View allAll Photos Tagged digestion
Red-backed Poison Frog (Ranitomeya reticulatus or Dendrobates reticaltus), Rio Napo rainforest area, Amazonian rainforest area, Loreto, Amazonia, Peru
It is the second-most toxic poison frog in the Ranitomeya genus, however, compared to other poison frogs it is moderately toxic. But the bright and characteristic colors and patterns alert possible predators: Do not touch me!
It is an arboreal and diurnal living frog, only 12-14 mm of length. The poison is not produced by the frogs themselves but for example from toxic fire ants and other insects which they feed on.
As you may know I use reduced flash and a paper tissue before the flash with frogs and almost no direct shot on the frog. So that's the reason why depth-of-field is not exactly what I am used to reach and remember: frogs are usually fast moving and following the frogs in the jungle is sometimes tricky: You are always on the risk to touch or sit or knee in ants, and that is definitely not very funny!!
Interesting facts: In a previous post I asked the question why some of the frogs in the neotropical rainforest are dependent on water but are not living directly in the water, as these little jewels will not do. Open water is too dangerous for the frogs. there are too many predators like fishes and dragonfly larvae wich will feed on the frogs and also tadpoles. So they choose another strategy for survival. Some species lay their eggs on leaves above the water surface to avoid direct killing by predators but they have still enough humidity not do dry out. Remember: Neotropical frogs have a sophisticated and very intensive and individual parental care. They do not produce masses of eggs and tadpoles to survive like most of the frogs do it out of the rainforest.
Another reason for the developing outside the water is the fact, that natural water resources are almost de-ionisied meaning there are no minerals and ions in it. Therefore there is an intense osmotic pressure on organism without a water-proof surface like frogs. The process of dilution will lead to an unilateral gradient with entrance of water in the organism and its cells and will destroy the tissues. Poison frogs and their eggs do not have a protection against this osmotic dilution. Some species solve this problem with establishing a system of eggs within a layer of spume/foam. Remember the last time when you have made egg white stiff? Some frogs do this with their legs. The result is a "stiffy" spume around the eggs and they are even protected against dehydration.
The skin of frogs is water-permeable, so they need water, but they do not live directly in the water or at the edges of little ponds. There are some African frogs which will change everyday their dried skin. That needs a lot of protein to rebuild this skin. In the neotropics there is not enough food available for doing this. Poison frog has choosen another way of protection. Humidity means constant challenge by bacteria and fungi to the thin frog's skin. To avoid infection and stabilize the skin they exude ... poison! The digestion process of these toxin by liver and kidney would be an extremely stress for these little frogs. Exuding by skin is much easier and they have even developped an effective protection mechanism against bacterial and fungal infection, detoxification of nutritiants, dehydration and several predators! This stretegy is so effective that they are almost not be hunted (however there are some snakes which were some kind of immune against the poison), they are allowed to live also diurnal and must not hide themselves due to the warning colors. And still: there are no masses of these frogs in the rainforest as it might be expected after installation of this sophisticated protection mechanism. The reason is again as I previously pointed out. There is not much food resources available.
Atlas d'anatomie descriptive du corps humain.
Bonamy, Broca, "Beau (dessinateur) "
Troisième partie , appareil de la digestion, appareil surrénal, rein.
(Paris G. Masson éditeur)
Días en lo que desearías tener un sistema digestivo como las vacas, para poder procesar y digerir toda lo que te has tragado y terminar soltándolo en cantidades industriales de mierda pura.
Gracias.
Mañana será otro día.
Centre d'Art Moderne et Contemporain Georges Pompidou, PARIS - Architects: Renzo Piano - Richard Rogers - Norman Foster
Haciendo la digestión por el casco antiguo de Elvas, localidad fronteriza, amiga del buen yantar.
Elvas, Alentejo, enero, 2012.
Trasteando durante las prácticas del taller de Lucas Garra.
- vuoi essere la mia porta-aerei? Verrò a posarmi di tanto in tanto, per rifare il pieno di sensazioni..
Toglietemi il mondo dalle orecchie, mi piacerà.
Tappatemi gli occhi, morirò.
[please play Death Valley Sleepers - Left me high]
I can't see, where it should be where is the sign, I thought it would shine..
I'm waiting for the sun to come..
Gli orari della vita dovrebbero prevedere un momento, un momento preciso della giornata, in cui ci si potrebbe impietosire sulla propria sorte. Un momento specifico. Un momento che non sia occupato né dal lavoro, né dal mangiare, né dalla digestione, un momento perfettamente libero, una spiaggia deserta in cui si potrebbe starsene tranquilli a misurare l'ampiezza del disastro. Con queste misure davanti agli occhi, la giornata sarebbe migliore, l'illusione bandita, il paesaggio chiaramente delineato. Ma se si pensa alla propria sventura tra due forchettate, con l'orizzonte ostruito dall'imminente ripresa del lavoro, si prendono delle cantonate, si valuta male, ci si immagina messi peggio di come si sta. Qualche volta, addirittura, ci si crede felici!
(Il paradiso degli orchi - Daniel Pennac, 1985)
le fredde giornate di gennaio trascorrono lente..
posati bellezza, e vola via quando vuoi. Io da questo momento navigo nelle tue acque...
+++++ inside (ode to silence)
Se davvero volete sognare, svegliatevi...
Atlas d'anatomie descriptive du corps humain.
Bonamy, Broca, "Beau (dessinateur) "
Troisième partie , appareil de la digestion, appareil surrénal, rein.
(Paris G. Masson éditeur)
Atlas d'anatomie descriptive du corps humain.
Bonamy, Broca, "Beau (dessinateur) "
Troisième partie , appareil de la digestion, appareil surrénal, rein.
(Paris G. Masson éditeur)
Atlas d'anatomie descriptive du corps humain.
Bonamy, Broca, "Beau (dessinateur) "
Troisième partie , appareil de la digestion, appareil surrénal, rein.
(Paris G. Masson éditeur)
Atlas d'anatomie descriptive du corps humain.
Bonamy, Broca, "Beau (dessinateur) "
Troisième partie , appareil de la digestion, appareil surrénal, rein.
(Paris G. Masson éditeur)
www.mh-galerie.de "New, now in english"
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genus Cyanoramphus, family Psittacidae
Both birds assist with the feeding of the young.
They feed on leaves, buds, flowers, shoots, seeds, fruit, berries, nuts and other parts of plants.
They also eat insects and animal remains. On islands and In coastal areas, they forage on seaweed and mussels.
They also take up tiny stones, most likely to help with digestion.
The gut-brain connection is no joke; it can link anxiety to stomach problems and vice versa. Have you ever had a "gut-wrenching" experience? Do certain situations make you "feel nauseous"? Have you ever felt "butterflies" in your stomach? We use these expressions for a reason. The gastrointestinal tract is sensitive to emotion. Anger, anxiety, sadness, elation — all of these feelings (and others) can trigger symptoms in the gut.
The brain has a direct effect on the stomach and intestines. For example, the very thought of eating can release the stomach's juices before food gets there. This connection goes both ways. A troubled intestine can send signals to the brain, just as a troubled brain can send signals to the gut. Therefore, a person's stomach or intestinal distress can be the cause or the product of anxiety, stress, or depression. That's because the brain and the gastrointestinal (GI) system are intimately connected.
This is especially true in cases where a person experiences gastrointestinal upset with no obvious physical cause. For such functional GI disorders, it is difficult to try to heal a distressed gut without considering the role of stress and emotion.
Gut health and anxiety
Given how closely the gut and brain interact, it becomes easier to understand why you might feel nauseated before giving a presentation, or feel intestinal pain during times of stress. That doesn't mean, however, that functional gastrointestinal conditions are imagined or "all in your head." Psychology combines with physical factors to cause pain and other bowel symptoms. Psychosocial factors influence the actual physiology of the gut, as well as symptoms. In other words, stress (or depression or other psychological factors) can affect movement and contractions of the GI tract, make inflammation worse, or perhaps make you more susceptible to infection.
In addition, research suggests that some people with functional GI disorders perceive pain more acutely than other people do because their brains are more responsive to pain signals from the GI tract. Stress can make the existing pain seem even worse.
Based on these observations, you might expect that at least some patients with functional GI conditions might improve with therapy to reduce stress or treat anxiety or depression. And sure enough, a review of 13 studies showed that patients who tried psychologically based approaches had greater improvement in their digestive symptoms compared with patients who received only conventional medical treatment.
Gut-brain connection, anxiety and digestion
Are your stomach or intestinal problems — such as heartburn, abdominal cramps, or loose stools — related to stress? Watch for these other common symptoms of stress and discuss them with your doctor. Together you can come up with strategies to help you deal with the stressors in your life, and also ease your digestive discomforts.
www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/the-gut-br...
Have you ever had a gut feeling or butterflies in your stomach?
These sensations emanating from your belly suggest that your brain and gut are connected.
What’s more, recent studies show that your brain affects your gut health and your gut may even affect your brain health.
The communication system between your gut and brain is called the gut-brain axis.
This article explores the gut-brain axis and foods that are beneficial to its health.
How Are the Gut and Brain Connected?
The gut-brain axis is a term for the communication network that connects your gut and brain (1Trusted Source, 2Trusted Source, 3Trusted Source).
These two organs are connected both physically and biochemically in a number of different ways.
The Vagus Nerve and the Nervous System
Neurons are cells found in your brain and central nervous system that tell your body how to behave. There are approximately 100 billion neurons in the human brain (4Trusted Source).
Interestingly, your gut contains 500 million neurons, which are connected to your brain through nerves in your nervous system (5Trusted Source).
The vagus nerve is one of the biggest nerves connecting your gut and brain. It sends signals in both directions (6Trusted Source, 7Trusted Source).
For example, in animal studies, stress inhibits the signals sent through the vagus nerve and also causes gastrointestinal problems (8Trusted Source).
Similarly, one study in humans found that people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or Crohn’s disease had reduced vagal tone, indicating a reduced function of the vagus nerve (9Trusted Source).
An interesting study in mice found that feeding them a probiotic reduced the amount of stress hormone in their blood. However, when their vagus nerve was cut, the probiotic had no effect (10Trusted Source).
This suggests that the vagus nerve is important in the gut-brain axis and its role in stress.
Neurotransmitters
Your gut and brain are also connected through chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters produced in the brain control feelings and emotions.
For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin contributes to feelings of happiness and also helps control your body clock (11Trusted Source).
Interestingly, many of these neurotransmitters are also produced by your gut cells and the trillions of microbes living there. A large proportion of serotonin is produced in the gut (12Trusted Source).
Your gut microbes also produce a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which helps control feelings of fear and anxiety (13Trusted Source).
Studies in laboratory mice have shown that certain probiotics can increase the production of GABA and reduce anxiety and depression-like behavior (14Trusted Source).
Gut Microbes Make Other Chemicals That Affect the Brain
The trillions of microbes that live in your gut also make other chemicals that affect how your brain works (15Trusted Source).
Your gut microbes produce lots of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) such as butyrate, propionate and acetate (16Trusted Source).
They make SCFA by digesting fiber. SCFA affect brain function in a number of ways, such as reducing appetite.
One study found that consuming propionate can reduce food intake and reduce the activity in the brain related to reward from high-energy food (17Trusted Source).
Another SCFA, butyrate, and the microbes that produce it are also important for forming the barrier between the brain and the blood, which is called the blood-brain barrier (18Trusted Source).
Gut microbes also metabolize bile acids and amino acids to produce other chemicals that affect the brain (15Trusted Source).
Bile acids are chemicals made by the liver that are normally involved in absorbing dietary fats. However, they may also affect the brain.
Two studies in mice found that stress and social disorders reduce the production of bile acids by gut bacteria and alter the genes involved in their production (19Trusted Source, 20Trusted Source).
Gut Microbes Affect Inflammation
Your gut-brain axis is also connected through the immune system.
Gut and gut microbes play an important role in your immune system and inflammation by controlling what is passed into the body and what is excreted (21Trusted Source).
If your immune system is switched on for too long, it can lead to inflammation, which is associated with a number of brain disorders like depression and Alzheimer’s disease (22Trusted Source).
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an inflammatory toxin made by certain bacteria. It can cause inflammation if too much of it passes from the gut into the blood.
This can happen when the gut barrier becomes leaky, which allows bacteria and LPS to cross over into the blood.
Inflammation and high LPS in the blood have been associated with a number of brain disorders including severe depression, dementia and schizophrenia (23Trusted Source)
SUMMARY
Your gut and brain are connected physically through millions of nerves, most importantly the vagus nerve. The gut and its microbes also control inflammation and make many different compounds that can affect brain health.
www.healthline.com/nutrition/gut-brain-connection#section1
If you’ve ever “gone with your gut” to make a decision or felt “butterflies in your stomach” when nervous, you’re likely getting signals from an unexpected source: your second brain. Hidden in the walls of the digestive system, this “brain in your gut” is revolutionizing medicine’s understanding of the links between digestion, mood, health and even the way you think.
woman with a glass of orange juice
Scientists call this little brain the enteric nervous system (ENS). And it’s not so little. The ENS is two thin layers of more than 100 million nerve cells lining your gastrointestinal tract from esophagus to rectum.
What Does Your Gut’s Brain Control?
Unlike the big brain in your skull, the ENS can’t balance your checkbook or compose a love note. “Its main role is controlling digestion, from swallowing to the release of enzymes that break down food to the control of blood flow that helps with nutrient absorption to elimination,” explains Jay Pasricha, M.D., director of the Johns Hopkins Center for Neurogastroenterology, whose research on the enteric nervous system has garnered international attention. “The enteric nervous system doesn’t seem capable of thought as we know it, but it communicates back and forth with our big brain—with profound results.”
The ENS may trigger big emotional shifts experienced by people coping with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and functional bowel problems such as constipation, diarrhea, bloating, pain and stomach upset. “For decades, researchers and doctors thought that anxiety and depression contributed to these problems. But our studies and others show that it may also be the other way around,” Pasricha says. Researchers are finding evidence that irritation in the gastrointestinal system may send signals to the central nervous system (CNS) that trigger mood changes.
“These new findings may explain why a higher-than-normal percentage of people with IBS and functional bowel problems develop depression and anxiety,” Pasricha says. “That’s important, because up to 30 to 40 percent of the population has functional bowel problems at some point.”
New Gut Understanding Equals New Treatment Opportunities
This new understanding of the ENS-CNS connection helps explain the effectiveness of IBS and bowel-disorder treatments such as antidepressants and mind-body therapies like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and medical hypnotherapy. “Our two brains ‘talk’ to each other, so therapies that help one may help the other,” Pasricha says. “In a way, gastroenterologists (doctors who specialize in digestive conditions) are like counselors looking for ways to soothe the second brain.”
Gastroenterologists may prescribe certain antidepressants for IBS, for example—not because they think the problem is all in a patient’s head, but because these medications calm symptoms in some cases by acting on nerve cells in the gut, Pasricha explains. “Psychological interventions like CBT may also help to “improve communications” between the big brain and the brain in our gut,” he says.
www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/th...
Red-backed Poison Frog (Ranitomeya reticulatus or Dendrobates reticaltus), Amazonian rainforest area, Loreto, Amazonia, Peru
It is the second-most toxic poison frog in the Ranitomeya genus, however, compared to other poison frogs it is moderately toxic. But the bright and characteristic colors and patterns alert possible predators: Do not touch me!
It is an arboreal and diurnal living frog, only 12-14 mm of length. The poison is not produced by the frogs themselves but for example from toxic fire ants and other insects where they feed on.
As you may know I use reduced flash and a paper tissue before the flash with frogs and almost no direct shot on the frog. SO that's the reason why depth-of-field is not exactly what I am used to reach and remember: frogs are usually fast moving and following the frogs in the jungle is sometimes tricky: You are always on the risk to touch or sit or knee in ants, and that is definitely not very funny!!
Interesting facts: In a previous post I asked the question why some of the frogs in the neotropical rainforest are dependent on water but are not living directly in the water, as these little jewels will not do. Open water is too dangerous for the frogs. there are too many predators like fishes and dragonfly larvae wich will feed on the frogs and also tadpoles. So they choose another strategy for survival. Some species lay their eggs on leaves above the water surface to avoid direct killing by predators but they have still enough humidity not do dry out. Remember: Neotropical frogs have a sophisticated and very intensive and individual parental care. They do not produce masses of eggs and tadpoles to survive like most of the frogs do it out of the rainforest.
Another reason for the developing outside the water is the fact, that natural water resources are almost de-ionisied meaning there are no minerals and ions in it. Therefore there is an intense osmotic pressure on organism without a water-proof surface like frogs. The process of dilution will lead to an unilateral gradient with entrance of water in the organism and its cells and will destroy the tissues. Poison frogs and their eggs do not have a protection against this osmotic dilution. Some species solve this problem with establishing a system of eggs within a layer of spume/foam. Remember the last time when you have made egg white stiff? Some frogs do this with their legs. The result is a "stiffy" spume around the eggs and they are even protected against dehydration.
The skin of frogs is water-permeable, so they need water, but they do not live directly in the water or at the edges of little ponds. There are some African frogs which will change everyday their dried skin. That needs a lot of protein to rebuild this skin. In the neotropics there is not enough food available for doing this. Poison frog has choosen another way of protection. Humidity means constant challenge by bacteria and fungi to the thin frog's skin. To avoid infection and stabilize the skin they exude ... poison! The digestion process of these toxin by liver and kidney would be an extremely stress for these little frogs. Exuding by skin is much easier and they have even developped an effective protection mechanism against bacterial and fungal infection, detoxification of nutritiants, dehydration and several predators! This stretegy is so effective that they are almost not be hunted (however there are some snakes which were some kind of immune against the poison), they are allowed to live also diurnal and must not hide themselves due to the warning colors. And still: there are no masses of these frogs in the rainforest as it might be expected after installation of this sophisticated protection mechanism. The reason is again as I previously pointed out. There is not much food resources available.
Taking a feather for the chicks to aid digestion
Nikon AF-S 600mm f4E FL ED VR & TC-14E AF-S III & Nikon D850
DSC_5736
Was der Löwenzahn in Wirklichkeit ist: Ein Wunderkraut. Löwenzahn regelt die Verdauung, pflegt Leber und Galle, hilft bei Rheuma, löst Nierensteine auf, lässt Pickel und chronische Hautleiden verschwinden und kann als Allround-Stärkungsmittel eingesetzt werden.
What the dandelion is in reality: a miracle herb. Löwenzahn regulates the digestion, cares for liver and bile, helps with rheumatism, releases kidney stones, leaves pimples and chronic skin disorders disappear and can be used as an all-round strength.
Qu'est-ce que le pissenlit est vraiment: une herbe miracle. Le pissenlit régule la digestion, nourrit le foie et la bile, aide à lutter contre les rhumatismes, dissout les calculs rénaux, élimine les boutons et les maladies de peau chroniques et peut être utilisé comme tonique complet.
Basking raises a croc's core temperature substantially. The increased temperature accelerates enzymatic digestion of not only flesh and bone but also hoof and horn. A croc is far more efficient at digesting a wildebeest carcase than a lion. With crocs nothing is wasted whilst the energy expenditure involved in catching and digesting prey is considerably less. This means that a given population of prey animals can support a much greater biomass of crocs than of lions.
La gigotea elegante[3] (Trachemys scripta elegans), también conocida como galápago de Florida,[4] [5] o tortuga de orejas rojas, es una subespecie de tortuga semiacuática perteneciente a la familia Emydidae, originaria de la región que comprende el sureste de los Estados Unidos y el noreste de México,[6] aunque en la actualidad se encuentra en muchas otras partes del mundo gracias a su comercio como mascota.
Se les llama tortugas japonesas, a pesar de que no son originarias de Japón. Se piensa que se les pudo asignar este nombre debido a que dentro del ojo tiene una pequeña raya horizontal negra, que les da la apariencia de tener los ojos rasgados.[cita requerida]
Esta especie se ha convertido en la tortuga más comercializada del mercado[7] y en una de las mascotas más populares en los últimos años,[8] debido entre otros factores a que su cuidado es relativamente sencillo. Se ha vuelto muy popular en numerosos países.
Contenido [ocultar]
1 Taxonomía
2 Anatomía
2.1 Dimorfismo sexual
3 Distribución y hábitat
4 Comportamiento
4.1 Hibernación
4.2 Reproducción
5 Cuidados en cautiverio
5.1 Dieta
5.2 Hábitat
5.3 Enfermedades
5.3.1 Caparazón
5.3.2 Ojos
5.3.3 Respiratorias
5.3.4 Digestivas
5.3.5 Ansiedad y estrés
6 Referencias
7 Véase también
8 Enlaces externos
Taxonomía [editar]La tortuga de orejas rojas es un reptil perteneciente a la orden de los Testudines, conformada por cerca de 250 especies de tortugas. Es una subespecie de la Trachemys scripta. Antiguamente, estas tortugas eran clasificadas con el nombre de Chrysemys scripta elegans.
Anatomía [editar]El caparazón de esta especie puede alcanzar hasta los 30 cm de longitud, aunque se han encontrado ejemplares de más de 40 cm, pero en promedio miden de 12 a 20 cm.[9] Las hembras suelen ser un poco más grandes que los machos. Llegan a vivir entre 20 y 30 años, algunas tortugas incluso llegando a vivir más de 40.[10] Al estar en cautiverio su vida suele ser más corta.[6] La calidad del hábitat en el que se encuentren también influye en su esperanza y calidad de vida.
La tortuga puede retraer su cabeza y sus miembros dentro del caparazón si se encuentra en peligro.Las tortugas japonesas son reptiles, por lo tanto son poiquilotermas, es decir, son animales de sangre fría, por lo que no pueden controlar por sí solos la temperatura de su cuerpo, así que dependen por completo de la temperatura del ambiente.[8] Es por esto que necesitan tomar continuamente baños de sol para calentarse y mantener su temperatura interna. Si no logran mantenerse por encima de un umbral mínimo de temperatura, es posible que no puedan realizar su digestión y defecación con normalidad.
Su caparazón se compone de dos secciones: la superior, conocida como caparazón dorsal, y la inferior, también llamada caparazón ventral.[8] En la superior se encuentra un escudo vertebral, que es la parte central del mismo y generalmente está un poco más levantada; un escudo costal, que se encuentra a ambos lados del escudo vertebral, está conformada por varias placas óseas y es la parte principal del caparazón; y un escudo marginal, que es el borde del caparazón y rodea completamente al escudo costal.[11] La parte inferior es llamada plastrón o pecho y cubre toda la parte baja de la tortuga. El caparazón puede ser de diferentes colores. En las tortugas más jóvenes o recién nacidas, es de color verde hoja, y conforme van creciendo se oscurece un poco hasta volverse de un verde muy oscuro, para más tarde tomar un tono entre café y oliva. El plastrón siempre es de color amarillo claro. Todo el escudo está cubierto con rayas y manchas que en la naturaleza le ayudan a camuflarse mejor.
La tortuga además cuenta con un sistema óseo complejo, con cuatro miembros semipalmeados que le ayudan a nadar y que pueden salir del caparazón o retraerse en él, al igual que la cola. Su cabeza de la misma forma puede introducirse completamente dentro del caparazón. El nombre de esta especie, tortuga de orejas rojas, se debe a las dos manchas de color rojo ladrillo que se localizan en la parte posterior de sus ojos, en la posición donde se encontrarían las orejas, aunque estas manchas se van decolorando con el paso del tiempo.[6] Algunos individuos también pueden tener una pequeña mancha de este color en la parte superior de la cabeza. En realidad la tortuga japonesa no tiene orejas, para la audición cuenta con unas membranas timpánicas.
Los principales órganos internos del animal son los pulmones, el corazón, el estómago, el hígado, el intestino y la vejiga, además del ano y de la cola que son órganos externos muy importantes, en el caso de la cola porque junto con las patas le ayuda a dirigirse mientras nada.
Dimorfismo sexual [editar]
Tortuga japonesa macho. Nótense las largas uñas de la pata delantera.Esta especie presenta dimorfismo sexual, esto quiere decir que el macho y la hembra tienen características físicas distintas uno de otro.
Cuando son jóvenes, todas las tortugas japonesas son prácticamente iguales independientemente de su sexo, por lo que es casi imposible determinarlo. Cuando pasan a ser adultas (en el caso de los machos cuando su caparazón mide unos 10 cm, y en el de las hembras, cuando mide unos 15), es mucho más fácil distinguir el género. Normalmente, el macho es más pequeño que la hembra, aunque este parámetro en ocasiones es difícil de aplicar ya que se podrían estar comparando individuos de diferentes edades. Los machos tienen las uñas de las patas delanteras mucho más largas que las de las hembras, lo que le ayuda a sujetarse mejor a ella durante el apareamiento y sirven durante la danza del cortejo. La cola del macho también es más gruesa y larga, y la cloaca, que se encuentra en la cola, está más alejada del cuerpo. La parte inferior del caparazón o plastrón del macho está ligeramente curvado hacia adentro, es decir, es cóncavo, mientras que el de la hembra es totalmente plano. Esto también le ayuda al macho durante el apareamiento para poder adaptarse mejor al caparazón de la hembra. También se dice que los machos tienen las manchas rojas más grandes y de un color más brillante. La apariencia de las hembras es prácticamente la misma durante toda su vida.
Tanto macho como hembra alcanzan la madurez sexual a los 5 ó 6 años de edad, pero si se crían en cautiverio, no hibernan y se alimentan abundantemente, crecen con mayor rapidez que en la naturaleza y por lo tanto maduran antes, pero aun así deben pasar al menos unos años para que alcancen plena madurez.
Distribución y hábitat [editar]Las tortugas japonesas son originarias geográficamente del área que rodea al río Misisipi, llegando hasta el golfo de México. Se desarrollan en climas cálidos, particularmente en el cuadrante sudeste de los Estados Unidos. Tal área comprende desde el sureste de Colorado hasta Virginia y Florida. Habitan naturalmente en zonas donde haya alguna fuente de agua tranquila y templada. Estas zonas acuáticas pueden ser estanques, lagos, pantanos, riachuelos, arroyos o ríos con corrientes lentas. El área donde habitan es por lo general pacífica con alguna sección donde puedan salir del agua a descansar, como algunas rocas grandes o troncos, en donde se colocan para recibir buenas cantidades de rayos de sol. Es común que varias tortugas japonesas se coloquen juntas para tomar el sol, incluso unas encimas de otras. Deben tener cerca abundante vegetación acuática, que es el componente principal de la dieta de los ejemplares adultos. Las tortugas salvajes siempre se mantendrán cerca de la fuente de agua donde habitan a menos que estén buscando una nueva o, en el caso de las hembras, que tengan que poner sus huevos en la época de reproducción.
El comercio como mascotas y el posterior abandono de ejemplares por parte de sus dueños ha expandido esta especie y se considera invasora fuera de su área de distribución natural. Causa impactos negativos en los ecosistemas que ocupa, principalmente por su voracidad y su caracter omnívoro que la convierten en depredador de numerosas especies de invertebrados y pequeños vertebrados así como plantas acuáticas, la capacidad de transmitir enfermedades y el desplazamiento de otras especies de galápagos con los que comparten dieta y espacios de cría, como el galápago leproso o el galápago europeo en la Península Ibérica.[12]
Comportamiento [editar]
Las tortugas japonesas deben tomar baños de sol constantemente para regular su temperatura.Las tortugas japonesas son casi completamente acuáticas, pero a veces dejan el agua para descansar y tomar el sol, ya que como tienen sangre fría, necesitan tomar estos baños de sol para regular su temperatura.
Estos reptiles son excelentes nadadores. Durante el día buscan presas para alimentarse e intentan capturarlas. Suelen estar alerta de los depredadores y de la gente y generalmente se asustan y huyen de ellos. Las tortugas suelen lanzarse frenéticamente de las rocas o de donde estén mientras descansan si alguien potencialmente peligroso se acerca a ellas. Durante el día, acostumbran salir del agua, tomar el sol hasta que estén secas y calientes, después se zambullen de nuevo y se refrescan, y vuelven a salir del agua para tomar el sol.
Hibernación [editar]Las tortugas de orejas rojas pueden hibernar en el fondo de estanques o lagos poco profundos durante los meses de invierno.[11] Durante esta época, con el frío, las tortugas entran en un estado de sopor denominado precisamente hibernación, durante el cual dejan de comer y defecar, prácticamente no se mueven y su frecuencia de respiración se reduce.
Una tortuga de orejas rojas tomando el sol. Al extender sus patas traseras absorbe calor más rápidamente.No se recomienda dejar hibernar a ejemplares que no superen los 5 cm de largo, y sólo deben hacerlo si tuvieron una alimentación y cuidados adecuados durante los meses previos.[11] Si se tiene un ejemplar que fue adquirido recientemente, no se le debe dejar hibernar porque no se conocen los cuidados que pudo tener antes de que se consiguiera, aunque su aspecto sea bueno. Una tortuga demasiado joven, que esté enferma o que no esté bien nutrida podría no soportar el ayuno que conlleva esta hibernación y morir.
Si se quiere poner a hibernar a una tortuga, se necesita un cubo o recipiente con agua, pero no demasiada ya que la tortuga debe poder sacar la cabeza de ella para respirar. Si se colocara demasiada agua, o bien la hibernación no se llevara a cabo correctamente, la tortuga podría morir. Se debe dejar este recipiente en un lugar oscuro, frío y tranquilo. El agua también debe estar fría, entre los 5 y 10 °C. También es posible dejar hibernar a la tortuga en su estanque, pero conlleva un mayor riesgo para la salud del animal, ya que podría esconderse en un lugar fuera del alcance del dueño y si le sucediera algo malo, no se podría actuar.
Si la tortuga vive normalmente en el exterior pero no se desea que hiberne, entonces hay que trasladarla a un acuario interior para que pase ahí el invierno, y cuando la temperatura del ambiente vuelva a aumentar se puede regresar a su estanque del jardín.
Reproducción [editar]El cortejo y las actividades que conlleva el apareamiento ocurren entre marzo y julio, y se llevan a cabo bajo el agua. Durante el cortejo, el macho nada alrededor de la hembra y comienza a sacudir o batir sus extremidades delanteras frente a la cara de la hembra, aparentemente tratando de acariciarla. La hembra continuará nadando hacia el macho y si acepta su proposición, comenzarán el apareamiento. Si no acepta, puede hasta iniciar una pelea con el macho. El cortejo puede durar sólo 45 minutos, pero el apareamiento en sí normalmente lleva 3 horas.
Pareja de tortugas japonesas.En ocasiones un macho aparentemente estará cortejando a otro macho. Esto en realidad es un signo de predominio y los machos pueden empezar a luchar. Las tortugas jóvenes pueden llevar a cabo la danza de cortejo, pero hasta que no cumplen los 5 años de edad no han madurado sexualmente[13] y son incapaces de aparearse.
Después del apareamiento, la hembra pasará más tiempo tomando el sol con el fin de mantener calientes a los huevos.[13] Puede presentar un cambio de dieta, comiendo únicamente ciertos alimentos o no comiendo tanto como normalmente haría.[13] Esto es normal, pero se le debe seguir ofrecer comida durante el embarazo y tal vez ofrecerle diferentes alimentos a los acostumbrados. El periodo de gestación promedio es de dos meses, pero si la hembra no encuentra un lugar adecuado para colocar sus huevos, puede durar más. Una hembra puede poner de 2 a 20 huevos. Además puede tener varias puestas en una misma temporada de apareamiento. Dependiendo de varios factores, cada puesta se distanciará de dos a cuatro semanas de las otras. Durante las dos últimas semanas de gestación, la hembra pasará menos tiempo en el agua, olfateando y escarbando en la tierra. Esto indica que está buscando un lugar apropiado para poner sus huevos. Si se tiene en cautiverio, se puede poner a la hembra en un embalse con unas 4 pulgadas de tierra para que haga la puesta. Es aconsejable no retirar los huevos del lugar donde hayan sido enterrados, pero si se deseara o fuera necesario hay que hacerlo con mucho cuidado para no romperlos y colocarlos en su nueva localización de la misma forma en que estaban dispuestos en el nido original (es decir, no ponerlos boca abajo, sino con la misma cara hacia arriba). Para hacer el nido, la tortuga excavará cuidadosamente un hoyo en el sitio elegido con sus patas traseras y depositará ahí sus huevos.[14]
Los huevos, que tienen una textura un tanto rugosa, nacerán de 80 a 85 días después de que fueron enterrados. La tortuga abrirá el cascarón con el diente de huevo que se le cae una hora después de haber nacido y nunca vuelve a crecer. Si la tortuga no se siente segura, permanecerá dentro del cascarón después de abrirlo por uno o dos días más. Si son forzadas a salir del cascarón antes de que estén listas, regresarán a él si les es posible. Cuando decidan abandonar el cascarón, tendrán un pequeño saco pegado a su barriga. Este contiene los residuos de lo que le sirvió para alimentarse durante el periodo de incubación y no debe ser removido. Hacerlo podría ser fatal para el recién nacido. El saco se cae solo, y cuando sucede se puede notar una pequeña herida en el caparazón de la tortuga. Ésta sanará por sí misma también y no necesita ser tratada.
Cuidados en cautiverio [editar]Las tortugas japonesas suelen ser conservadas como mascotas. A menudo son vendidas a precios bajos junto con pequeños tazones de plástico, y pueden ser adquiridas por los niños, pero requieren cuidados específicos y muy meticulosos. Estas tortugas pueden vivir varias décadas con los cuidados adecuados, así que la posesión de una tortuga no es un asunto que deba tomarse a la ligera.
Los reptiles son portadores asintomáticos de las bacterias del género Salmonella. Las tortugas muchas veces vienen infectadas con la bacteria conocida como salmonella.[15] Esto genera preocupaciones justificables, dadas las numerosas referencias de infecciones en humana vinculadas al manejo de tortugas [16] que ha motivado restricciones a su comercialización en EE.UU.. Para muchos cuidadores, mantener la higiene básica reduce enormemente el riesgo de cualquier tipo de infección en la mayoría de los casos. El potencial riesgo en la salud es otra razón por la que los niños no deberían tener contacto con las tortugas de orejas rojas o ser sus cuidadores principales. Si bien, contienen la bacteria de salmonellosis, no es muy preocupante si se tienen las medidas de higiene mínimas. La salmonellosis sólo afecta a niños menores de 5 años y a personas de la tercera edad, principalmente por sus defensas bajas o no desarrolladas. Aunque la realidad es muy distinta, ya que es igual de probable contagiarse de salmonella por un perro o gato que contraerla únicamente por una tortuga[cita requerida]. Las tortugas de orejas rojas son excelentes mascotas para adolescentes de 12 a 19 años, ya que corren un mínimo riesgo de contraer salmonella, influyendo de manera positiva en su vida cotidiana. Las tortugas de orejas rojas no son mascotas muy recomendables para niños menores de 5 años.
Dieta [editar]
Dibujo del siglo XIX de una tortuga japonesa.Las tortugas japonesas son omnívoras[15] y se les pueden proporcionar una gran variedad de alimentos diferentes incluyendo plantas y otros animales. Esta gama de comida incluye el alimento prefabricado que venden en cualquier tienda de mascotas, algunas plantas acuáticas, vegetales, insectos, peces y a veces algún premio como camarón o fruta, así como un suplemento vitamínico ocasional. El calcio (necesario para la salud del caparazón) también es importante y debe ser administrado como parte de la dieta.[17] Se les puede dar a través del llamado hueso de jibia o de sepia, que les ayuda a recibir esta dosis fundamental de calcio y al mismo tiempo a afilar sus labios (al no tener dientes, utilizan los labios para partir su comida). El hueso de sepia puede dejarse flotando libremente sobre el agua y esperar a que lo atrapen. Estos huesos, formados por el pequeño molusco marino llamado jibia, se consiguen en la sección de aves de cualquier tienda de animales, ya que éstas los usan también para afilar sus picos. La dieta primaria de una tortuga de orejas rojas debe consistir en el alimento fabricado comercialmente, del que hay muchos tipos y variedades.
Las tortugas más jóvenes tienden a ser carnívoras[8] (comen más proteína animal), y cuando crecen se vuelven más herbívoras. Cuando tienen menos de 3 años, necesitan recibir muchas proteínas pues están en una etapa crucial de su crecimiento. En la naturaleza suelen alimentarse de grillos, caracoles de agua, gupis, lombrices de tierra y otros pequeños animales, que si se les pueden proporcionar en cautiverio, es mucho mejor.[17] Estos pequeños animales pueden ser criados en casa o se pueden conseguir en cualquier tienda especializada en reptiles. En cuanto a la carne, es conveniente ofrecérsela cruda .También se les puede ofrecer pescado, procurando que sea apto para el consumo humano. También se les puede suministrar artemia viva, que mantendrá activas a las tortugas a la hora de cazarla. Los camarones comerciales (también llamados gammarus) deshidratados pueden dárseles ocasionalmente, pero no deben tomarse como la base de su dieta. Se les pueden ofrecer frutas (ocasionalmente), siempre y cuando no sean ácidas, y vegetales, pero debe tenerse cuidado con la lechuga pues si ingieren demasiada actuará como laxante.
La frecuencia con que deben ser alimentadas depende especialmente de su edad. Mientras más pequeña sea, con más frecuencia se les debe dar de comer (hasta tres veces al día). A los ejemplares adultos se les puede proporcionar alimento 1 vez al día, 6 días a la semana. En cuanto a las raciones, lo mejor es darle alimento hasta que se rehúse a comer más, para asegurarse de que quede satisfecha.
Las tortugas necesitan estar en el agua para tragar la comida ya que no producen saliva. Pueden tomar alimentos que estén en tierra pero se los llevarán dentro del agua para consumirlos. Además, conviene alimentar a la tortuga en un contenedor separado pues esto propicia un hábitat más limpio que requerirá menos mantenimiento y cambios de agua menos frecuentes. Hacer esto crea un ambiente más saludable para las tortugas japonesas.
Cuando la temperatura del ambiente está por debajo de los 10 °C (50 °F), las tortugas pueden hibernar y no comen. Cuando está entre los 10 °C y los 20 °C (68 °F), pueden ser alimentadas una vez al día. Cuando se encuentra entre los 20 °C y los 30 °C (86 °F), se les puede dar de comer 2 ó 3 veces al día. Las tortugas de orejas rojas necesitan mucho alimento en los días de verano en que la temperatura supera los 30 °C.
Hábitat [editar]
Es importante colocar un área de descanso fuera del agua para las tortugas.La tortuga debe conservarse en un acuario o tortuguera u otro recinto siempre en proporción a su tamaño. El tamaño del tanque es el primer aspecto sumamente importante que hay que tomar en cuenta. Una pauta usada por muchas personas para determinar el tamaño adecuado del tanque es, como mínimo, 10 galones de agua por cada pulgada de longitud del caparazón (15 litros por cada centímetro). De esta forma, un solo adulto de esta especie requerirá entre 90 y 120 galones (unos 400 litros) de agua en su tanque. El nivel de agua debe ser tan alto como sea posible, pero no lo suficiente como para que escapen.
Es necesario que haya suficiente agua en su recinto. No obstante, para las tortugas más jóvenes el nivel del agua les debe permitir pararse y alcanzar el tope del agua con la cabeza, si no llegaran a la superficie estirando el cuello podrían ahogarse por no poder salir a respirar. Aunque puede ser que la tortuga no quiera nadar al principio, aprenderá muy rápidamente. La filtración y calidad del agua también son aspectos importantes en un ambiente bien mantenido. El agua limpia reduce en gran medida la aparición de infecciones y el crecimiento de algas y hongos. La presencia y el desarrollo de bacterias dañinas y desechos debe ser supervisada regularmente para que no surjan problemas más tarde.
Un área de descanso en la que la tortuga pueda secarse debe incluirse en su hábitat. Una lámpara de calor también es ampliamente recomendada para las tortugas que vivan bajo techo o donde no reciban directamente los rayos del sol. Si la lámpara se usa dentro, las tortugas deben tener acceso a ella por tres o cuatro horas diarias. El agua debe mantenerse a una temperatura constante que oscile entre los 24 y los 26 grados Celsius (75-79 °F); aguas con menor temperatura pueden inducir a la tortuga a hibernar. Un buen filtro de acuario generalmente ayuda a controlar este problema, al igual que usar un tanque de alimentación separado, pero un frecuente cambio de agua es muy necesario para asegurar su buena salud. Para las tortugas adultas (entre los 20-30 cm de longitud de caparazón) se acepta un tanque con un volumen de por lo menos 500 litros (aproximadamente 132 galones). Otra posibilidad es conservar a la tortuga en un estanque en el jardín o en una pequeña alberca de plástico siempre y cuando esté cerrada por la parte superior para protegerla de los posibles depredadores, como perros o gatos callejeros.
Otro requerimiento es que el área de descanso esté equipada con una lámpara de rayos UV, que simula los rayos del sol y le da a la tortuga las vitaminas que necesita para metabolizar el calcio y mantener su caparazón saludable, así como una fuente de calor sobre esa zona de descanso, para que salga a asolearse, de tal forma que tenga una temperatura entre 30-33 grados Celsius (86-91 °F)
Enfermedades [editar]Las tortugas pueden contraer diferentes infecciones o padecimientos. En la mayoría de los casos, esto sucede por la falta de higiene en el agua, cambios bruscos de temperatura, falta de luz o mala calidad de los alimentos que se le proporcionan. A veces una tortuga que se alimentaba con normalidad puede dejar de comer, pero esto es algo normal. Suelen ser muy selectivas con sus alimentos y es probable que se hayan hartado del que se les suministraba. Para solucionarlo se le pueden ofrecer nuevos alimentos hasta que vuelvan a alimentarse como antes. Sin embargo, hay ocasiones en que el animal deja de alimentarse y su debilitamiento se hace notorio, por lo que conviene consultar con un experto. Mientras tanto es aconsejable darle distintos tipos de comida y elevar la temperatura del agua.
Cada enfermedad viene acompañada de síntomas específicos, pero para comprobar el estado de salud general del animal pueden realizarse sencillas observaciones como el comportamiento de la tortuga, sus excrementos, su apetito, si los ojos se encuentran hinchados, su respiración, si estornuda o tose, comprobar la dureza de su caparazón o si éste presenta manchas blancas.
Caparazón [editar]
Es conveniente revisar de vez en cuando que la tortuga puede retraer correctamente su cabeza dentro del caparazón.El ablandamiento del caparazón es una de las enfermedades más comunes y se debe principalmente a la falta de calcio y luz de espectro en la tortuga. Aunque se incluya calcio en la dieta del animal a través de comida rica en este elemento o suplementos como el hueso de jibia, si no recibe suficiente luz el calcio no podrá fijarse al caparazón. A veces también aparecen unas pequeñas manchas blancas en el mismo. Para solucionar este problema, se debe conseguir una luz de espectro total, y si ya se tiene, incrementar las horas de exposición. Si no hay ninguna mejoría después de un tiempo o la enfermedad ya está avanzada, debe consultarse a un veterinario.
Otro problema que puede aparecer con el caparazón es su decoloramiento. Este se debe principalmente a que hay cloro en el agua o que la tortuga tiene un exceso de vitamina A en el organismo. También puede surgir una capa blanca semejante al algodón sobre la cubierta. Estos son hongos que aparecen por un exceso de humedad en el ambiente, ocasionado probablemente porque la tortuga pasa demasiado tiempo en el agua y no recibe suficiente luz. Si la infección no está muy avanzada, basta con darle baños con agua salada tibia por 30 minutos diarios. En un par de días se debe notar una mejoría. Hasta que se haya recuperado, hay que tener a la tortuga por lo menos 10 horas al día fuera del agua.
Ojos [editar]Puede que la tortuga tenga una infección ocular si mantiene los ojos cerrados por mucho tiempo, se ven hinchados o ésta se rehúsa a comer. Este tipo de infecciones se originan por falta de vitamina A o porque el agua está demasiado sucia. Para solucionar este problema, conviene cambiar el agua más seguido, aumentar la temperatura de la misma ligeramente y agregar vitaminas a su comida. Si después de unos pocos días no presenta ninguna mejoría, debe consultarse a un veterinario.
Respiratorias [editar]Éstas se pueden detectar cuando a la tortuga le salen mucosidades o líquidos de la nariz, respiran con la boca abierta, tienen poca actividad, poco apetito o nadan de lado o inclinándose hacia un lado. Para solucionar esto, se deben mantener dentro de la casa en una habitación bien cerrada para que no entren corrientes de aire. Hay que mantenerlas en agua a una temperatura por encima de los 25 °C, este factor es muy importante pues atacará directamente la enfermedad, al reforzar el sistema inmunológico del animal. Si se tienen varias tortugas, hay que separar a la enferma de las demás, pues estas enfermedades son muy contagiosas. Si en 5 días no se observan mejorías, debe ser llevada con un veterinario.
Digestivas [editar]Las causas de que la tortuga contraiga estreñimiento están en la dieta que lleva. Si su dieta es pobre en vitaminas y fibra, será propensa a estreñirse. Si la tortuga come normalmente pero no defeca, es probable que esté estreñida. La frecuencia de la defecación depende de la frecuencia de la alimentación y de los alimentos que ingiera. También es un signo de este mal que la tortuga se patee la cola con sus patas traseras. Para inducirla a defecar, hay que colocarla en un recipiente con agua tibia. Para prevenirlo, lo mejor es variar un poco su dieta, ya que darle el mismo alimento todo el tiempo es una de las principales causas del estreñimiento. El caso contrario al estreñimiento es la diarrea, donde el animal defeca en exceso y sus heces son muy blandas. Se origina porque su dieta está constituida exclusivamente de fruta, por haber ingerido un alimento en mal estado, o por comer demasiada lechuga. Para resolver esto basta con darle alimentos menos hidratados y controlar más la limpieza del agua, pues si está muy sucia podría propiciar la aparición de lombrices en su sistema digestivo. También conviene revisar la fecha de caducidad de los alimentos que se le proporcionen.
La tortuga puede también estar sobrealimentada. A las más pequeñas (menos de 2 cm de largo) se les debe de alimentar dos veces al día con pequeñas cantidades de comida. Si se tardan más de 10 minutos en ingerirla toda, lo recomendable es retirar el sobrante y proporcionarle cantidades menores de alimento en el futuro.
Ansiedad y estrés [editar]Estas tortugas deben tener un recinto tranquilo, libre de estrés, para que su sistema inmunológico siempre funcione correctamente. Jugar con ella demasiado tiempo puede fatigarla y provocarle mucha tensión, lo que puede terminar en un cuadro de estrés muy grave.
"Antigua Rapa Nui, patria sin voz, / perdónanos a nosotros los parlanchines del mundo: / hemos venido de todas partes a escupir en tu lava, / llegamos llenos de conflictos, de divergencias, de sangre, / de llanto y digestiones, de guerras y duraznos, / en pequeñas hileras de inamistad, de sonrisas / hipócritas, reunidos por los dados del cielo / sobre la mesa de tu silencio". (Pablo Neruda. La rosa separada. 1971)
Crónica: apuntesyviajes.blogspot.com/2012/09/viaje-isla-de-pascua....
"Son los irreflexivos los que nunca dudan.
Su digestión es espléndida, su juicio infalible.
No creen en los hechos, sólo creen en sí mismos.
Si llega el caso, son los hechos los que tienen que creer.
Tienen ilimitada paciencia consigo mismos.
Los argumentos los escuchan con oídos de espía.
Frente a los irreflexivos, que nunca dudan,
están los reflexivos, que nunca actúan.
No dudan para llegar a la decisión, sino para eludir la decisión.
Las cabezas sólo las utilizan para sacudirlas.
Con aire grave advierten contra el agua a los pasajeros de naves hundiéndose.
Bajo el hacha del asesino, se preguntan si acaso el asesino no es un hombre también.
Tras observar, refunfuñando, que el asunto no está del todo claro, se van a la cama.
Su actividad consiste en vacilar.
Su frase favorita es: "No está listo para sentencia".
Por eso, si alabáis la duda, no alabéis, naturalmente,
la duda que es desesperación.
¿De qué le sirve poder dudar a quien no puede decidirse?
Puede actuar equivocadamente quien se contenta con razones demasiado escasas, pero quedará inactivo ante el peligro quien necesite demasiadas."
Fragmento "Loa a la duda" - Bertolt Brecht
Mountain Hare, Peak District, UK
Every time I see this hare, he's eating. Here is a rare moment when he's settle down for a spot of digestion.
Jellyfish, also known sea jellies, are the medusa-phase of certain gelatinous members of the subphylum Medusozoa, which is a major part of the phylum Cnidaria.
Jellyfish are mainly free-swimming marine animals with umbrella-shaped bells and trailing tentacles, although a few are anchored to the seabed by stalks rather than being mobile. The bell can pulsate to provide propulsion for highly efficient locomotion. The tentacles are armed with stinging cells and may be used to capture prey and defend against predators. Jellyfish have a complex life cycle. The medusa is normally the sexual phase, which produces planula larvae; these then disperse widely and enter a sedentary polyp phase, before reaching sexual maturity.
Jellyfish are found all over the world, from surface waters to the deep sea. Scyphozoans (the "true jellyfish") are exclusively marine, but some hydrozoans with a similar appearance live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide. The medusae of most species are fast-growing, and mature within a few months then die soon after breeding, but the polyp stage, attached to the seabed, may be much more long-lived. Jellyfish have been in existence for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal group.
Jellyfish are eaten by humans in certain cultures. They are considered a delicacy in some Asian countries, where species in the Rhizostomeae order are pressed and salted to remove excess water. Australian researchers have described them as a "perfect food": sustainable and protein-rich but relatively low in food energy.
They are also used in research, where the green fluorescent protein used by some species to cause bioluminescence has been adapted as a fluorescent marker for genes inserted into other cells or organisms.
The stinging cells used by jellyfish to subdue their prey can injure humans. Thousands of swimmers worldwide are stung every year, with effects ranging from mild discomfort to serious injury or even death. When conditions are favourable, jellyfish can form vast swarms, which can be responsible for damage to fishing gear by filling fishing nets, and sometimes clog the cooling systems of power and desalination plants which draw their water from the sea.
Names
The name jellyfish, in use since 1796, has traditionally been applied to medusae and all similar animals including the comb jellies (ctenophores, another phylum). The term jellies or sea jellies is more recent, having been introduced by public aquaria in an effort to avoid use of the word "fish" with its modern connotation of an animal with a backbone, though shellfish, cuttlefish and starfish are not vertebrates either. In scientific literature, "jelly" and "jellyfish" have been used interchangeably. Many sources refer to only scyphozoans as "true jellyfish".
A group of jellyfish is called a "smack" or a "smuck".
Definition
The term jellyfish broadly corresponds to medusae, that is, a life-cycle stage in the Medusozoa. The American evolutionary biologist Paulyn Cartwright gives the following general definition:
Typically, medusozoan cnidarians have a pelagic, predatory jellyfish stage in their life cycle; staurozoans are the exceptions [as they are stalked].
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines jellyfish as follows:
A free-swimming marine coelenterate that is the sexually reproducing form of a hydrozoan or scyphozoan and has a nearly transparent saucer-shaped body and extensible marginal tentacles studded with stinging cells.
Given that jellyfish is a common name, its mapping to biological groups is inexact. Some authorities have called the comb jellies and certain salps jellyfish, though other authorities state that neither of these are jellyfish, which they consider should be limited to certain groups within the medusozoa.
The non-medusozoan clades called jellyfish by some but not all authorities (both agreeing and disagreeing citations are given in each case) are indicated with on the following cladogram of the animal kingdom:
Jellyfish are not a clade, as they include most of the Medusozoa, barring some of the Hydrozoa. The medusozoan groups included by authorities are indicated on the following phylogenetic tree by the presence of citations. Names of included jellyfish, in English where possible, are shown in boldface; the presence of a named and cited example indicates that at least that species within its group has been called a jellyfish.
Taxonomy
The subphylum Medusozoa includes all cnidarians with a medusa stage in their life cycle. The basic cycle is egg, planula larva, polyp, medusa, with the medusa being the sexual stage. The polyp stage is sometimes secondarily lost. The subphylum include the major taxa, Scyphozoa (large jellyfish), Cubozoa (box jellyfish) and Hydrozoa (small jellyfish), and excludes Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones). This suggests that the medusa form evolved after the polyps. Medusozoans have tetramerous symmetry, with parts in fours or multiples of four.
The four major classes of medusozoan Cnidaria are:
Scyphozoa are sometimes called true jellyfish, though they are no more truly jellyfish than the others listed here. They have tetra-radial symmetry. Most have tentacles around the outer margin of the bowl-shaped bell, and long, oral arms around the mouth in the center of the subumbrella.
Cubozoa (box jellyfish) have a (rounded) box-shaped bell, and their velarium assists them to swim more quickly. Box jellyfish may be related more closely to scyphozoan jellyfish than either are to the Hydrozoa.
Hydrozoa medusae also have tetra-radial symmetry, nearly always have a velum (diaphragm used in swimming) attached just inside the bell margin, do not have oral arms, but a much smaller central stalk-like structure, the manubrium, with terminal mouth opening, and are distinguished by the absence of cells in the mesoglea. Hydrozoa show great diversity of lifestyle; some species maintain the polyp form for their entire life and do not form medusae at all (such as Hydra, which is hence not considered a jellyfish), and a few are entirely medusal and have no polyp form.
Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish) are characterized by a medusa form that is generally sessile, oriented upside down and with a stalk emerging from the apex of the "calyx" (bell), which attaches to the substrate. At least some Staurozoa also have a polyp form that alternates with the medusoid portion of the life cycle. Until recently, Staurozoa were classified within the Scyphozoa.
There are over 200 species of Scyphozoa, about 50 species of Staurozoa, about 50 species of Cubozoa, and the Hydrozoa includes about 1000–1500 species that produce medusae, but many more species that do not.
Fossil history
Since jellyfish have no hard parts, fossils are rare. The oldest unambiguous fossil of a free-swimming medusa is Burgessomedusa from the mid Cambrian Burgess Shale of Canada, which is likely either a stem group of box jellyfish (Cubozoa) or Acraspeda (the clade including Staurozoa, Cubozoa, and Scyphozoa). Other claimed records from the Cambrian of China and Utah in the United States are uncertain, and possibly represent ctenophores instead.
Anatomy
The main feature of a true jellyfish is the umbrella-shaped bell. This is a hollow structure consisting of a mass of transparent jelly-like matter known as mesoglea, which forms the hydrostatic skeleton of the animal. 95% or more of the mesogloea consists of water, but it also contains collagen and other fibrous proteins, as well as wandering amoebocytes which can engulf debris and bacteria. The mesogloea is bordered by the epidermis on the outside and the gastrodermis on the inside. The edge of the bell is often divided into rounded lobes known as lappets, which allow the bell to flex. In the gaps or niches between the lappets are dangling rudimentary sense organs known as rhopalia, and the margin of the bell often bears tentacles.
Anatomy of a scyphozoan jellyfish
On the underside of the bell is the manubrium, a stalk-like structure hanging down from the centre, with the mouth, which also functions as the anus, at its tip. There are often four oral arms connected to the manubrium, streaming away into the water below. The mouth opens into the gastrovascular cavity, where digestion takes place and nutrients are absorbed. This is subdivided by four thick septa into a central stomach and four gastric pockets. The four pairs of gonads are attached to the septa, and close to them four septal funnels open to the exterior, perhaps supplying good oxygenation to the gonads. Near the free edges of the septa, gastric filaments extend into the gastric cavity; these are armed with nematocysts and enzyme-producing cells and play a role in subduing and digesting the prey. In some scyphozoans, the gastric cavity is joined to radial canals which branch extensively and may join a marginal ring canal. Cilia in these canals circulate the fluid in a regular direction.
Discharge mechanism of a nematocyst
The box jellyfish is largely similar in structure. It has a squarish, box-like bell. A short pedalium or stalk hangs from each of the four lower corners. One or more long, slender tentacles are attached to each pedalium. The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bell's aperture and creates a powerful jet when the bell pulsates, allowing box jellyfish to swim faster than true jellyfish. Hydrozoans are also similar, usually with just four tentacles at the edge of the bell, although many hydrozoans are colonial and may not have a free-living medusal stage. In some species, a non-detachable bud known as a gonophore is formed that contains a gonad but is missing many other medusal features such as tentacles and rhopalia. Stalked jellyfish are attached to a solid surface by a basal disk, and resemble a polyp, the oral end of which has partially developed into a medusa with tentacle-bearing lobes and a central manubrium with four-sided mouth.
Most jellyfish do not have specialized systems for osmoregulation, respiration and circulation, and do not have a central nervous system. Nematocysts, which deliver the sting, are located mostly on the tentacles; true jellyfish also have them around the mouth and stomach. Jellyfish do not need a respiratory system because sufficient oxygen diffuses through the epidermis. They have limited control over their movement, but can navigate with the pulsations of the bell-like body; some species are active swimmers most of the time, while others largely drift. The rhopalia contain rudimentary sense organs which are able to detect light, water-borne vibrations, odour and orientation. A loose network of nerves called a "nerve net" is located in the epidermis. Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species. A jellyfish detects stimuli, and transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, to other nerve cells. The rhopalial ganglia contain pacemaker neurones which control swimming rate and direction.
In many species of jellyfish, the rhopalia include ocelli, light-sensitive organs able to tell light from dark. These are generally pigment spot ocelli, which have some of their cells pigmented. The rhopalia are suspended on stalks with heavy crystals at one end, acting like gyroscopes to orient the eyes skyward. Certain jellyfish look upward at the mangrove canopy while making a daily migration from mangrove swamps into the open lagoon, where they feed, and back again.
Box jellyfish have more advanced vision than the other groups. Each individual has 24 eyes, two of which are capable of seeing colour, and four parallel information processing areas that act in competition, supposedly making them one of the few kinds of animal to have a 360-degree view of its environment.
Box jellyfish eye
The study of jellyfish eye evolution is an intermediary to a better understanding of how visual systems evolved on Earth. Jellyfish exhibit immense variation in visual systems ranging from photoreceptive cell patches seen in simple photoreceptive systems to more derived complex eyes seen in box jellyfish. Major topics of jellyfish visual system research (with an emphasis on box jellyfish) include: the evolution of jellyfish vision from simple to complex visual systems), the eye morphology and molecular structures of box jellyfish (including comparisons to vertebrate eyes), and various uses of vision including task-guided behaviors and niche specialization.
Evolution
Experimental evidence for photosensitivity and photoreception in cnidarians antecedes the mid 1900s, and a rich body of research has since covered evolution of visual systems in jellyfish. Jellyfish visual systems range from simple photoreceptive cells to complex image-forming eyes. More ancestral visual systems incorporate extraocular vision (vision without eyes) that encompass numerous receptors dedicated to single-function behaviors. More derived visual systems comprise perception that is capable of multiple task-guided behaviors.
Although they lack a true brain, cnidarian jellyfish have a "ring" nervous system that plays a significant role in motor and sensory activity. This net of nerves is responsible for muscle contraction and movement and culminates the emergence of photosensitive structures. Across Cnidaria, there is large variation in the systems that underlie photosensitivity. Photosensitive structures range from non-specialized groups of cells, to more "conventional" eyes similar to those of vertebrates. The general evolutionary steps to develop complex vision include (from more ancestral to more derived states): non-directional photoreception, directional photoreception, low-resolution vision, and high-resolution vision. Increased habitat and task complexity has favored the high-resolution visual systems common in derived cnidarians such as box jellyfish.
Basal visual systems observed in various cnidarians exhibit photosensitivity representative of a single task or behavior. Extraocular photoreception (a form of non-directional photoreception), is the most basic form of light sensitivity and guides a variety of behaviors among cnidarians. It can function to regulate circadian rhythm (as seen in eyeless hydrozoans) and other light-guided behaviors responsive to the intensity and spectrum of light. Extraocular photoreception can function additionally in positive phototaxis (in planula larvae of hydrozoans), as well as in avoiding harmful amounts of UV radiation via negative phototaxis. Directional photoreception (the ability to perceive direction of incoming light) allows for more complex phototactic responses to light, and likely evolved by means of membrane stacking. The resulting behavioral responses can range from guided spawning events timed by moonlight to shadow responses for potential predator avoidance. Light-guided behaviors are observed in numerous scyphozoans including the common moon jelly, Aurelia aurita, which migrates in response to changes in ambient light and solar position even though they lack proper eyes.
The low-resolution visual system of box jellyfish is more derived than directional photoreception, and thus box jellyfish vision represents the most basic form of true vision in which multiple directional photoreceptors combine to create the first imaging and spatial resolution. This is different from the high-resolution vision that is observed in camera or compound eyes of vertebrates and cephalopods that rely on focusing optics. Critically, the visual systems of box jellyfish are responsible for guiding multiple tasks or behaviors in contrast to less derived visual systems in other jellyfish that guide single behavioral functions. These behaviors include phototaxis based on sunlight (positive) or shadows (negative), obstacle avoidance, and control of swim-pulse rate.
Box jellyfish possess "proper eyes" (similar to vertebrates) that allow them to inhabit environments that lesser derived medusae cannot. In fact, they are considered the only class in the clade Medusozoa that have behaviors necessitating spatial resolution and genuine vision. However, the lens in their eyes are more functionally similar to cup-eyes exhibited in low-resolution organisms, and have very little to no focusing capability. The lack of the ability to focus is due to the focal length exceeding the distance to the retina, thus generating unfocused images and limiting spatial resolution. The visual system is still sufficient for box jellyfish to produce an image to help with tasks such as object avoidance.
Utility as a model organism
Box jellyfish eyes are a visual system that is sophisticated in numerous ways. These intricacies include the considerable variation within the morphology of box jellyfishes' eyes (including their task/behavior specification), and the molecular makeup of their eyes including: photoreceptors, opsins, lenses, and synapses. The comparison of these attributes to more derived visual systems can allow for a further understanding of how the evolution of more derived visual systems may have occurred, and puts into perspective how box jellyfish can play the role as an evolutionary/developmental model for all visual systems.
Characteristics
Box jellyfish visual systems are both diverse and complex, comprising multiple photosystems. There is likely considerable variation in visual properties between species of box jellyfish given the significant inter-species morphological and physiological variation. Eyes tend to differ in size and shape, along with number of receptors (including opsins), and physiology across species of box jellyfish.
Box jellyfish have a series of intricate lensed eyes that are similar to those of more derived multicellular organisms such as vertebrates. Their 24 eyes fit into four different morphological categories. These categories consist of two large, morphologically different medial eyes (a lower and upper lensed eye) containing spherical lenses, a lateral pair of pigment slit eyes, and a lateral pair of pigment pit eyes. The eyes are situated on rhopalia (small sensory structures) which serve sensory functions of the box jellyfish and arise from the cavities of the exumbrella (the surface of the body) on the side of the bells of the jellyfish. The two large eyes are located on the mid-line of the club and are considered complex because they contain lenses. The four remaining eyes lie laterally on either side of each rhopalia and are considered simple. The simple eyes are observed as small invaginated cups of epithelium that have developed pigmentation. The larger of the complex eyes contains a cellular cornea created by a mono ciliated epithelium, cellular lens, homogenous capsule to the lens, vitreous body with prismatic elements, and a retina of pigmented cells. The smaller of the complex eyes is said to be slightly less complex given that it lacks a capsule but otherwise contains the same structure as the larger eye.
Box jellyfish have multiple photosystems that comprise different sets of eyes. Evidence includes immunocytochemical and molecular data that show photopigment differences among the different morphological eye types, and physiological experiments done on box jellyfish to suggest behavioral differences among photosystems. Each individual eye type constitutes photosystems that work collectively to control visually guided behaviors.
Box jellyfish eyes primarily use c-PRCs (ciliary photoreceptor cells) similar to that of vertebrate eyes. These cells undergo phototransduction cascades (process of light absorption by photoreceptors) that are triggered by c-opsins. Available opsin sequences suggest that there are two types of opsins possessed by all cnidarians including an ancient phylogenetic opsin, and a sister ciliary opsin to the c-opsins group. Box jellyfish could have both ciliary and cnidops (cnidarian opsins), which is something not previously believed to appear in the same retina. Nevertheless, it is not entirely evident whether cnidarians possess multiple opsins that are capable of having distinctive spectral sensitivities.
Comparison with other organisms
Comparative research on genetic and molecular makeup of box jellyfishes' eyes versus more derived eyes seen in vertebrates and cephalopods focuses on: lenses and crystallin composition, synapses, and Pax genes and their implied evidence for shared primordial (ancestral) genes in eye evolution.
Box jellyfish eyes are said to be an evolutionary/developmental model of all eyes based on their evolutionary recruitment of crystallins and Pax genes. Research done on box jellyfish including Tripedalia cystophora has suggested that they possess a single Pax gene, PaxB. PaxB functions by binding to crystallin promoters and activating them. PaxB in situ hybridization resulted in PaxB expression in the lens, retina, and statocysts. These results and the rejection of the prior hypothesis that Pax6 was an ancestral Pax gene in eyes has led to the conclusion that PaxB was a primordial gene in eye evolution, and that the eyes of all organisms likely share a common ancestor.
The lens structure of box jellyfish appears very similar to those of other organisms, but the crystallins are distinct in both function and appearance. Weak reactions were seen within the sera and there were very weak sequence similarities within the crystallins among vertebrate and invertebrate lenses. This is likely due to differences in lower molecular weight proteins and the subsequent lack of immunological reactions with antisera that other organisms' lenses exhibit.
All four of the visual systems of box jellyfish species investigated with detail (Carybdea marsupialis, Chiropsalmus quadrumanus, Tamoya haplonema and Tripedalia cystophora) have invaginated synapses, but only in the upper and lower lensed eyes. Different densities were found between the upper and lower lenses, and between species. Four types of chemical synapses have been discovered within the rhopalia which could help in understanding neural organization including: clear unidirectional, dense-core unidirectional, clear bidirectional, and clear and dense-core bidirectional. The synapses of the lensed eyes could be useful as markers to learn more about the neural circuit in box jellyfish retinal areas.
Evolution as a response to natural stimuli
The primary adaptive responses to environmental variation observed in box jellyfish eyes include pupillary constriction speeds in response to light environments, as well as photoreceptor tuning and lens adaptations to better respond to shifts between light environments and darkness. Interestingly, some box jellyfish species' eyes appear to have evolved more focused vision in response to their habitat.
Pupillary contraction appears to have evolved in response to variation in the light environment across ecological niches across three species of box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsella bronzie, and Carukia barnesi). Behavioral studies suggest that faster pupil contraction rates allow for greater object avoidance, and in fact, species with more complex habitats exhibit faster rates. Ch. bronzie inhabit shallow beach fronts that have low visibility and very few obstacles, thus, faster pupil contraction in response to objects in their environment is not important. Ca. barnesi and Ch. fleckeri are found in more three-dimensionally complex environments like mangroves with an abundance of natural obstacles, where faster pupil contraction is more adaptive. Behavioral studies support the idea that faster pupillary contraction rates assist with obstacle avoidance as well as depth adjustments in response to differing light intensities.
Light/dark adaptation via pupillary light reflexes is an additional form of an evolutionary response to the light environment. This relates to the pupil's response to shifts between light intensity (generally from sunlight to darkness). In the process of light/dark adaptation, the upper and lower lens eyes of different box jellyfish species vary in specific function. The lower lens-eyes contain pigmented photoreceptors and long pigment cells with dark pigments that migrate on light/dark adaptation, while the upper-lens eyes play a concentrated role in light direction and phototaxis given that they face upward towards the water surface (towards the sun or moon). The upper lens of Ch. bronzie does not exhibit any considerable optical power while Tr. cystophora (a box jellyfish species that tends to live in mangroves) does. The ability to use light to visually guide behavior is not of as much importance to Ch. bronzie as it is to species in more obstacle-filled environments. Differences in visually guided behavior serve as evidence that species that share the same number and structure of eyes can exhibit differences in how they control behavior.
Largest and smallest
Jellyfish range from about one millimeter in bell height and diameter, to nearly 2 metres (6+1⁄2 ft) in bell height and diameter; the tentacles and mouth parts usually extend beyond this bell dimension.
The smallest jellyfish are the peculiar creeping jellyfish in the genera Staurocladia and Eleutheria, which have bell disks from 0.5 millimetres (1⁄32 in) to a few millimeters in diameter, with short tentacles that extend out beyond this, which these jellyfish use to move across the surface of seaweed or the bottoms of rocky pools; many of these tiny creeping jellyfish cannot be seen in the field without a hand lens or microscope. They can reproduce asexually by fission (splitting in half). Other very small jellyfish, which have bells about one millimeter, are the hydromedusae of many species that have just been released from their parent polyps; some of these live only a few minutes before shedding their gametes in the plankton and then dying, while others will grow in the plankton for weeks or months. The hydromedusae Cladonema radiatum and Cladonema californicum are also very small, living for months, yet never growing beyond a few mm in bell height and diameter.
The lion's mane jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, was long-cited as the largest jellyfish, and arguably the longest animal in the world, with fine, thread-like tentacles that may extend up to 36.5 m (119 ft 9 in) long (though most are nowhere near that large). They have a moderately painful, but rarely fatal, sting. The increasingly common giant Nomura's jellyfish, Nemopilema nomurai, found in some, but not all years in the waters of Japan, Korea and China in summer and autumn is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", in terms of diameter and weight, since the largest Nomura's jellyfish in late autumn can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in bell (body) diameter and about 200 kg (440 lb) in weight, with average specimens frequently reaching 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) in bell diameter and about 150 kg (330 lb) in weight. The large bell mass of the giant Nomura's jellyfish can dwarf a diver and is nearly always much greater than the Lion's Mane, whose bell diameter can reach 1 m (3 ft 3 in).
The rarely encountered deep-sea jellyfish Stygiomedusa gigantea is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", with its thick, massive bell up to 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) wide, and four thick, "strap-like" oral arms extending up to 6 m (19+1⁄2 ft) in length, very different from the typical fine, threadlike tentacles that rim the umbrella of more-typical-looking jellyfish, including the Lion's Mane.
Desmonema glaciale, which lives in the Antarctic region, can reach a very large size (several meters). Purple-striped jelly (Chrysaora colorata) can also be extremely long (up to 15 feet).
Life history and behavior
Life cycle
Jellyfish have a complex life cycle which includes both sexual and asexual phases, with the medusa being the sexual stage in most instances. Sperm fertilize eggs, which develop into larval planulae, become polyps, bud into ephyrae and then transform into adult medusae. In some species certain stages may be skipped.
Upon reaching adult size, jellyfish spawn regularly if there is a sufficient supply of food. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, with all individuals spawning at about the same time of day; in many instances this is at dawn or dusk. Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the unprotected eggs are fertilized and develop into larvae. In a few species, the sperm swim into the female's mouth, fertilizing the eggs within her body, where they remain during early development stages. In moon jellies, the eggs lodge in pits on the oral arms, which form a temporary brood chamber for the developing planula larvae.
The planula is a small larva covered with cilia. When sufficiently developed, it settles onto a firm surface and develops into a polyp. The polyp generally consists of a small stalk topped by a mouth that is ringed by upward-facing tentacles. The polyps resemble those of closely related anthozoans, such as sea anemones and corals. The jellyfish polyp may be sessile, living on the bottom, boat hulls or other substrates, or it may be free-floating or attached to tiny bits of free-living plankton or rarely, fish or other invertebrates. Polyps may be solitary or colonial. Most polyps are only millimetres in diameter and feed continuously. The polyp stage may last for years.
After an interval and stimulated by seasonal or hormonal changes, the polyp may begin reproducing asexually by budding and, in the Scyphozoa, is called a segmenting polyp, or a scyphistoma. Budding produces more scyphistomae and also ephyrae. Budding sites vary by species; from the tentacle bulbs, the manubrium (above the mouth), or the gonads of hydromedusae. In a process known as strobilation, the polyp's tentacles are reabsorbed and the body starts to narrow, forming transverse constrictions, in several places near the upper extremity of the polyp. These deepen as the constriction sites migrate down the body, and separate segments known as ephyra detach. These are free-swimming precursors of the adult medusa stage, which is the life stage that is typically identified as a jellyfish. The ephyrae, usually only a millimeter or two across initially, swim away from the polyp and grow. Limnomedusae polyps can asexually produce a creeping frustule larval form, which crawls away before developing into another polyp. A few species can produce new medusae by budding directly from the medusan stage. Some hydromedusae reproduce by fission.
Lifespan
Little is known of the life histories of many jellyfish as the places on the seabed where the benthic forms of those species live have not been found. However, an asexually reproducing strobila form can sometimes live for several years, producing new medusae (ephyra larvae) each year.
An unusual species, Turritopsis dohrnii, formerly classified as Turritopsis nutricula, might be effectively immortal because of its ability under certain circumstances to transform from medusa back to the polyp stage, thereby escaping the death that typically awaits medusae post-reproduction if they have not otherwise been eaten by some other organism. So far this reversal has been observed only in the laboratory.
Locomotion
Jellyfish locomotion is highly efficient. Muscles in the jellylike bell contract, setting up a start vortex and propelling the animal. When the contraction ends, the bell recoils elastically, creating a stop vortex with no extra energy input.
Using the moon jelly Aurelia aurita as an example, jellyfish have been shown to be the most energy-efficient swimmers of all animals. They move through the water by radially expanding and contracting their bell-shaped bodies to push water behind them. They pause between the contraction and expansion phases to create two vortex rings. Muscles are used for the contraction of the body, which creates the first vortex and pushes the animal forward, but the mesoglea is so elastic that the expansion is powered exclusively by relaxing the bell, which releases the energy stored from the contraction. Meanwhile, the second vortex ring starts to spin faster, sucking water into the bell and pushing against the centre of the body, giving a secondary and "free" boost forward. The mechanism, called passive energy recapture, only works in relatively small jellyfish moving at low speeds, allowing the animal to travel 30 percent farther on each swimming cycle. Jellyfish achieved a 48 percent lower cost of transport (food and oxygen intake versus energy spent in movement) than other animals in similar studies. One reason for this is that most of the gelatinous tissue of the bell is inactive, using no energy during swimming.
Ecology
Diet
Jellyfish are, like other cnidarians, generally carnivorous (or parasitic), feeding on planktonic organisms, crustaceans, small fish, fish eggs and larvae, and other jellyfish, ingesting food and voiding undigested waste through the mouth. They hunt passively using their tentacles as drift lines, or sink through the water with their tentacles spread widely; the tentacles, which contain nematocysts to stun or kill the prey, may then flex to help bring it to the mouth. Their swimming technique also helps them to capture prey; when their bell expands it sucks in water which brings more potential prey within reach of the tentacles.
A few species such as Aglaura hemistoma are omnivorous, feeding on microplankton which is a mixture of zooplankton and phytoplankton (microscopic plants) such as dinoflagellates. Others harbour mutualistic algae (Zooxanthellae) in their tissues; the spotted jellyfish (Mastigias papua) is typical of these, deriving part of its nutrition from the products of photosynthesis, and part from captured zooplankton. The upside-down jellyfish (Cassiopea andromeda) also has a symbiotic relationship with microalgae, but captures tiny animals to supplement their diet. This is done by releasing tiny balls of living cells composed of mesoglea. These use cilia to drive them through water and stinging cells which stun the prey. The blobs also seems to have digestive capabilities.
Predation
Other species of jellyfish are among the most common and important jellyfish predators. Sea anemones may eat jellyfish that drift into their range. Other predators include tunas, sharks, swordfish, sea turtles and penguins. Jellyfish washed up on the beach are consumed by foxes, other terrestrial mammals and birds. In general however, few animals prey on jellyfish; they can broadly be considered to be top predators in the food chain. Once jellyfish have become dominant in an ecosystem, for example through overfishing which removes predators of jellyfish larvae, there may be no obvious way for the previous balance to be restored: they eat fish eggs and juvenile fish, and compete with fish for food, preventing fish stocks from recovering.
Symbiosis
Some small fish are immune to the stings of the jellyfish and live among the tentacles, serving as bait in a fish trap; they are safe from potential predators and are able to share the fish caught by the jellyfish. The cannonball jellyfish has a symbiotic relationship with ten different species of fish, and with the longnose spider crab, which lives inside the bell, sharing the jellyfish's food and nibbling its tissues.
Main article: Jellyfish bloom
Jellyfish form large masses or blooms in certain environmental conditions of ocean currents, nutrients, sunshine, temperature, season, prey availability, reduced predation and oxygen concentration. Currents collect jellyfish together, especially in years with unusually high populations. Jellyfish can detect marine currents and swim against the current to congregate in blooms. Jellyfish are better able to survive in nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water than competitors, and thus can feast on plankton without competition. Jellyfish may also benefit from saltier waters, as saltier waters contain more iodine, which is necessary for polyps to turn into jellyfish. Rising sea temperatures caused by climate change may also contribute to jellyfish blooms, because many species of jellyfish are able to survive in warmer waters. Increased nutrients from agricultural or urban runoff with nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus compounds increase the growth of phytoplankton, causing eutrophication and algal blooms. When the phytoplankton die, they may create dead zones, so-called because they are hypoxic (low in oxygen). This in turn kills fish and other animals, but not jellyfish, allowing them to bloom. Jellyfish populations may be expanding globally as a result of land runoff and overfishing of their natural predators. Jellyfish are well placed to benefit from disturbance of marine ecosystems. They reproduce rapidly; they prey upon many species, while few species prey on them; and they feed via touch rather than visually, so they can feed effectively at night and in turbid waters. It may be difficult for fish stocks to re-establish themselves in marine ecosystems once they have become dominated by jellyfish, because jellyfish feed on plankton, which includes fish eggs and larvae.
As suspected at the turn of this century, jellyfish blooms are increasing in frequency. Between 2013 and 2020 the Mediterranean Science Commission monitored on a weekly basis the frequency of such outbreaks in coastal waters from Morocco to the Black Sea, revealing a relatively high frequency of these blooms nearly all year round, with peaks observed from March to July and often again in the autumn. The blooms are caused by different jellyfish species, depending on their localisation within the Basin: one observes a clear dominance of Pelagia noctiluca and Velella velella outbreaks in the western Mediterranean, of Rhizostoma pulmo and Rhopilema nomadica outbreaks in the eastern Mediterranean, and of Aurelia aurita and Mnemiopsis leidyi outbreaks in the Black Sea.
Some jellyfish populations that have shown clear increases in the past few decades are invasive species, newly arrived from other habitats: examples include the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, central and eastern Mediterranean, Hawaii, and tropical and subtropical parts of the West Atlantic (including the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and Brazil).
Jellyfish blooms can have significant impact on community structure. Some carnivorous jellyfish species prey on zooplankton while others graze on primary producers. Reductions in zooplankton and ichthyoplankton due to a jellyfish bloom can ripple through the trophic levels. High-density jellyfish populations can outcompete other predators and reduce fish recruitment. Increased grazing on primary producers by jellyfish can also interrupt energy transfer to higher trophic levels.
During blooms, jellyfish significantly alter the nutrient availability in their environment. Blooms require large amounts of available organic nutrients in the water column to grow, limiting availability for other organisms. Some jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with single-celled dinoflagellates, allowing them to assimilate inorganic carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen creating competition for phytoplankton. Their large biomass makes them an important source of dissolved and particulate organic matter for microbial communities through excretion, mucus production, and decomposition. The microbes break down the organic matter into inorganic ammonium and phosphate. However, the low carbon availability shifts the process from production to respiration creating low oxygen areas making the dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus largely unavailable for primary production.
These blooms have very real impacts on industries. Jellyfish can outcompete fish by utilizing open niches in over-fished fisheries. Catch of jellyfish can strain fishing gear and lead to expenses relating to damaged gear. Power plants have been shut down due to jellyfish blocking the flow of cooling water. Blooms have also been harmful for tourism, causing a rise in stings and sometimes the closure of beaches.
Jellyfish form a component of jelly-falls, events where gelatinous zooplankton fall to the seafloor, providing food for the benthic organisms there. In temperate and subpolar regions, jelly-falls usually follow immediately after a bloom.
Habitats
Most jellyfish are marine animals, although a few hydromedusae inhabit freshwater. The best known freshwater example is the cosmopolitan hydrozoan jellyfish, Craspedacusta sowerbii. It is less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, colorless and does not sting. Some jellyfish populations have become restricted to coastal saltwater lakes, such as Jellyfish Lake in Palau. Jellyfish Lake is a marine lake where millions of golden jellyfish (Mastigias spp.) migrate horizontally across the lake daily.
Although most jellyfish live well off the ocean floor and form part of the plankton, a few species are closely associated with the bottom for much of their lives and can be considered benthic. The upside-down jellyfish in the genus Cassiopea typically lie on the bottom of shallow lagoons where they sometimes pulsate gently with their umbrella top facing down. Even some deep-sea species of hydromedusae and scyphomedusae are usually collected on or near the bottom. All of the stauromedusae are found attached to either seaweed or rocky or other firm material on the bottom.
Some species explicitly adapt to tidal flux. In Roscoe Bay, jellyfish ride the current at ebb tide until they hit a gravel bar, and then descend below the current. They remain in still waters until the tide rises, ascending and allowing it to sweep them back into the bay. They also actively avoid fresh water from mountain snowmelt, diving until they find enough salt.
Parasites
Jellyfish are hosts to a wide variety of parasitic organisms. They act as intermediate hosts of endoparasitic helminths, with the infection being transferred to the definitive host fish after predation. Some digenean trematodes, especially species in the family Lepocreadiidae, use jellyfish as their second intermediate hosts. Fish become infected by the trematodes when they feed on infected jellyfish.
Relation to humans
Jellyfish have long been eaten in some parts of the world. Fisheries have begun harvesting the American cannonball jellyfish, Stomolophus meleagris, along the southern Atlantic coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico for export to Asia.
Jellyfish are also harvested for their collagen, which is being investigated for use in a variety of applications including the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
Aquaculture and fisheries of other species often suffer severe losses – and so losses of productivity – due to jellyfish.
Products
Main article: Jellyfish as food
In some countries, including China, Japan, and Korea, jellyfish are a delicacy. The jellyfish is dried to prevent spoiling. Only some 12 species of scyphozoan jellyfish belonging to the order Rhizostomeae are harvested for food, mostly in southeast Asia. Rhizostomes, especially Rhopilema esculentum in China (海蜇 hǎizhé, 'sea stingers') and Stomolophus meleagris (cannonball jellyfish) in the United States, are favored because of their larger and more rigid bodies and because their toxins are harmless to humans.
Traditional processing methods, carried out by a jellyfish master, involve a 20- to 40-day multi-phase procedure in which, after removing the gonads and mucous membranes, the umbrella and oral arms are treated with a mixture of table salt and alum, and compressed. Processing makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a crisp texture. Jellyfish prepared this way retain 7–10% of their original weight, and the processed product consists of approximately 94% water and 6% protein. Freshly processed jellyfish has a white, creamy color and turns yellow or brown during prolonged storage.
In China, processed jellyfish are desalted by soaking in water overnight and eaten cooked or raw. The dish is often served shredded with a dressing of oil, soy sauce, vinegar and sugar, or as a salad with vegetables. In Japan, cured jellyfish are rinsed, cut into strips and served with vinegar as an appetizer. Desalted, ready-to-eat products are also available.
Biotechnology
The hydromedusa Aequorea victoria was the source of green fluorescent protein, studied for its role in bioluminescence and later for use as a marker in genetic engineering.
Pliny the Elder reported in his Natural History that the slime of the jellyfish "Pulmo marinus" produced light when rubbed on a walking stick.
In 1961, Osamu Shimomura extracted green fluorescent protein (GFP) and another bioluminescent protein, called aequorin, from the large and abundant hydromedusa Aequorea victoria, while studying photoproteins that cause bioluminescence in this species. Three decades later, Douglas Prasher sequenced and cloned the gene for GFP. Martin Chalfie figured out how to use GFP as a fluorescent marker of genes inserted into other cells or organisms. Roger Tsien later chemically manipulated GFP to produce other fluorescent colors to use as markers. In 2008, Shimomura, Chalfie and Tsien won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work with GFP. Man-made GFP became widely used as a fluorescent tag to show which cells or tissues express specific genes. The genetic engineering technique fuses the gene of interest to the GFP gene. The fused DNA is then put into a cell, to generate either a cell line or (via IVF techniques) an entire animal bearing the gene. In the cell or animal, the artificial gene turns on in the same tissues and the same time as the normal gene, making a fusion of the normal protein with GFP attached to the end, illuminating the animal or cell reveals what tissues express that protein—or at what stage of development. The fluorescence shows where the gene is expressed.
Aquarium display
Jellyfish are displayed in many public aquariums. Often the tank's background is blue and the animals are illuminated by side light, increasing the contrast between the animal and the background. In natural conditions, many jellies are so transparent that they are nearly invisible. Jellyfish are not adapted to closed spaces. They depend on currents to transport them from place to place. Professional exhibits as in the Monterey Bay Aquarium feature precise water flows, typically in circular tanks to avoid trapping specimens in corners. The outflow is spread out over a large surface area and the inflow enters as a sheet of water in front of the outflow, so the jellyfish do not get sucked into it. As of 2009, jellyfish were becoming popular in home aquariums, where they require similar equipment.
Stings
Jellyfish are armed with nematocysts, a type of specialized stinging cell. Contact with a jellyfish tentacle can trigger millions of nematocysts to pierce the skin and inject venom, but only some species' venom causes an adverse reaction in humans. In a study published in Communications Biology, researchers found a jellyfish species called Cassiopea xamachana which when triggered will release tiny balls of cells that swim around the jellyfish stinging everything in their path. Researchers described these as "self-propelling microscopic grenades" and named them cassiosomes.
The effects of stings range from mild discomfort to extreme pain and death. Most jellyfish stings are not deadly, but stings of some box jellyfish (Irukandji jellyfish), such as the sea wasp, can be deadly. Stings may cause anaphylaxis (a form of shock), which can be fatal. Jellyfish kill 20 to 40 people a year in the Philippines alone. In 2006 the Spanish Red Cross treated 19,000 stung swimmers along the Costa Brava.
Vinegar (3–10% aqueous acetic acid) may help with box jellyfish stings but not the stings of the Portuguese man o' war. Clearing the area of jelly and tentacles reduces nematocyst firing. Scraping the affected skin, such as with the edge of a credit card, may remove remaining nematocysts. Once the skin has been cleaned of nematocysts, hydrocortisone cream applied locally reduces pain and inflammation. Antihistamines may help to control itching. Immunobased antivenins are used for serious box jellyfish stings.
In Elba Island and Corsica dittrichia viscosa is now used by residents and tourists to heal stings from jellyfish, bees and wasps pressing fresh leaves on the skin with quick results.
Mechanical issues
Jellyfish in large quantities can fill and split fishing nets and crush captured fish. They can clog cooling equipment, having disabled power stations in several countries; jellyfish caused a cascading blackout in the Philippines in 1999, as well as damaging the Diablo Canyon Power Plant in California in 2008. They can also stop desalination plants and ships' engines.
from a sheet of foil paper, I added two grafts to the digesting dragon to create claws and larger wings
created in August 2017
Prints available via my website, www.tommilton.co.uk
At 21:47 GMT, the equinox happened, and so from then on, light is destined to win over darkness. Which meant, of course, that the day before then was the shortest "day", or amount of daylight.
This is the end of the year, the build up and excitement before Christmas, and at the same time, looking back at the year, and what has happened in the previous 50 or so weeks. So, a time of mixed emotions, good and bad, happy and sad.
But I was on vacation, or not going to work.
I am not up to date, but I did all the tasks I was supposed to do, threw a few electronic grenades over the walls, and was now happy not to think of that shit for two whole weeks.
For Jools, however, there was half a day to do, and then her employers paid for all those employed at the factory to go to a fancy place in Folkestone for lunch, drinks at the bar and a bottle of wine between four folks.
It was, in short, a time for celebration. Something I realise has not happened in my job since I left operational quality, to be happy and give thanks to those we work with. And be recognised for the good job we do.
So, I was to take Jools to work, and have the car for the day.
Jools was conscious that my plan for the day involved driving to the far west of Kent, so realised I needed an early start, and not dropping her off in Hythe at seven.
We left after coffee just after six, driving through Dover and Folkestone on the main road and motorway before turning over the downs into Hythe. I dropped her off in the town, so she could get some walking in. She always didn't walk, as waves of showers swept over the town, and me as I drove back home for breakfast and do all the chores before leaving on a mini-churchcrawl.
So, back home for breakfast, more coffee, wash up, do the bird feeders and with postcodes, set out for points in the extreme west. Now, Kent is not a big county, not say, Texas big, but it takes some time to get to some parts of the west of the county. Main roads run mainly from London to the coast, so going cross-country or cross-county would take time.
At first it was as per normal up the A20 then onto the motorway to Ashford then to Maidstone until the junction before the M26 starts. One of the reasons for going later was to avoid rush hours in and around Maidstone, Tonbridge and Tunbridge Wells.
As it was, after turning down the A road, things were fine until I got to Mereworth, but from there the road began to twist and turn until it lead me into Tonbridge. Once upon a time, this was a sleepy village or small town. The the railways came and it became a major junction. The road to Penshurt took me though the one way system, then down the wide High Street, over the river Medway and up the hill the other side.
Two more turns took me to my target, through what were once called stockbroker mansions, then down a hill, with the village laid out before me just visible through the trees.
The village was built around the outskirts of Penshurst Place, home to the Sidney family since Tudor times. Just about everything is named the Leicester something, the village having its own Leicester Square, though with no cinemas, and all timber framed houses and painfully picturesque.
The church lays behind the houses, the tower in golden sandstone topped with four spirelets.
I parked the car, and armed with two cameras, several lenses and a photographer's eye, walked to the church.
The reason for coming was I can only remember a little about my previous visit, but the Leicester name thing triggered in my head the thought the memorials and tombs might be worth a revisit.
So there I was.
Gilbert Scott was very busy here, so there is little of anything prior to the 19th century, but the memorials are there. Including one which features the heads of the children of Robert Sidney (d1702) in a cloud. Including the eldest son who died, apparently, so young he wasn't named, and is recorded as being the first born.
This is in the Sidney Chapel where the great and good are buried and remembered, it has a colourful roof, or roof beams, and heraldic shields. It has a 15th century font, which, sadly, has been brightly painted so is gaudy in the extreme.
I go around getting my shots, leave a fiver for the church. Go back to the car and program Speldhurst into the sat nav.
Its just a ten minute drive, but there is no place to park anywhere near the church. I could see from my slow drive-by the porch doors closed, and I convinced myself they were locked and not worth checking out.
I went on to Groombridge, where there is a small chapel with fabulous glass. I had been here before too, but wanted to redo my shots.
It was by now pouring with rain, and as dark as twilight, I missed the church on first pass, went to the mini-roundabout only to discover that it and the other church in the village were in Sussex. I turned round, the church looked dark and was almost certainly locked. I told myself.
I didn't stop here either, so instead of going to the final village church, I went straigh to Tunbridge Wells where there was another church to revisit.
I drove into the town, over the man road and to the car park with no waiting in traffic, how odd, I thought.
It was hard to find a parking space, but high up in the parking house there were finally spaced. I parked near the stairs down, grabbed my cameras and went down.
I guess I could have parked nearer the church, but once done it would be easier to leave the town as the road back home went past the exit.
I ambled down the hill leading to the station, over the bridge and down the narrow streets, all lined with shops. I think its fair to say that it is a richer town than Dover because on one street there were three stores offering beposke designer kitchens.
The church is across the road from the Georgian square known at The Pantiles, but it was the church I was here to visit.
I go in, and there is a service underway. I decide to sit at the back and observe.
And pray.
I did not take communion, though. The only one there who didn't.
About eight elderly parishioners did, though.
I was here to photograph the ceiling, and then the other details I failed to record when we were last here over a decade ago.
I was quizzed strongly by a warden as to why I was doing this. I had no answer other than I enjoyed it, and for me that is enough.
After getting my shots, I leave and begin the slog back up to the car, but on the way keeping my promise to a young man selling the Big Issue that I would come back and buy a copy. I did better than that in that I gave him a fiver and didn't take a copy.
He nearly burst into tears. I said, there is kindness in the world, and some of us do keep our promises.
By the time I got to the car park, it was raining hard again. I had two and a half hours to get to Folkestone to pick up Jools after her meal.
Traffic into Tunbridge Wells from this was was crazy, miles and miles of queues, so I was more than happy going the other way.
I get back to the M20, cruise down to Ashford, stopping at Stop 24 services for a coffee and something to eat. I had 90 minutes to kill, so eat, drink and scroll Twitter as I had posted yet more stuff that morning. In other news: nothing changed, sadly.
At quarter past four I went to pick up Jools, stopping outside the restaurant. When she got in she declared she had been drinking piña coladas. Just two, but she was bubby and jabbering away all the way home.
With Jools having eaten out, and with snacks I had, no dinner was needed, so when suppertime came round, we dined on cheese and crackers, followed by a large slice of Christmas cake.
She was now done for Christmas too.
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The red brick church stands on a busy junction at the end of the Pantiles whose patrons it was built to serve in 1678. Within thirty years it had been extended on two occasions to more or less reach its present size. The ceiling bears the date 1678 and is rather domestic in character, based on deep circular domes with putti, palms and swags. The stained glass in the east window is based on a picture by Alex Ender and was designed by Heaton, Butler and Bayne in 1901. There is an excellent window under the north gallery designed by Lawrence Lee in 1969. The church was sympathetically restored by Ewan Christian in 1882, when the shallow chancel was added. The woodwork it contains was brought from one of Wren's City of London churches. Outside the west wall of the church, set into the footpath, is a boundary marker to show the former parish boundaries of Tonbridge and Speldhurst.
www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Tunbridge+Wells+1
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The large and populous hamlet or village of TUNBRIDGE-WELLS is situated at the south-east boundary of this parish; part of it only is in Speldhurst, another part in the parish of Tunbridge, and the remainder in that of Fant, in the county of Suffex. It consists of four smaller districts, named from the hills on which they stand, Mount Ephraim, Mount Pleasant, and Mount Sion; the other is called The Wells, from their being within it, which altogether form a considerable town; but the last is the centre of business and pleasure, for there, besides the Wells themselves, are the market, public parades, assembly rooms, taverns, shops, &c. Near the Wells is the chapel, which stands remarkably in the three parishes above mentioned—the pulpit in Speldhurst, the altar in Tunbridge, and the vestry in Fant, and the stream, which parted the two counties of Kent and Suffex, formerly ran underneath it, but is now turned to a further distance from it. The right of patronage is claimed by the rector of Speldhurst, though he has never yet possessed the chapel or presented to it; the value of it is about two hundred pounds per annum, which sum is raised by voluntary subscription; divine service is performed in it every day in summer, and three times a week in winter. Adjoining to it is a charity school, for upwards of fifty poor boys and girls, which is supported by a contribution, collected at the chapel doors, two or three times a year.
The trade of Tunbridge-wells is similar to that of Spa, in Germany, and consists chiefly in a variety of toys, made of wood, commonly called Tunbridge ware, which employs a great number of hands. The wood principally used for this purpose is beech and sycamore, with yew and holly inlaid, and beautifully polished. To the market of this place is brought, in great plenty, from the South downs, in Sussex, the little bird, called the wheatear, which, from its delicacy, is usually called the English ortolan. It is not bigger in size than a lark; it is almost a lump of fat, and of a very delicious taste; it is in season only in the midst of summer, when the heat of the weather, and the fatness of it, prevents its being sent to London, which otherwise would, in all likelihood, monopolize every one of them. On the other or Suffex side of the Medway, above a mile from the Wells, are the rocks, which consist of a great number of rude eminences, adjoining to each other, several of which are seventy feet in height; in several places there are cliffs and chasms which lead quite through the midst of them, by narrow gloomy passages, which strike the beholder with astonishment.
THESE MEDICINAL WATERS, commonly called TUNBRIDGE-WELLS, lie so near to the county of Suffex that part of them are within it, for which reason they were for some time called Fant-wells, as being within that parish. (fn. 1) Their efficacy is reported to have been accidentally found out by Dudley lord North, in the beginning of the reign of king James I. Whilst he resided at Eridge-house for his health, lord Abergavenny's seat, in this neighbourhood, and that he was entirely cured of the lingering consumptive disorder he laboured under by the use of them.
The springs, which were then discovered, seem to have been seven in number, two of the principal of which were some time afterwards, by lord Abergavenny's care, inclosed, and were afterwards much resorted to by many of the middling and lower sort, whose ill health had real occasion for the use of them. In which state they continued till queen Henrietta Maria, wife of king Charles I. having been sent hither by her physicians, in the year 1630, for the reestablishment of her health, soon brought these waters into fashion, and occasioned a great resort to them from that time. In compliment to her doctor, Lewis Rowzee, in his treatise on them, calls these springs the Queen's-wells; but this name lasted but a small time, and they were soon afterwards universally known by that of Tunbridge-wells, which names they acquired from the company usually residing at Tunbridge town, when they came into these parts for the benefit of drinking the waters.
The town of Tunbridge being five miles distant from the wells, occasioned some few houses to be built in the hamlets of Southborough and Rusthall, for the accommodation of the company resorting hither, and this place now becoming fashionable, was visited by numbers for the sake of pleasure and dissipation, as well as for the cure of their infirmities; and soon after the Restoration every kind of building, for public amusements, was erected at the two hamlets above mentioned, lodgings and other buildings were built at and near the wells, the springs themselves were secured, and other conveniencies added to them. In 1664, the queen came here by the advice of her physicians, in hopes of reinstating her health, which was greatly impaired by a dangerous fever, and her success, in being perfectly cured by these waters, greatly raised the reputation of them, and the company increasing yearly, it induced the inhabitants to make every accommodation for them adjoining to the Wells, so that both Rusthall and Southborough became ruinous and deserted by all but their native inhabitants. The duke of York, with his duchess, and the two princesses their daughters, visited Tunbridge-wells in the year 1670, which brought much more company than usual to them, and raised their reputation still higher; and the annual increase continuing, it induced the lord of the manor to think of improving this humour of visiting the wells to his own profit as well as the better accommodation of the company. To effect which, he entered into an agreement with his tenants, and hired of them the herbage of the waste of the manor for the term of fifty years, at the yearly rent of ten shillings to each tenant, and then erected shops and houses on and near the walks and springs, in every convenient spot for that purpose; by which means Tunbridge wells became a populous and flourishing village, well inhabited, for whose convenience, and the company resorting thither, a chapel was likewise built, in 1684, by subscription, on some ground given by the lady viscountess Purbeck, which was, about twelve years afterwards, enlarged by an additional subscription, amounting together to near twenty-three hundred pounds.
About the year 1726, the building lease, which had been granted by the lord of the manor of Rusthall, in which this hamlet is situated, expiring, the tenants of the manor claimed a share in the buildings, as a compensation for the loss of the herbage, which was covered by his houses. This occasioned a long and very expensive law suit between them, which was at last determined in favour of the tenants, who were adjudged to have a right to a third part of the buildings then erected on the estate, in lieu of their right to the herbage; upon which all the shops and houses, which had been built on the manor waste, were divided into three lots, of which the tenants were to draw one, and the other two were to remain to the lord of the manor; the lot which the tenants drew was the middle one, which included the assembly room on the public walk, which has since turned out much the most advantageous of the three. After which long articles of agreement, in 1739, were entered into between Maurice Conyers, esq. then lord of the manor of Rusthall, and the above mentioned tenants of it, in which, among many other matters, he agreed to permit the public walks and wells, and divers other premises there, to be made use of for the public benefit of the nobility and gentry resorting thereto, and several regulations were made in them concerning the walks, wells, and wastes of the manor, and for the restraining buildings on the waste, between the lord and his tenants, according to a plan therein specified; all which were confirmed and established by an act of parliament, passed in 1740. Since which several of the royal family have honoured these wells with their presence, and numbers of the nobility and persons of rank and fashion yearly resortto them, so that this place is now in a most flourishing state, having great numbers of good houses built for lodgings, and every other necessary accommodation for the company. Its customs are settled; the employment of the dippers regulated; (fn. 2) its pleasures regulated; its markets well and plentifully supplied, at a reasonable rate, with sowl, fish, meat, every other kind of food, and every convenience added that can contribute to give health and pleasure.
¶The whole neighbourhood of Tunbridge-wells abounds with springs of mineral water, but as the properties of all are nearly the same, only those two, which at the first discovery of them were adjudged the best, are held in any particular estimation. These two wells are enclosed with a handsome triangular stone wall; over the springs are placed two convenient basons of Portland stone, with perforations at the bottom; one of them being given by queen Anne, and the other by the lord of the manor; through which they receive the water, which at the spring is extremely clear and bright. Its taste is steely, but not disagreeable; it has hardly any smell, though sometimes, in a dense air, its ferruginous exhalations are very distinguishable. In point of heat it is invariably temperate, the spring lying so deep in the earth, that neither the heat of summer, nor the cold of winter, affects it. When this water is first taken up in a large glass, its particles continue at rest till it is warmed to nearly the heat of the atmosphere, then a few airy globules begin to separate themselves, and adhere to the sides of the glass, and in a few hours a light copper coloured scum begins to float on the surface, after which an ochreous sediment settles at the bottom. Long continued rains sometimes give the water a milky appearance, but do not otherwise sensibly affect it. From the experiments of different physicians, it appears that the component parts of this water are, steely particles, marine salts, an oily matter, an ochreous substance, simple water, and a volatile vitriolic spirit, too subtile for any chemical analysis. In weight it is, in seven ounces and a quarter, four grains lighter than the German Spa (to which it is preferable on that account) and ten grains lighter than common water; with syrup of violets this water gives a deep green, as vitriols do. (fn. 3) It requires five drops of oleum sulphuris, or elixir of vitriol, to a quart of water, to preserve its virtues to a distance from the spring.
This water is said to be an impregnation of rain in some of the neighbouring eminences, which abound in iron mineral, where it is further enriched with the marine salts and all the valuable ingredients, which constitute it a light and pure chalybeate, which instantly searches the most remote recesses of the human frame, warms and invigorates the relaxed constitution, restores the weakened fibres to their due tone and elasticity, removes those obstructions to which the minuter vessels of the body are liable, and is consequently adapted to most cold chronical disorders, lowness of spirits, weak digestions, and nervous complaints. Dr. Lodowick Rowzee, of Ashford, in this county, wrote a Treatise of the Nature and Virtues of these Waters, printed in 12mo. 1671; and Dr. Patrick Madan wrote a Philosophical and Medical Essay on them, in 1687, in quarto.
Tortoises at the Galapagos Giant Tortoise Centre on Isabella
Galapagos Giant Tortoise
The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise (Geochelone nigra) is the largest living tortoise, native to seven islands of the Galápagos archipelago. The Galápagos tortoise is unique to the Galápagos Islands. Fully grown adults can weigh over 300 kilograms (661 lb) and measure 1.2 meters (4 ft) long. They are long-lived with a life expectancy in the wild estimated to be 100-150 years. Populations fell dramatically because of hunting and the introduction of predators and grazers by humans since the seventeenth century. Now only ten subspecies of the original twelve exist in the wild. However, conservation efforts since the establishment of the Galápagos National Park and the Charles Darwin Foundation have met with success, and hundreds of captive-bred juveniles have been released back onto their home islands. They have become one of the most symbolic animals of the fauna of the Galápagos Islands. The tortoises have very large shells (carapace) made of bone. The bony plates of the shell are integral to the skeleton, fused with the ribs in a rigid protective structure. Naturalist Charles Darwin remarked "These animals grow to an immense size ... several so large that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground.". This is due to the phenomenon of island gigantism whereby in the absence of natural predation, the largest tortoises had a survival advantage and no disadvantage in fleeing or fending off predators. When threatened, it can withdraw its head, neck and all forelimbs into its shell for protection, presenting a protected shield to a would-be predator. The legs have hard scales that also provide armour when withdrawn. Tortoises keep a characteristic scute pattern on their shell throughout life. These have annual growth bands but are not useful for aging as the outer layers are worn off. There is little variation in the dull-brown colour of the shell or scales. Physical features (including shape of the shell) relate to the habitat of each of the subspecies. These differences were noted by Captain Porter even before Charles Darwin. Larger islands with more wet highlands such as Santa Cruz and the Alcedo Volcano on Isabela have lush vegetation near the ground. Tortoises here tend to have 'dome-back' shells. These animals have restricted upward head movement due to shorter necks, and also have shorter limbs. These are the heaviest and largest of the subspecies.Smaller, drier islands such as Española and Pinta are inhabited by tortoises with 'saddleback' shells comprising a flatter carapace which is elevated above the neck and flared above the hind feet. Along with longer neck and limbs, this allows them to browse taller vegetation. On these drier islands the Galápagos Opuntia cactus (a major source of their fluids) has evolved a taller, tree-like form. This is evidence of an evolutionary arms race between progressively taller tortoises and correspondingly taller cacti. Saddlebacks are smaller in size than domebacks. They tend to have a yellowish color on lower mandible and throat. At one extreme, the Sierra Negra volcano population that inhabits southern Isabela Island has a very flattened "tabletop" shell. However, there is no saddleback/domeback dualism; tortoises can also be of 'intermediate' type with characteristics of both. The tortoises are slow-moving reptiles with an average long-distance walking speed of 0.3 km/h (0.18 mph). Although feeding giant tortoises browse with no apparent direction, when moving to water-holes or nesting grounds, they can move at surprising speeds for their size. Marked individuals have been reported to have traveled 13 km in two days. Being cold-blooded, the tortoises bask for two hours after dawn, absorbing the energy through their shells, then becoming active for 8–9 hours a day. They may sleep for about sixteen hours in a mud wallow partially or submerged in rain-formed pools (sometimes dew ponds formed by garua-moisture dripping off trees). This may be both a thermoregulatory response and a protection from parasites such as mosquitoes and ticks. Some rest in a 'pallet'- a snug depression in soft ground or dense brush- which probably helps to conserve heat and may aid digestion. On the Alcedo Volcano, repeated use of the same sites by the large resident population has resulted in the formation of small sandy pits. Darwin observed that: "The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not overhear a person walking near behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead." The tortoises can vocalise in aggressive encounters, whilst righting themselves if turned upside down and, in males, during mating. The latter is described as "rhythmic groans". The tortoises are herbivorous animals with a diet comprising cactus, grasses, leaves, vines, and fruit. Fresh young grass is a favorite food of the tortoises, and others are the 'poison apple' (Hippomane mancinella) (toxic to humans), the endemic guava (Psidium galapageium), the water fern (Azolla microphylla), and the bromeliad (Tillandsia insularis). Tortoises eat a large quantity of food when it is available at the expense of incomplete digestion. Its favorite food is grasses. The tortoise normally eat an average of 70 to 80 pounds a day. Tortoises have a classic example of a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with some species of Galápagos finch. The finch hops in front of the tortoise to show that it is ready and the tortoise then raises itself up high on its legs and stretches out its neck so that the bird can pick off ticks that are hidden in the folds of the skin (especially on the rear legs, cloacal opening, neck, and skin between plastron and carapace), thus freeing the tortoise from harmful parasites and providing the finch with an easy meal. Other birds, including Galápagos Hawk and flycatchers, use tortoises as observation posts from which to sight their prey. Mating occurs at any time of the year, although it does have seasonal peaks between January and August. When two mature males meet in the mating season they will face each other, rise up on their legs and stretch up their necks with their mouths open to assess dominance. Occasionally, head-biting occurs, but usually the shorter loser tortoise will back off, leaving the other to mate with the female. In groups of tortoises from mixed island populations, saddleback males have an advantage over domebacks. Frustrated non-dominant males have been observed attempting to mate with other males and boulders. The male sniffs the air when seeking a female, bellows loudly, and bobs his head. The male then rams the female with the front of his shell and bites her exposed legs until she withdraws them, immobilizing her. Copulation can last several hours with roaring vocalisations from the males. Their concave shell base allows males to mount the females from behind. It brings its tail which houses the penis into the female's cloaca. After mating (June-December), the females journey up to several kilometres to reach nesting areas of dry, sandy ground (often near the coast). Nest digging can last from hours to days and is elaborate and exhausting. It is carried out blindly using only the hind legs to dig a 30 cm deep hole, into which she lays up to sixteen hard-shelled eggs the size of tennis balls. The female makes a muddy plug for the nest hole out of soil mixed with urine and leaves the eggs to incubate. In rocky areas, the eggs are deposited randomly into cracks. The young emerge from the nest after 120 to 140 days gestation later (December-April) and may weigh only 80 grams (2.8 oz) and measure 6 centimetres (2.4 in). Temperature plays a role in the sex of the hatchling: if the nest temperature is lower, more males will hatch; if it is high, more females will hatch. When the young tortoises emerge from their shells, they must dig their way to the surface, which can take up to a month. All have domed carapaces, and subspecies are indistinguishable. Galápagos Hawk used to be the only native predator of the tortoise hatchlings, as Darwin remarked: "The young tortoises, as soon as they are hatched, fall prey in great numbers to buzzards". Sex can be determined only when the tortoise is 15 years old, and sexual maturity is reached at 20 to 25 years old. The tortoises grow slowly for about 40 years until they reach their full size. Reproductive prime is considered to be from the ages of 60–90. The shape of the carapace of some subspecies of the tortoises is said to have reminded the early Spanish explorers of a kind of saddle they called a "galápago," and for these saddle-shaped tortoises they named the archipelago. Up to 250,000 tortoises inhabited the islands when they were discovered. Today only about 15,000 are left.
The inhabitants...state that they can distinguish the tortoise from different islands; and that they differ not only in size, but in other characters. Captain Porter has described those from Charles and from the nearest island to it, namely Hood Island, as having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, whilst the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and have a better taste when cooked.---Charles Darwin 1845
There were probably twelve subspecies of Geochelone nigra in the Galápagos Islands, although some recognise up to 15 subspecies. Now only 11 subspecies remain, five on Isabela Island, and the other six on Santiago, Santa Cruz, San Cristóbal, Pinzón, Española and Pinta. Of these, the Pinta Island subspecies is extinct in the wild and is represented by a single individual (Lonesome George). In the past, zoos took animals without knowing their island of origin. Production of fertile offspring from various pairings of tortoises largely confirmed that they are subspecies and not different species. All the subspecies of giant tortoise evolved in Galápagos from a common ancestor that arrived from the mainland, floating on the ocean currents (the tortoises can drift for long periods of time as they are buoyant and can stretch head upwards to breathe). Only a single pregnant female or breeding pair needed to arrive in this way, and then survive, for Galápagos to be colonised. In the seventeenth century, pirates started to use the Galápagos islands as a base for resupply, restocking on food, water and repairing vessels before attacking Spanish colonies on the South American mainland. The tortoises were collected and stored live on board ships where they could survive for at least a year without food or water, providing valuable fresh meat, whilst their diluted urine and water stored in their neck bags could also be used as drinking water. Of the meat, Darwin wrote: "the breast-plate roasted (as the Gauchos do 'carne con cuero'), with the flesh on it, is very good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent." In the nineteenth century, whaling ships and fur-sealers collected tortoises for food and many more were killed for high grade 'turtle oil' from the late 1800s onward. Darwin described this process thus: "beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation." A total of over 15,000 tortoises is recorded in the logs of 105 whaling ships between 1811 and 1844. As hunters found it easiest to collect the tortoises living round the coastal zones, the least decimated populations tended to be those in the highlands. Population decline accelerated with the early settlement of the islands, when they were hunted for meat, their habitat was cleared for agriculture and alien mammal species were introduced. Feral pigs, dogs, cats and black rats are effective predators of eggs and young tortoises, whilst goats, donkeys and cattle compete for grazing. In the twentieth century, increasing human settlement and urbanisation and collection of tortoises for zoo and museum specimens depleted numbers even more. The Galápagos giant tortoise is now strictly protected. Young tortoises are raised in a programme by the Charles Darwin Research Station in order to bolster the numbers of the extant subspecies. Eggs are collected from places on the islands where they are threatened and when the tortoises hatch they are kept in captivity until they have reached a size that ensures a good chance of survival and are returned to their original ranges. The Galápagos National Park Service systematically culls feral predators and competitors where necessary such as the complete eradication of goats from Pinta. The conservation project begun in the 1970s successfully brought 10 of the 11 endangered subspecies up to guarded population levels. The most significant recovery was that of the Española Tortoise, whose breeding stock comprised 2 males and 11 females brought to the Darwin Station. Fortuitously, a third male was discovered at the San Diego Zoo and joined the others in a captive breeding program. These 13 tortoises gave rise to over 1000 tortoises now released into their home island. In all, 2500 individuals of all breeds have been reintroduced to the islands. However, persecution still continues on a much smaller scale; more than 120 tortoises have been killed by poachers since 1990 and they have been taken hostage as political leverage by local fishermen.
Isabella
Shaped like a sea horse, Isabela is the largest of the the islands in the Galapagos, more than 4 times larger than Santa Cruz the next largest. Isabela is 80 miles (100 km) in length and though it is remarkably beautiful it is not one of the most visited islands in the chain. Its visitor sites are far apart making them accessible only to faster boats or those with longer itineraries. One of the youngest islands, Isabela is located on the western edge of the archipelago near the Galapagos hot spot. At approximately 1 million years old, the island was formed by the merger of 6 shield volcanoes - Alcedo, Cerro Azul, Darwin, Ecuador, Sierra Negra and Wolf. Five of the six volcanoes are still active (the exception is Ecuador) making it one of the most volcanically active places on earth. Visitors cruising past Elizabeth Bay on the west coast can see evidence of this activity in the fumaroles rising from Volcan Chico on Sierra Negra. Two of Isabela's volcanoes lie directly on the equator - Ecuador and Volcan Wolf. Volcan Wolf is the youngest of Isabela's volcanoes and at 5,600ft (1707 m) the highest point in the Galapagos. Isabela is known for its geology, providing visitors with excellent examples of the geologic occurrences that have created the Galapagos Islands including uplifts at Urbina Bay and the Bolivar Channel, Tuft cones at Tagus Cove, and Pulmace on Alcedo. Isabela is also interesting for its flora and fauna. The young island does not follow the vegetation zones of the other islands. The relatively new lava fields and surrounding soils have not developed the sufficient nutrients required to support the varied life zones found on other islands. Another obvious difference occurs on Volcan Wolf and Cerro Azul, these volcanoes loft above the cloud cover and are arid on top. Isabela's rich animal, bird, and marine life is beyond compare. Isabela is home to more wild tortoises than all the other islands. Isabela's large size and notable topography created barriers for the slow moving tortoises; apparently the creatures were unable to cross lava flows and other obstacles, causing several different sub-species of tortoise to develop. Today tortoises roam free in the calderas of Alcedo, Wolf, Cerro Azul, Darwin and Sierra Negra. Alcedo Tortoises spend most of their life wallowing in the mud at the volcano crater. The mud offers moisture, insulation and protects their exposed flesh from mosquitoes, ticks and other insects. The giant tortoises have a mediocre heat control system requiring them to seek the coolness of the mud during the heat of the day and the extra insulation during the cool of the night. On the west coast of Isabela the nutrient rich Cromwell Current upwelling creating a feeding ground for fish, whales, dolphin and birds. These waters have long been known as the best place to see whales in the Galapagos. Some 16 species of whales have been identified in the area including humpbacks, sperms, sei, minkes and orcas. During the 19th century whalers hunted in these waters until the giant creatures were near extinction. The steep cliffs of Tagus Cove bare the names of many of the whaling ships and whalers which hunted in these waters. Birders will be delighted with the offerings of Isabela. Galapagos Penguins and flightless cormorants also feed from the Cromwell Current upwelling. These endemic birds nest along the coast of Isabela and neighboring Fernandina. The mangrove finch, Galapagos Hawk, brown pelican, pink flamingo and blue heron are among the birds who make their home on Isabela. A colorful part to any tour located on the western shore of Isabela, Punta Moreno is often the first or last stopping point on the island (depending on the direction the boat is heading). Punta Moreno is a place where the forces of the Galapagos have joined to create a work of art. The tour starts with a panga ride along the beautiful rocky shores where Galapagos penguins and shore birds are frequently seen. After a dry landing the path traverses through jagged black lava rock. As the swirling black lava flow gave way to form craters, crystal tide pools formed-some surrounded by mangroves. This is a magnet for small blue lagoons, pink flamingos, blue herons, and Bahama pintail ducks. Brown pelican can be seen nesting in the green leaves of the mangroves. You can walk to the edge of the lava to look straight down on these pools including the occasional green sea turtle, white-tipped shark and puffer fish. This idyllic setting has suffered from the presence of introduced species. Feral dogs in the area are known to attack sea Lions and marine iguanas.
Galapagos Islands
The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón; other Spanish names: Islas de Colón or Islas Galápagos) are an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed around the equator in the Pacific Ocean, some 900 km west of Ecuador. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site: wildlife is its most notable feature. Because of the only very recent arrival of man the majority of the wildlife has no fear of humans and will allow visitors to walk right up them, often having to step over Iguanas or Sea Lions.The Galápagos islands and its surrounding waters are part of a province, a national park, and a biological marine reserve. The principal language on the islands is Spanish. The islands have a population of around 40,000, which is a 40-fold expansion in 50 years. The islands are geologically young and famed for their vast number of endemic species, which were studied by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the Beagle. His observations and collections contributed to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
People know of old, over two thousand years, it has great effects on health the wine.
Since the time of Hippocrates, the wine was used to reduce fever, washing wounds, to strengthen a patient who had no appetite after passing through a serious illness.
Since then, people already knew that wine helps digestion.
After a hearty food with meat and fat, a glass of wine was indispensable.
Wine helps useless discharges from the gut, helping to evacuate urine and promotes sweating.
But they knew ancient people began to be forgotten in the last century, when so many drugs usually prepared only through chemistry, began to assail us.
Do not clean the high consumption of natural wines, by the population from the Rhine wine-growing areas has made it possible for some diseases such as gout, kidney stones and liver to be less common than in other areas?
Not many doctors are wrong who think the wine just as evil, toxic and harmful?
Certainly not I call you to alcoholism.
But some diseases, a natural glass of wine, suitable range when need be and especially how we can be helpful.
White wine or red wine.
What is better? white wine or red wine?
Red wine is distinguished not only by color.
It contains tannins, which have a great influence on the mucous membranes.
Red wine contains not so much acid that most white wines.
Our body receives more pleasure and that substances in red wine are better tolerated.
Since Roman times it was said that red wine helps you quickly whiten your hair does, it gives you more force, even when age is age.
The wine consumed in moderation is a friend of man, the sorrow or joy.
A Romanian proverb says so - "A glass of wine is the joy, two glasses of wine is gladness and three glasses of wine is crazy"
White wine has a diuretic effect, it is good to stimulate digestion.
Depending on the assortment of white wine, sweet, dry, semi-dry, more fragrant etc.We know many more varieties of white wines than red wines. ... read more ...
A few days ago, the media reported the discovery in Minas Gerais - Ah! What a Tolkien-sounding name - in southeastern Brazil of a Giant Sundew, Drosera magnifica. Apparently it can grow up to 1.5 metres high, almost as tall as a human being! Just imagine being caught up in its glittering viscous drops of sweet digestive fluid. A nightmare worthy of Frodo and his encounter with Shelob - evil in spider form - at Cirith Ungol leading to the land of Mordor.
But here on a much smaller scale is very pretty and elegant Cape Sundew, Drosera capensis. Johannes Burman (1707-1780), who wrote about plants from the Moluccas, Sri Lanka and the Cape Colony of South Africa, waxes elequent about Drosera's hues: 'elegantis purpurei sunt coloris'. This Sundew's flower blossoms 30 cm above a rosette from which spring those pin-sticky leaves that ensnare insects out for Sweets. Once caught, dissolution and digestion are quick upon our little fliers: all in all they're dissolved in about half an hour. You can just see the dark remnants of a small beastie in the lower left hand corner of this photo.
Biogen - The Bygrave Lodge anaerobic digestion (AD) plant opened in May 2015, so almost a year after this photo was taken. The plant still doesn't appear on most maps (including Google) but the latest OS maps on streetmap.co.uk show a "power station".
Hertfordshire GOC's 12 July 2014 walk of 11.5 miles, a circular route in Hertfordshire from Weston via Weston Green End to Bygrave, Wallington, Clothall and back to Weston via Weston Church End. Please check out the other photos from the walk here, or to see my collections, go here. For more information on the Gay Outdoor Club, see www.goc.org.uk.
Llorar a chorros.
Llorar la digestión.
Llorar el sueño.
Llorar ante las puertas y los puertos.
Llorar de amabilidad y de amarillo.
Abrir las canillas,
las compuertas del llanto.
Empaparnos el alma,
la camiseta.
Inundar las veredas y los paseos,
y salvarnos, a nado, de nuestro llanto.
Asistir a los cursos de antropología,
llorando.
Festejar los cumpleaños familiares,
llorando.
Atravesar el África,
llorando.
Llorar como un cacuy,
como un cocodrilo...
si es verdad
que los cacuyes y los cocodrilos
no dejan nunca de llorar.
Llorarlo todo,
pero llorarlo bien.
Llorarlo con la nariz,
con las rodillas.
Llorarlo por el ombligo,
por la boca.
Llorar de amor,
de hastío,
de alegría.
Llorar de frac,
de flato, de flacura.
Llorar improvisando,
de memoria.
¡Llorar todo el insomnio y todo el día!
Oliverio Girondo
"It is more machine than man, I think. Bad for the digestion."
- Dialog between Rinnar and Khem Val, about the Fate of Darth Skotia
After completing the first training under a prejudiced Overseer and freeing the Dashade Khem Val from an ancient Sith Tomb, to now be her companion, Rinnar is taken as an Apprentice by Lord Zash, a female human Sith-Sorceress. Now on Dromund Kaas, Rinnar is tasked with the recovery of certain Sith Artifacts once belonging to Tulak Hord. By her mistress' command she also murders her superior, Darth Skotia, which allows Lord Zash to take his Position and title of Darth.
Please note, that the "Outfit" is made purely with Lego parts, official Lego Stickers, and E-Tape. (Apart from the Headdress and some colour correction).
Next one will be on Nar Shadaa as I didn't get notable changes in equipment on Balmorra (lust a new lightsaber and diferent boots), and therefore the figure would stay the same.
For your health click:
The gorilla is herbivorous and has only one stomach.
Among herbivorous mammals, these two extremes are good examples of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), which digest and consume less than 10% of the cellulose and hemicellulose of bamboo (122) and gorillas can digest 45% to 70% of the cell walls of substances in your herbivorous diet Although gorillas are genetically similar to humans, their digestive systems are completely different, more similar to those of horses. Like horses, gorillas are "large intestine digesters", primarily processing food in their long large intestine rather than in the stomach.
The main organs (in order of function) that make up the digestive system are the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The pancreas, gallbladder, and liver helped them along the way. This is how these organs work together in your digestive system.
Humans and great apes (bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans) share a common intestinal anatomy, including a simple stomach, small intestine, small caecum ending in the appendix, and posterior intestine consisting of the large intestine, rectum, and anal canal.
For more info in video:
rumble.com/vg3ril-mountain-gorilla-is-hurrying-for-bamboo...
rumble.com/vfylh3-happy-gorillas-family-in-social-affairs...
rumble.com/vfxnxb-mountain-silver-back-gorilla-moves.html
rumble.com/vfxniv-rwanda-mountain-gorillas-male-fighting-...
For your health fat burning:
Photographed in Kenya from a safari vehicle
=>Please click twice on the image to view at the largest size<=
I've known about the power of a Spotted Hyena's jaw for some time....but this is the first opportunity I've had to see and photograph the exact reason and results of that bone-crushing as it worked on the picked-clean ribs of this kill. Once the bones are broken down into smaller fragments, they make their way into the hyenas’ stomachs. The stomach of a hyena is equipped with incredibly strong acids that aid in the digestion process and have the ability to dissolve bone matter, allowing the hyenas to extract the essential nutrients.
Thank you for your visit and comments!
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From Wikipedia: The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), also known as the laughing hyena, is a hyena species, currently classed as the sole extant member of the genus Crocuta, native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is listed as being of least concern by the IUCN on account of its widespread range and large numbers estimated between 27,000 and 47,000 individuals. The species is, however, experiencing declines outside of protected areas due to habitat loss and poaching. The species may have originated in Asia, and once ranged throughout Europe for at least one million years until the end of the Late Pleistocene. The spotted hyena is the largest known member of the Hyaenidae, and is further physically distinguished from other species by its vaguely bear-like build, its rounded ears, its less prominent mane, its spotted pelt, its more dual-purposed dentition, its fewer nipples and the presence of a pseudo-penis in the female. It is the only placental mammalian species where females lack an external vaginal opening, having a pseudo-penis instead.
The skull of the spotted hyena differs from that of the striped hyena by its much greater size and narrower sagittal crest. For its size, the spotted hyena has one of the most powerfully built skulls among the Carnivora. The dentition is more dual purposed than that of other modern hyena species, which are mostly scavengers; the upper and lower third premolars are conical bone-crushers, with a third bone-holding cone jutting from the lower fourth premolar. The spotted hyena also has its carnassials situated behind its bone-crushing premolars, the position of which allows it to crush bone with its premolars without blunting the carnassials. Combined with large jaw muscles and a special vaulting to protect the skull against large forces, these characteristics give the spotted hyena a powerful bite which can exert a pressure of 80 kgf/cm2 (1140 lbf/in²), which is 40% more force than a leopard can generate. The jaws of the spotted hyena outmatch those of the brown bear in bone-crushing ability, and free ranging hyenas have been observed to crack open the long bones of giraffes measuring 7 cm in diameter.
The spotted hyena is the most social of the Carnivora in that it has the largest group sizes and most complex social behaviours. Its social organisation is unlike that of any other carnivore, bearing closer resemblance to that of cercopithecine primates (baboons and macaques) with respect to group size, hierarchical structure, and frequency of social interaction among both kin and unrelated group-mates. However, the social system of the spotted hyena is openly competitive rather than cooperative, with access to kills, mating opportunities and the time of dispersal for males depending on the ability to dominate other clan-members. Females provide only for their own cubs rather than assist each other, and males display no paternal care. Spotted hyena society is matriarchal; females are larger than males, and dominate them.
The spotted hyena is a highly successful animal, being the most common large carnivore in Africa. Its success is due in part to its adaptability and opportunism; it is primarily a hunter but may also scavenge, with the capacity to eat and digest skin, bone and other animal waste. In functional terms, the spotted hyena makes the most efficient use of animal matter of all African carnivores. The spotted hyena displays greater plasticity in its hunting and foraging behaviour than other African carnivores; it hunts alone, in small parties of 2–5 individuals or in large groups. During a hunt, spotted hyenas often run through ungulate herds in order to select an individual to attack. Once selected, their prey is chased over a long distance, often several kilometres, at speeds of up to 60 km/h.
The spotted hyena has a long history of interaction with humanity; depictions of the species exist from the Upper Paleolithic period, with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves. The species has a largely negative reputation in both Western culture and African folklore. In the former, the species is mostly regarded as ugly and cowardly, while in the latter, it is viewed as greedy, gluttonous, stupid, and foolish, yet powerful and potentially dangerous. The majority of Western perceptions on the species can be found in the writings of Aristotle and Pliny the Elder, though in relatively unjudgmental form. Explicit, negative judgments occur in the Physiologus, where the animal is depicted as a hermaphrodite and grave-robber. The IUCN's hyena specialist group identifies the spotted hyena's negative reputation as detrimental to the species' continued survival, both in captivity and the wild.
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