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Engineers at the University of California, San Diego, have developed sophisticated estimation algorithms that allow lithium-ion batteries to run more efficiently, potentially reducing their cost by 25 percent and allowing the batteries to charge twice as fast as is currently possible. In one instance, electric batteries could be charged in just 15 minutes.
Photo credit: Erik Jepsen/UC San Diego Publications
Researchers at the Jacobs School of Engineering at UC San Diego are sharing a $9.6 million grant from ARPA-E, a research agency within the Department of Energy, with automotive products supplier Bosch and battery manufacturer Cobasys to further develop the estimation algorithms and the technology they will drive. UC San Diego’s share of the grant is $460,000 for the research group of Professor Miroslav Krstic (left) and UC President's Postdoctoral Fellow Scott Moura in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the Jacobs School.
Students in Michelle Hurley's Forensic Science classes made use of indoor and outdoor locations to complete forensic anthropolgy labs involving an estimation of a lab partners stature by meausuring long bones such as the femur, tibia, humerus and radius, and multiplying these measurements with formulas to estimate height. Photography by Glenn Minshall.
A few years ago my wife, Sammy, and I, along with our two sons and their families rented a 5-bedroom house on Hanalei Bay on the island of Kauai for a week, and one evening we were treated to this sunset while sitting on our deck. Getting the tree and the mountain aligned the way I wanted required a bit of precarious hanging off the 2nd story deck, but, in my estimation, it was well worth it.
"Acrocorinth (Greek: Ακροκόρινθος), 'Upper Corinth', the acropolis of ancient Corinth, is a monolithic rock overseeing the ancient city of Corinth, Greece. 'It is the most impressive of the acropoleis of mainland Greece,' in the estimation of George Forrest. Acrocorinth was continuously occupied from archaic times to the early 19th century. Along with Demetrias and Chalcis, the Acrocorinth during the Hellenistic period formed one of the so-called 'Fetters of Greece' – three fortresses garrisoned by the Macedonians to secure their control of the Greek city-states. The city's archaic acropolis, already an easily defensible position due to its geomorphology, was further heavily fortified during the Byzantine Empire as it became the seat of the strategos of the thema of Hellas and later of the Peloponnese. It was defended against the Crusaders for three years by Leo Sgouros.
"Afterwards it became a fortress of the Frankish Principality of Achaea, the Venetians and the Ottoman Turks. With its secure water supply, Acrocorinth's fortress was used as the last line of defence in southern Greece because it commanded the Isthmus of Corinth, repelling foes from entry into the Peloponnese peninsula. Three circuit walls formed the man-made defence of the hill. The highest peak on the site was home to a temple to Aphrodite which was converted to a church, and then became a mosque. The American School's Corinth Excavations began excavations on it in 1929. Currently, Acrocorinth is one of the most important medieval castle sites of Greece.
"In a Corinthian myth related in the 2nd century CE to Pausanias, Briareus, one of the Hecatonchires, was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios, between the sea and the sun: his verdict was that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) to Helios."
Source: Wikipedia
Hasselblad XPan | Schneider Kreuznach PA Curtagon 35mm f4 | Kodak TMax 100 push to ISO400 | Camera set to 24x36 format | Pull develop 2 stop with 8 mintues with TMax developer.
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Didn't set the camera format to panoramic because this 35mm tilt lens is a 135 format and will have very bad dark corner. quite a challenge to use this lens as I can only set the lens using distance estimation and as according to the aperture.
Only one of two pallets of water being consumed by the artists, crew, and production staff. By my estimation there's over 1,700 bottles of water per pallet.
Hospital Mortality Rate Estimation for Public Reporting. George, Rockova, Rosenbaum, Satopaa, Silber arxiv.org/abs/1510.00842 #stat
BLAEV Wilhelm en Johan. TOONNEEL DES AERDRYCK oft NIEVWE ATLAS. Wilhelm en Johan BLAEV. TWEEDE DEEL. In-folio ornée de 47 cartes rehaussées en couleur (La France et ses provinces).
Estimation 5 000€ - 6 000€
For vector illustrations that are not portraits, please send me a message on Fiverr before ordering so I can review your project/reference images and give you a cost and time estimation. Thank you!
Students in Michelle Hurley's Forensic Science classes made use of indoor and outdoor locations to complete forensic anthropolgy labs involving an estimation of a lab partners stature by meausuring long bones such as the femur, tibia, humerus and radius, and multiplying these measurements with formulas to estimate height. Photography by Glenn Minshall.
Market News : SWOT Analysis of Market Research Report High Vision Positioning System
for more visit tinyurl.com/yau97vkw
Une soirée de fous avec Gaidis Gadrans et Oscar Dominguez.
22H39 1er début de Parade ! 1st start for Parade !
Quand Gaidis nous proposa d’aller voir la Bécassine double sur un lek, nous étions ravis mais sans savoir que nous allions vraiment vivre une expérience hors du temps et de la lumière !
Avec en « guest stars » des milliers de moustiques que nous combattrons avec un mix de répulsifs russes, français et catalans !!
La pleine lune nous aidera pour aller à 32 000 ISO !!!
La Bécassine double est classée NT par l’IUCN (Near threatened) et l’estimation de la population européenne est d’environ 2 000 couples ! La chasse est une des principales causes de son déclin avec le drainage des terres et l’agriculture intensive.
C’est le migrateur peut-être le plus rapide, capable de parcourir en une seule traite 5 500 kms en 64h !!
Pendant combien de temps la verra-t-on encore ?
A crazy evening with Gaidis Gadrans et Oscar Dominguez. When Gaidis suggested to see the Great Snipe on a lek, we were delighted but without knowing we were on the point to live an outstanding experience in time and light !
With « guest stars » thousands mosquitos we will fight with a mix of russian, french and catalan repellents !!
The full moon will help us to go to 32 000 ISO !!
The Great Snipe is classified NT by IUCN (Near threatened) and the estimate european population is around 2 000 couples ! Hunting is one of the main reasons of his decline with the field drainage and intensive agriculture.
She is probably the fastest migratory bird, able to fly in one run 5 500 kms in 64 hours !!
How long time we will ba able to see her ?
Kyoto ou Kyōto Prononciation du titre dans sa version originale Écouter (京都市, Kyōto-shi?, littéralement « ville capitale ») est une ville japonaise de la région du Kansai, au centre de Honshū. Elle fut de 794 à 1868 la capitale impériale du Japon, sous le nom de Heian-kyō ("Capitale de la paix et de la tranquillité"). Elle est aujourd'hui la capitale de la préfecture de Kyoto ainsi que l'une des grandes villes de la zone métropolitaine Keihanshin (Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto). Sa population est de 1,47 million d'habitants (estimations 2015).
Bien que des preuves archéologiques permettent d'affirmer que les premiers hommes, présents sur les îles du Japon, il y a plus de 50 000 ans comme chasseurs-cueilleurs, furent ensuite parmi les premiers potiers du monde dès le XVe millénaire av. J.-C., la région de Kyoto ne fut peuplée qu'à partir du VIIe siècle par le clan Hata venu de Corée. Au cours du VIIIe siècle, voulant s'éloigner de l'influence du clergé bouddhiste au sein du gouvernement impérial, l'Empereur prit la décision de déplacer la capitale depuis l'actuelle Nara vers une région éloignée de cette influence.
La nouvelle ville, Heiankyō (lit. « la capitale de la Paix ») devint le siège de la cour impériale en 794. Plus tard, la ville fut rebaptisée Kyoto (« la ville capitale »). Elle développa deux quartiers spécifiques : le quartier sud où se situait le palais impérial et la cour ; le quartier où le Shogun Yoshimitsu Ashikaga plaça en 1378 sa résidence dans le 'Hana no Gosho' (ou Muromachi-dono, Karasumaru-dono) du quartier de Muromachi. Cela donnera par ailleurs le nom de la Période Muromachi de l'histoire de l'archipel. Le shogun se fit également construire le Pavillon d'Or Kinkaku-ji dans le nord de la ville. Par la suite, la ville fut véritablement dévastée par les armées lors de la guerre d'Onin, abandonnée en grande partie par ses habitants et livrée au pillage de 1467 à 1477. En 1489, le shogun Yoshimasa Ashikaga se fit construire l'une des merveilles architecturales du Japon : le Pavillon d'Argent (Ginkaku-ji) qui voulait rivaliser avec le Pavillon d'Or construit par son grand-père Yoshimitsu Ashikaga.
L'avènement du shogunat Tokugawa en 1600 fit perdre à Kyoto son rôle de centre politique et administratif au profit d'Edo, lieu de résidence des shoguns. Toutefois, Kyoto resta la capitale impériale du Japon jusqu'au transfert de la résidence de l'Empereur à Edo en 1868, lors de la restauration de Meiji. Après qu'Edo fut rebaptisée Tokyo (signifiant « la capitale de l'Est »), Kyoto fut connue peu de temps sous le nom de Saikyō (« la capitale de l'Ouest »).
Epargnée par les bombardements de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Kyoto échappa de peu à la destruction atomique, car la ville figurait en tête des cibles désignées par le comité des objectifs américain. La ville fut finalement rejetée à la suite de l'intervention du secrétaire de la Guerre des États-Unis Henry Lewis Stimson et de conseillers, dont le Français Serge Elisseeff, qui connaissaient la richesse culturelle de la ville, et estimèrent que sa destruction serait un obstacle grave à une réconciliation ultérieure avec le Japon.
Les monuments historiques de l'ancienne Kyoto (villes de Kyoto, Uji et Ōtsu) ont été inscrits au patrimoine mondial de l'Unesco en 1994. En 1997, Kyoto accueillit la conférence qui donna naissance au Protocole de Kyoto.
Kyoto (京都市 Kyōto-shi, pronounced [kʲoːꜜto] (About this sound listen), pronounced [kʲoːtoꜜɕi] (About this sound listen); UK: /kɪˈoʊtoʊ/, US: /kiˈoʊ-/, or /ˈkjoʊ]) is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a population close to 1.5 million. Formerly the Imperial capital of Japan for more than one thousand years, it is now the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture located in the Kansai region, as well as a major part of the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital.
Joshua Manela:Computer Engineering / Electrical Engineering; Advisor: Timothy Havens; Research Project: Investigating cloud-based simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) for a UAV system by implementing an orientation estimation algorithm and communicating the data with the cloud
The scene at Long Marston on 1st February 2024 with a plethora of South Western Trains Class 701 units in store (13 by my estimation from this aerial shot) along with the growing number of Trans Pennine Express Mark 5 sets. A solitary Merseyrail unit, 777029, which arrived the previous day sits alongside the boundary fence. (24.056)
Software engineers hard at work, learning to use agile project estimation techniques in a fun exercise estimating the complexity of multiple features desired for a marble run. During this exercise, we saw how well we did at meeting our estimates for the number of features to be implemented in each 30-minute iteration, and made adjustments to our schedule accordingly. The video shows my team's final result at the end of the third iteration, with all desired features implemented.
Kyoto ou Kyōto Prononciation du titre dans sa version originale Écouter (京都市, Kyōto-shi?, littéralement « ville capitale ») est une ville japonaise de la région du Kansai, au centre de Honshū. Elle fut de 794 à 1868 la capitale impériale du Japon, sous le nom de Heian-kyō ("Capitale de la paix et de la tranquillité"). Elle est aujourd'hui la capitale de la préfecture de Kyoto ainsi que l'une des grandes villes de la zone métropolitaine Keihanshin (Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto). Sa population est de 1,47 million d'habitants (estimations 2015).
Bien que des preuves archéologiques permettent d'affirmer que les premiers hommes, présents sur les îles du Japon, il y a plus de 50 000 ans comme chasseurs-cueilleurs, furent ensuite parmi les premiers potiers du monde dès le XVe millénaire av. J.-C., la région de Kyoto ne fut peuplée qu'à partir du VIIe siècle par le clan Hata venu de Corée. Au cours du VIIIe siècle, voulant s'éloigner de l'influence du clergé bouddhiste au sein du gouvernement impérial, l'Empereur prit la décision de déplacer la capitale depuis l'actuelle Nara vers une région éloignée de cette influence.
La nouvelle ville, Heiankyō (lit. « la capitale de la Paix ») devint le siège de la cour impériale en 794. Plus tard, la ville fut rebaptisée Kyoto (« la ville capitale »). Elle développa deux quartiers spécifiques : le quartier sud où se situait le palais impérial et la cour ; le quartier où le Shogun Yoshimitsu Ashikaga plaça en 1378 sa résidence dans le 'Hana no Gosho' (ou Muromachi-dono, Karasumaru-dono) du quartier de Muromachi. Cela donnera par ailleurs le nom de la Période Muromachi de l'histoire de l'archipel. Le shogun se fit également construire le Pavillon d'Or Kinkaku-ji dans le nord de la ville. Par la suite, la ville fut véritablement dévastée par les armées lors de la guerre d'Onin, abandonnée en grande partie par ses habitants et livrée au pillage de 1467 à 1477. En 1489, le shogun Yoshimasa Ashikaga se fit construire l'une des merveilles architecturales du Japon : le Pavillon d'Argent (Ginkaku-ji) qui voulait rivaliser avec le Pavillon d'Or construit par son grand-père Yoshimitsu Ashikaga.
L'avènement du shogunat Tokugawa en 1600 fit perdre à Kyoto son rôle de centre politique et administratif au profit d'Edo, lieu de résidence des shoguns. Toutefois, Kyoto resta la capitale impériale du Japon jusqu'au transfert de la résidence de l'Empereur à Edo en 1868, lors de la restauration de Meiji. Après qu'Edo fut rebaptisée Tokyo (signifiant « la capitale de l'Est »), Kyoto fut connue peu de temps sous le nom de Saikyō (« la capitale de l'Ouest »).
Epargnée par les bombardements de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Kyoto échappa de peu à la destruction atomique, car la ville figurait en tête des cibles désignées par le comité des objectifs américain. La ville fut finalement rejetée à la suite de l'intervention du secrétaire de la Guerre des États-Unis Henry Lewis Stimson et de conseillers, dont le Français Serge Elisseeff, qui connaissaient la richesse culturelle de la ville, et estimèrent que sa destruction serait un obstacle grave à une réconciliation ultérieure avec le Japon.
Les monuments historiques de l'ancienne Kyoto (villes de Kyoto, Uji et Ōtsu) ont été inscrits au patrimoine mondial de l'Unesco en 1994. En 1997, Kyoto accueillit la conférence qui donna naissance au Protocole de Kyoto.
Kyoto (京都市 Kyōto-shi, pronounced [kʲoːꜜto] (About this sound listen), pronounced [kʲoːtoꜜɕi] (About this sound listen); UK: /kɪˈoʊtoʊ/, US: /kiˈoʊ-/, or /ˈkjoʊ]) is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a population close to 1.5 million. Formerly the Imperial capital of Japan for more than one thousand years, it is now the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture located in the Kansai region, as well as a major part of the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital.
Putting together all the 8 variations of these 11-Pointed Easy Modular Stars. The bottom 2 on the right are newer variations which can also be use in stars with 4 to 8 points. The back of the models is different from the front but common for all the assembled models. The folds on the modules for each variation is the same as the earlier ones except for just one fold. This involves the changing of the angle to accommodate the 11 modules. I am quite surprised that the estimation of the angle is quite accurate as the 11 modules fit nicely in the assembly. 11 is also an odd number and is not possible to get a symmetrical colour combination. The modules are folded from 7.5cm squares of either normal Kami or Duo-coloured papers.
A snowmobile, also known as a snowmachine, motor sled, motor sledge, skimobile, or snow scooter, is a motorized vehicle designed for winter travel and recreation on snow. It is designed to be operated on snow and ice and does not require a road or trail, but most are driven on open terrain or trails. Snowmobiling is a sport that many people have taken on as a serious hobby. Common brand names in the United States include Arctic Cat, Polaris Inc. and Ski-Doo.
Older snowmobiles could generally accommodate two people; however, most snowmobiles manufactured since the 1990s have been designed to only accommodate one person. Snowmobiles built with the ability to accommodate two people are referred to as "2-up" snowmobiles or "touring" models and make up an extremely small share of the market. Most snowmobiles do not have any enclosures, except for a windshield, and their engines normally drive a continuous track at the rear. Skis at the front provide directional control.
Early snowmobiles used simple rubber tracks, but modern snowmobiles' tracks are usually made of a Kevlar composite construction. The earliest snowmobiles were powered by readily available industrial four-stroke, air-cooled engines. These would quickly be replaced by lighter and more powerful two-stroke gasoline internal combustion engines and since the mid-2000s four-stroke engines had re-entered the market.
The second half of the 20th century saw the rise of recreational snowmobiling, whose riders are called snowmobilers, sledders, or slednecks. Recreational riding is known as snowcross/racing, trail riding, freestyle, boondocking, ditchbanging and grass drags. In the summertime snowmobilers can drag race on grass, asphalt strips, or even across water (as in snowmobile skipping). Snowmobiles are sometimes modified to compete in long-distance off-road races.
Legality
Depending on jurisdiction, there may be penalties for driving outside permitted areas, without an approved helmet, without a driver's license, with an unregistered snowmobile, or while under the influence of alcohol or other substances. There may also be regulations regarding noise and wildlife.
Driver's license
In some jurisdictions, a driver's license is required to operate a snowmobile. A specific snowmobile driver's license is required in, for example, Norway and Sweden. In Finland, a snowmobile driver's license is not required if the driver already has another type of appropriate driver's license (for example car or tractor).
Early history
In 1911 a 24-year-old, Harold J. Kalenze (pronounced Collins), patented the Vehicle Propeller in Brandon, Manitoba, Canada.
In 1915 Ray H. Muscott of Waters, Michigan, received the Canadian patent for his motor sleigh, or "traineau automobile", and on June 27, 1916, he received the first United States patent for a snow-vehicle using the now recognized format of rear track(s) and front skis. Many individuals later modified Ford Model Ts with the undercarriage replaced by tracks and skis following this design. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversion of cars and small trucks was Snowflyers.
Ossipee, New Hampshire claims to be the home of the first snowmobile. In 1917, Virgil D. White set up to create a patent for his conversion kit that changed the Ford Model T into a "snowmobile". He also copyrighted the term "snowmobile". At the time, the conversion kit was expensive, costing about $395. Virgil White applied his patent in 1918 and created his own snowmobile. In 1922, his conversion kit was on the markets and available only through Ford dealerships.
In 1935 Joseph-Armand Bombardier assembled and successfully tested the first snowmobile. It was a vehicle with a sprocket wheel and a track drive system, and it was steered by skis.
The challenges of cross-country transportation in the winter led to the invention of the snowmobile, an all-terrain vehicle specifically designed for travel across deep snow where other vehicles foundered. During the 20th century, rapidly evolving designs produced machines that were two-person tracked vehicles powered by gas engines that enabled them to tow a sled or travel, initially at low-to-moderate speeds, depending on snow conditions, terrain and obstacles protruding above the snow like brush and trees. Where early designs had 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) two-stroke engines, there has been a move toward newer style two and four-stroke gasoline engines, some with over 200 hp (150 kW).
Multi-passenger snowmobiles
The origin of the snowmobile is not the work of any one inventor but more a process of advances in engines for the propulsion of vehicles and supporting devices over snow. It parallels the development of the automobile and later aviation, often inventors using the same components for a different use.
Wisconsinites experimented with over-snow vehicles before 1900, experimenting with bicycles equipped with runners and gripping fins; steam-propelled sleighs; and (later) Model T Fords converted with rear tractor treads and skis in front. A patent (554.482) for the Sled-Propeller design, without a model, was submitted on Sept. 5, 1895 by inventors William J. Culman and William B. Follis of Brule, Wisconsin. In the first races held near Three Lakes in 1926, 104 of these "snowbuggies" started. Carl Eliason of Sayner developed the prototype of the modern snowmobile in the 1920s when he mounted a two-cylinder motorcycle engine on a long sled, steered it with skis under the front, and propelled it with single, endless track. Eliason made 40 snowmobiles, patented in 1927. Upon receiving an order for 200 from Finland, he sold his patent to the FWD Company of Clintonville. They made 300 for military use, then transferred the patent to a Canadian subsidiary.
The American Motor Sleigh was a short-lived novelty vehicle produced in Boston in 1905. Designed for travel on snow, it consisted of a sleigh body mounted on a framework that held an engine, a drive-shaft system, and runners. Although considered an interesting novelty, sales were low and production ceased in 1906.
An Aerosledge, a propeller-driven and running on skis, was built in 1909–1910 by Russian inventor Igor Sikorsky of helicopter fame. Aerosanis were used by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War and World War II. There is some dispute over whether Aerosanis count as snowmobiles because they were not propelled by tracks.
Adolphe Kégresse designed an original caterpillar tracks system, called the Kégresse track, while working for Tsar Nicholas II of Russia between 1906 and 1916. These used a flexible belt rather than interlocking metal segments and could be fitted to a conventional car or truck to turn it into a half-track, suitable for use over soft ground, including snow. Conventional front wheels and steering were used but the wheel could be fitted with skis as seen in the upper right image. He applied it to several cars in the Royal garage including Rolls-Royce cars and Packard trucks. Although this was not a snowmobile, it is an ancestor of the modern concept.
The relatively dry snow conditions of the United States Midwest suited the converted Ford Model Ts and other like vehicles, but they were not suitable for humid snow areas such as southern Quebec and New England. This led Joseph-Armand Bombardier from the small town of Valcourt, Quebec, to invent a different caterpillar track system suitable for all kinds of snow conditions. Bombardier had already made some "metal" tracked vehicles since 1928, but his new revolutionary track traction system (a toothed wheel covered in rubber, and a rubber-and-cotton track that wraps around the back wheels) was his first major invention. He started production of the B-7, an enclosed, seven-passenger snowmobile, in 1937, and introduced the B-12, a twelve-passenger model, in 1942. The B-7 had a V-8 flathead engine from Ford Motor Company. The B-12 had a flathead in line six-cylinder engine from Chrysler industrial, and 2,817 units were produced until 1951. It was used in many applications, such as ambulances, Canada Post vehicles, winter "school buses", forestry machines, and even army vehicles in World War II. Bombardier had always dreamed of a smaller version, more like the size of a motor scooter.
Brands
Numerous people had ideas for a smaller personal snowmobile. In 1914, O. M. Erickson and Art Olsen of the P.N. Bushnell company in Aberdeen, South Dakota, built an open two-seater "motor-bob" out of an Indian motorcycle modified with a cowl-cover, side-by-side seating, and a set of sled-runners fore and aft. While it did not have the tracks of a true snowmobile, its appearance was otherwise similar to the modern version and is one of the earliest examples of a personal motorized snow-vehicle.
In 1951 Fritz Riemerschmid devised what he called a snow scooter. The machine had a track mounted beneath a snowboard like base, on top of which were an enclosed engine with motorcycle like seat and fuel tank. the vehicle was steered via a steering wheel and cables linked to two small skis on outriggers either side of the vehicle.
In the mid-1950s, a United States firm built a "snowmobile the arctic area of Alaska that had the drive train reversed of today's snowmobiles with two front wheels—the larger one behind the smaller one—with tires driving an endless loop track". Little is known about this "snowmobile" meant to haul cargo and trade goods to isolated settlements.
An odd version of snowmobile is the Swedish Larven, made by the Lenko Company of Östersund, from the 1960s until the end of the 1980s. It was a very small and basic design, with just an engine in the rear and a track. The driver sat on it and steered using skis on his feet.
Polaris
Edgar and Allen Hetteen and David Johnson of Roseau, Minnesota, invented what we now know as the modern snowmobile in 1955–1956, but the early machines were heavy (1,000 lb or 450 kg) and slow (20 mph or 32 km/h). Their company, Hetteen Hoist & Derrick Co., became Polaris Industries which introduced their first commercial model, the Polaris Sno Traveler in 1957.
Ski-Doo
In 1960, Joseph-Armand Bombardier introduced his own snowmobile using an open-cockpit one- or two-person form, similar to the 1957 Polaris Sno Traveler, and started selling it under the brand name Ski-Doo through his company Bombardier Inc. (now manufactured by Bombardier Recreational Products).
Competitors copied and improved his design; in the 1970s there were over a hundred snowmobile manufacturers. From 1970 to 1973, two million machines were sold, peaking at 500,000 sold in 1971. Many of the snowmobile companies were small and the biggest manufacturers were often attempts by motorcycle makers and outboard motor makers to branch off in a new market. Most of these companies went bankrupt or were acquired by larger companies during the 1973 oil crisis and succeeding recessions. Sales rebounded to 260,000 in 1997 but gradually decreased afterward, influenced by warmer winters and the use during all four seasons of small one- or two-person ATVs.
Alpina
Alpina Snowmobiles are manufactured in Vicenza, Italy, by Alpina s.r.l., a manufacturer of various on-snow implements that had been building dual-track snowmobiles since 1995.
There are two manufacturers of dual-track snowmobiles. One is Alpina and the other is a Russian sled called Buran (Bombardier discontinued manufacturing its dual-track model, the Elite, in 2005).
Models
Alpina manufactures one basic dual-track snowmobile design. In 2002 the Sherpa was introduced and is the model name for the four-stroke machine. Prior to introducing the Sherpa, Alpina offered a two-stroke series designated the Superclass. The four-stroke Sherpa is currently the top machine in production. A new version of the Superclass has been released in 2017, with a lot of innovations and a new four-stroke engine.
The Sherpa and Superclass series shared the same basic dual-track platform, twin 20 in × 156 in (510 mm × 3,960 mm) tracks with dual skis up front.
Power for the Sherpa is supplied by a 1.6L in-line four-cylinder gasoline automotive engine. The new Superclass power is provided by a 1.2L 3-cylinder four-stroke gasoline engine.
Features
The Sherpa and Superclass are designed as working snowmobiles for carrying supplies, pulling cargo sleds, pulling trail grooming implements, carrying several passengers, and negotiating deep snow.
Engine and transmission combination are designed to deliver optimum power to pull or carry large loads while top-end speeds are kept below 52 mph (84 km/h), depending on the model. The large footprint of the dual tracks and dual skis allows the Sherpa and Superclass to "float" on top of deep snow and not sink in and get stuck.
Taiga Electric
Taiga Motors in Montreal created the first commercially produced electric snowmobile. The Taiga TS2 can go from zero to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 3 seconds, with 250 N⋅m (180 lb⋅ft) of instant torque. At 470 lb (210 kg), the Taiga TS2 is one of the lightest in the industry. Maintains a range of 100 km (62 mi) even down past −30 °C (−22 °F). Direct drive, no transmission. Integrated GPS for easy course mapping & accurate range estimation. DC quick charge (20 min) option. Different options are available for utility, touring, crossover and mountain machines.
Current markets
According to the research center RISE, approximately 135,000 snowmobiles will be sold worldwide yearly.
As of 2003, the snowmobile market has been shared between the four large North American makers (Bombardier Recreational Products (BRP), Arctic Cat, Yamaha, and Polaris) and some specialized makers like the Quebec-based AD Boivin, manufacturer of the Snow Hawk and the European Alpina snowmobile.
Higher-powered modern snowmobiles can achieve speeds over 150 mph (240 km/h). Drag racing snowmobiles can reach speeds over 200 mph (320 km/h).
Snowmobiles are widely used in arctic territories for travel. However, the tiny Arctic population means a correspondingly small market. Most snowmobiles are sold for recreational purposes in places where snow cover is stable during winter. The number of snowmobiles in Europe and other parts of the world is low.
Snowmobiles designed to perform various work tasks have been available for many years with dual tracks from such manufacturers as Aktiv (Sweden), who made the Grizzly, Ockelbo (Sweden), who made the 8000, and Bombardier who made the Alpine and later the Alpine II. Currently, there are two manufacturers of dual-track snowmobiles; Russia's Buran[citation needed] and the Italian Alpina snowmobiles (under the name Sherpa and Superclass).
Propulsion
Most modern snowmobiles are powered by either a four- or two-stroke internal combustion engine, with the exception of the Taiga TS2. Historically, snowmobiles have always used two-stroke engines because of their reduced complexity, weight and cost, compared to a similarly powered four-stroke. However, four-stroke powered snowmobiles have been gaining popularity steadily in the last fifteen or so years, with manufacturer Yamaha producing four-stroke snowmobiles only. The Whistler Blackcomb ski resort is testing Taiga's electric snowmobiles with lower noise, and similar vehicles exist.
Performance
The first snowmobiles made do with as little as 5 horsepower (3.7 kW) engines, but engine sizes and efficiency have improved drastically. In the early 1990s, the biggest engines available (typically 600cc-800cc displacement range) produced around 115 hp (86 kW). As of 2022, several snowmobiles are available with engines sizes up to 1,200 cc, producing 150+ hp, as well as several models with up to 1,000 cc engines producing closer to 210 hp (160 kW). Recently, some models are turbo-charged, resulting in dramatic increase of engine horsepower. Snowmobiles are capable of moving across steep hillsides without sliding down-slope if the rider transfers their weight towards the uphill side, a process called side-hilling.
Mountain sleds permit access in remote areas with deep snow, which was nearly impossible a few decades ago. This is mainly due to alterations, enhancements, and additions of original trail model designs such as weight, weight distribution, track length, paddle depth, and power. Technology and design advances in mountain snowmobiles have improved since 2003 with Ski-Doo's introduction of the "REV" framework platform. Most two-stroke mountain snowmobiles have a top engine size of 800 cc, producing around 150 hp (110 kW), although some 1,000 cc factory machines have been produced. These may not be as popular as many 800 cc models outperform them because of weight and an increase of unneeded power.
Cornices and other kinds of jumps are sought after for aerial maneuvers. Riders often search for non-tracked, virgin terrain and are known to "trailblaze" or "boondock" deep into remote territory where there is absolutely no visible path to follow. However, this type of trailblazing is dangerous as contact with buried rocks, logs, and frozen ground can cause extensive damage and injuries. Riders look for large open fields of fresh snow where they can carve. Some riders use extensively modified snowmobiles, customized with aftermarket accessories like handle-bar risers, handguards, custom/lightweight hoods, windshields, and seats, running board supports, studs, and numerous other modifications that increase power and maneuverability. Many of these customizations can now be purchased straight off the showroom floor on stock models.
Trail snowmobiles improved in the past 15 years as well (many of them borrowed from endeavors to produce winning mountain sleds). Heavy "muscle sleds" can produce speeds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h) due to powerful engines (up to 1,200 cc stock, and custom engines exceeding 1,200 cc), short tracks, and good traction on groomed trails. Sno-cross oriented snowmobiles often have an engine size cap of 440 or 600 cc, but lighter machines with redesigned stances, formats, and weight control have produced extremely fast and quickly accelerating race sleds.
Environmental impact
The environmental impact of snowmobiles has been the subject of much debate. Governments have been reacting slowly to noise and air pollution, partly because of lobbying from manufacturers and snowmobilers. For instance, in 1999, the Canadian government adopted the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, but the set of rules governing pollution emissions for off-road vehicles was only released in January 2005. In another example of regulation, only four-stroke snowmobiles are allowed in Yellowstone National Park since a bylaw was recently passed to minimize CO2 emissions and noise. In Yellowstone, snowmobiles account for 80% of total hydrocarbon emissions and 50% of carbon monoxide emissions in the winter. This is just less than 2% and 1% respectively of the overall annual pollution within the park. Snowmobiles are only allowed to be ridden on the unplowed roads used in the summer, and riding off the roads is prohibited. This accounts for less than 1% (0.002%) of the park area.
In 2005 the US Forest Service published a Travel Management Rule for off-highway vehicles, strengthening the implementation of Executive Orders issued in the 1970s. However, these rules were not applied to snowmobiles. In 2015, following a decision in a lawsuit brought by Winter Wildlands Alliance against the Forest Service, the rules were extended to snowmobiles. National Forests with sufficient snow for winter recreation are now required to designate where OSVs are allowed to travel and where they are prohibited. In doing so, the Forest Service must minimize 1) damage to soil, watershed, vegetation, and other forest resources; 2) harassment of wildlife and significant disruption of wildlife habitats; and 3) conflicts between motor vehicle use and existing or proposed recreational uses of National Forest System lands or neighboring Federal lands.
Air
Most snowmobiles are still powered by two-stroke engines, although Alpina and Yamaha have been using four-strokes since 2002 and 2003, respectively. However, in the last decade several manufacturers have been successful in designing less polluting motors, and putting most of them in production. Yamaha and Arctic-Cat were the first to mass-produce four-stroke models, which are significantly less polluting than the early two-stroke machines. Alpina offers only four-stroke EFI engines equipped with a catalytic converter and dual oxygen-probe. Bombardier's E-Tec two-stroke motors emit 85% less pollutants than previous carbureted two-strokes. Polaris has developed a fuel-injection technology called "Cleanfire Injection" on their two-strokes. The industry is also working on a direct-injected "clean two strokes" that is better in terms of NOX emissions.
Independent researchers, undergraduates and graduate students participate in contests to lessen the impact of emissions from snowmobiles. The Clean Snow Mobile Challenge is held yearly at Michigan Technological University regrouping the entries from universities from across United States and Canada. Some of the participants in recent years have been the École polytechnique de Montréal with a Quasiturbine engine and students from École de technologie supérieure of the UQAM with a less polluting two-stroke engine using E85 and direct injection.
Noise
Maximum noise restrictions have been enacted by law for both production of snowmobiles and aftermarket components. For instance, in Quebec (Canada) noise levels must be 78 decibels or less at 20 meters from a snowmobile path. As of 2009, snowmobiles produce 90% less noise than in the 1960s but there are still numerous complaints. Efforts to reduce noise focus on suppressing mechanical noise of the suspension components and tracks. Arctic Cat in 2005 introduced "Silent Track technology" on touring models such as the T660 Turbo, Bearcat, and some M-Series sleds. Ski-Doo has since then also used comparative "silent track technology" on some models.
The use of aftermarket exhaust systems ("cans" or "silencers") is controversial. These replace the stock muffler with a less restrictive system that is usually claimed to increase power output of the engine. However, these aftermarket exhausts are often much louder than those from the factory, with only some being slightly quieter than a completely open, unbaffled system. Most, if not all, local snowmobile clubs (that maintain and groom trail systems) do not recommend them because of noise. Local and state authorities have set up checkpoints on high-traffic trails, checking for excessively loud systems and issuing citations. Typically these systems are installed on two-stroke powered machines (giving the distinctive "braap" sound); however, in recent years aftermarket companies have released silencers for four-stroke models as well.
Importance in isolated communities
Since the invention of snowmobiles, isolated communities of northern North America have always had a demand for them. However, the early snowmobiles designs were not economical or functional enough for the harsh environment of northern North America. Joseph-Armand Bombardier started producing the Ski-Doo in 1959 at the request of a priest. The priest had asked Bombardier to make an economical and reliable means of winter travel. The Ski-Doo greatly changed life in northern North America's isolated communities, where Ski-Doo replaced sled dogs by the end of the 1960s. The Ski-Doo also greatly improved communication between isolated communities. Snowmobiles are also called "Snow Machines” in some areas of Alaska.
Work
In northern North America, historically, isolated communities depended on dog sledding and snowshoeing as their primary method of transportation for hunting during the winter months. The Ski-Doo allowed trappers to travel greater distances faster, allowing them to expand their hunting grounds. Prospectors, mining companies, foresters, backcountry cabin owners, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Canadian Army also found snowmobiles very effective because they were the most economical method of transportation of small loads.
Recreation
Joseph-Armand Bombardier's tests of Ski-Dog proved that snowmobiling was fun, and snowmobiling became a new form of outdoor recreation. People who once sat dormant throughout winter were now given the opportunity in more outdoor activities.
Economic impact
According to the International Snowmobile Manufacturers Association, snowmobilers in Canada and the United States spend over $28 billion on snowmobiling each year. This includes expenditures on equipment, clothing, accessories, snowmobiling vacations (lodging, fuel, and food), maintenance and others. Often this is the only source of income for some smaller towns, such as Bralorne, British Columbia, that rely solely on tourism during the summer and winter months. Once a booming gold mining town, Bralorne is now a very small town with a population of 60, and it is relatively inaccessible by car in the winter. The economy relies on visits from snowmobilers, who contribute to the economy by spending money on gas, food, and hotels.
Accidents and safety
As a result of their inherent maneuverability, acceleration, and high-speed abilities, skill and physical strength are both required to operate a snowmobile.
Snowmobile injuries and fatalities are high compared to those caused by on road motor vehicle traffic. Losing control of a snowmobile could easily cause extensive damage, injury, or death. One such cause of snowmobile accidents is loss of control from a loose grip. If the rider falls off, the loss of control can easily result in the snowmobile colliding with a nearby object, such as a rock or tree. Most snowmobiles are fitted with a cord connected to a kill switch, which would stop the snowmobile if the rider falls off; however, not all riders use this device every time they operate a snowmobile.
Swerving off of the path may result in rolling the snowmobile or crashing into an obstacle. In unfamiliar areas, riders may crash into suspended barbed wire or haywire fences at high speeds. Each year a number of serious or fatal accidents are caused by these factors.
Each year, riders are killed by hitting other snowmobiles, automobiles, pedestrians, rocks, trees, or fences, or falling through thin ice. On average, 10 people a year have died in such crashes in Minnesota alone, with alcohol a contributing factor in many cases. In Saskatchewan, 16 out of 21 deaths in snowmobile collisions between 1996 and 2000 were caused by the effects of alcohol. Wrestler Lindsey Durlacher died in 2011 following surgery for a broken sternum he sustained in a snowmobile accident.
Fatal collisions with trains can also occur when a snowmobile operator engages in the illegal practice of "rail riding", riding between railroad track rails over snow-covered sleepers. Inability to hear the sound of an oncoming train over the engine noise of a snowmobile makes this activity extremely dangerous. Collision with large animals such as moose and deer, which may venture onto a snowmobile trail, is another major cause of snowmobile accidents. Most often such encounters occur at night or in low-visibility conditions when the animal could not be seen in time to prevent a collision. Also even when successful, a sudden maneuver to miss hitting the animal could still result in the operator losing control of the snowmobile.
A large number of snowmobile deaths in Alaska are caused by drowning. Because of the cold weather in many parts of Alaska, the rivers and lakes are generally frozen over during certain times of the year in winter. People who ride early or late in the season run the risk of falling through weak ice, and heavy winter clothing can make it extremely difficult to escape the cold water. While a snowmobile is heavy, it also distributes its weight at a larger area than a standing person, so a driver who has stopped his vehicle out on the ice of a frozen lake can go through the ice just by stepping off the snowmobile.
The next leading cause of injury and death is avalanches, which can result from the practice of highmarking, or driving a snowmobile as far up a hill as it can go. During the 2018–2019 season, 7 snowmobilers in the United States were killed. Avalanche safety education is critical for those accessing the backcountry.
Risks can be reduced through education, proper training, appropriate gear, attention to published avalanche warnings and avoiding drinking alcohol. In some areas of Western U.S., organizations provide avalanche training, some of which is free. It is recommended that snowmobile riders wear a helmet and a snowmobile suit.
Types of races
The International 500 is a large racing event held annually in Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan. It is a 500-mile (800 km) race on a track, with the current purse being in excess of $40,000. It has been running since February 1969.
Drag racing is common with snowmobiles year-round, with summer and fall often with grass or closed-course (asphalt or concrete) drag strips. The largest event is Hay Days in North Branch, Minnesota, on the first weekend following Labor Day.
The World Championship Watercross or snowmobile skipping races are held in Grantsburg, Wisconsin, in July. The snowmobiles are raced on a marked course, similar to motocross courses, without the ramps and on water.
The Snocross racing series are snowmobile races on a motocross-like course. The races are held during the winter season in Northern United States and Canada. One of the largest in New York is the Northeast SnoX Challenge in early January in Malone, New York, and run by Rock Maple Racing and sponsored by the Malone Chamber of Commerce.
Snowmobiles are used for ice racing. The racing is held on an "Ice Oval" track. The World Championship Snowmobile Derby is held each winter in Eagle River, Wisconsin.
Alaska's "Iron Dog" is the longest snowmachine race in the world. It is 2,031 miles (3,269 km) long and runs from Big Lake to Nome to Fairbanks. The name refers to dog mushing, long popular in Alaska.
Vintage Snowmobile Racing is the racing of vintage snowmobiles and has grown in popularity as a sporting event on the Canadian prairie and in America.
The World Championship Hill Climb competition is held in Jackson, Wyoming, at the Snow King Mountain resort each year in March. 2019 was the 43rd year of the four-day event and drew around 10,000 in attendance.
Snow bike
A snow bike takes a typical dirt bike and replaces the rear wheel with a single tread system similar to a snowmobile and the front wheel with a large ski. It is much smaller and nimbler than a snowmobile, and it has a tighter turning radius, which lets the rider go where many snowmobiles cannot. The first prototype of motorcycles with a rear tread date to the 1920s, with subsequent failed attempts to bring them to market. Many motorcycles made after the 1990s can be fitted with kits that transform them into snow bikes. In 2017, Winter X-Games introduced the first snow bike event in the form of a SnowBikeCross race. The following year they introduced a Best Trick event.
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The giraffe (Giraffa) is a genus of African even-toed ungulate mammals, the tallest living terrestrial animals and the largest ruminants. The genus currently consists of one species, Giraffa camelopardalis, the type species. Seven other species are extinct, prehistoric species known from fossils. Taxonomic classifications of one to eight extant giraffe species have been described, based upon research into the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, as well as morphological measurements of Giraffa, but the IUCN currently recognises only one species with nine subspecies.
The giraffe's chief distinguishing characteristics are its extremely long neck and legs, its horn-like ossicones, and its distinctive coat patterns. It is classified under the family Giraffidae, along with its closest extant relative, the okapi. Its scattered range extends from Chad in the north to South Africa in the south, and from Niger in the west to Somalia in the east. Giraffes usually inhabit savannahs and woodlands. Their food source is leaves, fruits and flowers of woody plants, primarily acacia species, which they browse at heights most other herbivores cannot reach. They may be preyed on by lions, leopards, spotted hyenas and African wild dogs. Giraffes live in herds of related females and their offspring, or bachelor herds of unrelated adult males, but are gregarious and may gather in large aggregations. Males establish social hierarchies through "necking", which are combat bouts where the neck is used as a weapon. Dominant males gain mating access to females, which bear the sole responsibility for raising the young.
The giraffe has intrigued various cultures, both ancient and modern, for its peculiar appearance, and has often been featured in paintings, books, and cartoons. It is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as Vulnerable to extinction, and has been extirpated from many parts of its former range. Giraffes are still found in numerous national parks and game reserves but estimations as of 2016 indicate that there are approximately 97,500 members of Giraffa in the wild, with around 1,144 in captivity.
ETYMOLOGY
The name "giraffe" has its earliest known origins in the Arabic word zarāfah (زرافة), perhaps borrowed from the animal's Somali name geri. The Arab name is translated as "fast-walker". There were several Middle English spellings, such as jarraf, ziraph, and gerfauntz. The Italian form giraffa arose in the 1590s. The modern English form developed around 1600 from the French girafe. "Camelopard" is an archaic English name for the giraffe deriving from the Ancient Greek for camel and leopard, referring to its camel-like shape and its leopard-like colouring.
TAXONOMY
Living giraffes were originally classified as one species by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. He gave it the binomial name Cervus camelopardalis. Morten Thrane Brünnich classified the genus Giraffa in 1772. The species name camelopardalis is from Latin.
EVOLUTION
The giraffe is one of only two living genera of the family Giraffidae in the order Artiodactyla, the other being the okapi. The family was once much more extensive, with over 10 fossil genera described. Their closest known relatives are the extinct deer-like climacocerids. They, together with the family Antilocapridae (whose only extant species is the pronghorn), belong to the superfamily Giraffoidea. These animals may have evolved from the extinct family Palaeomerycidae which might also have been the ancestor of deer.
The elongation of the neck appears to have started early in the giraffe lineage. Comparisons between giraffes and their ancient relatives suggest that vertebrae close to the skull lengthened earlier, followed by lengthening of vertebrae further down. One early giraffid ancestor was Canthumeryx which has been dated variously to have lived 25–20 million years ago (mya), 17–15 mya or 18–14.3 mya and whose deposits have been found in Libya. This animal was medium-sized, slender and antelope-like. Giraffokeryx appeared 15 mya in the Indian subcontinent and resembled an okapi or a small giraffe, and had a longer neck and similar ossicones. Giraffokeryx may have shared a clade with more massively built giraffids like Sivatherium and Bramatherium.
Giraffids like Palaeotragus, Shansitherium and Samotherium appeared 14 mya and lived throughout Africa and Eurasia. These animals had bare ossicones and small cranial sinuses and were longer with broader skulls. Paleotragus resembled the okapi and may have been its ancestor. Others find that the okapi lineage diverged earlier, before Giraffokeryx. Samotherium was a particularly important transitional fossil in the giraffe lineage as its cervical vertebrae was intermediate in length and structure between a modern giraffe and an okapi, and was more vertical than the okapi's. Bohlinia, which first appeared in southeastern Europe and lived 9–7 mya was likely a direct ancestor of the giraffe. Bohlinia closely resembled modern giraffes, having a long neck and legs and similar ossicones and dentition.
Bohlinia entered China and northern India in response to climate change. From there, the genus Giraffa evolved and, around 7 mya, entered Africa. Further climate changes caused the extinction of the Asian giraffes, while the African giraffes survived and radiated into several new species. Living giraffes appear to have arisen around 1 mya in eastern Africa during the Pleistocene. Some biologists suggest the modern giraffes descended from G. jumae; others find G. gracilis a more likely candidate. G. jumae was larger and more heavily built while G. gracilis was smaller and more lightly built. The main driver for the evolution of the giraffes is believed to have been the changes from extensive forests to more open habitats, which began 8 mya. During this time, tropical plants disappeared and were replaced by arid C4 plants, and a dry savannah emerged across eastern and northern Africa and western India. Some researchers have hypothesised that this new habitat coupled with a different diet, including acacia species, may have exposed giraffe ancestors to toxins that caused higher mutation rates and a higher rate of evolution. The coat patterns of modern giraffes may also have coincided with these habitat changes. Asian giraffes are hypothesised to have had more okapi-like colourations.
In the early 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck believed the giraffe's long neck was an "acquired characteristic", developed as generations of ancestral giraffes strove to reach the leaves of tall trees. This theory was eventually rejected, and scientists now believe the giraffe's neck arose through Darwinian natural selection - that ancestral giraffes with long necks thereby had a competitive feeding advantage (competing browsers hypothesis) that better enabled them to survive and reproduce to pass on their genes.
The giraffe genome is around 2.9 billion base pairs in length compared to the 3.3 billion base pairs of the okapi. Of the proteins in giraffe and okapi genes, 19.4% are identical. The two species are equally distantly related to cattle, suggesting the giraffe's unique characteristics are not because of faster evolution. The divergence of giraffe and okapi lineages dates to around 11.5 mya. A small group of regulatory genes in the giraffe appear to be responsible for the animal's stature and associated circulatory adaptations.
SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES
The IUCN currently recognises only one species of giraffe with nine subspecies. In 2001, a two-species taxonomy was proposed. A 2007 study on the genetics of Giraffa, suggested they were six species: the West African, Rothschild's, reticulated, Masai, Angolan, and South African giraffe. The study deduced from genetic differences in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that giraffes from these populations are reproductively isolated and rarely interbreed, though no natural obstacles block their mutual access. This includes adjacent populations of Rothschild's, reticulated, and Masai giraffes. The Masai giraffe was also suggested to consist of possibly two species separated by the Rift Valley.
Reticulated and Masai giraffes have the highest mtDNA diversity, which is consistent with giraffes originating in eastern Africa. Populations further north are more closely related to the former, while those to the south are more related to the latter. Giraffes appear to select mates of the same coat type, which are imprinted on them as calves. The implications of these findings for the conservation of giraffes were summarised by David Brown, lead author of the study, who told BBC News: "Lumping all giraffes into one species obscures the reality that some kinds of giraffe are on the brink. Some of these populations number only a few hundred individuals and need immediate protection."
A 2011 study using detailed analyses of the morphology of giraffes, and application of the phylogenetic species concept, described eight species of living giraffes. The eight species are: G. angolensis, G.antiquorum, G. camelopardalis, G. giraffa, G. peralta, G. reticulata, G. thornicrofti, and G. tippelskirchi.
A 2016 study also concluded that living giraffes consist of multiple species. The researchers suggested the existence of four species, which have not exchanged genetic information between each other for 1 million to 2 million years. Those four species are the northern giraffe (G. camelopardalis), southern giraffe (G. giraffa), reticulated giraffe (G. reticulata), and Masai giraffe (G. tippelskirchi). Since then, a response to this publication has been published, highlighting seven problems in data interpretation, and concludes "the conclusions should not be accepted unconditionally".
There are an estimated 90,000 individuals of Giraffa in the wild, with 1,144 currently in captivity.
There are also seven extinct species of giraffe, listed as the following:
†Giraffa gracilis
†Giraffa jumae
†Giraffa priscilla
†Giraffa punjabiensis
†Giraffa pygmaea
†Giraffa sivalensis
†Giraffa stillei
G. attica, also extinct, was formerly considered part of Giraffa but was reclassified as Bohlinia attica in 1929.
APPEARANCE AND ANATOMY
Fully grown giraffes stand 4.3–5.7 m tall, with males taller than females. The tallest recorded male was 5.88 m and the tallest recorded female was 5.17 m tall. The average weight is 1,192 kg for an adult male and 828 kg for an adult female with maximum weights of 1,930 kg and 1,180 kg having been recorded for males and females, respectively. Despite its long neck and legs, the giraffe's body is relatively short. Located at both sides of the head, the giraffe's large, bulging eyes give it good all-round vision from its great height. Giraffes see in colour and their senses of hearing and smell are also sharp. The animal can close its muscular nostrils to protect against sandstorms and ants.
The giraffe's prehensile tongue is about 45 cm long. It is purplish-black in colour, perhaps to protect against sunburn, and is useful for grasping foliage, as well as for grooming and cleaning the animal's nose. The upper lip of the giraffe is also prehensile and useful when foraging and is covered in hair to protect against thorns. The tongue, and inside of the mouth are covered in papillae.
The coat has dark blotches or patches (which can be orange, chestnut, brown, or nearly black in colour separated by light hair (usually white or cream in colour. Male giraffes become darker as they age. The coat pattern has been claimed to serve as camouflage in the light and shade patterns of savannah woodlands. While adult giraffes standing among trees and bushes are hard to see at even a few metres' distance, they actively move into the open to gain the best view of an approaching predator, obviating any benefit that camouflage might bring. Instead, the adults rely on their size and ability to defend themselves. However, camouflage appears to be important for calves, which spend a large part of the day in hiding, away from their mothers; further, over half of all calves die within a year, so predation is certainly important. It appears, therefore, that the spotted coat of the giraffe functions as camouflage for the young, while adults simply inherit this coloration as a by-product. The skin underneath the dark areas may serve as windows for thermoregulation, being sites for complex blood vessel systems and large sweat glands. Each individual giraffe has a unique coat pattern.
The skin of a giraffe is mostly gray. Its thickness allows the animal to run through thorn bush without being punctured. The fur may serve as a chemical defence, as its parasite repellents give the animal a characteristic scent. At least 11 main aromatic chemicals are in the fur, although indole and 3-methylindole are responsible for most of the smell. Because the males have a stronger odour than the females, the odour may also have sexual function. Along the animal's neck is a mane made of short, erect hairs. The one-metre tail ends in a long, dark tuft of hair and is used as a defense against insects.
SKULL AND OSSICONES
Both sexes have prominent horn-like structures called ossicones, which are formed from ossified cartilage, covered in skin and fused to the skull at the parietal bones. Being vascularized, the ossicones may have a role in thermoregulation, and are also used in combat between males. Appearance is a reliable guide to the sex or age of a giraffe: the ossicones of females and young are thin and display tufts of hair on top, whereas those of adult males end in knobs and tend to be bald on top. Also, a median lump, which is more prominent in males, emerges at the front of the skull. Males develop calcium deposits that form bumps on their skulls as they age. A giraffe's skull is lightened by multiple sinuses. However, as males age, their skulls become heavier and more club-like, helping them become more dominant in combat. The upper jaw has a grooved palate and lacks front teeth. The giraffe's molars have a rough surface.
LEGS, LOCOMOTION AND POSTURE
The front and back legs of a giraffe are about the same length. The radius and ulna of the front legs are articulated by the carpus, which, while structurally equivalent to the human wrist, functions as a knee. It appears that a suspensory ligament allows the lanky legs to support the animal's great weight. The foot of the giraffe reaches a diameter of 30 cm, and the hoof is 15 cm high in males and 10 cm in females. The rear of each hoof is low and the fetlock is close to the ground, allowing the foot to provide additional support to the animal's weight. Giraffes lack dewclaws and interdigital glands. The giraffe's pelvis, though relatively short, has an ilium that is outspread at the upper ends.
A giraffe has only two gaits: walking and galloping. Walking is done by moving the legs on one side of the body at the same time, then doing the same on the other side. When galloping, the hind legs move around the front legs before the latter move forward, and the tail will curl up. The animal relies on the forward and backward motions of its head and neck to maintain balance and the counter momentum while galloping. The giraffe can reach a sprint speed of up to 60 km/h, and can sustain 50 km/h for several kilometres.
A giraffe rests by lying with its body on top of its folded legs. To lie down, the animal kneels on its front legs and then lowers the rest of its body. To get back up, it first gets on its knees and spreads its hind legs to raise its hindquarters. It then straightens its front legs. With each step, the animal swings its head. In captivity, the giraffe sleeps intermittently around 4.6 hours per day, mostly at night. It usually sleeps lying down, however, standing sleeps have been recorded, particularly in older individuals. Intermittent short "deep sleep" phases while lying are characterised by the giraffe bending its neck backwards and resting its head on the hip or thigh, a position believed to indicate paradoxical sleep. If the giraffe wants to bend down to drink, it either spreads its front legs or bends its knees. Giraffes would probably not be competent swimmers as their long legs would be highly cumbersome in the water, although they could possibly float. When swimming, the thorax would be weighed down by the front legs, making it difficult for the animal to move its neck and legs in harmony or keep its head above the surface.
NECK
The giraffe has an extremely elongated neck, which can be up to 2–2.4 m in length, accounting for much of the animal's vertical height. The long neck results from a disproportionate lengthening of the cervical vertebrae, not from the addition of more vertebrae. Each cervical vertebra is over 28 cm long. They comprise 52–54 per cent of the length of the giraffe's vertebral column, compared with the 27–33 percent typical of similar large ungulates, including the giraffe’s closest living relative, the okapi. This elongation largely takes place after birth, perhaps because giraffe mothers would have a difficult time giving birth to young with the same neck proportions as adults. The giraffe's head and neck are held up by large muscles and a strengthened nuchal ligament, which are anchored by long dorsal spines on the anterior thoracic vertebrae, giving the animal a hump. The giraffe's neck vertebrae have ball and socket joints. In particular, the atlas–axis joint (C1 and C2) allows the animal to tilt its head vertically and reach more branches with the tongue. The point of articulation between the cervical and thoracic vertebrae of giraffes is shifted to lie between the first and second thoracic vertebrae (T1 and T2), unlike most other ruminants where the articulation is between the seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and T1. This allows C7 to contribute directly to increased neck length and has given rise to the suggestion that T1 is actually C8, and that giraffes have added an extra cervical vertebra. However, this proposition is not generally accepted, as T1 has other morphological features, such as an articulating rib, deemed diagnostic of thoracic vertebrae, and because exceptions to the mammalian limit of seven cervical vertebrae are generally characterised by increased neurological anomalies and maladies.There are several hypotheses regarding the evolutionary origin and maintenance of elongation in giraffe necks. The "competing browsers hypothesis" was originally suggested by Charles Darwin and challenged only recently. It suggests that competitive pressure from smaller browsers, such as kudu, steenbok and impala, encouraged the elongation of the neck, as it enabled giraffes to reach food that competitors could not. This advantage is real, as giraffes can and do feed up to 4.5 m high, while even quite large competitors, such as kudu, can feed up to only about 2 m high. There is also research suggesting that browsing competition is intense at lower levels, and giraffes feed more efficiently (gaining more leaf biomass with each mouthful) high in the canopy. However, scientists disagree about just how much time giraffes spend feeding at levels beyond the reach of other browsers, and a 2010 study found that adult giraffes with longer necks actually suffered higher mortality rates under drought conditions than their shorter-necked counterparts. This study suggests that maintaining a longer neck requires more nutrients, which puts longer-necked giraffes at risk during a food shortage.
Another theory, the sexual selection hypothesis, proposes that the long necks evolved as a secondary sexual characteristic, giving males an advantage in "necking" contests (see below) to establish dominance and obtain access to sexually receptive females. In support of this theory, necks are longer and heavier for males than females of the same age, and the former do not employ other forms of combat. However, one objection is that it fails to explain why female giraffes also have long necks. It has also been proposed that the neck serves to give the animal greater vigilance.
INTERNAL SYSTEMS
In mammals, the left recurrent laryngeal nerve is longer than the right; in the giraffe it is over 30 cm longer. These nerves are longer in the giraffe than in any other living animal; the left nerve is over 2 m long. Each nerve cell in this path begins in the brainstem and passes down the neck along the vagus nerve, then branches off into the recurrent laryngeal nerve which passes back up the neck to the larynx. Thus, these nerve cells have a length of nearly 5 m in the largest giraffes. The structure of a giraffe's brain resembles that of domestic cattle. It is kept cool by evaporative heat loss in the nasal passages. The shape of the skeleton gives the giraffe a small lung volume relative to its mass. Its long neck gives it a large amount of dead space, in spite of its narrow windpipe. These factors increase the resistance to airflow. Nevertheless, the animal can still supply enough oxygen to its tissues and it can increase its respiratory rate and oxygen diffusion when running.
The circulatory system of the giraffe has several adaptations for its great height. Its heart, which can weigh more than 11 kg and measures about 60 cm long, must generate approximately double the blood pressure required for a human to maintain blood flow to the brain. As such, the wall of the heart can be as thick as 7.5 cm. Giraffes have unusually high heart rates for their size, at 150 beats per minute. When the animal lowers its head the blood rushes down fairly unopposed and a rete mirabile in the upper neck, with its large cross sectional area, prevents excess blood flow to the brain. When it raises again, the blood vessels constrict and direct blood into the brain so the animal does not faint. The jugular veins contain several (most commonly seven) valves to prevent blood flowing back into the head from the inferior vena cava and right atrium while the head is lowered. Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them. To solve this problem, the skin of the lower legs is thick and tight; preventing too much blood from pouring into them.
Giraffes have oesophageal muscles that are unusually strong to allow regurgitation of food from the stomach up the neck and into the mouth for rumination. They have four chambered stomachs, as in all ruminants, and the first chamber has adapted to their specialised diet. The intestines of an adult giraffe measure more than 70 m in length and have a relatively small ratio of small to large intestine. The liver of the giraffe is small and compact. A gallbladder is generally present during fetal life, but it may disappear before birth.
BEHAVIOUR AND ECOLOGY
HABITAT AND FEEDING
Giraffes usually inhabit savannahs and open woodlands. They prefer Acacieae, Commiphora, Combretum and open Terminalia woodlands over denser environments like Brachystegia woodlands. The Angolan giraffe can be found in desert environments. Giraffes browse on the twigs of trees, preferring trees of the subfamily Acacieae and the genera Commiphora and Terminalia, which are important sources of calcium and protein to sustain the giraffe's growth rate. They also feed on shrubs, grass and fruit. A giraffe eats around 34 kg of foliage daily. When stressed, giraffes may chew the bark off branches. Although herbivorous, the giraffe has been known to visit carcasses and lick dried meat off bones.
During the wet season, food is abundant and giraffes are more spread out, while during the dry season, they gather around the remaining evergreen trees and bushes. Mothers tend to feed in open areas, presumably to make it easier to detect predators, although this may reduce their feeding efficiency. As a ruminant, the giraffe first chews its food, then swallows it for processing and then visibly passes the half-digested cud up the neck and back into the mouth to chew again. It is common for a giraffe to salivate while feeding. The giraffe requires less food than many other herbivores because the foliage it eats has more concentrated nutrients and it has a more efficient digestive system. The animal's faeces come in the form of small pellets. When it has access to water, a giraffe drinks at intervals no longer than three days.
Giraffes have a great effect on the trees that they feed on, delaying the growth of young trees for some years and giving "waistlines" to trees that are too tall. Feeding is at its highest during the first and last hours of daytime. Between these hours, giraffes mostly stand and ruminate. Rumination is the dominant activity during the night, when it is mostly done lying down.
SOCIAL LIFE
Giraffes are usually found in groups. Traditionally, the composition of these groups has been described as open and ever-changing. Giraffes were thought to have few social bonds and for research purposes, a "group" has been defined as "a collection of individuals that are less than a kilometre apart and moving in the same general direction." More recent studies have found that giraffes do have long-term social associations and may form groups or pairs based on kinship, sex or other factors. These groups may regularly associate with one another in larger communities or sub-communities within a fission–fusion society. The number of giraffes in a group can range up to 44 individuals.
Giraffe groups tend to be sex-segregated although mixed-sex groups made of adult females and young males are known to occur. Particularity stable giraffe groups are those made of mothers and their young, which can last weeks or months. Social cohesion in these groups is maintained by the bonds formed between calves. Female association appears to be based on space-use and individuals may be matrilineally related. In general, females are more selective than males in who they associate with in regards to individuals of the same sex. Young males also form groups and will engage in playfights. However, as they get older males become more solitary but may also associate in pairs or with female groups. Giraffes are not territorial, but they have home ranges. Male giraffes occasionally wander far from areas that they normally frequent.
Although generally quiet and non-vocal, giraffes have been heard to communicate using various sounds. During courtship, males emit loud coughs. Females call their young by bellowing. Calves will emit snorts, bleats, mooing and mewing sounds. Giraffes also snore, hiss, moan, grunt and make flute-like sounds, and possibly communicate over long distances using infrasound - though this is disputed. During nighttime, giraffes appear to hum to each other above the infrasound range for purposes which are unclear.
REPRODUCTION AND PARENTAL CARE
Reproduction in giraffes is broadly polygamous: a few older males mate with the fertile females. Male giraffes assess female fertility by tasting the female's urine to detect oestrus, in a multi-step process known as the flehmen response. Males prefer young adult females over juveniles and older adults. Once an oestrous female is detected, the male will attempt to court her. When courting, dominant males will keep subordinate ones at bay. A courting male may lick a female's tail, rest his head and neck on her body or nudge her with his horns. During copulation, the male stands on his hind legs with his head held up and his front legs resting on the female's sides. Giraffe gestation lasts 400–460 days, after which a single calf is normally born, although twins occur on rare occasions. The mother gives birth standing up. The calf emerges head and front legs first, having broken through the fetal membranes, and falls to the ground, severing the umbilical cord. The mother then grooms the newborn and helps it stand up. A newborn giraffe is 1.7–2 m tall. Within a few hours of birth, the calf can run around and is almost indistinguishable from a one-week-old. However, for the first 1–3 weeks, it spends most of its time hiding; its coat pattern providing camouflage. The ossicones, which have lain flat while it was in the womb, become erect within a few days.
Mothers with calves will gather in nursery herds, moving or browsing together. Mothers in such a group may sometimes leave their calves with one female while they forage and drink elsewhere. This is known as a "calving pool". Adult males play almost no role in raising the young, although they appear to have friendly interactions. Calves are at risk of predation, and a mother giraffe will stand over her calf and kick at an approaching predator. Females watching calving pools will only alert their own young if they detect a disturbance, although the others will take notice and follow.
The length time in which offspring stay with their mother varies, though it can last until the female's next calving. Likewise, calves may suckle for only a month or as long as a year.] Females become sexually mature when they are four years old, while males become mature at four or five years. Spermatogenesis in male giraffes begins at three to four years of age. Males must wait until they are at least seven years old to gain the opportunity to mate.
NECKING
Male giraffes use their necks as weapons in combat, a behaviour known as "necking". Necking is used to establish dominance and males that win necking bouts have greater reproductive success. This behaviour occurs at low or high intensity. In low intensity necking, the combatants rub and lean against each other. The male that can hold itself more erect wins the bout. In high intensity necking, the combatants will spread their front legs and swing their necks at each other, attempting to land blows with their ossicones. The contestants will try to dodge each other's blows and then get ready to counter. The power of a blow depends on the weight of the skull and the arc of the swing. A necking duel can last more than half an hour, depending on how well matched the combatants are. Although most fights do not lead to serious injury, there have been records of broken jaws, broken necks, and even deaths.
After a duel, it is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling. In one study, up to 94 percent of observed mounting incidents took place between males. The proportion of same-sex activities varied from 30–75 percent. Only one percent of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.
MORTALITY AND HEALTH
Giraffes have high adult survival probability, and an unusually long lifespan compared to other ruminants, up to 25 years in the wild. Because of their size, eyesight and powerful kicks, adult giraffes are usually not subject to predation, aside from lions. Giraffes are the most common prey for the big cats in Kruger National Park. Nile crocodiles can also be a threat to giraffes when they bend down to drink. Calves are much more vulnerable than adults, and are additionally preyed on by leopards, spotted hyenas and wild dogs. A quarter to a half of giraffe calves reach adulthood. Calf survival varies according to the season of birth, with calves born during the dry season having higher survival rates. The local, seasonal presence of large herds of migratory wildebeests and zebras reduces predation pressure on giraffe calves and increases their survival probability.
Some parasites feed on giraffes. They are often hosts for ticks, especially in the area around the genitals, which has thinner skin than other areas. Tick species that commonly feed on giraffes are those of genera Hyalomma, Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus. Giraffes may rely on red-billed and yellow-billed oxpeckers to clean them of ticks and alert them to danger. Giraffes host numerous species of internal parasite and are susceptible to various diseases. They were victims of the (now eradicated) viral illness rinderpest. Giraffes can also suffer from a skin disorder, which comes in the form of wrinkles, lesions or raw fissures. It appears to be caused by a nematode and may be further effected by fungal infections. As much as 79% of giraffes show signs of the disease in Ruaha National Park.
RELATIONSHIP WITH HUMANS
Humans have interacted with giraffes for millennia. The San people of southern Africa have medicine dances named after some animals; the giraffe dance is performed to treat head ailments. How the giraffe got its height has been the subject of various African folktales, including one from eastern Africa which explains that the giraffe grew tall from eating too many magic herbs. Giraffes were depicted in art throughout the African continent, including that of the Kiffians, Egyptians and Meroë Nubians. The Kiffians were responsible for a life-size rock engraving of two giraffes that has been called the "world's largest rock art petroglyph". The Egyptians gave the giraffe its own hieroglyph, named 'sr' in Old Egyptian and 'mmy' in later periods. They also kept giraffes as pets and shipped them around the Mediterranean.
The giraffe was also known to the Greeks and Romans, who believed that it was an unnatural hybrid of a camel and a leopard and called it camelopardalis. The giraffe was among the many animals collected and displayed by the Romans. The first one in Rome was brought in by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and exhibited to the public. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the housing of giraffes in Europe declined. During the Middle Ages, giraffes were known to Europeans through contact with the Arabs, who revered the giraffe for its peculiar appearance.
Individual captive giraffes were given celebrity status throughout history. In 1414, a giraffe was shipped from Malindi to Bengal. It was then taken to China by explorer Zheng He and placed in a Ming dynasty zoo. The animal was a source of fascination for the Chinese people, who associated it with the mythical Qilin. The Medici giraffe was a giraffe presented to Lorenzo de' Medici in 1486. It caused a great stir on its arrival in Florence. Zarafa, another famous giraffe, was brought from Egypt to Paris in the early 19th century as a gift from Muhammad Ali of Egypt to Charles X of France. A sensation, the giraffe was the subject of numerous memorabilia or "giraffanalia".
Giraffes continue to have a presence in modern culture. Salvador Dalí depicted them with burning manes in some of his surrealist paintings. Dali considered the giraffe to be a symbol of masculinity, and a flaming giraffe was meant to be a "masculine cosmic apocalyptic monster". Several children's books feature the giraffe, including David A. Ufer's The Giraffe Who Was Afraid of Heights, Giles Andreae's Giraffes Can't Dance and Roald Dahl's The Giraffe and the Pelly and Me. Giraffes have appeared in animated films, as minor characters in Disney's The Lion King and Dumbo, and in more prominent roles in The Wild and in the Madagascar films. Sophie the Giraffe has been a popular teether since 1961. Another famous fictional giraffe is the Toys "R" Us mascot Geoffrey the Giraffe.
The giraffe has also been used for some scientific experiments and discoveries. Scientists have looked at the properties of giraffe skin when developing suits for astronauts and fighter pilots because the people in these professions are in danger of passing out if blood rushes to their legs. Computer scientists have modeled the coat patterns of several subspecies using reaction–diffusion mechanisms.
The constellation of Camelopardalis, introduced in the seventeenth century, depicts a giraffe. The Tswana people of Botswana traditionally see the constellation Crux as two giraffes – Acrux and Mimosa forming a male, and Gacrux and Delta Crucis forming the female.
EXPLOITATION AND CONSERVATION STATUS
Giraffes were probably common targets for hunters throughout Africa. Different parts of their bodies were used for different purposes. Their meat was used for food. The tail hairs served as flyswatters, bracelets, necklaces and thread. Shields, sandals and drums were made using the skin, and the strings of musical instruments were from the tendons. The smoke from burning giraffe skins was used by the medicine men of Buganda to treat nose bleeds. The Humr people of Sudan consume the drink Umm Nyolokh; which is created from the liver and marrow of giraffes. Umm Nyolokh often contains DMT and other psychoactive substances from plants the giraffes eat such as Acacia; and is known to cause hallucinations of giraffes, believed to be the giraffes' ghosts by the Humr. In the 19th century, European explorers began to hunt them for sport. Habitat destruction has hurt the giraffe, too: in the Sahel, the need for firewood and grazing room for livestock has led to deforestation. Normally, giraffes can coexist with livestock, since they do not directly compete with them. In 2017, severe droughts in northern Kenya have led to increased tensions over land and the killing of wildlife by herders, with giraffe populations being particularly hit.
Aerial survey is the most common method of monitoring giraffe population trends in the vast roadless tracts of African landscapes, but aerial methods are known to undercount giraffes. Ground-based survey methods are more accurate and should be used in conjunction with aerial surveys to make accurate estimates of population sizes and trends. In 2010, giraffes were assessed as Least Concern from a conservation perspective by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), but the 2016 assessment categorized giraffes as Vulnerable. Giraffes have been extirpated from much of their historic range including Eritrea, Guinea, Mauritania and Senegal. They may also have disappeared from Angola, Mali, and Nigeria, but have been introduced to Rwanda and Swaziland. Two subspecies, the West African giraffe and the Rothschild giraffe, have been classified as endangered, as wild populations of each of them number in the hundreds.
In 1997, Jonathan Kingdon suggested that the Nubian giraffe was the most threatened of all giraffes; as of 2010, it may number fewer than 250, although this estimate is uncertain. Private game reserves have contributed to the preservation of giraffe populations in southern Africa. Giraffe Manor is a popular hotel in Nairobi that also serves as sanctuary for Rothschild's giraffes. The giraffe is a protected species in most of its range. It is the national animal of Tanzania, and is protected by law. Unauthorised killing can result in imprisonment. The UN backed Convention of Migratory Species selected giraffes for protection in 2017. In 1999, it was estimated that over 140,000 giraffes existed in the wild, estimations as of 2016 indicate that there are approximately 97,500 members of Giraffa in the wild, down from 155,000 in 1985, with around 1,144 in captivity.
WIKIPEDIA
end of the first week back at work after a long break, tiring, I am spent.
trip home back from work didn't bring any shots so I have to scavenge around the house to get "photo a day".
lilies win hands down.
and just as well they are good enough pic to go with my discovery. Someone I follow uploaded photo with a link to a song. I (being a music junkie) am stunned I never heard the name, it is a total surprise and revelation.
I wish I could learn French, I am incapable of doing that, I find Spanish (which I love) is the most effortless language to learn for an original Russian speaker, French is nearly impossible in my estimation. Great shame as I love a few French singers and play them a lot imagining what the hell they might be singing about.
Anyway, I have no idea how this stunning (in all respects) woman passed me by unnoticed until now
The Southern Forestry Conclave is an annual competition among students from 15 southern forestry schools in a variety of physical and technical events. Traditional physical events include archery, axe throwing, pole climbing, log rolling, bow sawing, log birling, and cross-cut saw competition. Technical events include dendrology, timber volume estimation, photogrammetry, wood identification, and others
This woolworths owned site has remained abandoned and derelict for about 20 years (I can't find the date anywhere, but this is my estimation.) Finally, it's been agreed that the site will be redeveleoped into a Masters home improvement centre and Woolworths. I thought I'd take some record shots before it all gets demolished.
...there's something fundamentally wrong in my estimation in smiling at an inanimate piece of technology. Next thing you know, I'll be believing that all those people I talk to on the internet are real, when I know full well it's a clever piece of AI...
Even those of you I've met aren't completely real; Tony Eccles? Robot... Sam Williams? Hologram... Metaphorae? Cyborg... Streetpix du jour? Simulant... Lou Bert? Very clever, but definitely an artificial construct... Ludbah? Terminator... Sid Pena? Android... Helen HatesPeas? One of the Stepford Wives... Joannablu? Fembot...
You'll all go and try and prove me wrong now, won't you?
Kyoto ou Kyōto Prononciation du titre dans sa version originale Écouter (京都市, Kyōto-shi?, littéralement « ville capitale ») est une ville japonaise de la région du Kansai, au centre de Honshū. Elle fut de 794 à 1868 la capitale impériale du Japon, sous le nom de Heian-kyō ("Capitale de la paix et de la tranquillité"). Elle est aujourd'hui la capitale de la préfecture de Kyoto ainsi que l'une des grandes villes de la zone métropolitaine Keihanshin (Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto). Sa population est de 1,47 million d'habitants (estimations 2015).
Bien que des preuves archéologiques permettent d'affirmer que les premiers hommes, présents sur les îles du Japon, il y a plus de 50 000 ans comme chasseurs-cueilleurs, furent ensuite parmi les premiers potiers du monde dès le XVe millénaire av. J.-C., la région de Kyoto ne fut peuplée qu'à partir du VIIe siècle par le clan Hata venu de Corée. Au cours du VIIIe siècle, voulant s'éloigner de l'influence du clergé bouddhiste au sein du gouvernement impérial, l'Empereur prit la décision de déplacer la capitale depuis l'actuelle Nara vers une région éloignée de cette influence.
La nouvelle ville, Heiankyō (lit. « la capitale de la Paix ») devint le siège de la cour impériale en 794. Plus tard, la ville fut rebaptisée Kyoto (« la ville capitale »). Elle développa deux quartiers spécifiques : le quartier sud où se situait le palais impérial et la cour ; le quartier où le Shogun Yoshimitsu Ashikaga plaça en 1378 sa résidence dans le 'Hana no Gosho' (ou Muromachi-dono, Karasumaru-dono) du quartier de Muromachi. Cela donnera par ailleurs le nom de la Période Muromachi de l'histoire de l'archipel. Le shogun se fit également construire le Pavillon d'Or Kinkaku-ji dans le nord de la ville. Par la suite, la ville fut véritablement dévastée par les armées lors de la guerre d'Onin, abandonnée en grande partie par ses habitants et livrée au pillage de 1467 à 1477. En 1489, le shogun Yoshimasa Ashikaga se fit construire l'une des merveilles architecturales du Japon : le Pavillon d'Argent (Ginkaku-ji) qui voulait rivaliser avec le Pavillon d'Or construit par son grand-père Yoshimitsu Ashikaga.
L'avènement du shogunat Tokugawa en 1600 fit perdre à Kyoto son rôle de centre politique et administratif au profit d'Edo, lieu de résidence des shoguns. Toutefois, Kyoto resta la capitale impériale du Japon jusqu'au transfert de la résidence de l'Empereur à Edo en 1868, lors de la restauration de Meiji. Après qu'Edo fut rebaptisée Tokyo (signifiant « la capitale de l'Est »), Kyoto fut connue peu de temps sous le nom de Saikyō (« la capitale de l'Ouest »).
Epargnée par les bombardements de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Kyoto échappa de peu à la destruction atomique, car la ville figurait en tête des cibles désignées par le comité des objectifs américain. La ville fut finalement rejetée à la suite de l'intervention du secrétaire de la Guerre des États-Unis Henry Lewis Stimson et de conseillers, dont le Français Serge Elisseeff, qui connaissaient la richesse culturelle de la ville, et estimèrent que sa destruction serait un obstacle grave à une réconciliation ultérieure avec le Japon.
Les monuments historiques de l'ancienne Kyoto (villes de Kyoto, Uji et Ōtsu) ont été inscrits au patrimoine mondial de l'Unesco en 1994. En 1997, Kyoto accueillit la conférence qui donna naissance au Protocole de Kyoto.
Kyoto (京都市 Kyōto-shi, pronounced [kʲoːꜜto] (About this sound listen), pronounced [kʲoːtoꜜɕi] (About this sound listen); UK: /kɪˈoʊtoʊ/, US: /kiˈoʊ-/, or /ˈkjoʊ]) is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a population close to 1.5 million. Formerly the Imperial capital of Japan for more than one thousand years, it is now the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture located in the Kansai region, as well as a major part of the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe metropolitan area. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital.