of iliac crest, and into an abdominal aponeurosis that terminates in the linea alba (a tendinous band extending downwards from the sternum).
Internal oblique: Bottom three or four ribs, and linea alba via aponeurosis.
Action
Compresses abdomen, helping to support the abdominal viscera against the pull of gravity. Contraction of one side alone bends the trunk laterally to that side and rotates in to the opposite side.
Nerve
External oblique: Ventral rami of thoracic nerves, T5-T12.
Internal oblique: Ventral rami of thoracic nerves, T7-T12, ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves.
Basic functional movement
Example: Digging with a shovel, raking.
Sports that heavily utilise these muscles
External obliques: Examples: Gymnastics. Rowing. Rugby.
Internal obliques: Examples: Golf. Javelin. Pole vault.
Common problems when muscles are weak
Injury to lumbar spine, because abdominal muscle tone contributes to stability of lumbar spine.
Strengthening exercises
Twisting it-ups
Abdominal machine crunch (for upper fibers)
Hanging leg raise
Reverse trunk twist
Side bends
Self Stretches
Try to twist using trunk rather than shoulders or arms.
Perform this exercise slowly, thus avoiding the tendency to use momentum.
Avoid or take care if you have back problems; check with your health professional first.
5. Trapezius
Greek, trapezoides, table shaped.
The left and right trapezius, viewed as a whole, create a trapezium in shape, thus giving this muscle its name.
Origin
Base of skull (occipital bone). Spinous processes of seventh cervical (C7) and all thoracic vertebrae, (T1-T12).
Insertion
Lateral third of clavicle. Acromion process. Spine of scapula.
Action
Upper fibres: Pull the shoulder girdle up (elevation). Helps prevent depression of the shoulder girdle when a weight is carried on he shoulder or in the hand.
Middle fibres: Retract (adduct) scapula.
Lower fibres: Depress scapula, particularly against resistance, as when using the hands to get up from a chair.
Upper and lower fibres together: Rotate scapula, as in elevating the arm above the head.
Nerve
Accessory X1 nerve. Ventral ramus of cervical nerves, C2, 3, 4.
Basic functional movement
Example (upper and lower fibres working together): Painting a ceiling.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Examples: Shot put. Boxing. Seated rowing.
Common problems when muscle is chronically tight/ shortened
Upper fibres: Neck pain or stiffness, headaches.
Strengthening exercises
Shoulder press (upper fibres)
Dips (middle/lower fibres)
Chin-ups (middle/lower fibres)
Lateral dumb-bell raises
Stretches
Turn head to right and tuck chin in. Pull left shoulder down. Pull head and left shoulder apart from each other.
6. Omohyoid
7. Sternocleidomastoideus
Greek, sternon, sternum; kleidos, key, clavicle; mastoid, breast-shaped, mastoid process.
This muscle is a long strap muscle with two heads. It is sometimes injured at birth, and may be partly replaced by fibrous tissue that contracts to produce a torticollis (wry neck).
Origin
Sternal head: Anterior surface of upper sternum. Clavicular head: Medial third of clavicle.
Insertion
Mastoid process of temporal bone (bony prominence just behind the ear).
Action
Contraction of both sides together: Flexes neck (draws head forward). Raises sternum, and consequently the ribs, during deep inhalation. Contraction of one side: Tilts the head towards the same side. Rotates head to face the opposite side (and also upward as it does so).
Nerve
Accessory X1 nerve; with sensory supply for proprioception from cervical nerves C2 and C3.
Basic functional movement
Examples: Turning head to look over your shoulder. Raising head from pillow.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Examples: Swimming. Rugby scrummage. American football.
Movements or injuries that may damage this muscle
Extreme whiplash movements.
Common problems when muscle is chronically tight/ shortened
Headache and neck pain.
Strengthening exercise
Sit-ups
Self stretch
Turn head to right. Repeat on opposite side.
8. Subclavius
9. Pectoralis minor
Latin, pectoralis, chest; minor, small.
Pectoralis minor is a flat triangular muscle lying posterior to, and concealed by, pectoralis major. Along with pectoralis major, it forms the anterior wall of the axilla.
Origin
Outer surfaces of third, fourth and fifth ribs and fascia of the corresponding intercostal spaces.
Insertion
Corocoid process of scapula.
Action
Draws scapula forward and downward. Raises ribs during forced inspiration (i.e. it is an accessory muscle of inspiration, if the scapula is stabilized by the rhomboids and trapezius).
Nerve
Medial pectoral nerve with fibres from a communicating branch of the lateral pectoral nerve, C(6), 7, 8 T1.
Basic functional movement
Example: Pushing on arms of chair to stand up.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Racket sports, e.g. tennis, badminton. Baseball pitching. Sprinting.
Common problems when muscle is chronically tight/ shortened
Restricts expansion of chest.
Strengthening exercises
Bench press
Dumb-bell flyes
Pull-overs
Self stretches
Fix arm against a door frame. Step forward keeping your back lengthened, not arched. Raising or lowering arm will stretch different parts of the muscle.
10. Internal intercostal & 11. External intercostal
Latin, inter, between; costal, rib.
The lower external intercostal muscles may blend with the fibres of external oblique, which overlap them, thus effectively forming one continuous sheet of muscle, with the external intercostal fibres seemingly stranded between the ribs. There are 11 external intercostals on each side of the ribcage.
Internal intercostal fibres lie deep to, and run obliquely across, the external intercostals. There are 11 internal intercostals on each side of the ribcage.
Origin
External intercostals: Lower border of a rib.
Internal intercostals: Upper border of a rib and costal cartilage.
Insertion
External intercostals: Upper border of rib below (fribres run obliquely forwards and downwards).
Internal intercostals: Lower border of rib above (fibres run obliquely forwards and upwards towards the costal cartilage).
Action
Muscles contract to stabilize the ribcage during various movements of the trunk. Prevents the intercostal space from bulging out or sucking in during respiration.
Nerve
The corresponding intercostal nerves.
Sports that heavily utilise these muscles
All very active sports.
Common problems when muscles are chronically tight/ shortened
Kyphosis (rounded back) and depressed chest.
Strengthening exercise
Twisting sit-ups
Self stretch
Avoid or take care if you have back problems; check with your health professional first.
12. Internal (and external) oblique
Latin, obliquus, diagonal, slanted.
The posterior fibres of the external oblique are usually overlapped by the latissimus dorsi, but in some cases there is a space between the two, known as the lumbar triangle, situated just above the iliac crest. The lumbar triangle is a weak point in the abdominal wall.
Origin
External oblique: Lower eight ribs.
Internal oblique: Iliac crest. Lateral two-thirds of inguinal ligament.
Thoracolumbar fascia (i.e. sheet of connective tissue in lower back).
Insertion
External oblique: Anterior half of iliac crest, and into an abdominal aponeurosis that terminates in the linea alba (a tendinous band extending downwards from the sternum).
Internal oblique: Bottom three or four ribs, and linea alba via aponeurosis.
Action
Compresses abdomen, helping to support the abdominal viscera against the pull of gravity. Contraction of one side alone bends the trunk laterally to that side and rotates in to the opposite side.
Nerve
External oblique: Ventral rami of thoracic nerves, T5-T12.
Internal oblique: Ventral rami of thoracic neres, T7-T12, ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves.
Basic functional movement
Example: Digging with a shovel, raking.
Sports that heavily utilise these muscles
External obliques: Examples: Gymnastics. Rowing. Rugby.
Internal obliques: Examples: Golf. Javelin. Pole vault.
Common problems when muscles are weak
Injury to lumbar spine, because abdominal muscle tone contributes to stability of lumbar spine.
Strengthening exercises
Twisting it-ups
Abdominal machine crunch (for upper fibers)
Hanging leg raise
Reverse trunk twist
Side bends
Self Stretches
Try to twist using trunk rather than shoulders or arms.
Perform this exercise slowly, thus avoiding the tendency to use momentum.
Avoid or take care if you have back problems; check with your health professional first.
13. Linea alba
14. Bicep brachii
Latin, biceps, two-headed muscle; brahii, of the arm.
Biceps brachii operates over three joints. It has two tendinous heads at its origin and two tendinous insertions. Occasionally it has a third head, originating at the insertion of coracobrachialis. The short head forms part of the lateral wall of the axilla, along with coracograchialis and the humerus.
Origin
Short head: Tip of coracoid process of scapula.
Long head: Supraglenoid tubercle of scapula (area just above socket of shoulder joint).
Insertion
Radial tuberosity (on medial aspect of upper part of shaft of radius). Deep fascia (connective tissue) on medial aspect of forearm.
Action
Flexes elbow joint. Supinates forearm. (It has been described as the muscle that puts in the corkscrew and pulls out the cork). Weakly flexes arm at the shoulder joint.
Nerve
Musculocutaneous nerve, C5, 6.
Basic functional movement
Examples: Picking up an object. Bringing food to mouth.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Examples: Boxing. Climbing. Canoeing. Rowing.
Movements or injuries that may damage this muscle
Lifting heavy objects too suddenly.
Common problems when muscle is chronically tight/ shortened
Flexion deformity of elbow (elbow cannot be fully straightened).
Strengthening exercises
Biceps curl
Chin-ups
Lat. pull downs
External (and internal) oblique
Latin, obliquus, diagonal, slanted.
The posterior fibres of the external oblique are usually overlapped by the latissimus dorsi, but in some cases there is a space between the two, known as the lumbar triangle, situated just above the iliac crest. The lumbar triangle is a weak point in the abdominal wall.
Origin
External oblique: Lower eight ribs.
Internal oblique: Iliac crest. Lateral two-thirds of inguinal ligament.
Thoracolumbar fascia (i.e. sheet of connective tissue in lower back).
Insertion
External oblique: Anterior half of iliac crest, and into an abdominal aponeurosis that terminates in the linea alba (a tendinous band extending downwards from the sternum).
Internal oblique: Bottom three or four ribs, and linea alba via aponeurosis.
Action
Compresses abdomen, helping to support the abdominal viscera against the pull of gravity. Contraction of one side alone bends the trunk laterally to that side and rotates in to the opposite side.
Nerve
External oblique: Ventral rami of thoracic nerves, T5-T12.
Internal oblique: Ventral rami of thoracic neres, T7-T12, ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves.
Basic functional movement
Example: Digging with a shovel, raking.
Sports that heavily utilise these muscles
External obliques: Examples: Gymnastics. Rowing. Rugby.
Internal obliques: Examples: Golf. Javelin. Pole vault.
Common problems when muscles are weak
Injury to lumbar spine, because abdominal muscle tone contributes to stability of lumbar spine.
Strengthening exercises
Twisting it-ups
Abdominal machine crunch (for upper fibers)
Hanging leg raise
Reverse trunk twist
Side bends
Self Stretches
Try to twist using trunk rather than shoulders or arms.
Perform this exercise slowly, thus avoiding the tendency to use momentum.
Avoid or take care if you have back problems; check with your health professional first.
15. Triceps
Latin, triceps, three-headed muscle; brachii, of the arm.
The triceps originates from three heads and is the only muscle on the back of the arm.
Origin
Long head: Infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula (area just below socket of shoulder joint).
Lateral head: Upper half of posterior surface of shaft of humerus.
Medial head: Lower half of posterior surface of shaft of humerus.
Insertion
Olecranon process of the ulna (i.e. upper posterior area of ulna, near the point of the elbows).
Action
Extends (straightens) elbow joint. Long head can adduct the humerus and extend it from the flexed position. Stabilizes shoulder joint.
Nerve
Radial nerve, C6, 7, 8, T1.
Basic functional movement
Examples: Throwing objects. Pushing a door shut.
Sports that heavily utilise this muscle
Examples: Basketball or netball (shooting). Shot put. baseball (pitcher). Volleyball.
Movements or injuries that may damage this muscle
Throwing with excessive force.
Problems when muscle is chronically tight/ shortened
Extension deformity of elbow (elbow cannot be fully flexed); although not very common.
Strengthening exercises
Bench press
Push-ups
Dips
Triceps kick-back
Self Stretches
Keep your head up and elbow as far back as it comfortable, without hollowing your lower back.
Pull your hands towards each other. Most effective when the raised elbow is against the wall.
16. Extensor digitorum
17. Extensor digiti minimi (finger extensors)
Latin, extensor, to extend; digit, finger.
Origin
Common extensor tendon from lateral epicondyle of humerus (i.e. lower lateral end of humerus).
Insertion
Dorsal surfaces of all the phalanges of the four fingers.
Action
Extends the fingers. Assists abduction (divergence) of fingers away from the middle finger.
Nerve
Deep radial (posterior interosseous) nerve, 6, 7, 8.
Basic functional movement
Example: Letting go of objects held in the hand.
Movements or injuries that may damage this muscle
Overflexing the wrist resulting from falling onto the hand.
Common problems when muscle is chronically tight/ shortened/ overused
Tennis elbow (overuse tendonitis of common origin on lateral epicondyle of humerus).
Self stretch
Use one hand to gently lever wrist and fingers into extension.
18. Extensor carpi ulnaris (wrist extensors)
Latin, extensor, to extend.
Includes extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis, and extensor carpi ulnaris.
Origin
Common extensor tendon from lateral epicondyle of humerus (i.e. lower lateral end of humerus).
Insertion
Dorsal surface of metacarpal bones.
Action
Extends the wrist (extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis also abduct the wrist; extensor carpi ulnaris also adducts the wrist).
Nerve
Radialis longus and brevis: Radial nerve, C5, 6, 7, 8.
Extensor carpi ulnaris: Deep radial (posterior interosseous) nerve, C6, 7, 8.
Basic functional movement
Examples: Kneading dough. Typing. Cleaning windows.
Sports that heavily utilise these muscles
Examples: Back hand badminton. Golf. Motorcycle sports (throttle control).
Movements or injuries that may damage these muscles
Overflexing the wrist resulting from falling onto the hand.
Common problems when muscles are chronically tight / shortened/ overused
Tennis elbow (overuse tendonitis of common origin on lateral epicondyle of humerus).
Strengthening exercises
Wrist roller (palm down)
Reverse wrist curl
Most dumb-bell exercises
Self stretches
Use lower hand to gently lever the other wrist into flexion.
19. Flexor carpi ulnaris
Latin, flex, to bend.
Includes: flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris.
Origin
Common flexor origin on the anterior aspect of the medial epicondyle of humerus (i.e. lower medial end of humerus).
Insertion
Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
Action
Flex the wrist (flexor carpi radialis also abducts the wrist; flexor carpi ulnaris also adducts the wrist).
Nerve
Flexor carpi radialis: Median nerve, C6, 7, 8.
Palmaris longus: Median nerve, C(6), 7, 8, T1.
Flexor carpi ulnaris: Ulnar nerve, C7, 8, T1.
Basic functional movement
Examples: Pulling rope in towards you. Wielding an axe or hammer.
Sports that heavily utilise these muscles
Examples: Sailing. Water skiing. Golf. Baseball. Cricket. Volleyball.
Movements or injuries that may damage these muscles
Overextending the wrist resulting from breaking a fall with the hand.
Common problems when muscles are chronically tight/ shortened/ overused
Golfer's elbow (overuse tendonitis of common flexor origin), carpal tunnel syndrome.
Strengthening exercises
Biceps curl
Wrist rolling (palm up)
Wrist curl
Self stretch
Use one hand to gently lever the other wrist into extension.
20. Anconeus
"Aranha em Escala de Cinza", 03 fotos. Usei a Canon 60D, objetivas 70x300mm e a 70x200mm L com extensor tele 2x.
"Gray Scale Spider", 03 photos. I used the Canon 60D, 70x300mm lenses and 70x200mm L with 2x tele extender.
Todos os direitos reservados para Vivaldo Armelin Júnior
Por insignificante que parezca, cada criatura en la tierra tiene su papel y aunque lo desconozcamos realiza una función en el ecosistema, esto es una muestra de ese pequeño mundo dificil de percibir a simple vista.
Uso un objetivo 35-105mm f/3,5 - 4,5 análogo con extensores para lograr este aumento, todo es manual !!
William Optics Zenithstar 61
ZWO ASI120MM
Extensor Orión 1.25
Tripie
700 frames
Frames usados 500
Df: 360
F: 6
Captura: Firecapture
Revelado: Autostakkert + Fitsworks + Lr
Guillermo Cervantes Mosqueda
Observatorio Astronómico Altaïr
Poncitlán Jalisco México
Link para o programa de aumento peniano grátis - machoalphaoficial.com.br/0/aumento-peniano-gratis
Como dito no vídeo para você conseguir aumentar o tamanho do seu pênis é simples mas não é fácil, por que exige um certo empenho para praticar os exercícios de aumento peniano e conseguir finalmente um resultado consistente.
Então para quem tem dúvida se o aumento peniano é verdade ou não, pode acreditar é a mais pura verdade e vou explicar o motivo. O pênis é um músculo e assim como qualquer outro músculo quando estimulado do jeito correto ele sofre uma alteração ficando maior do que era antes e com o tempo isso vai começando a ficar visível. Isso acontece da mesma forma, quando você quer aumentar o tamanho do pênis basta fazer os exercícios corretos para isso e conseguir chegar no resultado almejado.
Nós estamos dando um material de aumento peniano gratuitamente para você poder começar a fazer os exercícios hoje mesmo se possível. Porem, também temos um programa completo com 26 exercícios de aumento peniano que além de deixar o seu pênis maior vai aumentar sua grossura ao mesmo tempo.
Esses exercícios além de aumentar o tamanho do seu brinquedo ajuda em outras coisas como melhorar o seu desempenho sexual, permanecer por mais tempo no sexo, vai te dar um controle total sobre a ejaculação eliminando de uma vez por todas a ejaculação precoce, você vai ter um ereção muito mais rígida e um tempo muito mais curto entre cada ereção.
Mas não estou falando para você comprar nada, por isso estou dando de graça parte dos exercícios do aumento peniano em vídeo-aulas para você aproveitar ao máximo e poder ter um pênis maior, e assim melhorando suas relações sexuais.
Link para o programa de aumento peniano grátis - machoalphaoficial.com.br/0/aumento-peniano-gratis
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