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The Thorn Gamma-6 post-top lantern has evolved through some dramatically different variants over the years, and examples of each mark are still to be found in the Uk. This is a third generation series lantern, similar to the small canopied version posted earlier on in the series, but this one is fitted with the larger diameter canopy. This lantern was photographed in Barnsley in 2006, and appears to have been very badly fitted to an old AEI/Thorn aluminium column.
Daystar Accelerator atop SE30 Motherboard, showing how large the replacement axial capacitor I used was. I perhaps should have used a lower voltage cap, which would have made the diameter smaller. Even so, the socketted acclerator did fit while pressing against the capacitor.
The World of Tomorrow
The Trylon and Perisphere were two modernistic structures, together known as the "Theme Center", at the center of the New York World's Fair of 1939-1940. Connected to the 700-foot (210 m) spire-shaped Trylon by what was at the time the world's longest escalator, the Perisphere was a tremendous sphere, 180 feet in diameter. The sphere housed a diorama called "Democracity" which, in keeping with the fair's theme "The World of Tomorrow", depicted a utopian city-of-the-future. Democracity was viewed from above on a moving sidewalk, while a multi-image slide presentation was projected on the interior surface of the sphere. After exiting the Perisphere, visitors descended to ground level on the third element of the Theme Center, the Helicline, a 950-foot-long (290 m) spiral ramp that partially encircled the Perisphere.
The Trylon and Perisphere became the central symbol of the 1939 World's Fair, its image reproduced by the million on a wide range of promotional materials and serving as the fairground's focal point. [1] The United States issued a postage stamp in 1939 depicting the Trylon and Perisphere (pictured).
The Theme Center was designed by architects Wallace Harrison and J. Andre Fouilhoux, with the interior exhibit by Henry Dreyfuss. The structures were built in Flushing Meadows Park in Queens, New York and were intended as temporary with steel framing and plaster board facades. Both buildings were subsequently razed and scrapped after the closing of the fair, their materials to be used in World War II armaments
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939_New_York_World's_Fair
Info from...
Midas
Maurycy Gomulicki 2016
160 cm high, dome diameter 70 cm
wood (beech) covered with gold petals (shlagmetal), acrylic dome, collection of cheep jewellery and other preciosities.
Wooden structure elaborated by Andrzej Bialik
Turned by GAL-DREW
Gilder Krzysztof Michalski
Behind Golden Rain
Wallpaper 7,38 x 14,3 m, golden adeshive foil on black painted wall.
Maurycy Gomulicki 2016
Bogactwo / Money to Burn exhibition
Curators Katarzyna Kołodziej & Magda Komornicka
Zachęta National Gallery, Warsaw Poland, June 2016
26 VIII – 23 X 2016
The 5 foot diameter circular test section and control room of NACA Tunnel No. 1. A Curtiss "Jenny" model can be seen mounted in the test section. Both a real JN4H and a highly accurate model were put through identical tests. The NACA engineers used this data to make the necessary corrections to the wind tunnel.
The Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory was the first facility built by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Langley would be the only NACA test facility until the 1940s and it was home to some of the most advanced research equipment and scientists/engineers during the golden age of aviation development. However, this reputation for excellence had very humble origins, beginning with the dedication of the first federally funded wind tunnel on June 11, 1920. In a wind tunnel, a stationary object is placed in a tube-like structure and wind is created with a fan, providing researchers an opportunity to observe airflow around the object and the aerodynamic forces that act upon it. Wind tunnels are essential to the creation and testing of aircraft, allowing for experiments on designs without posing major risks to the pilots or to the aircraft.
Wind tunnels have been in international use since the 1800s; only a handful of wind tunnels existed in the United States before 1920, including the Wright brothers’ tunnel in Dayton, Ohio. On June 11, 1920, the NACA dedicated its first wind tunnel, the five-foot Atmospheric Wind Tunnel #1 (AWT), in conjunction with the dedication of Langley. Some research had already begun before the dedication, but with the creation of the AWT, the Langley lab was able to begin routine operations and focus its efforts on the field of aeronautics.
When Langley was founded, the United States was far behind Europe in aeronautical technology, and the AWT was constructed as an attempt for American scientists to catch up with their European counterparts. Taking a measured first step, the NACA's first tunnel, the AWT, was built as a replica of an existing ten-year-old British wind tunnel. This dated design was not going to produce cutting edge research results. However, even though the AWT was outdated and did not produce important technological advances, it was nonetheless invaluable in educating Langley researchers about aerodynamic testing methods and analysis techniques. With this experience, Langley researchers were able to create the first pressurized wind tunnel, the Variable Density Tunnel (VDT), in 1923, which which was a radical leap forward in wind tunnel design. The VDT dramatically advanced the study of aerodynamics both in the United States and the world.
Today, the wind tunnels at NASA, including those at Ames and Glenn, vary in size and purpose, and are used to test both air- and spacecraft. The various tunnels simulate the various speeds, airflow and temperatures that distinct aircraft might encounter. Simulated flight speeds can range from below the speed of sound to speeds greater than Mach 5. Though many NASA centers have turned to the digital world to simulate flight conditions, at one point Langley had 23 major wind tunnels, including the National Transonic Facility (NTF), the world’s largest pressurized cryogenic wind tunnel. In the ninety-five years that have passed since the inception of the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, the world has witnessed many great achievements in the field of aeronautics, and the first Atmospheric Wind Tunnel served as the starting point for the American contribution to that progress.
Paraluna by: Christopher Schardt from: Oakland, CA year: 2018
Paraluna combines kinetic sculpture, LEDs and music. Its main component is a disc 10m in diameter with 17,280 LEDs. A computer controls the LEDs while rotating, raising, lowering, and tilting the disc.
Some of the LED patterns work with the rotation of the disk, creating spirals. Others use persistence-of-vision, making an image hover in space above the spinning LEDs. Spokes demonstrates both of these styles: photos.app.goo.gl/DcP9IauNTjRHENUh2
Surrounding the disc are several high-quality speakers that play classical music at comfortable, yet immersive volume, creating a comfortable, peaceful place to be. Patterns are chosen to complement each musical piece, as with Firmament:
Silver. Diameter: 15.7 cm. Elmali. Tumulus D.
Phrygian Period, late 8th -7th centuries BC.
Embossed silver bowl hammered from a single sheet of silver, in an omphalos form with a rosette in the centre. Embossed petals radiating out from this central rosette.
Using a diameter tape to measure diameter at breast height (dbh). Note the way that the tape is calibrated by a factor of pi (3.14) to give diameter in inches.
The Grémio dos Seguradores (Guild of Insurance Companies) was created by decree on the 20th June 1934 by President Óscar Carmona and Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar of the newly formed Estado Novo (1933-1974), of the Second Republic of Portugal.
The Guild was an association of Insurance companies and brokers whose function would have been to regulate the insurance industry within Portugal. As a result of the post-Carnation Revolution (1974) nationalisations that included banks and insurance companies, the Guild was abolished on 21st June 1975. The Guild's functions would thereafter be taken over by the National Insurance Institute of Portugal, which was established on 13th January 1976.
restosdecoleccao.blogspot.com/2014/03/gremio-dos-segurado...
The obverse side of this medal shows an eagle carrying a chain, which was the emblem of the Grémio dos Seguradores. On the reverse side is text enclosed within a wreath reads and which reads FAZ 25 ANOS O GRÉMIO DOS SEGURADORES 19E34-1959.
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Enamels: n/a.
Finish: A dark coloured patination has been applied.
Material: Bronze.
Size: 81mm diameter (3 3/16”).
Process: Cast.
Edge inscription: None.
Sculptor's signature: MAIRO (?).
Weight: 196g
On the banks of the Snake River in Hells Canyon, SE Washington. Photographed on April 26, 2015 for Worldwide Pinhole Photography Day using a Voightlander 116 roll film camera converted to a pinhole. The film is expired mystery 616 film exposed at 12 ISO. The pinhole is 0.5mm diameter, I had it set at about a 135mm focal length which gave me f/270. Semi-Stand developed in Adonal (Rodinal) 1-100 for 1 hour.
The yellow blossoms are only 3/8" in diameter (9.5mm)!
The elongated green buds are only 1/16" in diameter (1.5mm)!!
The small reddish-tipped buds are only 1/32" in diameter (0.7mm)!!!
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The photographs in my set, "Weed Flower Micros," may appear to be close-ups of regular-sized flowers – they are not!
These are micro (macro) photos of tiny little flowers which bloom on ordinary weeds.
How tiny? The largest weed flower in the set is only, when measured across its widest part from petal tip to petal tip, 3/4" in diameter!
Some of these miniscule flowers are so small that the entire blossom you are looking at is 1/4" in diameter…again that’s measuring from petal tip to petal tip across the widest part of the bloom!
The smallest part of a weed flower that I have managed to successfully shoot and achieve good detail in is a photo I made of a bud that measured LESS than 1/16" in diameter across its widest part! For a reference to its size I have also included a photo of that bud next to the head of an ordinary paper match, which dwarfs the bud.
I am delighting in discovering the beauty, complexity, and variety in something so small that it’s easily ignored or downright difficult to see with the naked eye.
And it’s an even greater delight to realize that this incredible beauty has been growing wild in my lawn, year after year, right under my un-seeing eyes as I’ve repeatedly mown them down with my lawn mower, never realizing the unseen beauty that I was trampling under my feet.
I hope you enjoy viewing these as much as I do. I have a lot of fun making them for us to look at!
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See more of these incredible, tiny jewels in my set, "Weed Flower Micros:"
Pisa - Baptisterium und Dom
seen from Leaning Tower
gesehen vom Schiefen Turm
The Pisa Baptistery of St. John (Italian: Battistero di San Giovanni) is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical building in Pisa, Italy. Construction started in 1152 to replace an older baptistery, and when it was completed in 1363, it became the second building, in chronological order, in the Piazza dei Miracoli, near the Duomo di Pisa and the cathedral's free-standing campanile, the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa. The baptistery was designed by Diotisalvi, whose signature can be read on two pillars inside the building, with the date 1153.
Description
The largest baptistery in Italy, it is 54.86 m high, with a diameter of 34.13 m. The Pisa Baptistery is an example of the transition from the Romanesque style to the Gothic style: the lower section is in the Romanesque style, with rounded arches, while the upper sections are in the Gothic style, with pointed wimpergs and a rich figurative program. Like the cathedral and the campanile the Baptistery is built of bichromatic Carrara marble, white with recurring horizontal lines in blueish-grey stone, also used for abstract floral and graphic decoration, a unique trait of some of the most important religious buildings in Tuscany (In the neighboring Florence and Pistoia the dark marmo verde from Prato was used).
The east portal from probably around 1200 is facing the facade of the cathedral. The door is flanked by two columns with foliage decoration, a direct copy of a classical model. Engaged with the portal frame are two smaller three-quarter columns with a simpler, less deep floral ornamentation. The inner jambs between each pair of columns are decorated each with eleven figurative reliefs executed in Byzantine style. On the left there are depictions of the months (with September and October combined in one panel), beginning with January at the bottom. On the right it begins at the top with the Ascension of Christ, then angels, Mary with lifted hands, then the Apostels depicted in pairs looking up, and second to the bottom the Harrowing of Hell; the lowermost relief shows King David. The tripartite form is conveyed in the arch with three retreating archivolts with the Twenty-Four Elders in medaillons and the Lamb as the keystone.
The architrave is divided in two tiers. The upper one is slightly tilted and shows Christ between the Mary and St. John the Baptist, flanked by angels and the evangelists. The lower tier depicts several episodes in the life of St. John the Baptist, the natural patron of the baptistery: his sermon, the baptism of Christ, his imprisonment on behalf of Herod, Salome dances before Herod, his subsequent beheading and his burial. The architraves are probably by the same artists who also did the foiled columns and the reliefs on the jambs.
Only the north portal has also figurative decoration on its architrave, picturing the Annunciation to Zechariah and St. Elizabeth, the parents of St. John, flanked by two prophets and two angels in light armour with swords.
The interior
The interior is overwhelming and lacks decoration. The octagonal font at the centre dates from 1246 and was made by Guido Bigarelli da Como. The bronze sculpture of St. John the Baptist at the centre of the font is a work by Italo Griselli.
The famous pulpit was sculpted between 1255-1260 by Nicola Pisano, father of Giovanni, the artist who produced the pulpit in the Duomo. The scenes on the pulpit, and especially the classical form of the nude Hercules, show Nicola Pisano's qualities as the most important precursor of Italian Renaissance sculpture by reinstating antique representations: surveys of the Italian Renaissance often begin with the year 1260, the year that Nicola Pisano dated this pulpit.
Constructed on the same unstable sand as the tower and cathedral, the Baptistery leans 0.6 degrees toward the cathedral. Originally the shape of the Baptistery, according to the project by Diotisalvi, was different. It was perhaps similar to the church of Holy Sepulchre in Pisa, with its pyramidal roof. After the death of the architect, Nicola Pisano continued the work, changing the style to the more modern Gothic one. Also, an external roof was added giving the shape of a cupola. As a side effect of the two roofs, the pyramidal inner one and the domed external one, the interior is acoustically perfect, making of that space a resonating chamber.
The exterior of the dome is clad with lead sheets on its east side (facing the cathedral) and red tiles on its west side (facing the sea), giving a half grey and half red appearance from the south.
An inscription, currently undeciphered, is located to the left of the door jamb of the Baptistery.
(Wikipedia)
Pisa Cathedral (Italian: Cattedrale Metropolitana Primaziale di Santa Maria Assunta; Duomo di Pisa) is a medieval Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, in the Piazza dei Miracoli in Pisa, Italy, the oldest of the three structures in the plaza followed by the Pisa Baptistry and the Campanile known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The cathedral is a notable example of Romanesque architecture, in particular the style known as Pisan Romanesque. Consecrated in 1118, it is the seat of the Archbishop of Pisa. Construction began in 1063 and was completed in 1092. Additional enlargements and a new facade were built in the 12th century and the roof was replaced after damage from a fire in 1595.
History
Construction on the cathedral began in 1063 (1064 according to the Pisan calendar of the time) by the architect Buscheto, and expenses were paid using the spoils received fighting against the Muslims in Sicily in 1063. It includes various stylistic elements: classical, Lombard-Emilian, Byzantine, and Islamic, drawing upon the international presence of Pisan merchants at that time. In the same year, St. Mark's Basilica began its reconstruction in Venice, evidence of a strong rivalry between the two maritime republics to see which could create the most beautiful and luxurious place of worship.
The church was erected outside Pisa's early medieval walls, to show that Pisa had no fear of being attacked.[citation needed] The chosen area had already been used in the Lombard era as a necropolis and at the beginning of the 11th century a church had been erected here, but never finished, that was to be named Santa Maria.[citation needed] Buscheto's grand new church was initially called Santa Maria Maggiore until it was officially named Santa Maria Assunta.
In 1092 the cathedral was declared primatial church, archbishop Dagobert having been given the title of Primate by Pope Urban II. The cathedral was consecrated in 1118 by Pope Gelasius II, who belonged to the Caetani family which was powerful both in Pisa and in Rome.
In the early 12th century the cathedral was enlarged under the direction of architect Rainaldo, who increased the length of the nave by adding three bays consistent with the original style of Buscheto, enlarged the transept, and planned a new facade which was completed by workers under the direction of the sculptors Guglielmo and Biduino. The exact date of the work is unclear: according to some, the work was done right after the death of Buscheto about the year 1100, though others say it was done closer to 1140. In any case, work was finished in 1180, as documented by the date written on the bronze knockers made by Bonanno Pisano found on the main door.
The structure's present appearance is the result of numerous restoration campaigns that were carried out in different eras. The first radical interventions occurred after the fire of 1595, following which the roof was replaced and sculptors from the workshop of Giambologna, among whom were Gasparo Mola and Pietro Tacca, created the three bronze doors of the facade. In the early 18th century began the redecoration of the inside walls of the cathedral with large paintings, the "quadroni", depicting stories of the blesseds and saints of Pisa. These works were made by the principal artists of the era, and a group of citizens arranged for the special financing of the project. Successive interventions occurred in the 19th century and included both internal and external modifications; among the latter was the removal of the original facade statues (presently in the cathedral museum) and their replacement with copies.
Other notable interventions include: the dismantling of Giovanni Pisano's pulpit between 1599 and 1601 that only in 1926 was reassembled and returned to the cathedral (with some original pieces missing, including the staircase); and the dismantling of the monument to Henry VII made by Lupo di Francesco that was found in front of the door of San Ranieri and later substituted by a simpler, symbolic version.
Description
The original building plan was a Greek cross with a grand cupola at the crossing, but today the plan is a Latin cross with a central nave flanked by two side aisles on each side, with the apse and transepts having three naves. The inside offers a spatial effect similar to that of the great mosques thanks to the use of raised lancet arches, the alternating layers of black and white marble, and the elliptical dome, inspired by the Moors. The presence of two raised matronea in the nave, with their solid, monolithic columns of granite, is a clear sign of Byzantine influence. Buscheto welcomed Islamic and Armenian influence.
Exterior
The rich exterior decoration contains multicolored marble, mosaic, and numerous bronze objects from the spoils of war, among which is the griffin. The arrival of the griffin in Pisa has been attributed to numerous Pisan military victories of the 11th and 12th centuries, including the 1087 Mahdia Campaign and the 1113-1115 Balearic Expedition. The griffin was placed on a platform atop a column rising from the gable above the apse at the east end of the roof, probably as continuation of the original construction that started in 1064. In the early 19th century the original sculpture, which can now be seen in the cathedral museum, was removed from the roof and replaced with a copy. The high arches show Islamic and southern Italian influence.Ref? The blind arches with lozenge shapes recall similar structures in Armenia. The facade of grey and white marble, decorated with colored marble inserts, was built by Master Rainaldo. Above the three doorways are four levels of loggia divided by cornices with marble intarsia, behind which open single, double, and triple windows.
The cathedral was heavily damaged by a fire in 1595. The heavy bronze doors of the façade were newly designed, executed and completed in 1602 by sculptors around Giambologna on the expense of Ferdinando I de' Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany. At the top there is a Madonna and Child and, in the angles, the four evangelists. The tomb of Buscheto is found to the left of the north door of the facade.
Contrary to what might be thought, from the beginning the faithful entered the cathedral through the Gate of Saint Rainerius, found in the south transept of the same name, which faces the bell tower. For townsfolk approaching by via Santa Maria it was the shortest way to enter the cathedral. The door wings were cast about 1180 by Bonanno Pisano, and it is the only door not destroyed in 1595. The 24 bronze reliefs show stories of the New Testament. This bronze portal is one of the first produced in Italy during the Middle Ages, and is a forerunner of the bronze doors created by Andrea Pisano for the Baptistery in Florence (1329–1336).
Of further interest
At the end of the 10th century Pisa established March 25 as the beginning of its new year. This date was considered very important because it is both the Feast of the Annunciation (occurring nine months before Christ's birth on December 25) and it falls very close to the spring equinox. To mark the beginning of the Pisan new year a system was devised in the cathedral whereby a beam of light shines through a round window on the south side of the nave and, precisely at noon on March 25, lands on the same spot every year: on top of a shelf affixed to a pylon on the opposite side of the church. This shelf rests on a marble egg, a symbol of birth and new life. In 1750 the first day of the new year was officially changed to January 1, but this event is still celebrated every year accompanied by solemn religious and civic celebrations.
The lamp at the center of the nave is called Galileo's lamp, because a legend says that the great scientist formulated his theory of isochronism of the pendulum while watching its oscillations from the roof of the nave. The original, however, smaller and very different than this one, is found today in the Camposanto.
On the north side, to the left side of the facade in front of the Camposanto at about eye level, is an original piece of Roman marble (as testified to by its decoration that can still in part be seen), on which are a series of small black marks. Legend says that these marks were left by the devil when he climbed up to the dome attempting to stop its construction, and so they are referred to as the scratches of the devil. (The legend also says that out of spite the number of scratches always changes when counted.)
Legend has it that the amphora placed on a small column on the right side of the apse was used by Christ at the wedding feast of Cana when he turned water into wine.
Pope Gregory VIII is buried in the cathedral.
(Wikipedia)
Der frei auf der Piazza dei Miracoli stehende Bau wurde 1152 von Diotisalvi als Ergänzung zum Dom im romanischen Stil auf kreisförmigem Grundriss nach dem Vorbild der Anastasis Rotunde des Heiligen Grabes in Jerusalem begonnen. Es ist die mit insgesamt 54 Meter Höhe und einem Umfang von 107 Meter größte Taufkirche in der christlichen Geschichte.
Architektur
Nach einem finanziell bedingten Baustopp am Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts wurde die Außenverkleidung erst 1270 von Niccolò Pisano und nach dessen Tod 1278 von seinem Sohn Giovanni Pisano fortgeführt. Während die Fassade der ersten Etage noch mit rundbogigen Blendarkaden im Stil des Doms ausgeführt wurde, gestaltete man die zweite Etage zwar auch mit einer Galerie, wie sie vielstöckig die Domfassade prägt, setzte dieser jedoch gotische Fialen und Ziergiebel, sogenannte Wimperge, aus Maßwerk auf und stattete diese mit einem bis dahin auf Außenwänden seltenen und erstmals so reichen Figurenprogramm aus. Je drei Bögen entsprechen dem Abstand zwischen zwei Säulen der Blendarkade. Wie am Dom liegt dem Kapitellkelch jeweils ein aus der Wand ragender Gebälkblock auf, auf dem wiederum ein kleiner Kämpfer den Brustteil für die kleinen Frauen- und Männerköpfe bildet, die zwischen den Bogenanfängern liegen, 60 an der Zahl und 45–50 cm groß. Die 60 Schlusssteine der Bögen sind mit etwas kleineren Männer- und Tiermasken verziert. Über jeweils zwei Säulen der Galerie stehen die Wimperge, die mit Krabbenkämmen dekoriert und von insgesamt 30 eineinhalb Meter hohen Skulpturen bekrönt werden, 27 ganzfigurigen Heiligen und über dem Hauptportal drei Halbfiguren von Christus, Maria und Johannes dem Täufer. Die Giebel fassen Dreipassbögen auf stilisierten ionischen Säulchen ein, die als Rahmen für die immensen, 160–180 cm großen, Halbfiguren dienen. Die Skulpturen stellen Heilige mit ihren Attributen dar und stehen, wie auch die viergliedrigen Fialen, auf dekorativen Konsolen. Der Stil der Halbfiguren ist heterogen. Zum Teil weisen sie starke klassische Züge auf, andere wirken französisch (speziell Reims). Man ist sich weitestgehend einig, dass die meisten Köpfe von Nicolà Pisano stammen, wenn auch nur teilweise von ihm ausgeführt, so doch zumindest im Entwurf. Auch John Pope-Hennessy sieht Nicolà als Autor mindestens der zentralen großen Halbfiguren der Jungfrau mit Kind, des Johannes und der sich ihm anschließenden vier Evangelisten. Allgemein jedoch werden die Halbfiguren in den Giebeln seinem Sohn Giovanni und dessen Werkstatt zugeschrieben und auf die Zeit datiert, nachdem dieser mit der Arbeit an der Fontana Maggiore in Perugia fertig war, also nach 1278.
Der Bau hat innen einen zweigeschossigen Stützenkranz aus 12 Pfeilern und Säulen, der einen kreuzgratgewölbten Umgang vom Mittelbereich unter der Innenkuppel trennt. Diese Innenkuppel besteht aus einem Kegelstumpf, der zunächst oben offen blieb. Die äußere Segmentkuppel, die die Innenkuppel teils überdeckt, wurde erst 1358 von Cellino di Nese und von Zibellinus, einem Baumeister aus Bologna, errichtet. Dabei fügte man dem Bau ein drittes Außengeschoss hinzu. 1394 schloss man die offene Mitte der alten Kegelkuppel mit einem kleinen Gewölbe, was den Bau auf seine heutige Gesamthöhe brachte.
Auf der Spitze der Kirche steht eine drei Meter hohe Bronzestatue von Johannes dem Täufer, die am Anfang des 15. Jahrhunderts dort befestigt wurde. Das Hauptportal ist von zwei mit Reliefs verzierten Säulen eingerahmt. Zwei Architrave liegen über dem Portal, das obere, leicht geneigte zeigt Jesus flankiert von Maria und Evangelisten alternierend mit Engeln. Der untere gibt Szenen aus der Lebensgeschichte von Johannes dem Täufer wieder. Im Giebelfeld steht eine Kopie der Maria mit Kind von Giovanni Pisano (um 1295).
Ausstattung im Innenraum
In der Mitte des Kirchenraums steht ein achteckiges Taufbecken, das von Guidobono Bigarelli da Como 1246 vollendet wurde. 1929 wurde eine Statue von Johannes dem Täufer durch Italo Griselli hinzugefügt.
Die Marmorkanzel Niccolò Pisanos
Die freistehende Marmorkanzel im Baptisterium stammt von Niccolò Pisano und ist von ihm mit dem Jahr 1260 signiert. Toskanischer Stil vereinigt sich hier erstmalig mit französischer Gotik und antiken Einflüssen aus Süditalien, wo Niccolò vermutlich herkam und am Hof Friedrichs II. mit französischer wie antiker Skulptur vertraut wurde. Die Kanzel gilt mit ihrer Verwendung dieser antiker Vorbilder in der Kunstgeschichte als früher Markstein auf dem Weg zur Renaissance (siehe auch Protorenaissance).
Sieben Säulen tragen das sechseckige Kanzelbecken, auf dem das Lesepult von einem Adler getragen wird. Die Kapitelle sind mit gotischem Blattwerk verziert, drei der Säulen sind verkürzt und werden von naturalistisch gehauenen Löwen getragen, während die Basis der Mittelsäule von grotesken Figuren und Tieren gesäumt wird. An der Brüstung der Kanzel befinden sich fünf Reliefs mit den neutestamentarischen Szenen Maria Verkündung/Geburt Jesu/Verkündung an die Schäfer, Anbetung der heiligen drei Könige, Darstellung im Tempel, Kreuzigung und Jüngstes Gericht. In den Zwickeln sind gepaart Propheten zu sehen, unter der Kreuzigung und dem Jüngsten Gericht sind es Evangelisten. Über den Kapitellen sind die fünf Tugenden und unter dem Pult Johannes der Täufer dargestellt. Die Stärke findet ihr Vorbild in einem nackten Herkules.
Über Treppen kann man sowohl auf den Emporen-Umgang als auch unter das Kuppeldach gelangen. Auf dem Umgang sind Skizzen der größtenteils zerstörten Fresken aus dem Camposanto ausgestellt.
Das Baptisterium hat durch seine zylindrische Bauweise ein besonderes Echoverhalten. Gelegentlich stimmt einer der Wächter mehrere verschiedene Gesangstöne an, die in Kombination miteinander durch das Echo im Gebäude zu einem Klangerlebnis werden.
Wie in vielen mittelalterlichen Sakralgebäuden wird auch im Pisaner Baptisterium der Zahlensymbolik bezüglich der Zahl von Architekturelementen (zum Beispiel Säulen, Stützen usw.) eine besondere Bedeutung beigemessen und ihre Anzahl mit Zahlen, die in der Bibel vorkommen, in Zusammenhang gebracht. Im Baptisterium sind besonders die Vier, die Acht und die Zwölf vertreten.
(Wikipedia)
Der Dom Santa Maria Assunta (italienisch Cattedrale Metropolitana Primaziale di Santa Maria Assunta) ist eine Kirche in Pisa, zu der der weltweit berühmte Schiefe Turm von Pisa gehört. Sie ist die Kathedrale des Erzbistums Pisa.
Der Dom steht auf dem weitläufigen Rasenplatz der Piazza del Duomo, auf dem sich auch die drei dazugehörenden Bauwerke Baptisterium, Camposanto Monumentale und der Campanile („Der Schiefe Turm von Pisa“) befinden. Dieser Platz wurde vom Dichter D’Annunzio als Piazza dei Miracoli (Platz der Wunder) bezeichnet und wird noch heute so genannt. Trotz einer Bauzeit von über 200 Jahren wurde durch den gleichbleibenden Baustoff Carrara-Marmor und die einheitliche Fassadengestaltung ein zusammenhängendes Bild geschaffen. Der Dom wurde zum Vorbild für spätere Dombauten wie z. B. in Florenz und Siena und galt jahrhundertelang als monumentalster Bau der christlichen Geschichte.
Papst Gelasius II. weihte 1118 den damals noch unvollendeten Dom ein. Er trägt das Patrozinium der Himmelfahrt Mariens.
Baugeschichte
Buscheto di Giovanni Giudice begann mit dem Bau des Doms im Jahre 1063 auf dem Schwemmboden vor der alten Stadtmauer. Finanziert wurde das Bauwerk mit den im gleichen Jahr von den Sarazenen vor Palermo eroberten Schätzen. Durch den weichen Untergrund sank auch der Dom im Osten leicht ein. Die kreuzförmige Grundfläche des Doms war zu diesem Zeitpunkt in Italien neu. Über der Vierung der fünfschiffigen Basilika mit dem dreischiffigen Querhaus erhebt sich eine elliptische Kuppel mit einem oktogonalen Ansatz. Sie wurde erst 1380 durch Lupo di Gante und Puccio di Gadduccio im gotischen Stil nachträglich hinzugefügt.
Die Fassade wurde am Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts von Rainaldo geschaffen und wurde als Pisaner Romanik in der gesamten Toskana zum Vorbild. Bei der westlichen Fassade erheben sich über den sieben Blendarkadenbögen im Erdgeschoss mit seinen drei Portalen vier Galerien mit insgesamt 52 Säulen. Auf dem Giebel der 35,5 m breiten und 34,2 m hohen Fassade steht eine Madonna mit Kind von Andrea Pisano. An ihrer Seite stehen Engel, die zusammen mit den beiden Evangelisten auf der ersten Galerie durch Schüler von Giovanni Pisano entstanden. Das mittlere Portal ist dem Leben Marias gewidmet. Im linken Bogen der Fassade ist das Grab des ersten Dombaumeisters Buscheto mit einer antiken Sarkophagspolie und einer langen Huldigung in die Wand eingefasst.
Die drei Bronzetore aus dem 17. Jahrhundert ersetzen die von Bonanno Pisano geschaffenen Tore von 1180, die bei einem schweren Feuer 1595 zerstört wurden. Die neuen Türen mit umfangreichen Reliefszenen wurden bis 1602 durch Schüler Giambolognas, Francavilla, Mocchi und Tacca, in loser Anlehnung an das alte Vorbild gegossen. Die Porta di San Ranieri am südlichen Seitenschiff ist dem Campanile zugewandt. Hier ist das restaurierte Original des Meisters Bonanno Pisano von 1186 noch erhalten. Es ist nach dem Schutzpatron Pisas benannt und stellt u. a. Szenen aus dem Leben Christi dar.
Am gesamten Gebäude findet man vielfach zusammenhanglose Zeichen auf den Außenwänden. Der Grund dafür liegt darin, dass man antike Baumaterialien wiederverwendete oder Materialien aus eroberten Städten holte.
Datierungsprobleme
Im Hinblick auf die Datierung des Baus und die historische Herleitung ihrer einzelnen Bauformen gibt es in der Forschung seit langem unterschiedliche Ansichten. Eine verbreitete Theorie nennt konkrete Zahlen und die Namen verschiedener Baumeister. Andere Kunsthistoriker halten diese Geschichten für bereits im Mittelalter erfundene Legenden.
Nach der ersten Theorie war der Seesieg bei Palermo über die damals im Mittelmeer herrschenden Sarazenen im Jahr 1063 Anlass zum Bau der Gesamtanlage. In Venedig spielten diese sarazenischen Seeräuber ebenfalls eine Rolle. Auch dort war die Abwendung dieser Gefahr Anlass gewesen, den Markusdom neu zu bauen, und zwar im selben Jahr 1063, in dem die Anlage in Pisa möglicherweise begonnen wurde. Auch die Pisaner hatten durch diesen Seesieg reiche Beute gemacht und den Ertrag zur Glorifizierung ihrer Stadt genutzt; Pisa war im 11. Jahrhundert die mächtigste Stadt der Toskana.
Nach der zweiten Ansicht ist lediglich erwiesen, dass im Jahr 1118 die Kathedrale im Bau befindlich war. Das sei das einzige zuverlässige Datum. Man habe damals die eher zufällige Anwesenheit des Papstes Gelasius II. genutzt, um eine angemessene Weihe zu vollziehen. Der Bau musste für diesen Fall schon weit genug fortgeschritten gewesen sein, so dass sich die angesetzten Entstehungszeiten der beiden Theorien nicht wesentlich unterscheiden.
Die Kathedrale gehört zusammen mit dem Markusdom in Venedig zu den ersten Monumentalbauten des mittelalterlichen Italiens. Daher stellt sich die Frage, auf wen die entscheidenden Bauideen zurückgehen. Die Stadt Pisa popularisierte schon sehr früh eine eigene lokalpatriotische Version, die dem Baumeister die gesamte Anlage als geniale, völlig eigenständige Idee zuschrieb, ohne dass fremde Einflüsse eine Rolle spielten. Demzufolge soll der erste Baumeister der Kathedrale Buscheto gewesen sein, über den nur sehr wenig bekannt ist. Vasari berichtet in seinen Vite, "Busketos" sei griechischer Herkunft gewesen – also kein geborener Pisaner. Dies wird mancherorts bestritten und vor allem lokal dadurch unterstrichen, dass man ihn „Buscheto Pisano“ nennt. Belegt ist seine Eigenschaft als Prokurator der Pfarre und als Mitglied der Dombauhütte.
Keine Einigkeit besteht in der Forschung, wer die Idee zu der Kathedrale hatte und was seine stilistischen Vorbilder waren. Pisa hatte – wie Venedig – als Seemacht intensive Handelsbeziehungen im östlichen Mittelmeer. Deshalb liegt es nahe, dass die östliche Baukunst hier Einfluss ausüben konnte. Auf jeden Fall war der Baumeister mit dem byzantinischen Kulturraum vertraut. Seine Baukunst nimmt Anleihen auf bei persischen Moscheen und bei frühchristlichen Kirchen in Armenien und Georgien. Zudem vereint sie Elemente der italienischen Romanik mit Motiven aus der Stadtmauer von Kairouan. Inschriften im Dom belegen die Mitarbeit von Heiden: Türken, Afrikanern, Persern und Chaldäern.
Auch wenn sich die Bauzeit des Pisaner Doms lange hinzog, ist der Gesamteindruck einheitlich. Der ersten Theorie zufolge verlief die weitere Entwicklung folgendermaßen: Vor Fertigstellung des Doms habe der neue Baumeister Rainaldus um 1100 den ursprünglichen Grundriss geändert. Er ließ das Langhaus verlängern, den Obergaden erhöhen – die ursprüngliche Höhe ist noch am Querhaus erkennbar – und das untere Geschoss der Fassade errichten. Vollendet worden soll der Bau bis 1160 durch den Innsbrucker Meister Wilhelm gen. Guglielmus (auch Guilielmus)., der um diese Zeit auch die erste Kanzel für den Dom schuf.
Rechts über dem mittleren Portal der Westfassade sind zwei Inschriften in die Wand eingelassen, deren erste Rainaldo als Bauherrn rühmen. Als demütige Replik folgt ein Bibelzitat aus der Vulgata (Psalm 21, Vers 22):
Hoc opus eximium tam mirum tam pretiosum
Rainaldus prudens operator et ipse magister
constituit mire sollerter et ingeniose
De ore leonis libera me domine et
a cornibus unicornium humilitatem meam
Dieses hervorragende Werk, ebenso wunderbar wie kostspielig,
errichtete Rainald, der kluge Erbauer und selbst [Bau]meister,
in wundervoller, kunstvoller und erfinderischer Weise.
Aus dem Rachen des Löwen befreie mich, o Herr,
und von den Hörnern der Einhörner meine Niedrigkeit.
Bedeutung der Fassade für die Datierung
Die Westfassade des Doms stellt für die abendländische Architekturgeschichte eine entscheidende Neuerung dar, den Übergang von der glatten Wand zur plastisch gestalteten Schaufläche. Daher ist auch die Frage ihrer genauen Datierung wichtig, denn ähnlich gestaltete Fassaden wurden auch andernorts gebaut, etwa in Lucca an der Kathedrale San Martino, dessen Baumeister Guidetto da Como, der auch in Pisa tätig war, auf der Fassade mit dem Datum 1204 verewigt wurde.
Die kritischere zweite Theorie akzeptiert lediglich, dass in der zweiten Hälfte des 12. Jahrhunderts im Westen des Hauptschiffes drei Joche angefügt und die heutige Fassade begonnen wurden. Namen werden in dieser Theorie nicht genannt. Demnach könnte die gesamte Fassade auch erst um 1200 fertig und möglicherweise von Anfang an in ihrer heutigen Form geplant gewesen sein. Andere Schätzungen nehmen sogar erst die Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts an – also hundert Jahre nach dem Datierungszeitraum der ersten Theorie.
Trotzdem spricht viel dafür, dass man zwei verschiedene Phasen in der Entwicklung des Dekorationssystems unterscheiden kann. Die ursprüngliche Konzeption hätte demnach vorgesehen, die Außenmauern im Erdgeschoss durch folgende Elemente zu gliedern: erstens durch Blendbögen, sodann durch waagerechte Streifen aus farbigem Marmor – nach dem Vorbild des Baptisteriums in Florenz – und durch eingelegte Ornamente und Medaillons. Dieses Schema gilt für das ganze Kathedraläußere, an den Seitenwänden auch für die oberen Geschosse. Doch in den über dem Erdgeschoß liegenden Etagen der Westfassade übertraf man diesen Formenreichtum noch um ein Vielfaches. Statt flächiger Aufblendung ließ man in vier Galerien übereinander eine plastische Dekorationsschicht aus Säulen und verzierten Bögen vor der eigentlichen Kirchenmauer deutlich hervortreten.
Legenden
Im Hauptschiff hängt ein bronzener Leuchter von Vincenzo Possenti aus dem Jahre 1587, der Entwurf stammt aber von Giovanni Battista Lorenzi. Es gibt die Geschichte, dass an dem Leuchter Galileo Galilei die Gesetze der Pendelschwingung gefunden haben soll. Sollte es ein Leuchter in dieser Kirche gewesen sein, der ihn auf das Gesetz brachte, kann es allerdings nicht dieser Leuchter gewesen sein, da Galileo Galilei das Gesetz um 1584 veröffentlicht hat.
Zwischen dem nördlichen Seitenschiff und der westlichen Fassade findet man an der Außenwand des Doms an einem Pfeiler einen Stein mit vielen schwarzen Punkten. Von diesem Stein erzählt man sich, dass er vom Teufel sei. Zählt man zweimal hintereinander die Punkte nach, so kommt man jeweils auf ein anderes Ergebnis.
(Wikipedia)
Halo - A Panopticon in Haslingden, Rossendale, Lancashire.
Designed by John Kennedy of LandLab, 'Halo' is an 18m-diameter steel lattice structure supported on a tripod five metres above the ground. The core is open at the top, framing views of the sky. The steelwork has a natural silver appearance, which will temper to matt as the galvanised finish weathers. A unique feature of this Panopticon is that it is lit after dark and glows a sky-blue colour, giving the effect of hovering above the town. The lighting, using low-energy LEDs and powered by an adjacent wind turbine, is designed to minimise light pollution and avoid any disruption to wildlife.
'Halo', positioned to be clearly visible from the M66 and A56 approach to Pennine Lancashire, is one of a small number of iconic artworks to have received funding from the Northern Way as part of its Welcome to the North programme – a unique scheme to install public artworks at key gateways across the North to enhance the image of the region, improve its quality of place and increase tourism and economic growth.
'Halo' is the centrepiece of a wider partnership scheme, led by the REMADE in Lancashire programme, Groundwork and Rossendale Council, which has reclaimed and returned to public use 33 hectares of land including the former landfill site of Top o' Slate and the adjacent Duckworth Clough. REMADE was set up by Lancashire County Council in partnership with the Northwest Regional Development Agency to recover neglected land for uses such as landscaped open space, play areas, new planting, nature reserves, footpaths, cycleways and bridleways.
Should be a good unit for star gazing at the "Reading Under the Stars" events at school, and Astronomy Class.
This riving knife is quite good, as you can adjust its height so that it sits above or below the top of the blade. Sadly, there's no 'lateral' adjustment to alter the distance from the back of the blade, meaning that this saw should only be used with 210mm diameter blades.
Description on card: Blue Hole, Castalia, Ohio
Description on back of card:
CASTALIA BLUE HOLE
Discovered by Robert Rogers, 1760, the most extraordinary Spring in existence. Unknown depth, visible depth 45 feet, and 75 feet in diameter, source of water underground river. Temperature 48 degrees winter and summer. It never freezes and is not affected by floods or drouth. Discharges 5,000 gallons of water every minute. Fish can not live in Blue Hole, as it is absolutely free from air or food. The water is blue in color and extremely clear and supplies water for a brook trout fishing club.
The Blue Hole is a freshwater pond and was a tourist site from the 1920s to 1990 and had 165,000 visitors annually.
Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Hole_(Castalia)
No. in Series: 29
Estimated Date: 1930-1940s
Era: Linen Era
Condition: Unused
Publisher: E.B. Ackley, Sandusky, Ohio; Genuine Curteich-Chicago "C.T. Art-Colortone" postcard, a tradename under Curt Teich Co., Chicago, Illinois.
Publisher Notes:
Eugene B. Ackley (1871-1957) was a popular musician and bandleader in Sandusky, Ohio. Born into a musical family in Illinois, Ackley took up the cornet at 12 becoming one of the best B-flat cornetists in the country. This allowed him to travel the country with different groups. He arrived in Sandusky at age 22 and worked as the director of music at the Cedar Point amusement park and as the instructor of the Sandusky Band and Orchestra. In 1902, he wrote the "Cedar Point March," the first song dedicated to the park.
Other than music, Ackley also ran a successful billiard parlor, published postcards, and served as the chairman of the board of the Western Security Bank.
The photos and images were created by E.B. Ackley, but the cards were printed en masse by the Curt Teich Company in Chicago, Ill., under the trade name, "C.T. Art-Colortone."
Curt Teich emigrated to Chicago in 1895. He had worked as a lithographer in Lobenstein, Germany.
He founded the Curt Teich Company in 1898, concentrating on newspaper and magazine printing. He was an early publisher of postcards, but he didn't begin printing them himself until 1908.
According to MetroPostcard.com, "As his competition dwindled, his sales expanded and his American factories would eventually turn out more postcards than any other in the United States. "
The company was best known for its wide range of advertising and postcards of North America. By the 1920s, it was producing so many postcards with borders that they became recognized as a type dubbed "White Border Cards," creating an "era."
Curt Teich started using offset presses in 1907, but it took a number of years before he had offset presses made to his satisfaction and many more years for him to perfect the method.
His innovations in this printing technique directly led to the production of what we now call "linens" by the early 1930s.
The company aided the war effort during the second world war by also printing many military maps.
Curt Teich eventually turned management of the company over to his son, but he remained active in company operations throughout its history.
Curt Teich died in 1974 and the family business was sold to Regensteiner Publishers who continued to print postcards at the Chicago plant until 1978 when the rights to the company name and processes were sold to the Irish company, John Hinde Ltd. Their California subsidiary now prints postcards under the name John Hinde Curteich, Inc.
Source:
Various diameter slices of stainless steel tubing, 20mm tall for 22.2 quill stems, 1 and 1-1/8" threadless. These will be brazed to M6 x 20mm threaded stainless unions, drilled out to 6mm halfway down to act as a stem clamp. I use a half round file to mate them up to the tubing to increase the silver braze area.
note the diameter sizes differences between the lens and the EF mount (the lens barrel is just 49mm) ---
as to Exakta/Topcon to EOS EF adapter - they are numerous:
www.ebay.com/sch/i.html?_sacat=0&_nkw=exakta+to+EOS+E...
alas, I do not remember any longer which particular one was it - just write to
vendor to ensure whether it will focus at infinity: just ask, and ask, and ask
again = the difference in flange distances between these two mounts is just
a mere 0.7mm !!!
This is probably a 200 yard rapid fire target. I only see 10 .22 caliber holes; offhand would show 22 and there would be pasters. This is a center that was probably pulled because it was "clean". I don't really remember.
Procedure for 200 yard rapid fire: Stand, load and make ready with two rounds in the magazine and an open bolt. When targets appear, drop to sitting position, fire two rounds, reload with another eight rounds and fire. Target will drop after 60 seconds. Target will be scored and raised, shooter and spotter record groups and score.
Paraluna by: Christopher Schardt from: Oakland, CA year: 2018
Paraluna combines kinetic sculpture, LEDs and music. Its main component is a disc 10m in diameter with 17,280 LEDs. A computer controls the LEDs while rotating, raising, lowering, and tilting the disc.
Some of the LED patterns work with the rotation of the disk, creating spirals. Others use persistence-of-vision, making an image hover in space above the spinning LEDs. Spokes demonstrates both of these styles: photos.app.goo.gl/DcP9IauNTjRHENUh2
Surrounding the disc are several high-quality speakers that play classical music at comfortable, yet immersive volume, creating a comfortable, peaceful place to be. Patterns are chosen to complement each musical piece, as with Firmament:
In the Euclidean geometry, squaring the circle is a term that has been used for different types of long-standing mathematical puzzles that were proved impossible later in the 19th century.
Squaring the Circle is used as a symbolic representation in Alchemy, particularly during the 17th century and since has gained a metaphorical meaning, which depicts attempting anything that may seem impossible.
Mathematics and Geometry
According to some of the famous mathematician, squaring the circle is a term which means constructing a perfect circle and the square with the same area as that of the circle.
The trick for doing the same is precision and accuracy using only a compass and straight edge. This particular assembly of drawing may seem simple from the naked eye but it is very difficult to draw when one takes up the initiative.
A lot of emphases has to be laid on the fine details of drawing the square and the circle because both of these figures should have the same area.
The following lines give a glimpse about the fine details which is required for drawing this particular symbol:
First of all, we are not saying that a square of the equal-area does not exist. If the circle has area A, then a square with side square root of. A has the same area. Secondly, we are not saying that it is impossible since it is possible, but not under the restriction of using only a straightedge and compass.
“is the challenge of constructing a square with the same area as a given circle by using only a finite number of steps with a compass and straightedge. More abstractly and more precisely, it may be taken to ask whether specified axioms of Euclidean geometry concerning the existence of lines and circles entail the existence of such a square.”
Quick Read: Theban Alphabets Script, Facts and History
Meaning of Squaring the Circle in Alchemy
The symbol of a circle which is inscribed within a square along with a triangle within a larger circle began to be used somewhere in the 17th century for representing the Alchemy and also the Philosopher’s Stone. This particular stone is considered to be the ultimate goal of Alchemy.
The Philosopher’s Stone, which was sought for various centuries was considered to be an imaginary substance in which various alchemists believed in which had the mind-boggling power of changing any type of metal into precious metals like gold and silver.
Various illustrations are present which include the process of the square in the circle design like the one which is mentioned in Michael Myers’s book Atlanta Fugiens.
This particular book was first published in the year 1617 and narrates the story of a man who is seen using a compass for drawing a circle around another circle which is inscribed within a square along with a triangle.
We can also see that within the smaller circle, a man and a woman are standing who are considered to be the two halves of nature, who are supposedly brought together by the almighty through the process of Alchemy.
Quick read: What are the Magical Alphabets for Pagans?
Philosophical Meaning of Squaring the Circle
The philosophical and spiritual meaning of squaring the circle has been described in various religious books and even in different mathematical books.
In terms of spirituality and philosophy, to square, the circle means to see equally in all the four directions and also to treat everyone with equal respect.
By looking in all the four directions equally, that is, up, down, in and out, it gives a complete and wholesome feeling to the individual and makes his or her mind free and liberated.
The circles are often considered to be the symbolic representation of the spiritual mind because they are considered to be infinite and have no end just like the mind which is considered to be an infinite ocean of thoughts.
The square, on the other hand, is considered to be a symbolic representation of the material because the number of physical things which are present in this world comes in the number of 4 like the four seasons, four directions and also the four physical elements which are air, fire, earth, and water.
All this is mentioned in the ancient Greek philosophers writing Empedocles. One has also mentioned about the solid appearance of this particular symbol in various writings and scriptures.
The union of a woman and a man in the Alchemy is considered to be the merging of the physical and spiritual natures. The triangle is also considered to be a symbol of the resulting union of the body, soul, and the mind of both these individuals.
Somewhere around the 17th century, squaring the circle was not yet been proved impossible by various scholars. But it was considered to be a puzzle which was solved by no one and also the solution for the same was unknown.
The concept of Alchemy was viewed very similarly and related to it because it was considered something which was seen by very few and had never got fully completed.
The study of the concept of Alchemy was believed to be about the journey of the individual to understand the concept of God and also the concept of squaring the circle.
People believe that the study of Alchemy was much more about the journey as the finite goal, as no one in this world would ever be able to able to forge a Philosopher’s Stone.
Quick read: Shirodhara Head Massage Treatment and Benefits
Metaphorical Meaning of Squaring the Circle
It should always be understood that no one has achieved the task of squaring the circle. This explains its use as a metaphor that has the real meaning to attempt to complete a task, which is seemingly impossible to do.
The comparison of such a task is drawn with finding world peace.
Squaring the circle is considered to be different on the metaphor of attempting to fit a square peg into a perfectly round hole, which is considered to be significant of two inherently incompatible things.
Quick read: Curanderismo Beliefs and Healing Levels
Alchemy Symbolism
The symbol of a circle, which is inscribed within a square, which is further inscribed within a triangle and then within a circle started somewhere around the 17th century.
Squaring the circle was considered to be a symbolic representation of the process of Alchemy and also the Philosopher’s Stone which is considered to be the ultimate goal of Alchemy.
A lot of illustrations are present on various online platforms and different types of books about the same. The most famous illustrations present in the famous book of Atlanta Fugiens which was written by Michael Maier in the year 1618.
A lot of people in the world have tried to draw this particular figure but were not able to perform it with complete accuracy and precision.
The circles are believed to be a spiritual representation of the mind. This is because the mind is considered to be something that does not have any boundaries and can think to an infinite extent which is similar to a circle with no endings.
The combination of the figures of the triangle, circle, and square is believed to be a reunion of the mind, body, and soul of an individual which helps in achieving the wisdom and knowledge and remaining on the right track and path in life.
The study of all these figures and Alchemy is believed to be much about the journey of the human being and also the goal that one cannot Forge a Philosopher’s Stone.
Quick read: “Blessed Be” Wiccan Phrase Meaning and Folklore
Conclusion
Squaring the circle is a term that is related to the Euclidian Geometry where a circle is inscribed within a square. Both of these figures have the same area. It is believed to be a theoretical concept that is almost impossible to attain in the practical sense.People Also Ask (FAQs)
What is the origin of Euclidean Geometry?
The Euclidean geometry is believed to be originated from the Greek mathematician Euclid, which he has described in the textbook of geometry. He has deduced several important theorems and propositions from the same which are being used till the present years.
Who is considered to be the father of Geometry?
Euclid, who is also famous all around the world by the name of Euclid of Alexandria is considered to be the father of Math’s and Geometry. His ideas and propositions in the field of math’s are extensively being used from the past many centuries all around the world.
How can we find the area of a square inscribed in a circle?
We can find the area of the square by writing down the side length of the square. The side length of the square is also equal to the diameter of the circle. Half the diameter is the radius, so divide the side length by 2 to get the radius of the circle. Once you know the radius of the circle, find its area.
wikireligions.com/squaring-the-circle/
style is difference
we must ensure that the base vault key and explains why not come so easily in the history of the city, so it is outside the country, it is to be outside its environment, long thought to resist
il faudra veiller à ce que le le socle touche la voûte et explique pourquoi on entre pas si facilement dans l'histoire de la cité , tellement elle est extérieure au pays , elle est comme extérieure à son environnement , pensée pour y résister longtempsLa ville nouvelle[modifier]
Médina d’Essaouira (ancienne Mogador) *
Patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO
Remparts de la médina d'Essaouira
Coordonnées31° 30′ 47″ Nord
9° 46′ 11″ Ouest
Pays Maroc
SubdivisionProvince d'Essaouira
TypeCulturel
Critères(ii) (iv)
Superficie30 ha
Numéro
d’identification753
Zone géographiqueÉtats arabes **
Année d’inscription2001 (25e session)
* Descriptif officiel UNESCO
** Classification géographique UNESCO
modifier
Theodore Cornut, Essaouira, 1767.
En 1764, le sultan Mohammed ben Abdellah décide d'installer à Essaouira sa base navale, d'où les corsaires iront punir les habitants d'Agadir en révolte contre son autorité. Il fait appel à Théodore Cornut, un architecte français à la solde des Britanniques de Gibraltar. Le sultan le reçoit avec tous les honneurs dus à un grand artiste et lui confie la réalisation de la nouvelle ville « au milieu du sable et du vent, là où il n'y avait rien ». Cornut l'Avignonnais, disciple de Vauban, et qui avait été employé par Louis XV à la construction des fortifications du Roussillon, travailla trois ans à édifier le port et la kasbah, dont le plan original est conservé à la Bibliothèque nationale de France à Paris. Il semblerait que la seconde ceinture de remparts et la médina aient été dessinées bien après le départ de Cornut. Le sultan n'avait pas souhaité prolonger leur collaboration, reprochant aux Français d'être trop chers et d'avoir travaillé pour l'ennemi britannique. Avec son plan très régulier, la ville mérite bien son nom actuel d'Es Saouira, qui signifie « la Bien-Dessinée ».
Midas
Maurycy Gomulicki 2016
160 cm high, dome diameter 70 cm
wood (beech) covered with gold petals (shlagmetal), acrylic dome, collection of cheep jewellery and other preciosities.
Wooden structure elaborated by Andrzej Bialik
Turned by GAL-DREW
Gilder Krzysztof Michalski
Behind Golden Rain
Wallpaper 7,38 x 14,3 m, golden adeshive foil on black painted wall.
Maurycy Gomulicki 2016
Bogactwo / Money to Burn exhibition
Curators Katarzyna Kołodziej & Magda Komornicka
Zachęta National Gallery, Warsaw Poland, June 2016
26 VIII – 23 X 2016
Redware plate with yellow slip decoration showing initials "DC" in middle. 3 chips on beaded edge. Wavy lines above and below initials, with a blow out caused by stone in the clay when fired. Norwalk CT origin by Smith and Day Potters, c.1825.
9 1/4" diameter.
Donated by Lewis Scranton
ACC# 97.93
See other porcelain and pottery items in the MHS collection at flic.kr/s/aHskyoEXzH. (Photo credit - Bob Gundersen www.flickr.com/photos/bobphoto51/albums)
Original Caption: "The Giant Dome, largest stalagmite thus far discovered. It is 16 feet in diameter and estimated to be 60 million years old. 'Hall of Giants, Big Room,' Carlsbad Caverns National Park," New Mexico. (vertical orientation)
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 79-AA-W07
From: Series: Ansel Adams Photographs of National Parks and Monuments, compiled 1941 - 1942, documenting the period ca. 1933 – 1942
Created By: Department of the Interior. National Park Service. Branch of Still and Motion Pictures.
Photographer: Adams, Ansel, 1902-1984
Coverage Dates: 1933-1942
Subjects: Parks, Monuments
Persistent URL: arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ExternalIdSearch?id=520029
Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.
For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
Samsung digitaAluminum Flexible Duct
◆Diameters 3” to 29” （75-736mm）
◆Bend Radius 1.5” x 1.D.
◆Lengths 10 M or as to request
◆Compression ratio 1: 0.05
◆Maximum Velocity: 5500 FPM
◆Static Pressure – positive:10 in. WC
◆Temperature Range: -20°F to 250°F
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Paraluna by: Christopher Schardt from: Oakland, CA year: 2018
Paraluna combines kinetic sculpture, LEDs and music. Its main component is a disc 10m in diameter with 17,280 LEDs. A computer controls the LEDs while rotating, raising, lowering, and tilting the disc.
Some of the LED patterns work with the rotation of the disk, creating spirals. Others use persistence-of-vision, making an image hover in space above the spinning LEDs. Spokes demonstrates both of these styles: photos.app.goo.gl/DcP9IauNTjRHENUh2
Surrounding the disc are several high-quality speakers that play classical music at comfortable, yet immersive volume, creating a comfortable, peaceful place to be. Patterns are chosen to complement each musical piece, as with Firmament:
Puget Sound Energy crews install an 8-inch diameter natural gas pipe along Village Green Drive to upgrade the natural gas system serving Mill Creek.
The project will add needed capacity to Puget Sound Energy’s natural gas distribution system. The City of Mill Creek is planning an asphalt overlay that will limit access to make future improvements, which in turn will make any projects very costly for ratepayers and even more disruptive for Mill Creek taxpayers.
S-IC First Stage
The S-IC (pronounced “ess one see”) was the first stage of the American Saturn V rocket. The S-IC stage was built by the Boeing Company. Like the first stages of most rockets, most of its mass of more than 2,000 tons at launch was propellant, in this case RP-1 rocket fuel and liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer. It was 42 meters tall and 10 meters in diameter, and provided 33,000 kN of thrust to get the rocket through the first 61 kilometers of ascent. The stage had five F-1 engines in a quincunx arrangement. The center engine was fixed in position, while the four outer engines could be hydraulically gimballed to control the rocket.
The S-IC was built by the Boeing Company at the Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans, where the Space Shuttle External Tanks would later be built by Lockheed Martin. Most of its mass at launch was propellant, RP-1 fuel with liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. It was 138 feet (42 m) tall and 33 feet (10 m) in diameter, and provided over 7,600,000 pounds-force (34,000 kN) of thrust. The S-IC stage had a dry weight of about 289,000 pounds (131 metric tons) and fully fueled at launch had a total weight of 5,100,000 pounds (2,300 metric tons). It was powered by five Rocketdyne F-1 engines arrayed in a quincunx (five units, with four arranged in a square, and the fifth in the center) The center engine was held in a fixed position, while the four outer engines could be hydraulically turned (gimballed) to steer the rocket. In flight, the center engine was turned off about 26 seconds earlier than the outboard engines to limit acceleration. During launch, the S-IC fired its engines for 168 seconds (ignition occurred about 8.9 seconds before liftoff) and at engine cutoff, the vehicle was at an altitude of about 36 nautical miles (67 km), was downrange about 50 nautical miles (93 km), and was moving about 7,500 feet per second (2,300 m/s).
•General Specifications
oHeight: 42 m (138 ft)
oDiameter: 10 m (33 ft)
oMass: 2,280,000 kg (5,030,000 lb)
oEngines: 5 F-1 engines
oThrust: 33,400 kN (7,500,000 lbf)
oBurn time: 150 s
oFuel: RP-1 and liquid oxygen
Manufacturing
The Boeing Co. was awarded the contract to manufacture the S-IC on December 15, 1961. By this time the general design of the stage had been decided on by the engineers at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). The main place of manufacture was the Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans. Wind tunnel testing took place in Seattle and the machining of the tools needed to build the stages at Wichita, Kansas.
MSFC built the first three test stages (S-IC-T, the S-IC-S, and the S-IC-F) and the first two flight models (S-IC-1 and -2). They were built using tools produced in Wichita.
It took roughly seven to nine months to build the tanks and 14 months to complete a stage. The first stage built by Boeing was S-IC-D, a test model.
Components
The largest and heaviest single component of the S-IC was the thrust structure, with a mass of 21 ton. It was designed to support the thrust of the five engines and redistribute it evenly across the base of the rocket. There were four anchors which held down the rocket as it built thrust. These were among the largest aluminum forgings produced in the U.S. at the time, 4.3 meters long and 816 kilograms in weight. The four stabilizing fins withstood a temperature of 1100 °C.
Above the thrust structure was the fuel tank, containing 770,000 liters of RP-1 fuel. The tank itself had a mass of 11 ton dry and could release 7300 liters per second. Nitrogen was bubbled through the tank before launch to keep the fuel mixed. During flight the fuel was pressurized using helium, that was stored in tanks in the liquid oxygen tank above.
Between the fuel and liquid oxygen tanks was the intertank.
The liquid oxygen tank held 1,305,000 liters of LOX. It raised special issues for the designer. The lines through which the LOX ran to the engine had to be straight and therefore had to pass through the fuel tank. This meant insulating these lines inside a tunnel to stop fuel freezing to the outside and also meant five extra holes in the top of the fuel tank.
Two solid motor retrorockets were located inside each of the four conical engine fairings. At separation of the S-IC from the flight vehicle, the eight retrorockets fired, blowing off removable sections of the fairings forward of the fins, and backing the S-IC away from the flight vehicle as the engines on the S-II stage were ignited.
Stages Built
•S-IC-T
oUse: Static Test Firing
oCurrent Location: Part of Saturn V display at Kennedy Space Center.
•S-IC-S
oUse: Structural load testing (had no engines).
oCurrent Location: Location unknown (last seen at MSFC).
•S-IC-F
oUse: Facilities testing for checking out launch complex assembly buildings and launch equipment.
oCurrent Location: Location unknown.
•S-IC-D
oUse: Ground Test Dynamics Model
oCurrent Location: U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama
o34°42′38.7″N 86°39′24.2″W
•S-IC-1
oUse: Apollo 4
oLaunch Date: November 9, 1967
oNotes: Manufactured by MSFC.
•S-IC-2
oUse: Apollo 6
oLaunch Date: April 4, 1968
oNotes: Manufactured by MSFC; carried TV and cameras on boattail and forward skirt.
•S-IC-3
oUse: Apollo 8
oLaunch Date: December 21, 1968
oCurrent Location: 30°12′N 74°7′W
oNotes: Manufactured by Boeing (as with all subsequent stages); weighed less than previously manufactured units allowing 36 kg more payload.
•S-IC-4
oUse: Apollo 9
oLaunch Date: March 3, 1969
oCurrent Location: 30°11′N 74°14′W
•S-IC-5
oUse: Apollo 10
oLaunch Date: May 18, 1969
oCurrent Location: 30°11′N 74°12′W
oNotes: Last flight for S-IC R&D Instrumentation.
•S-IC-6
oUse: Apollo 11
oLaunch Date: July 16, 1969
oCurrent Location: 30°13′N 74°2′W
oNotes: One or more engines recovered by a team financed by Jeff Bezos.
•S-IC-7
oUse: Apollo 12
oLaunch Date: November 14, 1969
oCurrent Location: 30°16′N 74°54′W
•S-IC-8
oUse: Apollo 13
oLaunch Date: April 11, 1970
oCurrent Location: 30°11′N 74°4′W
•S-IC-9
oUse: Apollo 14
oLaunch Date: January 31, 1971
oCurrent Location: 29°50′N 74°3′W
•S-IC-10
oUse: Apollo 15
oLaunch Date: July 26, 1971
oCurrent Location: 29°42′N 73°39′W
•S-IC-11
oUse: Apollo 16
oLaunch Date: April 16, 1972
oCurrent Location: 30°12′N 74°9′W
•S-IC-12
oUse: Apollo 17
oLaunch Date: December 7, 1972
oCurrent Location: 28°13′N 73°53′W
•S-IC-13
oUse: Skylab 1
oLaunch Date: May 14, 1973
oNotes: Engine shutoff changed to 1-2-2 from 1-4 to lessen loads on Apollo Telescope Mount.
•S-IC-14
oUse: Unused
oCurrent Location: Saturn V display at Johnson Space Center.
oNotes: Scheduled for Apollo 18/19.
•S-IC-15
oUse: Unused
oCurrent Location: On display at Michoud Assembly Facility until June 2016 then preserved at INFINITY Space Center in Mississippi.
oNotes: Designated but never used as a backup Skylab launch vehicle.
Huge thrombolite-stromatolite mass from the Cambrian of Virginia, USA.
This remarkable specimen is a >2 ton, 1.9 meter diameter thrombolite bioherm on public display at the Virginia Museum of Natural History (Martinsville, Virginia, USA). It has a thrombolite core with a pustulose stromatolitic outer layer. It was collected in June 2008.
Stratigraphy: Conococheague Formation, Upper Cambrian.
Locality: Boxley Materials Blue Ridge Quarry, Bedford County, Virginia, USA.
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Stromatolites are large, layered structures built up by mats of cyanobacteria. Stromatolites vary in appearance, ranging from slightly wrinkled horizontal laminations in sedimentary rocks to low mounds to prominent mounds to columnar structures and other forms.
Stromatolites are most common in the Proterozoic fossil record. They are scarce today, but famous modern examples occur at Shark Bay, Western Australia.
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See info. at:
brons
diameter 60 cm
Op de eerste verdieping van het Vlaams Parlementsgebouw is het dagelijks bestuur van het parlement gevestigd. Centraal liggen twee vergaderzalen, de Bureauzaal en de Rik Wouterszaal. Deze laatste doet dienst als ontvangstruimte voor prominente bezoekers uit binnen- en buitenland. Bij bijzondere gelegenheden wordt de middenwand tussen beide zalen opengeschoven om één imposante ruimte te creëren.
In de Bureauzaal hangt het kunstwerk Vlaanderen in de wereld van Hugo Duchateau. In de Rik Wouterszaal kijkt Vlaanderen nog veel verder buiten zijn grenzen, want er bevinden zich drie kunstwerken van Paul Van Hoeydonck, die samen kunnen worden gezien als een uitbeelding van ‘Vlaanderen in het universum’.
Als voor één kunstenaar de stelling geldt dat hij ‘wars van alle kunststromingen zijn eigen weg is blijven bewandelen’, dan is het wel Paul Van Hoeydonck. Meer dan eens kwam hij zelfs regelrecht in aanvaring met de gevestigde kunstscène. Dit kwam vooral doordat de kunstwereld er na de Tweede Wereldoorlog voor terugdeinsde het grote verhaal van zijn tijd uit te beelden, terwijl Paul Van Hoeydonck dat zeer uitdrukkelijk wel verkoos te doen. Dat grote verhaal is volgens hem de ruimtevaart. Van Hoeydonck gaat ervan uit dat historici uit de verre toekomst op de twintigste eeuw zullen terugblikken als de meest cruciale periode in de ontwikkeling van de mensheid, omdat toen de eerste ruimtereizen plaatsvonden. Hij vindt het dan ook ondenkbaar dat daarvan in de kunstgeschiedenis niets terug te vinden zou zijn.
Tijdens zijn artistieke carrière, die hij begon als schilder, heeft Van Hoeydonck zich de meest uiteenlopende assemblage- en beeldhouwtechnieken eigen gemaakt. Meestal gebruikt hij materialen die men met de moderniteit van de ruimtevaart associeert, zoals polyester, aluminium en plexiglas. Maar op het einde van de jaren zeventig raakt hij getroffen door de klassieke schoonheid van brons, een metaal dat de tand des tijds kan trotseren. Juist daardoor leent het zich uitstekend voor de uitbeelding van de oneindigheid van het heelal.
De Planeet in de Rik Wouterszaal is een aan het plafond opgehangen massieve bronzen bol van 350 kg. De gladde uniformiteit van de glanzende oppervlakte wordt doorbroken door uitstekende rails, letterlijke ‘sporen’ van menselijke bedrijvigheid. Het kunstwerk krijgt een tijdloos karakter door de futuristische ruimte-exploratie uit te beelden in een materiaal met een uitgesproken retrokarakter. De bronzen planeet herinnert aan de mechanische afbeeldingen van het zonnestelsel in astronomische klokken. Ook roept hij de 19de-eeuwse sfeer op van SF-pionier Jules Verne. Waarmee Van Hoeydonck aantoont dat de fascinatie voor het buitenaardse van alle tijden is, en zeker in het tijdperk van de ruimtevaart een vanzelfsprekend thema is voor de kunst.
De kunstenaar:
Paul Van Hoeydonck
° Antwerpen, 1925
Woont en werkt in Wijnegem
This clock is 30.6 feet in diameter along the outside edge. The big hand is 9 feet, 4 inches long and the little hand is 7 feet, 4 inches long.
www.cincinnativiews.net/union_terminal.htm
library.cincymuseum.org/uthisthelp.htm
Cincinnati's magnificent art deco style railroad terminal building, now the home of Cincinnati Museum Center, was dedicated on March 31, 1933. Union Terminal was first proposed in the early part of the 20th century as a solution to the chaotic existing railroad system, which consisted of seven lines operating out of five stations. Initial planning began in the early 1900s, but floods, inter-railroad squabbling and World War I delayed the plan until the late 1920s.
New York architects Alfred Fellheimer and Steward Wagner, recognized leaders in the planning of urban railway stations, were hired to design the Union Terminal building. Their first designs were classical in style until Paul Phillipe Cret, a friend of Steward Wagner, was engaged as a consultant and influenced the art deco style of the building. Construction began in August 1929 and was completed March 31, 1933.
Cincinnati Union Terminal stands on a prominent location one mile northwest of the center of the city on land that once was Lincoln Park. Visitors approach the massive, arched, limestone and glass east facade of the building from Western Avenue and Ezzard Charles Drive through a quarter-mile plaza. The building is flanked on either side by curving wings. An illuminated fountain, cascade and pool are in the center foreground. On either side of the main doors, bas-relief figures designed by Maxfield Keck symbolize Commerce and Transportation.
During World War II, Cincinnati Union Terminal experienced unprecedented success. As a major transfer point for soldiers, the station served as many as 20,000 passengers a day. But in the 1950s, the sudden expansion of interstates and airlines led to the rapid decline of the railroad industry. By the early 1970s, only two passenger trains a day passed through Union Terminal, and in 1972, passenger train service was discontinued.
During the mid-1980s, the administrators of the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History and the Cincinnati Historical Society developed plans for a joint museum project. The spaciousness of Union Terminal, coupled with its history and design, made it the top choice as a location for the project. In 1986, Hamilton County voters approved a $33 million bond issue for the restoration of the terminal. The State of Ohio and the City of Cincinnati also contributed to the restoration with grants of $8 million and $3 million, respectively. In addition, more that 3,000 Cincinnati individuals, corporations and foundations also contributed to the building's renovation.
In November 1990, Cincinnati Union Terminal reopened as the Cincinnati Museum Center, an educational and cultural complex featuring the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History, the Cincinnati Historical Society Museum and Library, and the Robert D. Lindner Family OMNIMAX® Theater. On July 29, 1991, passenger train service was officially restored to the terminal. Amtrak, which had been using a small station on River Road as a stop on its Washington, D.C.-Chicago route, moved its service to the renovated Union Terminal.
The Moscow Metro is a metro system serving the Russian capital of Moscow as well as the neighbouring cities of Krasnogorsk, Reutov, Lyubertsy and Kotelniki in Moscow Oblast. Opened in 1935 with one 11-kilometre (6.8 mi) line and 13 stations, it was the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union.
As of 2023, the Moscow Metro, excluding the Moscow Central Circle, the Moscow Central Diameters and the Moscow Monorail, had 294 stations and 514.5 km (319.7 mi) of route length, excluding light rail Monorail, making it the 8th-longest in the world and the longest outside China. It is the third metro system in the world (after Madrid and Beijing), which has two ring lines. The system is mostly underground, with the deepest section 84 metres (276 ft) underground at the Park Pobedy station, one of the world's deepest underground stations. It is the busiest metro system in Europe, the busiest in the world outside Asia, and is considered a tourist attraction in itself.
The Moscow Metro is a world leader in the frequency of train traffic—intervals during peak hours do not exceed 90 seconds. In February 2023, Moscow was the first in the world to reduce the intervals of metro trains to 80 seconds.
Name
The full legal name of the metro has been "Moscow Order of Lenin and Order of the Red Banner of Labor V.I. Lenin Metro" (Московский ордена Ленина и ордена Трудового Красного Знамени метрополитен имени В.И. Ленина) since 1955. This is usually shortened to V.I. Lenin Metro (Метрополитен им. В.И. Ленина). This shorter official name appears on many stations. Although there were proposals to remove Lenin from the official name, it still stands. During the 1990s and 2000s, Lenin's name was excluded from the signage on newly built and reconstructed stations. In 2016, the authorities promised to return the official name of the metro to all the stations' signage.
The first official name of the metro was L. M. Kaganovich Metro (Метрополитен им. Л.М. Кагановича) after Lazar Kaganovich. (see History section). However, when the Metro was awarded the Order of Lenin, it was officially renamed "Moscow Order of Lenin L. M. Kaganovich Metro" (Московский ордена Ленина Метрополитен им. Л. М. Кагановича) in 1947. And when the metro was renamed in 1955, Kaganovich was "given a consolation prize" by renaming the Okhotny Ryad station to "Imeni Kaganovicha". Yet in a matter of only two years, the original Okhotny Ryad name of the station was reinstated.
Logo
The first line of the Moscow Metro was launched in 1935, complete with the first logo, the capital M paired with the text "МЕТРО". There is no accurate information about the author of the logo, so it is often attributed to the architects of the first stations – Samuil Kravets, Ivan Taranov and Nadezhda Bykova. At the opening in 1935, the M letter on the logo had no definite shape.
Today, with at least ten different variations of the shape in use, Moscow Metro still does not have clear brand or logo guidelines. An attempt was made in October 2013 to launch a nationwide brand image competition, only to be closed several hours after its announcement. A similar contest, held independently later that year by the design crowdsourcing company DesignContest, yielded better results, though none were officially accepted by the Metro officials.
Operations
The Moscow Metro, a state-owned enterprise, is 449 km (279 mi) long and consists of 15 lines and 263 stations organized in a spoke-hub distribution paradigm, with the majority of rail lines running radially from the centre of Moscow to the outlying areas. The Koltsevaya Line (line 5) forms a 20-kilometre (12 mi) long circle which enables passenger travel between these diameters, and the new Moscow Central Circle (line 14) and even newer Bolshaya Koltsevaya line (line 11) form a 54-kilometre (34 mi) and 57-kilometre (35 mi) long circles respectively that serve a similar purpose on middle periphery. Most stations and lines are underground, but some lines have at-grade and elevated sections; the Filyovskaya Line, Butovskaya Line and the Central Circle Line are the three lines that are at grade or mostly at grade.
The Moscow Metro uses 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) Russian gauge, like other Russian railways, and an underrunning third rail with a supply of 825 Volts DC, except lines 13 and 14, the former being a monorail, and the latter being directly connected to the mainlines with 3000V DC overhead lines, as is typical. The average distance between stations is 1.7 kilometres (1.1 mi); the shortest (502 metres (1,647 ft) long) section is between Vystavochnaya and Mezhdunarodnaya, and the longest (6.62 kilometres (4.11 mi) long) is between Krylatskoye and Strogino. Long distances between stations have the positive effect of a high cruising speed of 41.7 kilometres per hour (25.9 mph).
The Moscow Metro opens at 05:25 and closes at 01:00. The exact opening time varies at different stations according to the arrival of the first train, but all stations simultaneously close their entrances at 01:00 for maintenance, and so do transfer corridors. The minimum interval between trains is 90 seconds during the morning and evening rush hours.
As of 2017, the system had an average daily ridership of 6.99 million passengers. Peak daily ridership of 9.71 million was recorded on 26 December 2014.
Free Wi-Fi has been available on all lines of the Moscow Metro since 2 December 2014.
Lines
A Moscow Metro train passes through Sokolnicheskaya and Koltsevaya lines. View from the driver's cabin
Each line is identified by a name, an alphanumeric index (usually consisting of just a number, and sometimes a letter suffix), and a colour. The colour assigned to each line for display on maps and signs is its colloquial identifier, except for the nondescript greens and blues assigned to the Bolshaya Koltsevaya, the Zamoskvoretskaya, the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya, and Butovskaya lines (lines, 11, 2, 10, and 12, respectively).[citation needed] The upcoming station is announced by a male voice on inbound trains to the city center (on the Circle line, the clockwise trains), and by a female voice on outbound trains (anti-clockwise trains on the Circle line).
The metro has a connection to the Moscow Monorail, a 4.7-kilometre (2.9 mi), six-station monorail line between Timiryazevskaya and VDNKh which opened in January 2008. Prior to the official opening, the monorail had operated in "excursion mode" since 2004.
Also, from 11 August 1969 to 26 October 2019, the Moscow Metro included Kakhovskaya line 3.3 km long with 3 stations, which closed for a long reconstruction. On 7 December 2021, Kakhovskaya is reopened after reconstruction as part of the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line. The renewed Varshavskaya and Kashirskaya stations reopened as part of the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line, which became fully functional on 1 March 2023. Its new stations included Pechatniki, Nagatinsky Zaton and Klenovy Bulvar.
Renamed lines
Sokolnicheskaya line was previously named Kirovsko-Fruzenskaya
Zamoskvoretskaya line was previously named Gorkovsko-Zamoskvoretskaya.
Filyovskaya line was previously named Arbatsko-Filyovskaya.
Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya line was previously named Zhdanovsko-Krasnopresnenskaya
History
The first plans for a metro system in Moscow date back to the Russian Empire but were postponed by World War I, the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War. In 1923, the Moscow City Council formed the Underground Railway Design Office at the Moscow Board of Urban Railways. It carried out preliminary studies, and by 1928 had developed a project for the first route from Sokolniki to the city centre. At the same time, an offer was made to the German company Siemens Bauunion to submit its own project for the same route. In June 1931, the decision to begin construction of the Moscow Metro was made by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In January 1932 the plan for the first lines was approved, and on 21 March 1933 the Soviet government approved a plan for 10 lines with a total route length of 80 km (50 mi).
The first lines were built using the Moscow general plan designed by Lazar Kaganovich, along with his project managers (notably Ivan M. Kuznetsov and, later, Isaac Y. Segal) in the 1930s–1950s, and the Metro was named after him until 1955 (Metropoliten im. L.M. Kaganovicha). The Moscow Metro construction engineers consulted with their counterparts from the London Underground, the world's oldest metro system, in 1936: British architect Charles Holden and administrator Frank Pick had been working on the station developments of the Piccadilly Line extension, and Soviet delegates to London were impressed by Holden's thoroughly modern redeployment of classical elements and use of high-quality materials for the circular ticket hall of Piccadilly Circus, and so engaged Pick and Holden as advisors to Moscow's metro system. Partly because of this connection, the design of Gants Hill tube station, which was completed in 1947, is reminiscent of a Moscow Metro station. Indeed, Holden's homage to Moscow has been described as a gesture of gratitude for the USSR's helpful role in The Second World War.
Soviet workers did the labour and the art work, but the main engineering designs, routes, and construction plans were handled by specialists recruited from London Underground. The British called for tunnelling instead of the "cut-and-cover" technique, the use of escalators instead of lifts, the routes and the design of the rolling stock. The paranoia of the NKVD was evident when the secret police arrested numerous British engineers for espionage because they gained an in-depth knowledge of the city's physical layout. Engineers for the Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Company (Metrovick) were given a show trial and deported in 1933, ending the role of British business in the USSR.
First four stages of construction
The first line was opened to the public on 15 May 1935 at 07:00 am. It was 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) long and included 13 stations. The day was celebrated as a technological and ideological victory for socialism (and, by extension, Stalinism). An estimated 285,000 people rode the Metro at its debut, and its design was greeted with pride; street celebrations included parades, plays and concerts. The Bolshoi Theatre presented a choral performance by 2,200 Metro workers; 55,000 colored posters (lauding the Metro as the busiest and fastest in the world) and 25,000 copies of "Songs of the Joyous Metro Conquerors" were distributed. The Moscow Metro averaged 47 km/h (29 mph) and had a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). In comparison, New York City Subway trains averaged a slower 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) and had a top speed of 45 miles per hour (72 km/h). While the celebration was an expression of popular joy it was also an effective propaganda display, legitimizing the Metro and declaring it a success.
The initial line connected Sokolniki to Okhotny Ryad then branching to Park Kultury and Smolenskaya. The latter branch was extended westwards to a new station (Kiyevskaya) in March 1937, the first Metro line crossing the Moskva River over the Smolensky Metro Bridge.
The second stage was completed before the war. In March 1938, the Arbatskaya branch was split and extended to the Kurskaya station (now the dark-blue Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line). In September 1938, the Gorkovskaya Line opened between Sokol and Teatralnaya. Here the architecture was based on that of the most popular stations in existence (Krasniye Vorota, Okhotnyi Ryad and Kropotkinskaya); while following the popular art-deco style, it was merged with socialist themes. The first deep-level column station Mayakovskaya was built at the same time.
Building work on the third stage was delayed (but not interrupted) during World War II, and two Metro sections were put into service; Teatralnaya–Avtozavodskaya (three stations, crossing the Moskva River through a deep tunnel) and Kurskaya–Partizanskaya (four stations) were inaugurated in 1943 and 1944 respectively. War motifs replaced socialist visions in the architectural design of these stations. During the Siege of Moscow in the fall and winter of 1941, Metro stations were used as air-raid shelters; the Council of Ministers moved its offices to the Mayakovskaya platforms, where Stalin made public speeches on several occasions. The Chistiye Prudy station was also walled off, and the headquarters of the Air Defence established there.
After the war ended in 1945, construction began on the fourth stage of the Metro, which included the Koltsevaya Line, a deep part of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya line from Ploshchad Revolyutsii to Kievskaya and a surface extension to Pervomaiskaya during the early 1950s. The decoration and design characteristic of the Moscow Metro is considered to have reached its zenith in these stations. The Koltsevaya Line was first planned as a line running under the Garden Ring, a wide avenue encircling the borders of Moscow's city centre. The first part of the line – from Park Kultury to Kurskaya (1950) – follows this avenue. Plans were later changed and the northern part of the ring line runs 1–1.5 kilometres (0.62–0.93 mi) outside the Sadovoye Koltso, thus providing service for seven (out of nine) rail terminals. The next part of the Koltsevaya Line opened in 1952 (Kurskaya–Belorusskaya), and in 1954 the ring line was completed.
Stalinist ideals in Metro's history
When the Metro opened in 1935, it immediately became the centrepiece of the transportation system (as opposed to horse-carried barrows still widely used in 1930s Moscow). It also became the prototype, the vision for future Soviet large-scale technologies. The artwork of the 13 original stations became nationally and internationally famous. For example, the Sverdlov Square subway station featured porcelain bas-reliefs depicting the daily life of the Soviet peoples, and the bas-reliefs at the Dynamo Stadium sports complex glorified sports and physical prowess on the powerful new "Homo Sovieticus" (Soviet man). The metro was touted as the symbol of the new social order – a sort of Communist cathedral of engineering modernity.
The Metro was also iconic for showcasing Socialist Realism in public art. The method was influenced by Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Lenin's favorite 19th-century nihilist, who stated that "art is no useful unless it serves politics". This maxim sums up the reasons why the stations combined aesthetics, technology and ideology: any plan which did not incorporate all three areas cohesively was rejected.
Kaganovich was in charge; he designed the subway so that citizens would absorb the values and ethos of Stalinist civilization as they rode. Without this cohesion, the Metro would not reflect Socialist Realism. If the Metro did not utilize Socialist Realism, it would fail to illustrate Stalinist values and transform Soviet citizens into socialists. Anything less than Socialist Realism's grand artistic complexity would fail to inspire a long-lasting, nationalistic attachment to Stalin's new society.
Socialist Realism was in fact a method, not exactly a style.[31]
Bright future and literal brightness in the Metro of Moscow
The Moscow Metro was one of the USSR's most ambitious architectural projects. The metro's artists and architects worked to design a structure that embodied svet (literally "light", figuratively "radiance" or "brilliance") and svetloe budushchee (a well-lit/radiant/bright future). With their reflective marble walls, high ceilings and grand chandeliers, many Moscow Metro stations have been likened to an "artificial underground sun".
This palatial underground environment reminded Metro users their taxes were spent on materializing bright future; also, the design was useful for demonstrating the extra structural strength of the underground works (as in Metro doubling as bunkers, bomb shelters).
The chief lighting engineer was Abram Damsky, a graduate of the Higher State Art-Technical Institute in Moscow. By 1930 he was a chief designer in Moscow's Elektrosvet Factory, and during World War II was sent to the Metrostroi (Metro Construction) Factory as head of the lighting shop.[33] Damsky recognized the importance of efficiency, as well as the potential for light as an expressive form. His team experimented with different materials (most often cast bronze, aluminum, sheet brass, steel, and milk glass) and methods to optimize the technology. Damsky's discourse on "Lamps and Architecture 1930–1950" describes in detail the epic chandeliers installed in the Taganskaya Station and the Kaluzhskaia station (Oktyabrskaya nowadays, not to be confused with contemporary "Kaluzhskaya" station on line 6). The work of Abram Damsky further publicized these ideas hoping people would associate the party with the idea of bright future.
The Kaluzhskaya Station was designed by the architect [Leonid] Poliakov. Poliakov's decision to base his design on a reinterpretation of Russian classical architecture clearly influenced the concept of the lamps, some of which I planned in collaboration with the architect himself. The shape of the lamps was a torch – the torch of victory, as Polyakov put it... The artistic quality and stylistic unity of all the lamps throughout the station's interior made them perhaps the most successful element of the architectural composition. All were made of cast aluminum decorated in a black and gold anodized coating, a technique which the Metrostroi factory had only just mastered.
The Taganskaia Metro Station on the Ring Line was designed in...quite another style by the architects K.S. Ryzhkov and A. Medvedev... Their subject matter dealt with images of war and victory...The overall effect was one of ceremony ... In the platform halls the blue ceramic bodies of the chandeliers played a more modest role, but still emphasised the overall expressiveness of the lamp.
— Abram Damsky, Lamps and Architecture 1930–1950
Industrialization
Stalin's first five-year plan (1928–1932) facilitated rapid industrialization to build a socialist motherland. The plan was ambitious, seeking to reorient an agrarian society towards industrialism. It was Stalin's fanatical energy, large-scale planning, and resource distribution that kept up the pace of industrialization. The first five-year plan was instrumental in the completion of the Moscow Metro; without industrialization, the Soviet Union would not have had the raw materials necessary for the project. For example, steel was a main component of many subway stations. Before industrialization, it would have been impossible for the Soviet Union to produce enough steel to incorporate it into the metro's design; in addition, a steel shortage would have limited the size of the subway system and its technological advancement.
The Moscow Metro furthered the construction of a socialist Soviet Union because the project accorded with Stalin's second five-year plan. The Second Plan focused on urbanization and the development of social services. The Moscow Metro was necessary to cope with the influx of peasants who migrated to the city during the 1930s; Moscow's population had grown from 2.16 million in 1928 to 3.6 million in 1933. The Metro also bolstered Moscow's shaky infrastructure and its communal services, which hitherto were nearly nonexistent.
Mobilization
The Communist Party had the power to mobilize; because the party was a single source of control, it could focus its resources. The most notable example of mobilization in the Soviet Union occurred during World War II. The country also mobilized in order to complete the Moscow Metro with unprecedented speed. One of the main motivation factors of the mobilization was to overtake the West and prove that a socialist metro could surpass capitalist designs. It was especially important to the Soviet Union that socialism succeed industrially, technologically, and artistically in the 1930s, since capitalism was at a low ebb during the Great Depression.
The person in charge of Metro mobilization was Lazar Kaganovich. A prominent Party member, he assumed control of the project as chief overseer. Kaganovich was nicknamed the "Iron Commissar"; he shared Stalin's fanatical energy, dramatic oratory flare, and ability to keep workers building quickly with threats and punishment. He was determined to realise the Moscow Metro, regardless of cost. Without Kaganovich's managerial ability, the Moscow Metro might have met the same fate as the Palace of the Soviets: failure.
This was a comprehensive mobilization; the project drew resources and workers from the entire Soviet Union. In his article, archeologist Mike O'Mahoney describes the scope of the Metro mobilization:
A specialist workforce had been drawn from many different regions, including miners from the Ukrainian and Siberian coalfields and construction workers from the iron and steel mills of Magnitogorsk, the Dniepr hydroelectric power station, and the Turkestan-Siberian railway... materials used in the construction of the metro included iron from Siberian Kuznetsk, timber from northern Russia, cement from the Volga region and the northern Caucasus, bitumen from Baku, and marble and granite from quarries in Karelia, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Urals, and the Soviet Far East
— Mike O'Mahoney, Archeological Fantasies: Constructing History on the Moscow Metro
Skilled engineers were scarce, and unskilled workers were instrumental to the realization of the metro. The Metrostroi (the organization responsible for the Metro's construction) conducted massive recruitment campaigns. It printed 15,000 copies of Udarnik metrostroia (Metrostroi Shock Worker, its daily newspaper) and 700 other newsletters (some in different languages) to attract unskilled laborers. Kaganovich was closely involved in the recruitment campaign, targeting the Komsomol generation because of its strength and youth.
Later Soviet stations
"Fifth stage" set of stations
The beginning of the Cold War led to the construction of a deep section of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line. The stations on this line were planned as shelters in the event of nuclear war. After finishing the line in 1953 the upper tracks between Ploshchad Revolyutsii and Kiyevskaya were closed, and later reopened in 1958 as a part of the Filyovskaya Line. The stations, too, were supplied with tight gates and life-sustenance systems to function as proper nuclear shelters.
In the further development of the Metro the term "stages" was not used any more, although sometimes the stations opened in 1957–1959 are referred to as the "fifth stage".
During the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s, the architectural extravagance of new Metro stations was decisively rejected on the orders of Nikita Khrushchev. He had a preference for a utilitarian "minimalism"-like approach to design, similar to Brutalism style. The idea behind the rejection was similar to one used to create Khrushchyovkas: cheap yet easily mass-produced buildings. Stations of his era, as well as most 1970s stations, were simple in design and style, with walls covered with identical square ceramic tiles. Even decorations at the Metro stations almost finished at the time of the ban (such as VDNKh and Alexeyevskaya) got their final decors simplified: VDNKh's arcs/portals, for example, got plain green paint to contrast with well-detailed decorations and pannos around them.
A typical layout of the cheap shallow-dug metro station (which quickly became known as Sorokonozhka – "centipede", from early designs with 40 concrete columns in two rows) was developed for all new stations, and the stations were built to look almost identical, differing from each other only in colours of the marble and ceramic tiles. Most stations were built with simpler, cheap technology; this resulted in utilitarian design being flawed in some ways. Some stations such as adjacent Rechnoi Vokzal and Vodny Stadion or sequiential Leninsky Prospect, Akadmicheskaya, Profsoyuznaya and Novye Cheryomushki would have a similar look due to the extensive use of same-sized white or off-white ceramic tiles with hard-to-feel differences.
Walls with cheap ceramic tiles were susceptible to train-related vibration: some tiles would eventually fall off and break. It was not always possible to replace the missing tiles with the ones of the exact color and tone, which eventually led to variegated parts of the walls.
Metro stations of late USSR
The contrasting style gap between the powerfully decorated stations of Moscow's center and the spartan-looking stations of the 1960s was eventually filled. In the mid-1970s the architectural extravagance was partially restored. However, the newer design of shallow "centipede" stations (now with 26 columns, more widely spaced) continued to dominate. For example, Kaluzhskaya "centipede" station from 1974 (adjacent to Novye Cheryomushki station) features non-flat tiles (with 3D effect utilized), and Medvedkovo from 1978 features complex decorations.
1971 station Kitay-Gorod ("Ploshchad Nogina" at the time) features cross-platform interchange (Line 6 and line 7). Although built without "centipede" design or cheap ceramic tiles, the station utilizes near-grayscale selection of colors. It is to note the "southbound" and "northbound" halls of the station have identical look.
Babushkinskaya station from 1978 is a no-column station (similar to Biblioteka Imeni Lenina from 1935). 1983 Chertanovskaya station has resemblance to Kropotkinskaya (from 1935). Some stations, such as the deep-dug Shabolovskaya (1980), have the near-tunnel walls decorated with metal sheets, not tiles. Tyoply Stan features a theme related to the name and the location of the station ("Tyoply Stan" used to literally mean warm area): its walls are covered in brick-colored ribbed panes, which look like radiators).
Downtown area got such stations as Borovitskaya (1986), with uncovered red bricks and gray, concrete-like colors accompanying a single gold-plated decorative pane known as "Tree of peoples' of USSR" or additional station hall for Tretyakovskaya to house cross-platform interchange system between line 6 and line 8. To this day, Tretyakovskaya metro station consists of two contrasting halls: brutalism-like 1971 hall and custom design hall reminiscent of Tretyakovskaya Galereya from 1986.
Post-USSR stations of the modern Russian Federation
Metro stations of the 1990s and 2000s vary in style, but some of the stations seem to have their own themes:
Ulitsa Akademika Yangelya station used to feature thick orange neon lamp-like sodium lights instead of regular white lights.
Park Pobedy, the deepest station of the Moscow Metro, was built in 2003; it features extensive use of dark orange polished granite.
Slavyansky Bulvar station utilizes a plant-inspired theme (similar to "bionic style").
The sleek variant of aforementioned bionic style is somewhat represented in various Line 10 stations.
Sretensky Bulvar station of line 10 is decorated with paintings of nearby memorials and locations.
Strogino station has a theme of huge eye-shaped boundaries for lights; with "eyes" occupying the station's ceiling.
Troparyovo (2014) features trees made of polished metal. The trees hold the station's diamond-shaped lights. The station, however, is noticeably dim-lit.
Delovoy Tsentr (2016, MCC, overground station) has green tint.
Lomonosovsky Prospekt (Line 8A) is decorated with various equations.
Olkhovaya (2019) uses other plant-inspired themes (ольха noun means alder) with autumn/winter inspired colours.
Kosino (2019) uses high-tech style with the addition of thin LED lights.
Some bleak, bland-looking "centipedes" like Akademicheskaya and Yugo-Zapadnaya have undergone renovations in the 21st century (new blue-striped white walls on Akademicheskaya, aqualine glassy, shiny walls on Yugo-Zapadnaya).
Moscow Central Circle urban railway (Line 14)
A new circle metro line in Moscow was relatively quickly made in the 2010s. The Moscow Central Circle line (Line 14) was opened for use in September 2016 by re-purposing and upgrading the Maloe ZheleznoDorozhnoe Kol'tso. A proposal to convert that freight line into a metropolitan railway with frequent passenger service was announced in 2012. The original tracks had been built in pre-revolutionary Moscow decades before the creation of Moscow Metro; the tracks remained in place in one piece as a non-electrified line until the 21st century. Yet the circle route was never abandoned or cut. New track (along the existing one) was laid and all-new stations were built between 2014 and 2016. MCC's stations got such amenities as vending machines and free water closets.
Line 14 is operated by Russian Railways and uses full-sized trains (an idea, somewhat similar to S-Train). The extra resemblance to an S-Train line is, the 1908 line now connects modern northern residential districts to western and southern downtown area, with a station adjacent to Moscow International Business Center.
There is a noticeable relief of congestion, decrease in usage of formerly overcrowded Koltsevaya line since the introduction of MCC. To make line 14 attractive to frequent Koltsevaya line interchanges users, upgrades over regular comfort of Moscow Metro were made. Use of small laptops/portable video playing devices and food consumption from tupperwares and tubs was also improved for Line 14: the trains have small folding tables in the back of nearly every seat, while the seats are facing one direction like in planes or intercity buses - unlike side-against-side sofas typical for Metro.
Unlike MCD lines (D1, D2 etc.) MCC line accepts "unified" tickets and "Troika" cards just like Moscow Metro and buses of Moscow do. Free transfers are permitted between the MCC and the Moscow Metro if the trip before the transfer is less than 90 minutes. It's made possible by using same "Ediny", literally "unified" tickets instead of printing "paper tickets" used at railroads.
To interchange to line 14 for free, passenger must keep their freshly used ticket after entering Moscow Metro to apply it upon entering any line 14 station (and vice versa, keep their "fresh" ticket to enter underground Metro line after leaving Line 14 for an interchange).
MCD (D lines)
In 2019, new lines of Russian Railways got included in the map of Metro as "line D1" and "line D2". Unlike Line 14, the MCD lines actually form S-Train lines, bypassing the "vokzals", terminus stations of respective intercity railways. Line D3 is planned to be launched in August 2023, while D4 will be launched in September of that year. The schedule for the development of the infrastructure of the Central Transport Hub in 2023 was signed by the Moscow Mayor Sergei Sobyanin and the head of Russian Railways Oleg Belozerov in December 2022.
As for the fees, MCD accepts Moscow's "Troika" cards. Also, every MCD station has printers which print "station X – station Y" tickets on paper. Users of the D lines must keep their tickets until exiting their destination stations: their exit terminals require a valid "... to station Y" ticket's barcode.
Big Circle Line (line 11)
After upgrading the railway from 1908 to a proper Metro line, the development of another circle route was re-launched, now adjusted for the pear-shaped circle route of line #14.
Throughout the late 2010s, Line 11 was extended from short, tiny Kakhovskaya line to a half-circle (from Kakhovskaya to Savyolovskaya). In early 2023, the circle was finished.
Similarly made Shelepikha, Khoroshovskaya, CSKA and Petrovsky Park stations have lots of polished granite and shiny surfaces, in contrast to Soviet "centipedes". Throughout 2018–2021, these stations were connected to line 8A.
Narodnoye Opolcheniye (2021) features lots of straight edges and linear decorations (such as uninterrupted "three stripes" style of the ceiling lights and rectangular columns).
As for the spring of 2023, the whole circle route line is up and running, forming a circle stretching to the southern near-MKAD residential parts of the city (Prospekt Vernadskogo, Tekstilshchiki) as opposed to the MCC's stretching towards the northern districts of Moscow. In other words, it "mirrors" Line 14 rather than forming a perfect circle around the city centre. While being 70 km long, the line is now the longest subway line in the world, 13 kilometres ahead of the previous record holder - the line 10 of Beijing Subway.
Expansions
GIF-animated scheme of Moscow Metro growth (1935-2019)
Since the turn of the 2nd millennium several projects have been completed, and more are underway. The first was the Annino-Butovo extension, which extended the Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya Line from Prazhskaya to Ulitsa Akademika Yangelya in 2000, Annino in 2001 and Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo in 2002. Its continuation, an elevated Butovskaya Line, was inaugurated in 2003. Vorobyovy Gory station, which initially opened in 1959 and was forced to close in 1983 after the concrete used to build the bridge was found to be defective, was rebuilt and reopened after many years in 2002. Another recent project included building a branch off the Filyovskaya Line to the Moscow International Business Center. This included Vystavochnaya (opened in 2005) and Mezhdunarodnaya (opened in 2006).
The Strogino–Mitino extension began with Park Pobedy in 2003. Its first stations (an expanded Kuntsevskaya and Strogino) opened in January 2008, and Slavyansky Bulvar followed in September. Myakinino, Volokolamskaya and Mitino opened in December 2009. Myakinino station was built by a state-private financial partnership, unique in Moscow Metro history. A new terminus, Pyatnitskoye Shosse, was completed in December 2012.
After many years of construction, the long-awaited Lyublinskaya Line extension was inaugurated with Trubnaya in August 2007 and Sretensky Bulvar in December of that year. In June 2010, it was extended northwards with the Dostoyevskaya and Maryina Roscha stations. In December 2011, the Lyublinskaya Line was expanded southwards by three stations and connected to the Zamoskvoretskaya Line, with the Alma-Atinskaya station opening on the latter in December 2012. The Kalininskaya Line was extended past the Moscow Ring Road in August 2012 with Novokosino station.
In 2011, works began on the Third Interchange Contour that is set to take the pressure off the Koltsevaya Line. Eventually the new line will attain a shape of the second ring with connections to all lines (except Koltsevaya and Butovskaya).
In 2013, the Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line was extended after several delays to the south-eastern districts of Moscow outside the Ring Road with the opening of Zhulebino and Lermontovsky Prospekt stations. Originally scheduled for 2013, a new segment of the Kalininskaya Line between Park Pobedy and Delovoy Tsentr (separate from the main part) was opened in January 2014, while the underground extension of Butovskaya Line northwards to offer a transfer to the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya Line was completed in February. Spartak, a station on the Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line that remained unfinished for forty years, was finally opened in August 2014. The first stage of the southern extension of the Sokolnicheskaya Line, the Troparyovo station, opened in December 2014.
Current plans
In addition to major metro expansion the Moscow Government and Russian Railways plans to upgrade more commuter railways to a metro-style service, similar to the MCC. New tracks and stations are planned to be built in order to achieve this.
Stations
The deep stations comprise 55 triple-vaulted pylon stations, 19 triple-vaulted column stations, and one single-vault station. The shallow stations comprise 79 spanned column stations (a large portion of them following the "centipede" design), 33 single-vaulted stations (Kharkov technology), and four single-spanned stations. In addition, there are 12 ground-level stations, four elevated stations, and one station (Vorobyovy Gory) on a bridge. Two stations have three tracks, and one has double halls. Seven of the stations have side platforms (only one of which is subterranean). In addition, there were two temporary stations within rail yards.
The stations being constructed under Stalin's regime, in the style of socialist classicism, were meant as underground "palaces of the people". Stations such as Komsomolskaya, Kiyevskaya or Mayakovskaya and others built after 1935 in the second phase of the evolution of the network are tourist landmarks: their photogenic architecture, large chandeliers and detailed decoration are unusual for an urban transport system of the twentieth century.
The stations opened in the 21st century are influenced by an international and more neutral style with improved technical quality.
Rolling stock
Since the beginning, platforms have been at least 155 metres (509 ft) long to accommodate eight-car trains. The only exceptions are on the Filyovskaya Line: Vystavochnaya, Mezhdunarodnaya, Studencheskaya, Kutuzovskaya, Fili, Bagrationovskaya, Filyovsky Park and Pionerskaya, which only allows six-car trains (note that this list includes all ground-level stations on the line, except Kuntsevskaya, which allows normal length trains).
Trains on the Zamoskvoretskaya, Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya, Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya, Kalininskaya, Solntsevskaya, Bolshaya Koltsevaya, Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya, Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya and Nekrasovskaya lines have eight cars, on the Sokolnicheskaya line seven or eight cars, on the original Koltsevaya line seven cars, and on the Filyovskaya line six cars. The Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya line also once ran seven-car 81-717 size trains, but now use five-car trains of another type. Butovskaya line uses three-car trains of another type.
Dimensions have varied subtly, but for the most cars fit into the ranges of 19–20 metres (62 ft 4 in – 65 ft 7 in) long and 2.65–2.7 metres (8 ft 8+3⁄8 in – 8 ft 10+1⁄4 in) wide with 4 doors per side. The 81-740/741 Rusich deviates greatly from this, with a 3-car Rusich being roughly 4 normal cars and a 5-car Rusich being 7 normal cars.
Trains in operation
Currently, the Metro only operates 81-style trains.
Rolling stock on several lines was replaced with articulated 81-740/741 Rusich trains, which were originally designed for light rail subway lines. The Butovskaya Line was designed by different standards, and has shorter (96-metre (315 ft) long) platforms. It employs articulated 81-740/741 trains, which consist of three cars (although the line can also use traditional four-car trains).
On the Moscow Monorail, Intamin P30 trains are used, consisting of six short cars. On the Moscow Central Circle, which is a route on the conventional railway line, ES2G Lastochka trains are used, consisting of five cars.
Ticketing
Moscow Metro underground has neither "point A – point B" tariffs nor "zone" tariffs. Instead, it has a fee for a "ride", e.g. for a single-time entry without time or range limit. The exceptions "only confirm the rule": the "diameters" (Dx lines) and the Moscow Central Circle (Line 14) are Russian Railways' lines hence the shared yet not unified tariff system.
As for October 2021, one ride costs 60 rubles (approx. 1 US dollar). Discounts (up to 33%) for individual rides are available upon buying rides "in bulk" (buying multiple-trip tickets (such as twenty-trip or sixty-trip ones)), and children under age seven can travel free (with their parents). Troika "wallet" (a card, similar to Japanese Suica card) also offers some discounts for using the card instead of queueing a line for a ticket. "Rides" on the tickets available for a fixed number of trips, regardless of distance traveled or number of transfers.
An exception in case of MCC e.g. Line 14: for a free interchange, one should interchange to it/from it within 90 minutes after entering the Metro. However, one can ride it for hours and use its amenities without leaving it.
There are tickets without "rides" as well: – a 24-hour "unified" ticket (265 rub in 2022), a 72-hour ticket, a month-long ticket, and a year-long ticket.
Fare enforcement takes place at the points of entry. Once a passenger has entered the Metro system, there are no further ticket checks – one can ride to any number of stations and make transfers within the system freely. Transfers to other public-transport systems (such as bus, tram, trolleybus/"electrobus") are not covered by the very ride used to enter Metro. Transfer to monorail and MCC is a free addition to the ride (available up to 90 minutes after entering a metro station).
In modern Metro, turnstiles accept designated plastic cards ("Troika", "social cards") or disposable-in-design RFID chip cardboard cards. Unlimited cards are also available for students at reduced price (as of 2017, 415 rubles—or about $US6—for a calendar month of unlimited usage) for a one-time cost of 70 rubles. Transport Cards impose a delay for each consecutive use; i.e. the card can not be used for 7 minutes after the user has passed a turnstile.
History of smart ticketing
Soviet era turnstiles simply accepted N kopeck coins.
In the early years of Russian Federation (and with the start of a hyperinflation) plastic tokens were used. Disposable magnetic stripe cards were introduced in 1993 on a trial basis, and used as unlimited monthly tickets between 1996 and 1998. The sale of tokens ended on 1 January 1999, and they stopped being accepted in February 1999; from that time, magnetic cards were used as tickets with a fixed number of rides.
On 1 September 1998, the Moscow Metro became the first metro system in Europe to fully implement "contactless" smart cards, known as Transport Cards. Transport Cards were the card to have unlimited amount of trips for 30, 90 or 365 days, its active lifetime was projected as 3½ years. Defective cards were to be exchanged at no extra cost.
In August 2004, the city government launched the Muscovite's Social Card program. Social Cards are free smart cards issued for the elderly and other groups of citizens officially registered as residents of Moscow or the Moscow region; they offer discounts in shops and pharmacies, and double as credit cards issued by the Bank of Moscow. Social Cards can be used for unlimited free access to the city's public-transport system, including the Moscow Metro; while they do not feature the time delay, they include a photograph and are non-transferable.
Since 2006, several banks have issued credit cards which double as Ultralight cards and are accepted at turnstiles. The fare is passed to the bank and the payment is withdrawn from the owner's bank account at the end of the calendar month, using a discount rate based on the number of trips that month (for up to 70 trips, the cost of each trip is prorated from current Ultralight rates; each additional trip costs 24.14 rubles). Partner banks include the Bank of Moscow, CitiBank, Rosbank, Alfa-Bank and Avangard Bank.
In January 2007, Moscow Metro began replacing limited magnetic cards with contactless disposable tickets based on NXP's MIFARE Ultralight technology. Ultralight tickets are available for a fixed number of trips in 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 60-trip denominations (valid for 5 or 90 days from the day of purchase) and as a monthly ticket, only valid for a selected calendar month and limited to 70 trips. The sale of magnetic cards ended on 16 January 2008 and magnetic cards ceased to be accepted in late 2008, making the Moscow metro the world's first major public-transport system to run exclusively on a contactless automatic fare-collection system.
On 2 April 2013, Moscow Transport Department introduced a smartcard-based transport electronic wallet, named Troika. Three more smart cards have been launched:
Ediniy's RFID-chip card, a "disposable"-design cardboard card for all city-owned public transport operated by Mosgortrans and Moscow Metro;
90 minutes card, an unlimited "90-minute" card
and TAT card for surface public transport operated by Mosgortrans.
One can "record" N-ride Ediniy ticket on Troika card as well in order to avoid carrying the easily frayed cardboard card of Ediniy for weeks (e.g. to use Troika's advanced chip). The turnstiles of Moscow Metro have monochrome screens which show such data as "money left" (if Troika is used as a "wallet"), "valid till DD.MM.YYYY" (if a social card is used) or "rides left" (if Ediniy tariff ticket is used).
Along with the tickets, new vending machines were built to sell tickets (1 or 2 rides) and put payments on Troika cards. At that time, the machines were not accepting contactless pay. The same machines now have tiny terminals with keypads for contactless payments (allowing quick payment for Troika card).
In 2013, as a way to promote both the "Olympic Games in Sochi and active lifestyles, Moscow Metro installed a vending machine that gives commuters a free ticket in exchange for doing 30 squats."
Since the first quarter of 2015, all ticket windows (not turnstiles) at stations accept bank cards for fare payment. Passengers are also able to pay for tickets via contactless payment systems, such as PayPass technology. Since 2015, fare gates at stations accept mobile ticketing via a system which the Metro calls Mobilny Bilet (Мобильный билет) which requires NFC-handling smartphone (and a proper SIM-card). The pricing is the same as Troika's. Customers are able to use Mobile Ticket on Moscow's surface transport. The Moscow Metro originally announced plans to launch the mobile ticketing service with Mobile TeleSystems (MTS) in 2010.
In October 2021, the Moscow Metro became the first metro system in the world to offer Face-Pay to their customers. In order to use this system, passengers will need to connect their photo, bank card and metro card to the service through the metro’s mobile app. For this purpose, the metro authorities plan to equip over 900 turnstiles in over 240 stations with biometric scanners. This enables passengers to pay for their ride without taking out their phone, metro or bank card and therefore increasing passenger flow at the station entrances. In 2022, Face-Pay was used over 32 million times over the course of the year.
Notable incidents
1977 bombing
On 8 January 1977, a bomb was reported to have killed 7 and seriously injured 33. It went off in a crowded train between Izmaylovskaya and Pervomayskaya stations. Three Armenians were later arrested, charged and executed in connection with the incident.
1981 station fires
In June 1981, seven bodies were seen being removed from the Oktyabrskaya station during a fire there. A fire was also reported at Prospekt Mira station about that time.
1982 escalator accident
Escalator accident in 1982
A fatal accident occurred on 17 February 1982 due to an escalator collapse at the Aviamotornaya station on the Kalininskaya Line. Eight people were killed and 30 injured due to a pileup caused by faulty emergency brakes.
1996 murder
In 1996, an American-Russian businessman Paul Tatum was murdered at the Kiyevskaya Metro station. He was shot dead by a man carrying a concealed Kalashnikov gun.
2000 bombings
On 8 August 2000, a strong blast in a Metro underpass at Pushkinskaya metro station in the center of Moscow claimed the lives of 12, with 150 injured. A homemade bomb equivalent to 800 grams of TNT had been left in a bag near a kiosk.
2004 bombings
August 2004 Moscow Metro bombing
On 6 February 2004, an explosion wrecked a train between the Avtozavodskaya and Paveletskaya stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya Line, killing 41 and wounding over 100. Chechen terrorists were blamed. A later investigation concluded that a Karachay-Cherkessian resident had carried out a suicide bombing. The same group organized another attack on 31 August 2004, killing 10 and injuring more than 50 others.
2005 Moscow blackout
On 25 May 2005, a citywide blackout halted operation on some lines. The following lines, however, continued operations: Sokolnicheskaya, Zamoskvoretskaya from Avtozavodskaya to Rechnoy Vokzal, Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya, Filyovskaya, Koltsevaya, Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya from Bitsevskiy Park to Oktyabrskaya-Radialnaya and from Prospekt Mira-Radialnaya to Medvedkovo, Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya, Kalininskaya, Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya from Serpukhovskaya to Altufyevo and Lyublinskaya from Chkalovskaya to Dubrovka. There was no service on the Kakhovskaya and Butovskaya lines. The blackout severely affected the Zamoskvoretskaya and Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya lines, where initially all service was disrupted because of trains halted in tunnels in the southern part of city (most affected by the blackout). Later, limited service resumed and passengers stranded in tunnels were evacuated. Some lines were only slightly impacted by the blackout, which mainly affected southern Moscow; the north, east and western parts of the city experienced little or no disruption.
2006 billboard incident
On 19 March 2006, a construction pile from an unauthorized billboard installation was driven through a tunnel roof, hitting a train between the Sokol and Voikovskaya stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya Line. No injuries were reported.
2010 bombing
On 29 March 2010, two bombs exploded on the Sokolnicheskaya Line, killing 40 and injuring 102 others. The first bomb went off at the Lubyanka station on the Sokolnicheskaya Line at 7:56, during the morning rush hour. At least 26 were killed in the first explosion, of which 14 were in the rail car where it took place. A second explosion occurred at the Park Kultury station at 8:38, roughly forty minutes after the first one. Fourteen people were killed in that blast. The Caucasus Emirate later claimed responsibility for the bombings.
2014 pile incident
On 25 January 2014, at 15:37 a construction pile from a Moscow Central Circle construction site was driven through a tunnel roof between Avtozavodskaya and Kolomenskaya stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya Line. The train operator applied emergency brakes, and the train did not crash into the pile. Passengers were evacuated from the tunnel, with no injures reported. The normal line operation resumed the same day at 19:50.
2014 derailment
On 15 July 2014, a train derailed between Park Pobedy and Slavyansky Bulvar on the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line, killing 24 people and injuring dozens more.
Metro-2
Main article: Metro-2
Conspiracy theorists have claimed that a second and deeper metro system code-named "D-6", designed for emergency evacuation of key city personnel in case of nuclear attack during the Cold War, exists under military jurisdiction. It is believed that it consists of a single track connecting the Kremlin, chief HQ (General Staff –Genshtab), Lubyanka (FSB Headquarters), the Ministry of Defense and several other secret installations. There are alleged to be entrances to the system from several civilian buildings, such as the Russian State Library, Moscow State University (MSU) and at least two stations of the regular Metro. It is speculated that these would allow for the evacuation of a small number of randomly chosen civilians, in addition to most of the elite military personnel. A suspected junction between the secret system and the regular Metro is supposedly behind the Sportivnaya station on the Sokolnicheskaya Line. The final section of this system was supposedly completed in 1997.
In popular culture
The Moscow Metro is the central location and namesake for the Metro series, where during a nuclear war, Moscow's inhabitants are driven down into the Moscow Metro, which has been designed as a fallout shelter, with the various stations being turned into makeshift settlements.
In 2012, an art film was released about a catastrophe in the Moscow underground.
Three 2-inch diameter hoses lead into a 10,000 gallon freestanding water tank, or "pumpkin," which serves as a holding tank. One 4-inch diameter hose draws water away to the portable retardant mixing plant as needed. The water was supplied by the National Elk Refuge's irrigation system.
A Sikorsky S-64E, also called a Skycrane, can be seen drawing retardant from a dip tank in the background.
Credit: Lori Iverson / USFWS
Photo of EPA diver Bruce Duncan measuring the Wyckoff Superfund Site groundwater treatment plant outfall diameter to report back to the project manager. EPA divers also conducted sampling of sediment near the outfall to determine if low level contaminants would pose a hazard to humans or aquatic life. Photo by Sean Sheldrake, EPA. For more information about the EPA Region 10 Dive Team, visit: www.epa.gov/region10/dive and www.facebook.com/EPADivers
For more details on these dives, see: www.epa.gov/region10/pdf/diveteam/wyckoff_superfund_site_...
Sorteren van Hubelino knikker ballen met een diameter van 24.5mm. Er wordt gebruik gemaakt van Fischertechnik bouwstenen. Een kleur sensor module (TCS34725) wordt aangestuurd via een I2C verbinding op de TXT Controller. Er zijn 4 kleuren beschikbaar. De start gebeurd automatisch via de lichtmeting van de sensor. Die detecteerd of er een bal aanwezig is. Met 3 XM-motoren worden de ballen volgens het kleur gerangschikt.
Youtube video: youtu.be/PbRfnA8OB14
UA 1926.72.A1: Indian Head Cent, 1881
One Indian Head Cent, Bronze, minted in 1881. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 3/4 in. (19 mm) diameter. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A01
1926.72.A2: Indian Head Penny, 1861
One Indian Head Cent, 88% Copper, minted in 1861. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 3/4 in. (19mm) diameter. The coin is in good condition with some oxidation visible near the edges of the coin. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A02
1926.72.A3: Indian Head Penny, 1862
One Indian Head Cent, copper, minted in 1862. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 3/4 in. (19mm) diameter. The coin is in good condition with little oxidation. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A03
1926.72.A4: Indian Head Penny, 1863
One Indian Head Cent, Copper, 19mm Diameter, minted in 1863. The coin is well-worn and features some minor oxidation. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A04
1926.72.A5: Indian Head Penny, 1863
One Indian Head Cent, Copper, minted in 1863. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 3/4" diameter. The coin is in worn condition. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A05
1926.72.A7: Indian Head Penny, 1871
One Indian Head Cent, Bronze, minted in 1871. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 19mm diameter. The coin is in worn codition and is highly oxidated. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A07
1926.72.A8: Indian Head Penny, 1884
One Indian Head Cent, Bronze, minted in 1884. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 19mm diameter. The coin is in worn condition with some oxidation. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A08
1926.72.A9: Indian Head Penny, 1896
One Indian Head Cent, Bronze, minted in 1896. The coin features the typical front with Lady Liberty in a feathered headdress; and the reverse features an oak and laurel wreath with the words "ONE CENT" within. 19mm diameter. The coin is in good condition with some oxidation.Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A09
1926.72.10: Lincoln Wheat Cent, 1912
One Lincoln Wheat Cent, minted in 1912. Copper, tin, and zinc. The coin featuers a bust of President Lincoln in profile, along with the words "Liberty" and "In God We Trust", as well as the minting year of 1912. The reverse features the words "One Cent" and "United States of America"; as well as the two distinctive wheat stalks which give the coin its name. 19mm diameter. This Lincoln Wheat Cent is in worn condition with some oxidation on the reverse side.Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A10
1926.72.11: Victoria Sixpence, 1850
One sixpence coin, silver, minted in 1850. This sixpence coin features an image of Queen Victoria on the face, as well as the words, "Victoria Dei Gratia Brittaniar Reg". The reverse of the coin features the words "Six Pence" with a crown above them, as well as two branches and the date 1850. At the time this coin was minted it would have been worth 1/40th of a Pound Sterling. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A11
1926.72.12: Prussian Silber Groschen, 1854
One Prussion Silbergroschen, minted in 1854, silver. The Prussian government issued silber groschen prior to German unification, and many states adopted the currency before full unification went into effect. The coin, however appears to be covered with an orange more iron-like rust indicating that it may not in fact be silver. The coin features an image of Friedrich Wilhelm IV; as well as the words ," Friedrich Wilhelm IV Konig V Prfussen". The Reverse features the words "1 Silber Groschen 1854 A" and is surrounded by the words, "30 Einen Thaler" and "Scheide Munze". The silbergroschen was replaced in 1871 after German unification. 18mm Diameter.Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A12
1926.72.13: Canadian Dime, 1871
One Canadian Dime, silver, minted in 1871. The Canadian Dime is worth ten Canadian cents. The coin features a portrait of Queen Victoria on the face of the coin surrounded by the words, "Victoria Dei Gratia Regina" and "Canada". The Reverse features the words, "10 CENTS 1871" which are surrounded by a laurel wreath and topped with a small crown. 18mm diameter. The coin is in good condition with minor tarnish near the edges. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A13
1926.72.14: 10 Centime Coin, 1919
One French 10 Centime Coin, Cupro-Nickel. This 10 Centime piece dates to 1919, during a period of extreme French monetary depression. The coin features a hole through its center, which was a feature of the minting, not a later alteration. The face of the coin features the prominant letters "RF" signifying the Republique Francaise. The letters are surrounded by a laurel wreath. In tiny script beneath the RF is the name "Lindauer" which refers to the engraver of the coin. The reverse side features a flowering plant in the center, with the words, "Liberte Egalite Fraternite" as well as the number 10 and the letters "Cmes" referring to 10 Centimes. 21mm diameter. Worn condition.Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A14
1926.72.15: Virginia Half-Penny, 1773
One Virginia Half-Penny, copper, dated to 1773. Features a barely visible portrait of King George III. The King is wearing a laurel wreath on his head in emmulation of Roman Emperors. The face also features visible letters "E" and "X". The reverse reveals a barely visible coat of arms, with the separators between each quadrant easily visible. The bottom left of the coat of arms features a harp, the top left a standing lion, the top right three fleur d'lis, the bottom right is indistinugishable. This Virginia Half-penny was minted in 1773 in London. Virginia was the only colony which had royal permission to mint coinage, which was issued in 1609. Until 1773, however, colonists had used tobacco as well as other imported coins and notes to make purchases. In 1773, the Virginia assembly voted to mint currency, which was delivered to Richmond but was not released because the assembly lacked a royal charter explicitly allowing them to do so. The charter was delivered a year later on the eve of the revolution, and the coins were promptly released. This first release of Virginia coins resulted in peolpe hoarding the coins due to the unsure outcome of the revolution. 24mm diameter. Very worn condition. Recovered by Robert Nelson Howard in 1926 on his property Bay View on Fish Neck in Dare, Virginia. Donated along with 48 other coins and one brass button; only 15 coins could be located as of this entry. Located in T&E S6 SS2, Box 1. Mss 1926.072.A15
See scrc.swem.wm.edu/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&... for more information about items in the Manuscripts Artifact Collection.
From the collections of the Special Collections Research Center, Earl Gregg Swem Library at the College of William and Mary.