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Original Caption: 10,000 acres of the island of Hawaii is devoted to growing macadamia nuts, and production is increasing. At the Royal Hawaiian plant near Keaau, workers plant new trees in an expansion which is doubling the size of the growing stock. This plant is the largest processor in the world, November 1973
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 412-DA-11656
Photographer: O'Rear, Charles, 1941-
Subjects:
Hilo (Hawaii)
Environmental Protection Agency
Project DOCUMERICA
Persistent URL: research.archives.gov/description/554108
Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.
For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html
Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
The shrine of Sharif Yuusuf Barkhadle (aka Aw Barkhadle, or the "Blessed Father"), a man described as "the most outstanding saint in northern Somalia" and associated with Sheikh Ishaaq, founder of the Isaaq Somali clan, and Sheikh Daarod, founder of the Daarod Somali clan. I've read that this isn't or might not be his tomb, which "according to C.J Cruttenden" is located to the SW of Berbera (from Wikipedia) and that there are shrines devoted to this man in Harar, near the town of Borama, and in the Maldives and Sri Lanka (!). But this one is close to the scene of a "myth [that] underlies the modern Somali practice of giving gifts to peripatetic Yibir soothsayers who come to lay blessings upon newborn children and newlywed couples. The story goes that when Barkhadle first settled near [here,] ... he was confronted by Mohamed Hanif, a local Yibir leader who ruled the territory contrary to the laws of Islam. The 2 then decided to settle the issue of legitimacy between them with a test of mystical strength. Barkhadle challenged Hanif to traverse [or pass through] a small hill... Hanif twice successfully accomplished this task. However, during his 3rd demonstration of his powers, Barkhadle invoked the superior might of God and imprisoned his rival forever within the mountain. Orthodox Islam thus prevailed over the old pagan cult. However, Hanif's descendants are said to have subsequently demanded blood money or diyya from Barkhadle for the death of their leader and in perpetuity. Barkhadle granted them their wish, and this gave rise to the modern custom of samanyo or samayo ("birth gift"), payment made to the Yibir by their Somali patrons." (Wikipedia)
- It's amazing that so many of my photos from Somaliland (from Zeila and this one) are showing up on the net. I typed in Barkhadle in youtube, and the 4th video down, the one in this link, has my photo. See the 43 sec. pt.: www.youtube.com/watch?v=7UWNeSTrDtY Here it is on Twitter.: www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https://pbs.twimg.com/media/...
- I don't recall when I first heard this (it might have been when a friend of mine from Somaliland, a court interpreter, mentioned in passing that the name Yibir means or derives from the name or word 'Hebrew' when we were discussing this trip) but the author of an article in the next link writes that "the Yibir in Somalia is one of the few known Muslim communities anywhere that maintains Jewish descent." This is controversial. They might descend from the Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) who migrated east, or from Yemeni Jews from across the Gulf who later converted to Islam, or they might descend from indigenous Somalis who were pigeon-holed somehow into an oppressed caste, likely for maintaining pre-Islamic practices and beliefs.
- From the article in the link.: "The community is small and tightly-knit, numbering not more than 30,000. [I didn't meet any this trip, to my knowledge.] ... For at least 800 yr.s, the Yibir have lived amongst the pastoralist populations of Northern Somalia. There, the populations are divided into different clan groupings. A strict caste system traditionally organizes the clans into a fixed hierarchy of noble to inferior. Being one of the lowest castes, the Yibir constitute one of the poorest populations in Somalia, if not the poorest. Furthermore, the Yibir are not considered to be ethnic-Somalis, or Samaale; rather, they are traditionally classified as Sab, an ethnic category that encompasses migrant and smaller groups of low castes. (Other Sab groups include the Muuse, a small group of Arabic ancestry; the Tumaal and the Madhibaan, small clans of ambiguous roots ancestrally related to the Yibir; and the Bantu, migrant populations primarily from central Africa)." Subject to ongoing discrimination and isolation, "they're associated with leatherwork occupations, such as tanning hides and the production of saddles, amulets and prayer mats. The Yibir are also well known for their skill in blacksmithery, in making iron tools and weaponry. But historically, they have practiced a diversity of peddling trades such as folk medicine, spirituality and magic. Although considered low caste, and in light of the scarcity of modern medical services in contemporary Somalia, Yibir healers and medicine-men provided clan communities with indispensable folk medical services. They made and sold varieties of herbal medicines, performed traditional surgery involving circumcision, and specialized in the treatment of bone fractures. Midwifery is a popular Yibir specialization.
- "By tradition, Somalis believe that the Yibir possess dangerous supernatural powers. Taking advantage of this belief, Yibir spiritualists performed a variety of protection rituals for pay. Although they used Quranic scriptures in their rituals, research has indicated that the rituals encompass a range of seemingly pre-Islamic pagan traditions.
- "An old cultural tradition [mandates that] Somalis pay a fee to the Yibir, called samanyo, as retribution for the death of one of the Yibir’s historic leaders. If the fee is not paid, Somalis believed that the Yibir would curse them. The story associated with this tradition involves a Yibir leader, named Mohamed Hanif, who is said to have ruled northern Somalia centuries ago. While one version of the narrative describes him as not being a true Muslim, another identifies him as a pagan. Upon arriving to the northern parts of the country, the Somali holy man Sharif Yusuf, who is considered to be one of the founders of Islam in Somalia, quarreled with Mohamed Hanif. The two settled their disagreement in a showdown of spiritual power. Since Sharif Yusuf was supposedly truer to his religion, he defeated and killed Mohamed Hanif.
- "Worth mentioning is the once secret language of the Yibir. In the early 20th century, John W. C. Kirk, who authored one of the most valuable works on the historic and linguistic heritage of Somalia, reported: "Yibirs and Midgans [a tribe closely related to the Yibir] are both very jealous of their languages, and keep them a secret from other Somalis, although all speak the common Somali language of the country. There are, I believe, no Somalis who know anything of either dialect, and while I was having my interviews with these people, they were very particular not to allow any Somali within hearing, our conversations having to be carried on in the latter’s language."
- "Origins: In 2000, NYT journalist Ian Fisher conducted a breakthrough interview with the Yibir community leader Sultan Ahmed Jama. The Sultan was not secretive about his Hebraic heritage and indicated that the prejudice his people experience in Somalia essentially goes back to their Israelite heritage. ... Yibir folklore suggests that the community’s ancestors converted from Judaism to Islam in the 13th cent. Scholars believe that Sharif Yusuf lived in the early 13th cent. ... Although the name Mohamed Hanif is Muslim, it is perhaps possible that the Yibir did not entirely abandon Judaism until Sharif Yusuf subjugated them. ... Traditionally, the Yibir claim that their Jewish ancestors arrived in Somalia prior to the formation of the major noble Samaale clans, i.e. Darood, Dir, Hawiye and Isaaq. While Samaale clans commonly trace their paternal lineages to 9th cent. Arabian ancestors, some scholars have suggested that the Darood and Isaaq were only founded in the 13th cent. If so, then the Yibir are also likely to be older than the two Samaale clans. Presumably the Yibir were already established as a powerful group in Somalia by the time of Mohamed Hanif. [Dr. Sada Mire in her book 'Divine Fertility' quotes from Kirk's recorded account, which makes no mention of Hebraic heritage. See below.]
- "Although the question as to how Judaism arrived in Somalia has not been previously researched, certain Yibir cultural features seem to indicate that the community branched out of an older Beta Israel Ethiopian Jewish population. ... Both groups, the Beta Israel and Yibir, are perceived as outcasts by their host populations and are associated with magic and superstition. (The Beta Israel are known in Ethiopia as Falasha, meaning exiles or outcasts in ancient Ethiopic. The Beta Israel are also strongly associated in Ethiopian traditions with the Budah, a magical or evil supernatural entity that can inflict curses on the locals).
- "Although the Yibir constitute one of the oldest ethnic groups in Somalia, they are treated as inferior in the Somali caste system and as outcasts. Due to their deteriorating economic situation, particularly within the past few decades, the Yibir were forced to scatter all over the country and abandon their native villages in northern Somalia."
geneticliteracyproject.org/2013/09/03/ethiopian-jews-in-s...
- From a recent article (June, 2021), 'A Brief History of Judaism in the Somali Peninsula' by Aweis A. Ali in the Journal of the Somali Bible Society: "Under its old name of Abyssinia, Ethiopia had ruled much of modern-day Somaliland, incl. parts of the semi-autonomous region of Puntland. Zeila was ruled by the Axumites as early as the 900s before they lost the strategic town to local Muslims and their Arab co-religionists. The Axumite Kingdom reconquered Zeila in the early 15th cent. Ethiopian rule in most of Somaliland seems to have concluded by the 13th cent. Ethiopia, with its famous indigenous Jewish community, Beta-Israel, took with it its brand of Orthodox Christianity and elements of Judaism wherever it ruled, incl. Somaliland. Ethiopia, which was traditionally ruled by the northern Orthodox clans of the Amhara and the Tigray, was also once ruled with an iron fist by Queen Gudit [Judith], who was an Ethiopian Jew. The Jewish faith of the Queen is affirmed by ancient Ge'ez manuscripts. This Damot Kingdom, which laid the SW of the Axumite Kingdom [?], targeted the Ethiopian Orthodox Church with a vengeance. The Queen ransacked Axum in 979. While the location of the seat of the Damot Kingdom may be disputed, its reach and rule are not. ...
- "It is not surprising that the Somali peninsula, especially areas still ruled or once ruled by Ethiopia, is littered with Jewish archeological evidence." Dr. Sada Mire in her book 'Divine Fertility' (see below) does a better job of listing the said evidence.: "Oral records tell of a former Jewish presence at Aw-Barkhadle and Lukuud, another sacred site, and the archaeology might support this account as permission has now been given to excavate during the coming year. There was certainly a local knowledge of Judaism. 2 gravestones engraved with the Star of David [have been discovered] in the Dhubato area, 30 min.s drive from the Aw-Barkhadle site. What appears to be a Star of David with an image of what looks like a menorah have been found at the Da'awaleh/Dawa'aleh rock shelter at Dhaymoole. Artifacts [have been] dug up by a farmer in the Berbera region showing small tablets cut in the shape of hands with fingers carved out and engraved with the star of David and menorahs. More rock engravings of the Star of David are reported in the Caynaba district in the Sool region. ... Evidence of a more recent Jewish presence can be found in the Jewish quarters (Sakadda Yuhuuda) in Hargeisa and Berbera, which are said to belong to old Jewish communities, some thought to have fled from Yemen."
- An interesting lecture (the 1st 1/2 hr. or so) by Mohamoud Gaildon, author of 'The Yibir of Las Burgabo'.: www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-eV9kbYsQI
- This has been a sacred place since long before the arrival of Islam. Somewhere near here there's a pit or ditch with a stone or stones that women would sit on to gain fertility (mentioned in my guidebook), and with chalk that they'd rub on their foreheads in the shape of a cross. (?) (I asked but no-one here could point me to that pit.) My court interpreter friend remembers the place well and I think she was the one who told me about the use of chalk to make crosses on girls' foreheads. (I'll ask her again sometime.) But Sada Mire writes in 'Divine Fertility: The Continuity in Transformation of an Ideology of Sacred Kinship in Northeast Africa' (2020) that "a practice observed at Aw-Barkhadle of painting a Christian cross on the foreheads of worshipers during the ziyara (pilgrimage) perhaps echoes recent syncretic practices at the site."
- This shrine is the focus of Dr. Mire's book which, she writes, "explores the historical significance of the materials, rituals (incl. legends) and landscape of the 12th-cent. religious centre of Aw-Barkhadle, which [was the abode of] a Sufi Saint Sheikh Sharif Yusuf Al-Kawnayn (aka Aw-Barkhadle) credited with the conversion of northern Somalis to Islam in that century. This sacred site is arguably the most important Muslim pilgrimage centre in the Horn of Africa. [!] I suggest that not only has Aw-Barkhadle been a centre of Muslim pilgrimage since the 12th-cent.; it is also a ruined medieval town which may once have been the lost capitol of the Awdal (Adal) which flourished in the early decades of the 16th cent. in an area previously known as Dogor. The few references to Saint Aw-Barkhadle in the old literature, though assuming that 'Aw Bekele' (Aw-Barkhadle) ar 'Dakkar' (Doggor) must be located near Harar, do indeed link his centre with the location of the ancient Awdal capitol and shed light as well on the centre's significance as an ideologically important burial site for the Muslim rulers of the Ifat (Yifat) state and, particularly, for the Walashma dynasty of the 13th - 14th cent.s, which traded with countries in the Indian Ocean region, as is evidenced by pottery from the Yuan dynasty in China and elsewhere. Aw-Barkhadle may have been a revered burial site not only for the Ifat rulers, but also for first rulers of Awdal who may well have settled there before going on to Harar. If so, the site would once have been the seat of Sabra'ad Din, the grandson of Sa'adadin, who ruled Zaila, the seat of the Ifat kingdom. It would not be at all surprising were the 16th cent. Awdal kingdom to have had a capitol in this central or eastern part of the country. ...
Fans (mostly young women) line up hours in advance for a concert on Toronto's Danforth Ave. They braved the cold wind and rain all day to get close to the stage when the doors would open at 6 p.m. The act was "5 Seconds of Summer" an Australian pop-rock band.
devoted to my friend and teacher Joseph (21.04.27 - 13.12.93)
Original art. Executed using Photoshop.
Original Caption: 10,000 acres of the island of Hawaii is devoted to growing macadamia nuts, and production is increasing. At the Royal Hawaiian plant near Keaau, workers plant new trees in an expansion which is doubling the size of the growing stock. This plant is the largest processor in the world. Hiroshi Ooka, horticulturalist for the plant, inspects a screen he designed for catching valuable nuts, November 1973
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 412-DA-11657
Photographer: O'Rear, Charles, 1941-
Subjects:
Hilo (Hawaii)
Environmental Protection Agency
Project DOCUMERICA
Persistent URL: research.archives.gov/description/554109
Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.
For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html
Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
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I am a devoted amateur photographer based in Western Norway. As this photo has a Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0), or the older 2.0, you are free to use it for Arild Finne Nybø purpose as long as you credit me like this: Photo: Arild Finne Nybø, arny.no
And: Flickr are now charging a fee to keep my account alive, so if you are using Arild Finne Nybø of my photos, please consider buying me a coffee at: www.buymeacoffee.com/arnyLetter from heaven - heavenly letter (or is it rather: ticket to heaven?)
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This "Himmelbrev" is a letter, printed in Copenhagen in 1770 and sold in Norway. Found in Finne, Voss. Kept and and used as amulet / talisman / charm, often framed. Believed to be Gods words, brought to Earth by arch angel St. Michael. These letters can be traced back to medieval times.
This letter tells the story of a divine revelation in Denmark, where a man called Just is asked by the angel to give a letter to a priest. The letter is cited, and tells in a quite threatening way about all the bad things that will happen to those who don't live by Gods word.
Brevet lyder slik (avskrift utført av Arild Nybø):
En Miil fra Sanct Michaels Bierg, boede Mand som heder Just; denne Mand haver talet med GUds Engel, hvilken var klar som en Lue, saa at han ikke kunde see paa han for klarhed Skyld hvorover Manden faldt ned av Forskrækkelse; Men Engelen sagde til ham: Frygt dig ikke! Dig skal intet skade; Men gaae til Præsten og levere ham dette Brev, og siig til hannem: At GUd ikke kand have roe for de Fortryktes Suk og Raab Skyld, thi de faaer ikke være i Fred på Jorden, som de skal ligge udi, baade for de svære Synder som gaae i Svang, og den store Hofmodighed som Menneskene daglig lever i. Dette samme Brev var skrevet med forgyldte Bogstaver, og lyder som efterfølger:
Giv Agt på dette brev:
Den som vanhelliger Sabbaten, han er forkastet, som Skriften siger: Thi raader jeg Eder, at I ikke arbeider om Søndagen, enten på Eders eget eller andres Arbeide, men at I flittig gaae i Kirke, baade Gamle og Unge, for at høre GUds Ord med Andagt. I haver 6 dage i Ugen til at giøre Eders Arbeide paa; Sabbaten skal I holde reen og hellig: Den, som ikke det giør, skal blive straffede, baade Gamle og Unge. I skal ikke smuke Eders Ansikt eller kruuse Eders Haar, og dermed bedrive Hoffart, som HErren selv i sit hellige Ord har forbudet. Afbeder hver hos GUd Eders Synder, paa det de maae Eder forlades; Bedriver ikke Ondt i mit Navn, thi jeg haver skabt Eder af Intet, og jeg kan gjøre Eder til Intet igien. Ærer Eders Foræeldre med Ord og Gierninger, sa skal I have Lykke og Velsignelse baade her og hisset. I skal ikke slaae ihiel; I skal ikke bedrive Hoer; I skal ikke Stiele; I skal ikke sige halft Vidnesbyrd, men tale Sandhed; I skal ikke begiere eders Næstes Gods, 2C (?). Hver den som ikke troer GUds Ord, han bliver fordømt; men hvem som troer det, skal have Løn og Velsignelse af GUd. Hvo dette Brev haver i sit Huus, og ikke aabenbarer disse GUds Befalinger, den er ingen ret Christen; men hvo som lever derefter, om de end havde saa mange Synder som Sand i Havet, Løv og Græs på Jorden, samt Stierner paa Himmelen, skal de alle ved en sand Troe paa Eders Forløser forlades Eder; men den, som ikke troer, skal ikke undgaae Døden. Og dersom I ikke omvender Eder, saa skal I vorde evig fordømt. GUd skal spørge Eder paa den sidste Dag, da kand I ikke svare hannem Eet til Tusinde for Eders mange Synder.
Hvo dette Brev haver i sit Huus, eller hos sig, og giør derefter, hannem skal da Jorden og Veiret ikke skade, men alltid bevares for Ild og Vand, ja ham skal vederfares alt Godt. Holder GUds Bud, som Han haver givet Eder, og aflægger Hofærdighed, Fraadserie og Drukkenskab, GUds Ords Foragt og Bespottelse. Havde de GUdsfrygtiges Bøn og Raab ikke været, saa havde der ikke kommet Regn paa Jorden i lang Tid; med dersom I ikke omvender Eder, da skal Verden snart forgaae. Der skal blive saadan Krig og Blods Utgydelse, at den eene intet kan kiende den anden. Der skal blive saa stor Hunder og Elendighed, at en Moder skal æde sit eget barn. Ja, der skal blive sådan Sygdom og Pestilentse, at den, som lægger sit frisk og sund om Aftenen, skal om Morgenen være død. Der skal blive saa stor Jammer og Elendighed, at Menneskerne skal raabe: Hvor finde vi Trøst, vi Arme og Elendige, som ikke har omvendt os fra vores Synd og Ondskab? Men dersom I omvender Eder, saa skal I fornemme, at et Menneske paa Hundrede Aar skal ansees for Tredsindtyve Aar. Eders Næring skal forøges, Sorg og Bedrøvelse skal forminskes, siger HErren Eders GUd. Det Menneske er forbandet, som ikke lever efter dette Brev;
Men den, som giør derefter, den skal blomstre af Velsignelse, det er aabenbaret.
Kiøbenhavn Aar 1770, trykt hos J. R. Thiele.
Les om tilsvarande "himmelbreve" hos Thisted Museum (PDF).
Himmelbrev - utdrag frå tekst av av Knut L. Espelid:
Himmelbrevet er enkeltblads trykk med tresnitt-illustrasjoner, ofte i farger. Det gir seg ut for å være skrevet av Gud selv og bragt til jorden av engelen Michael. Brevet forekommer i mange varianter, men dets budskap er stort sett det samme: man skal helligholdesøndagen og følge Guds bud. Den som tror på brevet vil gå lykke og velsignelse.
Himmelbrevene kan spores tilbake til tidlig middelalder. Til grunn for dem ligger apokryfe evangelier og troen på ar Gud åpenbarer seg for menneskene gjennem skriftelige meddelelser. Som litteratur utgjør de en interessant gren av den felles-europeiske folkelitteratur.
I Danmark-Norge hadde brevene lenge vært kjent, men det første dansk- trykte brev, en oversettelse fra tysk, kom først i København i 1720. Billedet viser en senere utgave av dette brev.
Les meir om himmelbrev hos Universitetet i Bergen og hos Aust-Agder Kulturhistoriske senter.
Om trykkeriet:
Thiele, københavnsk bogtrykkerslægt. Johan Rudolph T. (1736-1815) indvandrede fra Tyskland til Danmark og oprettede i 1770 et bogtrykkeri i København. Ved devalueringen i 1813 mistede han sin formue, og sønnen Hans Henrik T. (1787-1839) måtte føre firmaet videre under vanskelige forhold, der dog bedredes, da der i 1831 kom et samarbejde i gang med Nationalbanken. Tredje generation, brødrene Just T. (1823-1876) og Andreas T. (1825-1907), overtog firmaet i 1846. De indførte en hurtigpresse i 1849 og anvendte dampkraft fra 1853. I 1860 overgik det meste af Nationalbankens arbejde til firmaet, som desuden trykte de danske frimærker fra 1851 og stempelmærker fra 1861. I 1874 fik firmaet tillige leverancen af pengesedler til Finland. I 1901 overtog Just Thieles svigersøn Søren Wedege (1858-1933) virksomheden. Efterhånden som staten selv overtog fremstillingen af de forskellige tryksager, gik firmaet tilbage og måtte i 1926 træde i likvidation. (Klikk her for kjelde.)
In Loving
Memory Of
ANNA MARY
CORALIE YANDALL
10th May 1949 – 30th January 2012
Aged 62 years
Cherished and devoted daughter of
TANUVASA JAMES and NOVA
SHIRLEY YANDALL
A sweet inspiration to her
Beloved brothers and sisters
CAROLINE, ADELE, PAULINE, DAN,
GRAHAM, PHINA, ELIZABETH,
MARK and BEN
Dearest and dedicated aunty
to all her nieces and nephews
In every song we sing,
we will hear your voice, and in every moment
of laughter, we will feel your spirit within
“Fight the good fight of faith, lay hold on eternal
life, to which you were also called and have confessed
the good confession in the presence of many witnesses.”
I Timothy 6: verse 12
Grave location Western Berm C, Row 4a, Plot 13a
Mary Yandall a soulful singing diva of the popular New Zealand Samoan group The Yandall Sisters passed away peacefully at 1:41am on Monday 30 January 2012 at Auckland Hospital surrounded by her family after a short illness. She was aged 62 years. [1]
Her open casket was laid upon a tapa cloth at the family home in Grey Lynn amid an array of family photographs and awards won by the sisters where visitors could come and pay their respects and offer support to the family. Mary went out in true Yandall Sister style wearing a sequined dress as the sisters had done when singing together back in the 70s. [2] She was interred at Waikumete Cemetery after a funeral service held at the Pacific Islanders Presbyterian Church, Newton, Auckland on the morning of Friday 3 February 2012 [3] where she was farewelled by a large crowd of people whose lives she had touched. Among them were veteran entertainers Suzanne Lynch of 60s duo The Chicks, and John Rowles who Mary had often sung with performed a tribute to her. [4]
The Yandall Sisters originally consisted of older sister Caroline who passed away a few years ago, Mary and Adel, they were later joined by their younger sister Pauline. The group became a trio in 1973 after Caroline married and moved to Australia. [5] [2] [6]
The girls grew up in Grey Lynn they sang in Sunday School talent quests and in the choir at the Pacific Islanders Presbyterian Church in Newton, and they went on to sing at weddings and birthday parties. [6] Their first ever recording was released in 1966. And they put out several albums their first with Samoan steel guitarist Bill Sovesi recorded in 1968 when the girls were still in high school.
They were talent spotted in 1970 and went professional in 1971. The sisters were disciplined in presenting themselves on stage and television creating polished smooth and soulful cabaret performances likened to American entertainers The Supremes who were also impeccably groomed and wore glittering costumes. [7]
"Sweet Inspiration" a composition by Dan Penn and Spooner Oldham originally recorded by the Sweet Inspirations’ in 1967 [8] became the Yandall Sisters biggest hit in 1975, staying on the National Charts for 14 weeks, peaking at number 8. With its catchy lyrics and beat it is still a popular song with Polynesians. [6]
In 1977 the sisters were awarded the Entertainer Of The Year Award after which their growing popularity saw them appearing regularly on television into the 1980s [7] [4]
They performed with some of New Zealand’s biggest stars including Sir Howard Morrison, Prince Tui Teka, Dalvanius Prime, John Rowles, and Billy T James. [6] [4]
The smallest of the sisters Mary is said have been the sister with the most powerful voice.
Listen to Mary Yandall sing with Bunny Walters - Night and Day 1986 www.youtube.com/watch?v=6rKkhPnDXgo
Pioneers for other Pacific Island artists in New Zealand the Yandall sisters were the first ever recipients of the Life Time Achievement Award at the Pacific Music Awards in 2007. the award is presented to an artist or group who has made a significant contribution to Pacific Island music. [7] [9]
Mary once had the privilege of meeting the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh which she regarded as a highlight of her singing career. [7] “In all I just feel myself it was 30 years of bliss really, we have enjoyed our years and I hope we’ll just continue till we cant sing anymore.” - Mary Yandall [7]
Although Mary never had children of her own her nieces and nephews who she had raised since they were babies regarded her as their mother and cherished her. [1] She had a passion for music and for God which inspired others. She was a dedicated, hard working and fun loving person with a very big, warm and gracious heart who is loved dearly and deeply mourned by those close to her, and also missed by those who were touched by her voice. [1]
“You know you reach back here in my mind
And there you’ll find my sweet, sweet inspiration”
-Sweet inspiration recorded by The Yandall Sisters 1975 [10]
Compiled by Cathy Currie using the following Sources:
[1] Death notices New Zealand Herald Wednesday, 1 February 2012 kiwisyesterday.blogspot.co.nz/2012/02/
[2] Chart-topping siblings farewell eldest of trio www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objecti...
[3] Death notices The New Zealand Herald on January 31, 2012 kiwisyesterday.blogspot.co.nz/2012/02/
[4] Yandall sister laid to rest in Auckland www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/music/6362678/Yandall-siste...
[5] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yandall_Sisters
[6] Yandall Sisters www.sergent.com.au/music/yandallsisters.html
[7] Dedication to Mary Yandall Tagata Pasifika 5 Feb 2012 www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFGFjrCv_iY
[8] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Inspiration_(song)
[9] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Music_Awards
[10] Sweet Inspiration www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZ6kMt-E2wo&list=PLs65QD-RMjo...
Photo: Cathy Currie
The gallery devoted to the War of 1812 was created by Carlo Rossi in 1826 in commemoration of Russian victories in the Napoleonic Wars. On the walls hang 332 portraits of the generals who were heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 and European campaigns of 1813-14. These portraits were created by the British artist George Dawe with the participation of Russian artists Alexander Poliakov and Wilhelm Golike. At the short ends of the Gallery hang equestrian portraits of Emperor Alexander I and his ally in the war with Napoleon, Frederick William III of Prussia (both by Franz Kruger), and of the Austrian Emperor Francis I (by Johann Peter Krafft). Formal portraits of General-Field Marshals Mikhail Kutuzov and Mikhail Barclay de Tolly are hung on the sides of the door leading to the St. George Hall (Large Throne Room).
A fungus (pl.: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.
A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.
The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.
Etymology
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel ('mold').
The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" (mycologicæ) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville. In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to mycology as the study of fungi.
A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular). The term mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora. The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that the phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and funga.
Characteristics
Fungal hyphae cells
Hyphal wall
Septum
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Ergosterol crystal
Ribosome
Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Lipid body
Plasma membrane
Spitzenkörper
Golgi apparatus
Fungal cell cycle showing Dikaryons typical of Higher Fungi
Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among the general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around the start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:
With other eukaryotes: Fungal cells contain membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and coding regions called exons. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type. They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, which is also found in animals).
With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed organic compounds as energy sources.
With plants: Fungi have a cell wall and vacuoles. They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses) produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have haploid nuclei.
With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria produce the amino acid L-lysine in specific biosynthesis steps, called the α-aminoadipate pathway.
The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like (filamentous) structures called hyphae, which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles—cellular structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and other organic molecules—called the Spitzenkörper. Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells. In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous green algae, grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells. There are also single-celled fungi (yeasts) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi have both hyphal and yeast forms.
In common with some plant and animal species, more than one hundred fungal species display bioluminescence.
Unique features:
Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by budding or fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions.
The fungal cell wall is made of a chitin-glucan complex; while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods, fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose.
A whitish fan or funnel-shaped mushroom growing at the base of a tree.
Omphalotus nidiformis, a bioluminescent mushroom
Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.
Diversity
Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans, parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling them to propel itself through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.
As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2000 with a peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown The following year, 2905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups.
Mycology
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.
The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.
History
Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy.
Morphology
Microscopic structures
Monochrome micrograph showing Penicillium hyphae as long, transparent, tube-like structures a few micrometres across. Conidiophores branch out laterally from the hyphae, terminating in bundles of phialides on which spherical condidiophores are arranged like beads on a string. Septa are faintly visible as dark lines crossing the hyphae.
An environmental isolate of Penicillium
Hypha
Conidiophore
Phialide
Conidia
Septa
Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells.
Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla,[63] and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.
Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.
Macroscopic structures
Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years.
The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.
Growth and physiology
Time-lapse photography sequence of a peach becoming progressively discolored and disfigured
Mold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.
The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues.[71] The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi).[71] The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes.
The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication.
Fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.
Reproduction
Two thickly stemmed brownish mushrooms with scales on the upper surface, growing out of a tree trunk
Polyporus squamosus
Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.
Sexual reproduction
See also: Mating in fungi and Sexual selection in fungi
Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of the opposite mating type, whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself.
Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).
In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division, the formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section).
In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.
Spore dispersal
The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances.
Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.
Homothallism
In homothallic sexual reproduction, two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis. Homothallic fungi include species with an Aspergillus-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of the ascomycete genus Cochliobolus, and the ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii. The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction.
Other sexual processes
Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.
Evolution
In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.
The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times.
In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae, in the Canadian Arctic, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma).
Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.
Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary.
Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap".
Taxonomy
Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.
There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants, fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms).
The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar, "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and Tedersoo et al. 2018. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances.
The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. As of 2019, nine major lineages have been identified: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycotina, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.
Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). Previously considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought to be either a basal branch of the Fungi, or a sister group–each other's closest evolutionary relative.
The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.
The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.
The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.
Microscopic view of a layer of translucent grayish cells, some containing small dark-color spheres
Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.
Cross-section of a cup-shaped structure showing locations of developing meiotic asci (upper edge of cup, left side, arrows pointing to two gray cells containing four and two small circles), sterile hyphae (upper edge of cup, right side, arrows pointing to white cells with a single small circle in them), and mature asci (upper edge of cup, pointing to two gray cells with eight small circles in them)
Diagram of an apothecium (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.
Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.
The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., Neurospora crassa).
Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.
Fungus-like organisms
Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to an ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy.
Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.
The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.
The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" Rozella, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. Alternatively, Rozella can be classified as a basal fungal group.
The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. Many Actinomycetales (Actinomycetota), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.
Ecology
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.
Symbiosis
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.
With plants
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.
A microscopic view of blue-stained cells, some with dark wavy lines in them
The dark filaments are hyphae of the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala in the intercellular spaces of tall fescue leaf sheath tissue
The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at least 400 million years. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.
With algae and cyanobacteria
A green, leaf-like structure attached to a tree, with a pattern of ridges and depression on the bottom surface
The lichen Lobaria pulmonaria, a symbiosis of fungal, algal, and cyanobacterial species
Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.
With insects
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the domatia (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods). Ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi growing in dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.
A thin brown stick positioned horizontally with roughly two dozen clustered orange-red leaves originating from a single point in the middle of the stick. These orange leaves are three to four times larger than the few other green leaves growing out of the stick, and are covered on the lower leaf surface with hundreds of tiny bumps. The background shows the green leaves and branches of neighboring shrubs.
The plant pathogen Puccinia magellanicum (calafate rust) causes the defect known as witch's broom, seen here on a barberry shrub in Chile.
Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab from a woman with candidiasis, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 µm in diameter.
Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch elm disease, Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, and Phymatotrichopsis omnivora causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as Magnaporthe oryzae, can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including Asterotremella albida, which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead.
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.
As targets of mycoparasites
Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal diseases. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses.
Communication
Main article: Mycorrhizal networks
There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics.
Possible impact on climate
According to a study published in the academic journal Current Biology, fungi can soak from the atmosphere around 36% of global fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions.
Mycotoxins
(6aR,9R)-N-((2R,5S,10aS,10bS)-5-benzyl-10b-hydroxy-2-methyl-3,6-dioxooctahydro-2H-oxazolo[3,2-a] pyrrolo[2,1-c]pyrazin-2-yl)-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide
Ergotamine, a major mycotoxin produced by Claviceps species, which if ingested can cause gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations
Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human use below.
Pathogenic mechanisms
Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1. The response protects U. maydis from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence. Furthermore, U. maydis has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.
Human use
See also: Human interactions with fungi
Microscopic view of five spherical structures; one of the spheres is considerably smaller than the rest and attached to one of the larger spheres
Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells shown with DIC microscopy
The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms. Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy, with applications under research and development including use for textiles, meat substitution and general fungal biotechnology.
Therapeutic uses
Modern chemotherapeutics
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs.
Antibiotics
Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.
Other
Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom. Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for therapeutic use and appears to cause global increases in brain network integration. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.
Traditional medicine
Upper surface view of a kidney-shaped fungus, brownish-red with a lighter yellow-brown margin, and a somewhat varnished or shiny appearance
Two dried yellow-orange caterpillars, one with a curly grayish fungus growing out of one of its ends. The grayish fungus is roughly equal to or slightly greater in length than the caterpillar, and tapers in thickness to a narrow end.
The fungi Ganoderma lucidum (left) and Ophiocordyceps sinensis (right) are used in traditional medicine practices
Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis.
Cultured foods
Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.
A few devoted pataphysicians spent their Sunday afternoon preparing the Pataphysical Slot Machine exhibit for our open studio and soirée at the Figurine Ranch:
• We spread out a beautiful persian rug on loan from Dr. Skidz;
• We added black muslin behind the slot machine to make the art pop;
• Dr. Heatshrink performed last minute electronic sugery to bring a few boxes back to life;
• Dr. Canard hot glued a few parts that had fallen out of place;
• Drs. Figurine and Fabio set up the lights and sounds, then called it a day.
Vive la ‘Pataphysique!
View more 'Pataphysical photos: www.flickr.com/photos/fabola/albums/72157623637793277
Learn more about Pataphysical Studios: pataphysics.us/
Ezra had devoted himself to the study and observance of the Law of the Lord, and to teaching its decrees and laws.
Ezra 7:10
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There is, perhaps, nothing more Peruvian than The Lord of Miracles. For almost the whole month of October is devoted to this unique religious icon and it is venerated by Peruvians across the globe
The Lord of Miracles, or El Señor de los Milagros as it is known in Spanish, is actually a centuries-old painting on the wall of a relatively obscure church in central Lima.
According to tradition, in 1651 a slave who had converted to Catholicism painted the depiction of Christ on the cross on the wall of a building in the outskirts of Lima where new devotees to the faith gathered to pray.
When a devastating earthquake struck the city four years later the entire building collapsed except for the wall adorned with the painting. Over the next several decades, the image became associated with miraculous incidents. More and more people, particularly the descendents of slaves, began to worship at the site.
This concerned both the church and Spanish authorities and, in 1671 the image was ordered destroyed. According to legend, workers were not able to do so. But, for whatever reason, officials eventually relented and built a proper church on the site – the church of Las Nazarenas.
When another huge earthquake struck Lima in 1687, the chapel was destroyed but, once again, the wall adorned with the painting remained standing. This cemented the importance of the image to the faithful and church leaders ordered a painting of the image to be taken out in procession that October – the tradition that continues to this day.
It is the earthquake of October 28, 1746, that cemented the image’s importance to Lima and Peru. The disaster claimed more than 18,000 lives and almost every building was leveled. All 74 churches and 14 monastic buildings in the city were seriously damaged including the church of the church of Las Nazarenas.
Yet, once again, the image and the wall that held it were unscathed. From that time, the importance of the image to Peru has grown dramatically.
Today, the procession in Lima is the largest in South America and it brings hundreds of thousands to the center of the city to take part. Three times during the month a two-ton retablo holding a silver framed painting that is a copy of the original image is carried through the center of Lima.
The honor of carrying the sacred image is shared by numerous brotherhoods who take turns bearing it though the streets. Women who belong to religious groups wear purple robes and follow the icon along its journey. Others precede its way offering the petals of flowers and incense for its passage.
But Lima’s immense celebration is also replicated across the country. In every city of the country the main church contains a replica of the The Lord of Miracles and a procession with it is held on Oct. 28.
Moreover, as the number of Peruvian immigrants to other countries has increased over the past three decades, the importance of The Lord of Miracles has grown as well.
"To the devotees of the 20th century, the icon represents not merely a protector against earthquakes but also other dangers and fears," wrote University of Copenhagen researcher Karsten Paerregaard in his study on the icon. "To have faith in the Lord of the Miracles means to have somebody that accompanies you wherever you go in life."
The tradition was brought to New York City in 1972 and each year since there has been a procession down 51st street in Manhattan during the month of October. During the year, the image is kept in the Sacred Heart church on Manhattan.
(Luis Colan, a New York based artist, has posted an interesting entry on his blog concerning the roots of this celebration as well as numerous photographs and video from this year's procession in Manhattan.)
New York was the location of the first religious brotherhood honoring the Lord of Miracles outside Peru and today there are 10 in that metropolis. In 1986, the large Peruvian communities in Miami and Los Angeles formed their first brotherhoods and a procession is held annually in each city.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jsoj_8Fp1qA Boże coś Polske- Patirotic song
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7x7NJF1BSE Rota- 1st National Anthem
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2nmFHUbVQtA&feature=related National Anthem
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7x7NJF1BSE Requirem for Dream
This day shook my nation. Many people devoted to Poland have died within seconds. They were about to land in Smolensk to attend the 70th anniversary commemorating Katyn homicide on Polish officers...they never will. The plane crashed taking lives of our beloved President and his Wife, many Members of Parliament, representatives of the Polish Army, many well-known personages who were on board. Katyn is the cursed Calvary of the East. It took life of many 70 years ago and it did hours ago again...this bleeding ground made Poland the orphan land which lost the Mother and the Father as well as many splendid Members of this Family. We mourn and we pray for them. R.I.P. our beloved your names shall not be forgotten:
President of The Republic of Poland Lech Kaczynski
First Lady Maria Kaczynska
The last President of Poland in exile Ryszard Kaczorowski
Vice-Marshal of the Sejm Krzysztof Putra
Vice-Marshal of the Sejm Jerzy Szmajdzinski
Vice-Marshal of the Sejem Krystyna Bochenek
Head of the Office of the President Wladyslaw Stasiak
Head of the National Security Bureau Aleksander Szczyglo
From the Office of the President Pawel Wyprych
From the Office of the President Mariusz Handzlik
Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrzej Kremer
Vice-Minister of National Defence Stanislaw Komorowski
Vice-Minister of Culture Tomasz Merta
Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces Franciszek Gagor
Secretary of Council for the Protection of Struggle and Martyrdom Andrzej Przewoznik
President of the Polish Community Organization Maciej Plazynski
Head of the Diplomatic Protocol Mariusz Kazana
Members of Parliament:
Leszek Deptula (PSL-Polish People’s Party)
Grzegorz Dolniak (PO- The Civic Platform)
Grazyna Gesicka (PiS-Law and Justice)
Przemyslaw Gosiewski (PiS-Law and Justice)
Sebastian Karpiniuk (PO-The Civic Platform)
Izabela Jaruga-Nowacka (Lewica- Left-wing)
Zbigniew Wassermann (PiS-Law and Justice)
Aleksandra Natalli-Swiat (PiS-Law and Justice)
Arkadiusz Rybicki (PO-The Civic Platform)
Jolanta Szymanek-Deresz (Lewica- Left-wing)
Wieslaw Woda (PSL-Polish People’s Party)
Edward Wojtas (PSL-Polish People’s Party)
Senators:
Janina Fetlinska (PiS-Law and Justice)
Stanislaw Zajac (PiS-Law and Justice)
Accompanying people:
Human Rights Defender Janusz Kochanowski
President of the National Bank of Poland Slawomir Skrzypek
President of the Institute of National Remembrance Janusz Kurtyka
Head of the Office for Veterans and the Repressed Janusz Krupski
President of the Supreme Bar Council Joanna Agatka-Indecka
Adviser to the President Jan Krzysztof Ardanowski
Chaplain of the President, Chaplain Roman Indrzejczyk
From the Office of the President Barbara Maminska
From the Office of the President Zofia Kruszynska-Gust
From the Office of the President Izabela Tomaszewska
From the Office of the President Katarzyna Doraczynska
From the Office of the President Dariusz Gwizdala
From the Office of the President Jakub Opara
Chancellor of the Order Virtuti Militari, Commandant Stanislaw Nalecz-Komornicki
Member of the Chapter of the Order Virtuti Militari, Lieutenant-Colonel Zbigniew Debski
President of the World Society of Home Army Soldiers Czeslaw Cywinski
President of the University of Cardinal Stefana Wyszyńskiego, Father Ryszard Rumianek
President of Polish Olympic Committee Piotr Nurowski
Anna Walentynowicz
Janina Natusiewicz-Miller
Janusz Zakrzenski
Adam Kwiatkowski
Marcin Wierzchowski
Maciej Jakubik
Tadeusz Stachelski
Dariusz Jankowski
The Office of the President:
Marzena Pawlak
Doctor of the President Wojciech Lubinski
Russian language Interpreter Aleksander Fedorowicz
Military Ordinary of Polish Army, Military Bishop Tadeusz Ploski
Orthodox Ordinary of Polish Army, Archbishop Miron Chodakowski
Evangelic Military Chaplainry– the Minister of the Church, Colonel Adam Pilch
Military Ordinariate of Polish Army – Father Lieutenant-Colonel Jan Osiński
Secretary-General of the Sibiracy Association Edward Duchnowski
Prelate Jozef Gostomski
President of the Parafiada Association, Father Jozef Joniec
Chaplain of the Warsaw Katyn Families Zdzisław Krol
Chaplain of the Federation of Katyn Families, Father Andrzej Kwasnik
Veterans:
Tadeusz Lutoborski
President of the Polish Katyn Foundation Bozena Mamontowicz-Lojek
President of the Katyn Committee Stefan Melak
Vice-President of the Council for the Protection of Struggle and Martyrdom Stanislaw Mikke
Bronisława Orawiec-Rössler
Katarzyna Piskorska
President of the Federation of Katyn Families Andrzej Sariusz-Skapski
Wojciech Seweryn
Foundation Calvary of the East Leszek Solski
Teresa Walewska-Przyjalkowska
Gabriela Zych
Granddaughter of Brigadier Mieczysław Smorawinski Ewa Bakowska
Anna Borowska
Bartosz Borowski
Dariusz Malinowski
Representatives of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland:
Commander of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland, General Bronislaw Kwiatkowski
Commander of the Air Force of the Republic of Poland, Lieutenant-General Andrzej Blasik
Commander of the Army of the Republic of Poland, Major-General Tadeusz Buk
Commander of the Special Forces of the Republic of Poland, Major-General Wlodzimierz Potasinski
Commander of the Navy of the Republic of Poland, General Andrzej Karweta
Commander of the Warsaw Garrison, Brigadier Kazimierz Gilarski
Functionaries of Government Protection Bureau:
Jarosław Lorczak
Pawel Janeczek
Dariusz Michalowski
Piotr Nosek
Jacek Surowka
Pawel Krajewski
Artur Francuz
Marek Uleryk
Plane crew:
Captain Arkadiusz Protasiuk
Major Robert Grzywna
Lieutenant Artur Zietek
Warrant Officer Andrzej Michalak
Barbara Maciejczyk
Natalia Januszko
Justyna Moniuszko
Prezydent Lech Kaczyński
Żona Prezydenta Maria Kaczyńska
Ostatni prezydent RP na Uchodźstwie Ryszard Kaczorowski
Wicemarszałek Sejmu Krzysztof Putra
Wicemarszałek Sejmu Jerzy Szmajdziński
Wicemarszałek Senatu Krystyna Bochenek
Władysław Stasiak Szef Kancelarii Prezydenta
Aleksander Szczygło szef Biura Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego
Paweł Wypych z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Mariusz Handzlik z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Wiceminister Spraw Zagranicznych Andrzej Kremer
Wiceminister Obrony Narodowej Stanisław Komorowski
Wiceminister Kultury Tomasz Merta
Szef Sztabu Generalnego WP Franciszek Gągor
Sekretarz Generalny Rady Ochrony Pamięci Walk i Męczeństwa Andrzej Przewoźnik
Prezes Stowarzyszenia Wspólnota Polska Maciej Płażyński
Dyrektor Protokołu Dyplomatycznego Mariusz Kazana
Posłowie:
Leszek Deptuła (PSL)
Grzegorz Dolniak (PO)
Grażyna Gęsicka (PiS)
Przemysław Gosiewski (PiS)
Sebastian Karpiniuk (PO)
Izabela Jaruga-Nowacka (Lewica)
Zbigniew Wassermann (PiS)
Aleksandra Natalli-Świat (PiS)
Arkadiusz Rybicki (PO)
Jolanta Szymanek-Deresz (Lewica)
Wiesław Woda (PSL)
Edward Wojtas (PSL)
Senatorowie:
Janina Fetlińska (PiS)
Stanisław Zając (PiS)
Osoby towarzyszące:
Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich Janusz Kochanowski
Prezes NBP Sławomir Skrzypek
Prezes IPN Janusz Kurtyka
Kierownik Urzędu do spraw Kombatantów i Osób Represjonowanych Janusz Krupski
Prezes Naczelnej Rady Adwokackiej Joanna Agatka-Indecka
Doradca prezydenta Jan Krzysztof Ardanowski
Kapelan prezydenta Roman Indrzejczyk
Barbara Mamińska z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Zofia Kruszyńska-Gust z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Izabela Tomaszewska z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Katarzyna Doraczyńska z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Dariusz Gwizdała z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Jakub Opara z Kancelarii Prezydenta
Kanclerz Orderu Wojennego Virtutti Militari, generał brygady Stanisław Nałęcz-Komornicki
Członek Kapituły Orderu Wojennego Virtutti Militari podpułkownik Zbigniew Dębski
Prezes Światowego Związku Żołnierzy AK Czesław Cywiński
Ksiądz Ryszard Rumianek, rektor Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego
Prezes Polskiego Komitetu Olimpijskiego Piotr Nurowski
Anna Walentynowicz
Janina Natusiewicz-Miller
Janusz Zakrzeński
Adam Kwiatkowski
Marcin Wierzchowski
Maciej Jakubik
Tadeusz Stachelski
Dariusz Jankowski
Kancelaria Prezydenta:
Marzena Pawlak
Lekarz prezydenta Wojciech Lubiński
Tłumacz języka rosyjskiego Aleksander Fedorowicz
Ordynariusz polowy Wojska Polskiego, ksiądz generał Tadeusz Płoski
Prawosławny ordynariusz Wojska Polskiego, arcybiskup Miron Chodakowski
Ewangelickie duszpasterstwo polowe - ksiądz pułkownik Adam Pilch
Ordynariat Polowy Wojska Polskiego - ksiądz podpułkownik Jan Osiński
Sekretarz generalny Związku Sybiraków Edward Duchnowski
Ksiądz prałat Józef Gostomski
Prezes stowarzyszenia Parafiada ksiądz Józef Joniec
Kapelan warszawskiej Rodziny Katyńskiej ksiądz Zdzisław Król
Kapelan Federacji Rodzin Katyńskich ksiądz Andrzej Kwaśnik
Kombatanci:
Tadeusz Lutoborski
Prezes Polskiej Fundacji Katyńskiej Bozena Łojek-Mamontowicz
Prezes Komitetu Katyńskiego Stefan Melak
Wiceprzewodniczący Rady Ochrony Pamięci Walk i Męczeństwa Stanisław Mikke
Bronisława Orawiec-Rössler
Katarzyna Piskorska
Prezes Federacji Rodzin Katyńskich Andrzej Sariusz-Skąpski
Wojciech Seweryn
Leszek Solski Fundacja Golgota Wschodu
Teresa Walewska-Przyjałkowska
Gabriela Zych
Ewa Bąkowska, wnuczka gen. bryg. Mieczysława Smorawińskiego
Anna Borowska
Bartosz Borowski
Dariusz Malinowski
Przedstawiciele sił zbrojnych RP:
Dowódca Operacyjny Sił Zbrojnych generał Bronisław Kwiatkowski
Dowódca Sił Powietrznych RP generał broni Andrzej Błasik
Dowódca Wojsk Lądowych RP generał dywizji Tadeusz Buk
Dowódca Wojsk Specjalnych generał dywizji Włodzimierz Potasiński
Dowódca Marynarki Wojennej generał Andrzej Karweta
Dowódca Garnizonu Warszawa generał brygady Kazimierz Gilarski
Funkcjonariusze BOR:
Jarosław Lorczak
Paweł Janeczek
Dariusz Michałowski
Piotr Nosek
Jacek Surówka
Paweł Krajewski
Artur Francuz
Marek Uleryk
Zaloga samolotu
Kapitan Arkadiusz Protasiuk
Major Robert Grzywna
Porucznik Artur Ziętek
Chorąży Andrzej Michalak
Barbara Maciejczyk
Natalia Januszko
Justyna Moniuszko
[picture to the right: the mother fiercely devoted to protecting her young while it was playing in the sea]
The Varanus salvator, commonly known as the (common) water monitor, is native to South and Southeast Asia. They are found throughout Asia, from Sri Lanka, India, Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, and on various Malaysian islands, living in areas close to water. Like all monitor lizards, water monitors are cold-blooded. They eat insects, crabs, mollusks, snakes, eggs, fish, birds, rodents, and other lizards. They enjoy chasing their prey rather than to stalk and ambush, and their forked tongue is used to smell their prey.
The Asian water monitor is one of the largest (squamate) lizards in the world. They can grow to a length of 9 feet and reach a weight of 50 kg! It is outsized by only 2 other lizards, the Komodo dragon and the crocodile monitor. The Komodo can gain more weight than the water monitor, while the crocodile can grow longer – up to 12 feet!
Water monitors have strong legs and are able to run fast – faster than the average human. Living up to its name, one of the most impressive characteristics of the water monitor is that they can not only swim, but remain submerged for up to half an hour.
HABITAT AND ECOLOGY
Asian water monitors are semi-aquatic and opportunistic; they inhabit a variety of natural habitats though predominantly this species resides in primary forests and mangrove swamps. It has been noted that the presence of humans does not deter these monitors from areas of human disturbance. In fact, they have been known to adapt and thrive in agricultural areas as well as cities with canal system (such as Sri Lanka, where they are not hunted or persecuted by humans). This species does not thrive in habitats with extensive loss of natural vegetation and aquatic resources. Habitats that are considered to be most important to this species are mangrove vegetation, swamps, wetlands, and altitudes below 1000m.
BEHAVIOR AND DIET
Water monitors defend themselves using their tails, claws, and jaws. They are excellent swimmers, using the raised fin on their tails to steer through water. They are carnivores, and consume a wide range of prey. They are known to eat fish, frogs, rodents, birds, crabs and snakes. They have also been known to eat turtles, as well as young crocodiles and crocodile eggs.
In dominantly aquatic habitats their semi-aquatic behavior is considered to provide a measure of safety from predators. This paired with their generalist diet is thought to contribute to their ecological plasticity. When hunted by predators such as the King cobra (Ophiophagus Hannah) they will climb up trees using their powerful legs and claws. If this strategic evasion is not enough to avoid danger, they have also been known to jump from trees into streams for safety - a similar behavior to that of the Green iguana (Iguana iguana).
Like the Komodo dragon, the water monitor will often eat carrion. They have a keen sense of smell and can smell a carcass from far away. They are known to feed on dead human bodies. While on the one hand their presence can be helpful in locating a missing person in forensic investigations, on the other hand they can inflict further injuries to the corpse, complicating ascertainment of the cause of death.
Source: Wikipedia
Upper left corner of letter from heaven - heavenly letter (or is it rather: ticket to heaven?)
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I am a devoted amateur photographer based in Western Norway. As this photo has a Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0), or the older 2.0, you are free to use it for Arild Finne Nybø purpose as long as you credit me like this: Photo: Arild Finne Nybø, arny.no
And: Flickr are now charging a fee to keep my account alive, so if you are using Arild Finne Nybø of my photos, please consider buying me a coffee at: www.buymeacoffee.com/arny
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Letter, printed in Copenhagen in 1770 and sold in Norway. Found in Finne, Voss. Kept and and used as amulet / talisman / charm, often framed. Believed to be Gods words, brought to Earth by arch angel St. Michael. These letters can be traced back to medieval times.
Brevet lyder slik (avskrift utført av Arild Nybø):
En Miil fra Sanct Michaels Bierg, boede Mand som heder Just; denne Mand haver talet med GUds Engel, hvilken var klar som en Lue, saa at han ikke kunde see paa han for klarhed Skyld hvorover Manden faldt ned av Forskrækkelse; Men Engelen sagde til ham: Frygt dig ikke! Dig skal intet skade; Men gaae til Præsten og levere ham dette Brev, og siig til hannem: At GUd ikke kand have roe for de Fortryktes Suk og Raab Skyld, thi de faaer ikke være i Fred på Jorden, som de skal ligge udi, baade for de svære Synder som gaae i Svang, og den store Hofmodighed som Menneskene daglig lever i. Dette samme Brev var skrevet med forgyldte Bogstaver, og lyder som efterfølger:
Giv Agt på dette brev:
Den som vanhelliger Sabbaten, han er forkastet, som Skriften siger: Thi raader jeg Eder, at I ikke arbeider om Søndagen, enten på Eders eget eller andres Arbeide, men at I flittig gaae i Kirke, baade Gamle og Unge, for at høre GUds Ord med Andagt. I haver 6 dage i Ugen til at giøre Eders Arbeide paa; Sabbaten skal I holde reen og hellig: Den, som ikke det giør, skal blive straffede, baade Gamle og Unge. I skal ikke smuke Eders Ansikt eller kruuse Eders Haar, og dermed bedrive Hoffart, som HErren selv i sit hellige Ord har forbudet. Afbeder hver hos GUd Eders Synder, paa det de maae Eder forlades; Bedriver ikke Ondt i mit Navn, thi jeg haver skabt Eder af Intet, og jeg kan gjøre Eder til Intet igien. Ærer Eders Foræeldre med Ord og Gierninger, sa skal I have Lykke og Velsignelse baade her og hisset. I skal ikke slaae ihiel; I skal ikke bedrive Hoer; I skal ikke Stiele; I skal ikke sige halft Vidnesbyrd, men tale Sandhed; I skal ikke begiere eders Næstes Gods, 2C (?). Hver den som ikke troer GUds Ord, han bliver fordømt; men hvem som troer det, skal have Løn og Velsignelse af GUd. Hvo dette Brev haver i sit Huus, og ikke aabenbarer disse GUds Befalinger, den er ingen ret Christen; men hvo som lever derefter, om de end havde saa mange Synder som Sand i Havet, Løv og Græs på Jorden, samt Stierner paa Himmelen, skal de alle ved en sand Troe paa Eders Forløser forlades Eder; men den, som ikke troer, skal ikke undgaae Døden. Og dersom I ikke omvender Eder, saa skal I vorde evig fordømt. GUd skal spørge Eder paa den sidste Dag, da kand I ikke svare hannem Eet til Tusinde for Eders mange Synder.
Hvo dette Brev haver i sit Huus, eller hos sig, og giør derefter, hannem skal da Jorden og Veiret ikke skade, men alltid bevares for Ild og Vand, ja ham skal vederfares alt Godt. Holder GUds Bud, som Han haver givet Eder, og aflægger Hofærdighed, Fraadserie og Drukkenskab, GUds Ords Foragt og Bespottelse. Havde de GUdsfrygtiges Bøn og Raab ikke været, saa havde der ikke kommet Regn paa Jorden i lang Tid; med dersom I ikke omvender Eder, da skal Verden snart forgaae. Der skal blive saadan Krig og Blods Utgydelse, at den eene intet kan kiende den anden. Der skal blive saa stor Hunder og Elendighed, at en Moder skal æde sit eget barn. Ja, der skal blive sådan Sygdom og Pestilentse, at den, som lægger sit frisk og sund om Aftenen, skal om Morgenen være død. Der skal blive saa stor Jammer og Elendighed, at Menneskerne skal raabe: Hvor finde vi Trøst, vi Arme og Elendige, som ikke har omvendt os fra vores Synd og Ondskab? Men dersom I omvender Eder, saa skal I fornemme, at et Menneske paa Hundrede Aar skal ansees for Tredsindtyve Aar. Eders Næring skal forøges, Sorg og Bedrøvelse skal forminskes, siger HErren Eders GUd. Det Menneske er forbandet, som ikke lever efter dette Brev;
Men den, som giør derefter, den skal blomstre af Velsignelse, det er aabenbaret.
Kiøbenhavn Aar 1770, trykt hos J. R. Thiele.
Les om tilsvarande "himmelbreve" hos Thisted Museum (PDF).
Himmelbrev - utdrag frå tekst av av Knut L. Espelid:
Himmelbrevet er enkeltblads trykk med tresnitt-illustrasjoner, ofte i farger. Det gir seg ut for å være skrevet av Gud selv og bragt til jorden av engelen Michael. Brevet forekommer i mange varianter, men dets budskap er stort sett det samme: man skal helligholdesøndagen og følge Guds bud. Den som tror på brevet vil gå lykke og velsignelse.
Himmelbrevene kan spores tilbake til tidlig middelalder. Til grunn for dem ligger apokryfe evangelier og troen på ar Gud åpenbarer seg for menneskene gjennem skriftelige meddelelser. Som litteratur utgjør de en interessant gren av den felles-europeiske folkelitteratur.
I Danmark-Norge hadde brevene lenge vært kjent, men det første dansk- trykte brev, en oversettelse fra tysk, kom først i København i 1720. Billedet viser en senere utgave av dette brev.
Les meir om himmelbrev hos Universitetet i Bergen og hos Aust-Agder Kulturhistoriske senter.
Om trykkeriet:
Thiele, københavnsk bogtrykkerslægt. Johan Rudolph T. (1736-1815) indvandrede fra Tyskland til Danmark og oprettede i 1770 et bogtrykkeri i København. Ved devalueringen i 1813 mistede han sin formue, og sønnen Hans Henrik T. (1787-1839) måtte føre firmaet videre under vanskelige forhold, der dog bedredes, da der i 1831 kom et samarbejde i gang med Nationalbanken. Tredje generation, brødrene Just T. (1823-1876) og Andreas T. (1825-1907), overtog firmaet i 1846. De indførte en hurtigpresse i 1849 og anvendte dampkraft fra 1853. I 1860 overgik det meste af Nationalbankens arbejde til firmaet, som desuden trykte de danske frimærker fra 1851 og stempelmærker fra 1861. I 1874 fik firmaet tillige leverancen af pengesedler til Finland. I 1901 overtog Just Thieles svigersøn Søren Wedege (1858-1933) virksomheden. Efterhånden som staten selv overtog fremstillingen af de forskellige tryksager, gik firmaet tilbage og måtte i 1926 træde i likvidation. (Klikk her for kjelde.)
Badami formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from 540 to 757 AD. It is famous for its rock cut structural temples. It is located in a ravine at the foot of a rugged, red sandstone outcrop that surrounds Agastya lake. Badami has been selected as one of the heritage cities for HRIDAY - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India.
HISTORY
- Dravidian architecture - Badami Chalukyas
- Hindu temple architecture - Badami Chalukya architecture
- Political history of medieval Karnataka - Badami Chalukyas
- Architecture of Karnataka - Badami Chalukya architecture
- Chalukyas of Badami
PRE-HISTORIC
Badami is surrounded by many pre-historic places including Khyad area of Badami, Hiregudda, Sidlaphadi and Kutkankeri (Junjunpadi, Shigipadi and Anipadi), there we can see the rock shelters megalithic burial sites and paintings.
BADAMI CHALUKYAS AND OTHER DYNASTIES
MYTHOLOGY
The Puranic story says the wicked asura Vatapi was killed by sage Agastya (as per Agastya-Vatapi story), the area in which the incident happened so named as Vatapi. At Aihole there was a merchant guild known as Ayyavole Ainuravaru lived in the area have reformed. As per scholar Dr. D. P. Dikshit, the first Chalukya king was Jayasimha (a feudatory lord in the Kadamba dynasty), who in 500 AD established the Chalukya kingdom. His grandson Pulakeshin Ibuilt a fort at Vatapi.
BADAMI CHALUKYAS
It was founded in 540 AD by Pulakeshin I (535-566 AD), an early ruler of the Chalukyas. His sons Kirtivarma I (567-598 AD) and his brother Mangalesha (598-610 AD) constructed the cave temples.Kirtivarma I strengthened Vatapi and had three sons Pulakeshin II, Vishnuvardhana and Buddhavarasa, who at his death were minors, thus making them ineligible to rule, so Kirtivarma I's brother Mangalesha took the throne and tried to establish rule, only to be killed by Pulakeshin II who ruled between 610 A.D to 642 A.D. Vatapi was the capital of the Early Chalukyas, who ruled much of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Few parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh between the 6th and 8th centuries. The greatest among them was Pulakeshin II (610-642 AD) who defeated many kings including the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
The rock-cut Badami Cave Temples were sculpted mostly between the 6th and 8th centuries. The four cave temples represent the secular nature of the rulers then, with tolerance and a religious following that inclines towards Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. cave 1 is devoted to Shiva, and Caves 2 and 3 are dedicated to Vishnu, whereas cave 4 displays reliefs of Jain Tirthankaras. Deep caverns with carved images of the various incarnations of Hindu gods are strewn across the area, under boulders and in the red sandstone. From an architectural and archaeological perspective, they provide critical evidence of the early styles and stages of the southern Indian architecture.
The Pallavas under the king Narasimhavarma I seized it in 642 AD & destroyed the vatapi. Pulakeshin II's son Vikramaditya I of Chalukyas drove back Pallavas in 654 AD and led a successful attack on Kanchipuram, the capital of Pallavas. Then Rashtrakutas came to power in Karnataka including Badami around 757 AD and the town lost its importance. Later it was ruled by the Hoysalas.
Then it passed on to Vijayanagara empire, The Adil Shahis, Mughal Empire, The Savanur Nawabs (They were vassals of Nizams and Marathas), The Maratha, Hyder Ali. The Britishers made it part of the Bombay Presidency.
INSCRIPTIONS
Badami has eighteen inscriptions, among them some inscriptions are important. The first Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script, on a hillock dates back to 543 CE, from the period of Pulakeshin I (Vallabheswara), the second is the 578 CE cave inscription of Mangalesha in Kannada language and script and the third is the Kappe Arabhatta records, the earliest available Kannada poetry in tripadi (three line) metre. one inscription near the Bhuthanatha temple also has inscriptions dating back to the 12th century in Jain rock-cut temple dedicated to the Tirtankara Adinatha.
VATAPI GANAPATI
In the Carnatic music and Hamsadhwani raga the Vatapi Ganapatim Bhaje by the composer Muthuswami Dikshitar. The idol of Vatapi Ganapati brought from Badami by Pallavas, is now in the Uthrapathiswaraswamy Temple, near Thanjavur of Tamil Nadu.
In 7th century, Vatapi Ganapati idol was brought from Badami (Vatapi - Chalukya capital) by Pallava who defeated Chalukyas.
TOURISM
Landmarks in Badami include cave temples, gateways, forts, inscriptions and sculptures.
- A Buddhist cave in a natural setting that can be entered only by crawling on knees.
- The Bhuhtanatha temple, a small shrine, facing the lake, constructed in 5th century.
- Badami Fort situated on top of the hill.
- Many Shivalayas including the Malegatti Shivalaya with 7th century origins.
- The Dattatreya temple.
- The Mallikarjuna temple dating back to the 11th century, built on a star shaped plan.
- a Dargah, a dome of an Islamic place of worship on the south fort side.
- Vista points on top of the North Fort for the view of the ancient town below.
- Temple of Banashankari, a Kuladevata (family deity) for many families, is located near Badami.
- Archaeological museum, that has collection of sculptures from Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal.
BADAMI CAVE TEMPLES
The Badami cave temples are a complex of four cave temples located at Badami, a town in the Bagalkot district in the north part of Karnataka, India. They are considered an example of Indian rock-cut architecture, especially Badami Chalukya architecture initiated during the 6th century. Badami was previously known as Vataapi Badami, the capital of the early Chalukya dynasty, who ruled much of Karnataka from middle of the sixth until the middle of the eighth centuries. Badami is situated on the west bank of an artificial lake filled with greenish water dammed by an earthen wall faced with stone steps. Badami is surrounded in the north and south by forts built in later times from the ramparts that crown their summits.
The Badami cave temples represent some of the earliest known experimentation of Hindu temple prototypes for later temples in the Indian peninsula. Along with Aihole, states UNESCO, their pioneering designs transformed the Malaprabha river valley into a cradle of Temple Architecture, whose ideas defined the components of later Hindu Temples elsewhere. Caves 1 to 3 feature Hindu themes of Shiva and Vishnu, while Cave 4 features Jain icons. There is also a Buddhist Cave 5 which has been converted into a Hindu temple of Vishnu. Another cave identified in 2013 has a number of carvings of Vishnu and other Hindu deities, and water is seen gushing out through the cave all the time.
GEOGRAPHY
The Badami cave temples are located in the Badami town in the north central part of Karnataka, India. The temples are about 110 km northeast from Hubli-Dharwad, the second largest metropolitan area of the state. Malaprabha river is 4.8 km away. Badami, also referred to as Vatapi, Vatapipuri and Vatapinagari in historical texts, and the 6th-century capital of Chalukya dynasty, is at the exit point of the ravine between two steep mountain cliffs. Four cave temples have been excavated in the escarpment of the hill to the south-east of the town above the artificial lake called Agastya Lake created by an earthen dam faced with stone steps. To the west end of this cliff, at its lowest point, is the first cave temple dedicated to Shiva, followed by a cave north east to it dedicated to Vishnu but is at a much higher level. The largest is Cave 3, mostly a Vaishnava cave, is further to the east on the northern face of the hill. The first three caves are dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses including Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The fourth cave, dedicated to Jainism, is a short distance away.
HISTORY OF CAVE TEMPLES
The cave temples, numbered 1 to 4 in the order of their creation, identified in the town of Badami, the capital city of the Chalukya kingdom (also known as Early Chalukyas) are dated from the late 6th century onwards. The exact dating is known only for cave 3 which is a Brahmanical temple dedicated to Vishnu. An inscription found here records the creation of the shrine by Mangalesha in Saka 500 (lunar calendar, spanning 578 to 579 CE). These inscriptions are in Kannada language, and have been the source for dating these rock cave temples to the 6th-century. The Badami caves complex are part of the UNESCO inscribed World Heritage Site under the title "Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal" in the Malaprabha river valley which is considered a cradle of Temple Architecture, which formed the template for later Hindu temples in the region. The art work in Cave 1 and Cave 2 exhibit the northern Deccan style of 6th- and 7th-century, while those in Cave 3 show a simultaneous co-exhibition of two different ancient Indian artistic traditions – the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles. The Cave 3 also shows icons and reliefs in the Vesara style – a creative fusion of ideas from the two styles, as well as some of the earliest surviving historical examples of yantra-chakra motifs and colored fresco paintings in Karnataka. The first three caves feature sculpture of Hindu icons and legends focusing on Shiva and Vishnu, while Cave 4 features Jain icons and themes.
TEMPLE CAVES
The Badami cave temples are composed of mainly four caves, all carved out of the soft Badami sandstone on a hill cliff, dated to the late 6th to 7th centuries. The planning of four caves (1 to 4) is simple. The entrance is a verandah (mukha mandapa) with stone columns and brackets, a distinctive feature of these caves, leading to a columned mandapa – main hall (also maha mandapa) and then to the small square shrine (sanctum sanctorum, garbhaghrha) cut deep into the cave. The cave temples are linked by stepped path with intermediate terraces looking over the town and lake. Cave temples are labelled 1–4 in their ascending series even though this numbering does not necessarily reflect the sequence of excavation.
The cave temples are dated to 6th to 8th century, with an inscription dated to 579 CE. The inscriptions are in old Kannada script. The architecture includes structures built in Nagara style and Dravidian style which is the first and most persistent architectural idiom to be adopted by the early chalukyas There is also the fifth natural cave temple in Badami – a Buddhist temple, a natural cave, which can be entered kneeling on all fours.
CAVE 1
The cave is just about 18 m above the street level on the northwest part of the hill. Access is through series of steps which depict carvings of dwarfish ganas (with "bovine and equine heads") in different postures. The verandah with 21 m length with a width of 20 m in the interior, has four columns all sculpted with reliefs of the god Shiva in different dancing positions and different incarnations. The guardian dwarapalas at the entrance to the cave stand to a height of 1.879 m.
The cave portrays the Tandava-dancing Shiva, as Nataraja. The image, (1.5 m tall, has 18 arms, in a form that express the dance positions arranged in a geometric pattern, which Alice Boner states, is a time division symbolizing the cosmic wheel. Some of the arms hold objects while most express mudras (symbolic hand postures). The objects include drums, trident and axe. Some arms also have serpents coiled around them. Shiva has his son Ganesha and the bull Nandi by his side. Adjoining to the Nataraja, a wall depicts the goddess Durga, depicted slaying the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. Elsewhere, the two sons of Shiva, Ganesha and Kartikkeya, the god of war and family deity of the Chalukya dynasty are seen in one of the carved sculptures on the walls of the cave with Kartikkeya riding a peacock.
The cave also has carved sculptures of the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati flanking Harihara, a 2.36 m high sculpture of a fused image that is half Shiva and half Vishnu. To the right, Ardhanarishvara, a composite androgynous form of Shiva and his consort Parvati, is sculpted towards the end of the walls. All the carved sculptures show ornaments worn by them, as well as borders with reliefs of various animals and birds. Lotus design is a common theme. On the ceiling are images of the Vidyadhara couples. Through a cleavage in the back side of the cave is a square sanctuary with more images carved.
Other prominent images in the cave are Nandi, the bull, in the sculptural form of Dharmadeva, the god of justice, Bhringi, a devotee of Shiva, a female decorated goddess holding a flat object in her left hand, which are all part of Ardhanarishvara described earlier. The roof in the cave has five carved panels with the central panel depicting the serpent Shesha. The head and bust are well formed and project boldly from the centre of the coil. In another compartment a bass-relief of 0.76 m diameter has carvings of a male and female; the male is Yaksha carrying a sword and the female is Apsara with a flying veil. The succeeding panel has carvings of two small figures; and the panel at the end is carved with lotuses.
CAVE 2
Cave 2, facing north, to the west of Cave 3, created in late 6th century AD, is almost same as cave 1 in terms of its layout and dimensions but it is dedicated primarily to Vishnu. Cave is reached by climbing 64 steps from the first cave. The cave entrance is the verandah, divided by four square pillars, which has carvings from its middle section to the top where there are yali brackets with sculptures within them. The cave is adorned with reliefs of guardians. Like the Cave 1, the cave art carved is a pantheon of Hindu divinities.
The largest relief in Cave 2 shows Vishnu as Trivikrama – with one foot on Earth and another – directed to the north. Other representations of Vishnu in this cave include Varaha (boar) where he is shown rescuing Bhudevi (symbolism for earth) from the depths of ocean, and Krishna avatars – legends found in Hindu Puranas text such as the Bhagavata Purana. Like other major murti (forms) in this and other Badami caves, the Varaha sculpture is set in a circle, the panel is an upright rectangle, states Alice Boner, whose "height is equal to the octopartite directing circle and sides are aligned to essential geometric ratios, in this case to the second vertical chord of the circle". The doorway is framed by pilasters carrying an entablature with three blocks embellished with gavaksha ornament. The entrance of the cave also has two armed guardians holding flowers rather than weapons. The end walls of the outer verandah is occupied by sculpted panels, to the right, Trivikrama; to the left, Varaha rescuing Bhudevi, with a penitent multi-headed snake (Nag) below. The adjacent side walls and ceiling have traces of colored paintwork, suggesting that the cave used to have fresco paintings. The columns show gods and battle scenes, the churning of cosmic ocean (Samudra Manthan), Gajalakshmi and figures, Brahma, Vishnu asleep on Shesha, illustrations of the birth of Krishna, Krishna's youth, Krishna with gopis and cows.
The ceiling of Cave 2 shows a wheel with sixteen fish spokes in a square frame along with swastikas and flying couples. The end bays have a flying couple and Vishnu on Garuda.[8] The main hall in the cave is 10.16 m in width, 7.188 m deep and 3.45 m high and is supported by eight square pillars in two rows. The roof of this hall has panels which have carvings. At the upper end of the wall a frieze runs all along the wall with engravings of episodes from the Krishna or Vishnu legends.
The sculptures of Cave 2, like Cave 1, are of the northern Deccan style of 6th-and 7th-century similar to that found in Ellora caves.
CAVE 3
The Cave 3 is dedicated to Vishnu, and is the most intricately carved and the biggest. It has well carved giant figures of Trivikrama, Anantasayana, Paravasudeva, Bhuvaraha, Harihara and Narasimha. The theme on which the Cave 3 is carved is primarily Vaishnavite, however the cave also shows Harihara on its southern wall – half Vishnu and half Shiva shown fused as one, making the cave important to Shaivism studies as well. Cave 3, facing north, is 60 steps away from the Cave 2. This cave temple's veranda, 21 m in length with an interior width of 20 m, has been sculpted 15 m deep into the mountain, and an added square shrine at the end extends the cave some 3.7 m further inside. The verandah itself is 2.1 m wide and has four free standing carved pillars separating it from the hall. The cave is 4.6 m high, supported by six pillars each measuring 0.76 m square. Each column and pilaster is carved with wide and deep bases crowned by capitals which are camouflaged by brackets on three sides. Each bracket, except for one bracket, has carvings of standing human figures, under foliage in different postures, of a male and female mythological characters, along with attendant figure of a dwarf. A moulded cornice in the facia, with a dado of blocks below it (generally in 2.1 m lengths), have about thirty compartments carved with series of two fat dwarfs called ganas. The cave shows a Kama scene on one pillar, where a woman and man are in maithuna (erotic) embrace beneath a tree.
Cave 3 also shows fresco paintings on the ceiling, but some of these are faded, broken and unclear. These are among the earliest known and surviving evidence of fresco painting in Indian art.[14] The Hindu god Brahma is seen in one of the murals, while the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, attended by various Hindu deities, is the theme of another. There is a lotus medallion on the floor underneath the mural of four armed Brahma. The sculpture is well preserved, and a large number of Vishnu's reliefs including standing Vishnu with 8 arms, Vishnu seated on a hooded serpent called Sesha or Ananta on the eastern side of the verandha, Vishnu as Narasimha (half human – half lion), Varaha fully armed, a boar incarnation of Vishnu in the back wall of the cave, Harihara (a syncretic sculpture of Vishnu and Shiva), and Trivikrama avatars. The back wall also has carvings of Vidhyadaras holding offerings to Varaha, and adjoining this is an inscription dated 579 AD with the name Mangalis inscribed on it. At one end of the pilaster there is a sculpture of the fourth incarnation of Vishnu as Vamana shown with eight arms called Ashtabhuja decorated with various types of weapons. A crescent moon is crafted above his face, crown of Vishnu decorates his head and is flanked by Varaha and two other figures and below on his right is his attendant Garuda. The images in front of Vamana are three figures of Bali and his wife with Shukra, his councilor. Reliefs stand 4 metres tall. The culture and clothing embedded in the sixth century is visible in the art sculpted in this cave. The roof in the verandha has seven panels created by cross beams, each is painted in circular compartments with images of Shiva, Vishnu, Indra, Brahma, Kama and so forth with smaller images of Dikpalas (cardinal guardians) with geometric mosaics filling the gaps at the corners.
The front aisle's roof has panels with murals in the center of male and female figurines flying in the clouds; the male figure is yaksha holding a sword and a shield. Decoration of lotus blooms are also seen on the panels. The roof in the hall is divided into nine panels slightly above the level of the ceiling. The central panel here depicts a deva mounted on a ram – conjectured as Agni. Images of Brahma and Varuna are also painted in the central panels while the floating figures are seen in the balance panels.
CAVE 4
The Cave 4, to the east of Cave 3, excavated around 650 AD, is located higher than other caves. It is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism and was constructed last among all the caves. It also features detailed carvings and diverse range of motifs. The cave has five bayed entrance with four square columns with brackets and capitals, and to the back of this verandah is a hall with two standalone and two joined pillars. The first aisle is a verandah 9.4 m in length, 2.0 m wide and extends to 4.9 m deep. From the hall, steps lead to the sanctum sanctorum, which is 7.8 m wide extending to a depth of 1.8 m. On the back part of this, Mahavira is represented, sitting on lion throne, flanked by bas-reliefs of attendants with chauri (fans), sardulas and makara's heads. The end walls have Parshvanath (about 2.3 m tall) with his head decorated to represent protection and reverence by a multi-headed cobra, Indrabhuti Gautama covered by four snakes and Bahubali are seen; Bahubali is present to the left of Gautama shown with his lower legs surrounded by snakes along with his daughters Brahmi and Sundari. The sanctum, which is adorned by the image of Mahavira, has pedestal which contains an old Kannada inscription of the 12th century A.D. which registers the death of one Jakkave. Many Jaina Tirthankara images have been engraved in the inner pillars and walls. In addition, there are some idols of Yakshas, Yakshis, Padmavati and other Tirthankaras. Some scholars also assign the cave to the 8th century.
CAVE 5
It is a natural cave of small dimensions, undated, is approached by crawling as it has a narrow opening. Inside, there is a carved statue seated over a sculpted throne with reliefs showing people holding chauris (fans), tree, elephants and lions in an attacking mode. The face of this statue was reasonably intact till about 1995, and is now damaged and missing. There are several theories as to who the statue represents.
The first theory states that it is a Buddha relief, in a sitting posture. Those holding the chauris are Bodhisattvas flanking the Buddha, states this theory, and that the cave has been converted to a Hindu shrine of Vishnu, in later years, as seen from the white religious markings painted on the face of the Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu. Shetti suggests that the cave was not converted, but from the start represented a tribute to Mayamoha of the Hindu Puranas, or Buddhavatara Vishnu, its style suggesting it was likely carved in or before 8th century CE.
The second theory, found in colonial era texts such as one by John Murray, suggested that the main image carved in the smallest fifth cave is that of Jaina figure.
The third theory, by Henry Cousens as well as A. Sundara, and based by local legends, states that the statue is of an ancient king because the statue's photo, when its face was not damaged, lacked Ushnisha lump that typically goes with Buddha's image. Further, the statue has unusual non-Buddha ornaments such as rings for fingers, necklace and chest-band, it wears a Hindu Yajnopavita thread, and its head is stylistically closer to a Jina head than a Buddha head. These features suggest that the statue may be of a king represented with features of various traditions. The date and identity of the main statue in Cave 5, states Bolon, remains enigmatic.
OTHER CAVES
In 2013, Manjunath Sullolli reported the discovery of another cave with 27 rock carvings, about 500 metres from the four caves, from which water gushes year round. It depicts Vishnu and other Hindu deities, and features inscription in Devanagari script. The dating of these carvings is unknown.
OTHER TEMPLES AT BADAMI
On the north hill, there are three temples, of which Malegitti-Shivalaya is perhaps the oldest temple and also the finest in Badami, and has a Dravidian tower. Out of the two inscriptions found here, one states that Aryaminchi upadhyaya, as the sculptor who got this temple constructed and the other dated 1543 speaks of the erection of a bastion during the Vijayanagara rule. The lower Shivalaya has a Dravidian tower, and only the sanctum remains now.
Jambhulinga temple, situated in the town, is presumably the oldest known trikutachala temple in Karnataka. An inscription dated 699 ascribes construction of this temple to Vinayavathi mother of Emperor Vijayaditya.
The place also has Agasthya Tirtha, temples of Goddess Yellamma, Mallikarjuna, Datttreya and Virupaksha. Bhuthanatha group of temples are most important in Badami.
BADAMI FORT
Badami fort lies east of the Bhuthnatha temple, atop a cliff right opposite the Badami cave temples. The entrance to this temple is right through the Badami museum. It is a steep climb with many view points and dotted with little shrines. The path is laid with neatly cut stone, the same that adores all the architecture around.
ETYMOLOGY
The name Vatapi has origin in the Vatapi legend of Ramayana relating to Sage Agastya.There were two demon siblings Vatapi and Ilvala. They used to kill all mendicants by tricking them in a peculiar way. The elder Ilvala would turn Vatapi into a ram and would offer its meat to the guest. As soon as the person ate the meat, Ilvala would call out the name of Vatapi. As he had a boon that whomsoever Ilvala calls would return from even the netherland, Vatapi would emerge ripping through the body of the person, thus killing him. Their trick worked until Sage Agastya countered them by digesting Vatapi before Ilvala could call for him, thus ending the life of Vatapi at the hands of Ilvala. Two of the hills in Badami represent the demons Vatapi and Ilvala.
It is also believed that name Badami has come from colour of its stone (badam - Almond).
CULTURE
The main language is Kannada. The local population wears traditional Indian cotton wear.
GEOGRAPHY
Badami is located at 15.92°N 75.68°E. It has an average elevation of 586 metres. It is located at the mouth of a ravine between two rocky hills and surrounds Agastya tirtha water reservoir on the three other sides. The total area of the town is 10.3 square kilometers.
It is located 30 kilometers from Bagalkot, 128 kilometers from Bijapur, 132 kilometers from Hubli, 46 kilometers from Aihole, another ancient town, and 589 kilometers from Bangalore, the state capital.
WIKIPEDIA
This girl was here to watch EO for the 137th time since February, her Hooter plush is original from Tokyo Disney.
Short video clips, attempted to film the info on the wall in this small room, devoted to the history of the Civil War regarding Sulgrave Manor and the Washington family.
The Washington's sided with the Royalists and fled to the American Colonies in the 1650s.
Armour and a drum probably used during the civil war (or something like this).
Sulgrave Manor is a Grade I listed building.
Manor house. Built c.1540-60 by Lawrence Washington, who acquired the Manor in 1539. c.1673 it passed to the Rev. Moses Hodges, whose son John made alterations to the house c.1700 and added the north-east wing. By the late C18 the house had become a farm and part was demolished. Of the centre, only the right half with the porch is original. The left half was rebuilt by Sir Reginald Blomfield who restored the house in 1920-30. Coursed limestone rubble, rendered porch, stone slate roof, brick and stone stacks. L-plan, through passage. 2 storeys and attic, 3 bays. Gabled 2-storey porch in centre has entrance with 4-centred arch under square hood with Washington arms in the spandrels. Washington coat of arms in plaster above, 3-light window with wood lintel and old iron casement on first floor. Plaster coat of arms of Queen Elizabeth I in the gable and a traingular device in plaster, said to be the wool stapler's symbol, at the apex. Inner doorway has 4-centred wood arch and C20 panelled door. 4-light wood mullioned and transomed windows with wood lintels on the ground floor. 4-light wood mullioned windows with wood lintels on the first floor. Coped left gable end with kneelers. Former brewhouse, now offices, attached to house by short stone wall to north. Probably c.1700, remodelled C20 by Sir Reginald Blomfield. Coursed limestone rubble, stone slate roof, one storey and loft. 4 bays. 2 doorways with wood lintels in plank doors to left, two C20 windows with wood mullion to right. Interior: Side walls of porch have large C16 plaster figures of a lion and dragon. Great Hall has screen designed by Blomfield and original open Fireplace with moulded timber 4-centred arch and stone jambs. Ceiling with moulded cross beams forming 24 square panels. The windows contain reproductions of stained glass arms of the Washington family. The originals are in Fawsley Church and Weston Hall. Oak Parlour on the ground floor has early C18 fireplace with moulded stone surround and panelled walls and overmantel of the same date. In the kitchen is a large open fireplace with ovens. Late C17 staircase with twisted balusters. The Great Chamber, on the first floor, has a fireplace similar to that in the hall and an open timber roof of 2-bays with central cambered collar beam and central moulded pendant, and arched braces carved on moulded wood corbel. Interior of former brew- house not inspected. Lawrence Washington was a wool merchant and became mayor of Northampton in 1532. In 1610 Sulgrave Manor was purchased by his grandson, Lawrence Makepeace. It was sold in 1659 and had no further connection with the Washington family. In 1914 it was purchased as a memorial to George Washington. (H. Clifford Smith, Sulgrave Manor and the Washingtons, London 1933).
This trek offers an outstanding combination of amazing mountain and valley scenery in a remote area, the visit will really get an in-site into the Authentic Quechua Communities and see thatched stone houses surrounded by herds of llamas and alpacas, and even guinea pigs running loose inside the houses. This hike starts in the Lares Valley and village of the same name, where you can enjoy a night dip in its relaxing hot springs, to then follow to the Andean communities of Huacahuasi, Patacancha and Willoq, reaching the village of Aguas Calientes on the third night, after a 2-hour train-ride from Ollantaytambo. Finally, the fourth day is devoted to visiting the impressive Inca citadel of Machupicchu
Package Name:Lares Trek
Duration: 4 Days / 3 Nights
Type of Trek : Alternative Trek to Machu Picchu
Group Size : To suit group requirements - (no more than 12 Persons)
Difficulty degree of this hike: Moderate / Challenge
Departures Day:
Daily Departures - Small Groups
All private service departure dates are adapted to your request.
A minimum of 2 persons is needed for this trek
Activities: Adventure / Trekking / Biking / Ecological/
High Season: April - November
Route: Closed in February
Lares Trek Itinerary:
Day 1: Cusco - Lares (Hot Spring)
Day 2: Lares (Hot Spring) - Ipsaycocha)
Day 3: Ipsaycocha - Patacancha - Ollantaytambo - Aguas Calientes
Day 4: Aguas Calienties - Machu Picchu - Cusco
Day 1: Cusco - Lares (Hot Spring)
We leave Cusco at 6:00am in a private transport and drive for an approximated 4h through part of the Sacred Valley to then head towards Lares (3100m/10168ft), a little rural village located in the beautiful valley of the same name, hosting some well-known hot springs. Upon arrival, we leave our equipment and continue towards Choquecancha, an impressive archaeological site with amazing views of the neighboring valleys. After our visit, we hike back to Lares, where we can enjoy an evening dip in its hot springs before or after our dinner is served. Our camp will be set next to the thermal baths and access is free the whole night.
Day 2: Lares (Hot Spring) - Ipsaycocha)
After an early wake up and breakfast, we meet our horsemen and horses and leave our campsite at around 9.00am to walk along an ascending path that will lead us to Huacahuasi, (3600m/11808ft). This remote Andean community is located in an impressive valley, where the typical lifestyle and house constructions of the Quechua communities living at high altitude can be appreciated. We stop to visit a typical house and family, before we enjoy our lunch. In the early afternoon, we continue our hike ascending toward the mountain pass of Ipsay (4450m/14596ft/3h), walking across little communities and Andean flats (pampas) with the presence of llamas and alpacas. The pass offers impressive views of Mount Veronica and the surrounding snow-capped peaks. Just half an hour from this point is Ipsayqocha, a beautiful lagoon next to which we set our camp and spend the night, amidst awesome scenery.
Day 3: Ipsaycocha - Patacancha - Ollantaytambo - Aguas Calientes
After two full days of hiking today is much easier. After an early breakfast we walk downhill through a wide-open valley for about 2½ hours until we arrive at the village of Patacancha. We will have a chance to view some textiles made by the people of this community - the high quality weavings are famous for their intricate designs reflecting aspects of their everyday lives and culture. After we also get the chance to walk slowly down the valley to Willoq, another Quechua village where the locals still wear their traditional dress and are proud to maintain their cultural identity. From Patacancha we will take our transport further down the valley to Inca town of Ollantaytambo where we will rest and have lunch, then catch our afternoon train to AguasCalientes. This is an amazing journey that starts in the Quechua highlands and slowly descends to lush tropical vegetation as we near AguasCalientes. Total journey time about 1½ hours. Tonight we stay in the small quaint town of Machu Picchu.
Day 4: Aguas Calienties - Machu Picchu - Cusco
5 am breakfast then at 5.30am we get the bus to Machu Picchu. We need to depart early so those who wish to climb Huayna Picchu will need to sign up before the 2 hour guided tour. During your visit to these ancient ruins you will see clouds fly past and Machu Picchu will disappear with in them, so make sure you take pictures whilst the ruins are visible. After the tour you will have free time to explore the mountain of Huayna Picchu overlooking all of Machu Picchu - by far the best view! Huayna Picchu will take approximately 2 hours return trip. It is now your choice to enjoy lunch just outside the ruins or take the bus back to AguasCalientes to explore this small and quaint village. The train back to Cusco departs late afternoon so your estimated time of arrival is approximately 9pm.village. The train back to Cusco departs late afternoon so your estimated time of arrival is approximately 9pm.
What is Included:
English speaking guide
Pre-departure information meeting,
Machu Picchu entrance fees.
First aid kit, portable oxygen Tank,
3 night accommodation in tourist hostel,
Transfers,
Bus ticket Aguas Calientes Machu Picchu - Aguas Calientes,
Expedition train ticket Aguas Calientes - Ollantayatmbo,
Transfer from Ollantaytambo - Cusco Hotel
What is NOT Included:
International air fares to Peru,
Domestic flights, airport taxes,
Meals other than those specified in your itinerary,
Personal insurance.
Recomended Things To Take
Sleeping bag (you can rent at Cusco Expeditions office).
Bottle of mineral water.
Rain gear and/or plastic poncho (can be purchase in Cusco).
Hiking boots.
Warm jacket or fleece, t-shirts, shorts, long pants, sun hat and wool hat.
Flashlight.
Sun block.
Insect repellent.
Toilet paper and garbage bag.
Small towel and bathing suit (hot springs optional).
Camera, extra film and extra batteries.
Snacks, chocolates, energy bars.
Emergency money.
Walking stick (optional).
CALL US We are ready to take your call.
Call us: Telephone: (+51) (84) 632307, Telefax: (+51) (84) 632307
Cell Phone: (+51) (84) 974727031 / 958191179 / 984567085 (24 hours available)
Address: Triunfo Street 392 - Centro Artesanal Arte Inka 2nd Floor 212 - Main Square of Cusco
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Website: www.cuscoexpeditions.com/
Copyright © 2010 - 2020 Cusco Expeditions E.I.R.L. - Peruvian Tour Operator - Travel Agency
Having recently devoted much of my free time to photographing jumping spiders, I decided to have a go at focus stacking using Photoshop CC, this image was created from two handheld shots - in time, with practice and patience I hope to be able to create 4 or more image stacks of Salticids.
My Facebook photo page - goo.gl/uSlSi6
My website - goo.gl/LTQ3Mm
In Darkest England and the Way Out By General William Booth
(from the 1890 1st ed. pub. The Salvation Army)
"To the memory of the companion, counsellor, and comrade of nearly 40 years. The sharer of my every ambition for the welfare of mankind, my loving, faithful, and devoted wife this book is dedicated.
PREFACE
The progress of The Salvation Army in its work amongst the poor and lost of many lands has compelled me to face the problems which an more or less hopefully considered in the following pages. The grim necessities of a huge Campaign carried on for many years against the evils which lie at the root of all the miseries of modern life, attacked in a thousand and one forms by a thousand and one lieutenants, have led me step by step to contemplate as a possible solution of at least some of those problems the Scheme of social Selection and Salvation which I have here set forth.
When but a mere child the degradation and helpless misery of the poor Stockingers of my native town, wandering gaunt and hunger-stricken through the streets droning out their melancholy ditties, crowding the Union or toiling like galley slaves on relief works for a bare subsistence kindled in my heart yearnings to help the poor which have continued to this day and which have had a powerful influence on my whole life. A last I may be going to see my longings to help the workless realised. I think I am.
The commiseration then awakened by the misery of this class has been an impelling force which has never ceased to make itself felt during forty years of active service in the salvation of men. During this time I am thankful that I have been able, by the good hand of God upon me, to do something in mitigation of the miseries of this class, and to bring not only heavenly hopes and earthly gladness to the hearts of multitudes of these wretched crowds, but also many material blessings, including such commonplace things as food, raiment, home, and work, the parent of so many other temporal benefits. And thus many poor creatures have proved Godliness to be "profitable unto all things, having the promise of the life that now is as well as of that which is to come."
These results have been mainly attained by spiritual means. I have boldly asserted that whatever his peculiar character or circumstances might be, if the prodigal would come home to his Heavenly Father, he would find enough and to spare in the Father's house to supply all his need both for this world and the next; and I have known thousands nay, I can say tens of thousands, who have literally proved this to be true, having, with little or no temporal assistance, come out of the darkest depths of destitution, vice and crime, to be happy and honest citizens and true sons and servants of God.
And yet all the way through my career I have keenly felt the remedial measures usually enunciated in Christian programmes and ordinarily employed by Christian philanthropy to be lamentably inadequate for any effectual dealing with the despairing miseries of these outcast classes. The rescued are appallingly few—a ghastly minority compared with the multitudes who struggle and sink in the open-mouthed abyss. Alike, therefore, my humanity and my Christianity, if I may speak of them in any way as separate one from the other, have cried out for some more comprehensive method of reaching and saving the perishing crowds.
No doubt it is good for men to climb unaided out of the whirlpool on to the rock of deliverance in the very presence of the temptations which have hitherto mastered them, and to maintain a footing there with the same billows of temptation washing over them. But, alas! with many this seems to be literally impossible. That decisiveness of character, that moral nerve which takes hold of the rope thrown for the rescue and keeps its hold amidst all the resistances that have to be encountered, is wanting. It is gone. The general wreck has shattered and disorganised the whole man.
Alas, what multitudes there are around us everywhere, many known to my readers personally, and any number who may be known to them by a very short walk from their own dwellings, who are in this very plight! Their vicious habits and destitute circumstances make it certain that without some kind of extraordinary help, they must hunger and sin, and sin and hunger, until, having multiplied their kind, and filled up the measure of their miseries, the gaunt fingers of death will close upon then and terminate their wretchedness. And all this will happen this very winter in the midst of the unparalleled wealth, and civilisation, and philanthropy of this professedly most Christian land.
Now, I propose to go straight for these sinking classes, and in doing so shall continue to aim at the heart. I still prophesy the uttermost disappointment unless that citadel is reached. In proposing to add one more to the methods I have already put into operation to this end, do not let it be supposed that I am the less dependent upon the old plans or that I seek anything short of the old conquest. If we help the man it is in order that we may change him. The builder who should elaborate his design and erect his house and risk his reputation without burning his bricks would be pronounced a failure and a fool. Perfection of architectural beauty, unlimited expenditure of capital, unfailing watchfulness of his labourers, would avail him nothing if the bricks were merely unkilned clay. Let him kindle a fire. And so here I see the folly of hoping to accomplish anything abiding, either in the circumstances or the morals of these hopeless classes, except there be a change effected in the whole man as well as in his surroundings. To this everything I hope to attempt will tend. In many cases I shall succeed, in some I shall fail; but even in failing of this my ultimate design, I shall at least benefit the bodies, if not the souls, of men; and if I do not save the fathers, I shall make a better chance for the children.
It will be seen therefore that in this or in any other development that may follow I have no intention to depart in the smallest degree from the main principles on which I have acted in the past. My only hope for the permanent deliverance of mankind from misery, either in this world or the next, is the regeneration or remaking of the individual by the power of the Holy Ghost through Jesus Christ. But in providing for the relief of temporal misery I reckon that I am only making it easy where it is now difficult, and possible where it is now all but impossible, for men and women to find their way to the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.
That I have confidence in my proposals goes without saying. I believe they will work. In miniature many of them are working already. But I do not claim that my Scheme is either perfect in its details or complete in the sense of being adequate to combat all forms of the gigantic evils against which it is in the main directed. Like other human things it must be perfected through suffering. But it is a sincere endeavour to do something, and to do it on principles which can be instantly applied and universally developed. Time, experience, criticism, and, above all, the guidance of God will enable us, I hope, to advance on the lines here laid down to a true and practical application of the words of the Hebrew Prophet: "Loose the bands of wickedness; undo the heavy burdens; let the oppressed go free; break every yoke; deal thy bread to the hungry; bring the poor that are cast out to thy house. When thou seest the naked cover him and hide not thyself from thine own flesh. Draw out thy soul to the hungry— Then they that be of thee shall build the old waste places and Thou shalt raise up the foundations of many generations."
To one who has been for nearly forty years indissolubly associated with me in every undertaking I owe much of the inspiration which has found expression in this book. It is probably difficult for me to fully estimate the extent to which the splendid benevolence and unbounded sympathy of her character have pressed me forward in the life-long service of man, to which we have devoted both ourselves and our children. It will be an ever green and precious memory to me that amid the ceaseless suffering of a dreadful malady my dying wife found relief in considering and developing the suggestions for the moral and social and spiritual blessing of the people which are here set forth, and I do thank God she was taken from me only when the book was practically complete and the last chapters had been sent to the press.
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge the services rendered to me in preparing this book by Officers under my command. There could be no hope of carrying out any part of it, but for the fact that so many thousands are ready at my call and under my direction to labour to the very utmost of their strength for the salvation of others without the hope of earthly reward. Of the practical common sense, the resource, the readiness for every form of usefulness of those Officers and Soldiers, the world has no conception. Still less is it capable of understanding the height and depth of their self-sacrificing devotion to God and the poor.
I have also to acknowledge valuable literary help from a friend of the poor, who, though not in any way connected with the Salvation Army, has the deepest sympathy with its aims and is to a large extent in harmony with its principles. Without such assistance I should probably have found it—overwhelmed as I already am with the affairs of a world-wide enterprise—extremely difficult, if not impossible, to have presented these proposals for which I am alone responsible in so complete a form, at any rate at this time. I have no doubt that if any substantial part of my plan is successfully carried out he will consider himself more than repaid for the services so ably rendered.
WILLIAM BOOTH."
I have a set devoted to Park Hill:
www.flickr.com/photos/shefftim/sets/72157642537014264/
More to upload during the week.
Park Hill is a large disused council housing estate in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England. It was built in the late 1950s. It was closed in 1998 following a period of steep decline and a reputation for crime, drugs & social problems. It now is largely depopulated, though oddly its nursery school is still open.
The estate is structurally sound & has Grade II listed building status for its modernist style, influenced by the architect Le Corbusier. Part of the estate is currently being renovated by developer Urban Splash.
More about Park Hill’s history:
www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/architecture/9551327/Mult...
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Esaias van de Velde (1587-1630), active in Haarlem and The Hague
Feast in the castle grounds, 1624
In addition to landscape painting, Esaias van de Velde devoted to genre painting and represented small gallant society scenes that do not portray the life of the Dutch bourgeoisie, but after Flemish model reflect an aristocratic ambience with palaces and parks.
Esaias van de Velde (1587-1630), tätig in Haarlem und Den Haag Festmahl im Schlosspark, 1624
Neben der Landschaftsmalerei widmete sich Esaias van de Velde der Genremalerei und stellte kleine galante Gesellschaftsszenen dar, die nicht das Leben des holländischen Bürgertums schildern, sondern nach flämischem Vorbild ein aristokratisches Ambiente mit Palästen und Parks wiedergeben.
Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum
Federal Museum
Logo KHM
Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture
Founded 17 October 1891
Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria
Management Sabine Haag
www.khm.at website
Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square
The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.
The museum
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.
History
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery
The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building.
Architectural History
The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währinger street/Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the Opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the Grain market (Getreidemarkt).
From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience of Joseph Semper with the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.
Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.
Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper subsequently moved to Vienna. From the beginning on, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, in 1878, the first windows installed, in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade finished, and from 1880 to 1881 the dome and the Tabernacle built. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.
The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times.
Dome hall
Entrance (by clicking on the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)
Grand staircase
Hall
Empire
The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891, the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol needs another two years.
1891, the Court museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:
Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection
The Egyptian Collection
The Antique Collection
The coins and medals collection
Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects
Weapons collection
Collection of industrial art objects
Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)
Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.
Restoration Office
Library
Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.
1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his "Estensische Sammlung (Collection)" passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d'Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.
The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The Court museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.
Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.
First Republic
The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.
It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain on 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.
On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House", by the Republic. On 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.
Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.
With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Collection of Ancient Coins
Collection of modern Coins and Medals
Weapons collection
Collection of Sculptures and Crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Picture gallery
The Museum 1938-1945
Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.
With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the German Reich.
After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to bring certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.
The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. To this end was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.
The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.
The museum today
Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.
In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.
Management
1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials
1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director
1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director
1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director
1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief, in 1941 as first director
1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections, in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation
1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections, in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation
1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director
1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation
1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director
1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director
1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director
1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director
1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director
1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director
1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director
1990: George Kugler as interim first director
1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director
Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director
Collections
To the Kunsthistorisches Museum also belon the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.
Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)
Picture Gallery
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Vienna Chamber of Art
Numismatic Collection
Library
New Castle
Ephesus Museum
Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Arms and Armour
Archive
Hofburg
The imperial crown in the Treasury
Imperial Treasury of Vienna
Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage
Insignia of imperial Austria
Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire
Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece
Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure
Ecclesiastical Treasury
Schönbrunn Palace
Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna
Armory in Ambras Castle
Ambras Castle
Collections of Ambras Castle
Major exhibits
Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:
Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438
Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80
Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16
Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526
Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24
Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07
Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)
Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75
Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68
Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06
Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508
Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32
The Little Fur, about 1638
Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66
Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559
Kids, 1560
Tower of Babel, 1563
Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564
Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565
Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565
Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565
Bauer and bird thief, 1568
Peasant Wedding, 1568/69
Peasant Dance, 1568/69
Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567
Cabinet of Curiosities:
Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543
Egyptian-Oriental Collection:
Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut
Collection of Classical Antiquities:
Gemma Augustea
Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós
Gallery: Major exhibits
The attractive church, named for St. Stephen but still devoted to St. Geneviève, is located right next to the Panthéon. The interior of St-Etienne-du-Mont is Gothic, an unusual style for a mostly 16th-century church.
Along with the patroness of Paris, such illustrious men as Pascal and Racine were entombed here. St. Geneviève's tomb was destroyed during the Revolution, but the stone on which her coffin rested was discovered later, and her relics were gathered for a place of honor at St-Etienne.
The church possesses a remarkable early-16th-century rood screen. Dramatically crossing the nave like a bridge with spiral staircases on either side, it's unique in Paris and beloved by many (and deplored by a few).
Also notable is the wood pulpit, supported by Samson with a jawbone in hand and slain lion at his feet. The fourth chapel on the right from the entrance contains impressive 16th-century stained glass.
"LIVES DEVOTED TO THE GOOD OF MAN,
THEY BRAVELY MET PERSECUTIONS.
GOOD HAT MADE OF ONE BLOOD
ALL NATIONS OF MEN"
Berea Cemetery, Kentucky
John Gregg Fee (September 9, 1816 - January 11, 1901) was an abolitionist, minister and educator, the founder of the town of Berea, Kentucky, and Berea College (1855), the first in the state with interracial and coeducational admissions. During the American Civil War, Fee worked at Camp Nelson to have facilities constructed to support freedmen and their families, and to provide them with education and preaching while the men were being taught to be soldiers.
Fee was born in Bracken County, Kentucky on September 9, 1816, the son of John Fee, of English and Scots descent, and Elizabeth Bradford, of Scots-Irish descent, whose mother was a Quaker from Pennsylvania. His father inherited a bondsman who reached the term of his indenture. He then began to buy slaves, finally holding thirteen. Later he recognized more of its problems and invested in lands in free states, but held on to his slaves through the war and opposed his son's abolitionism.
Following a conversion to the Christian faith at age 14, John Fee, Jr., wanted to join the Methodist Episcopal Church. His father encouraged him to wait, and a couple of years later they both joined the Presbyterian Church. He studied at Augusta College in Bracken County, Kentucky and Miami University in Oxford, Ohio.
He then entered Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1842, where in studying for the ministry, he made lifelong friendships. The young Fee became a staunch abolitionist, vowing to "Love thy neighbor as thyself."
Fee returned to Kentucky, preaching against slavery, but found it difficult to find a permanent position, as there was widespread pro-slavery sentiment. He started in Lewis County, which had fewer slaveholders, so more people who supported his point of view. In the 1840s he came into conflict with the Presbyterian Synod of Kentucky, which opposed his church's stance to refuse fellowship to slaveholders.
Fee left the Presbyterian Church over this matter and came to believe that Christianity had to be non-denominational and non-sectarian. He began writing about abolition, and some of his work was published by the American Missionary Association (AMA), established in 1846. By 1848 the AMA commissioned Fee as an itinerant preacher in Bracken and Lewis counties. In Lewis County, he and parishioners built a Free Church of Christ.
With a land donation from Cassius M. Clay, a wealthy landowner who supported the church and gradual abolition, in 1853 Fee founded the town of Berea, Kentucky in the interior of the state in Madison County. Like-minded people began to gather there. He preached in neighboring counties, often running into violent opposition to his anti-slavery views. His autobiography is filled with his accounts the volatility of the decade before the war, when he was often challenged and threatened because of his stand on abolition and equal treatment of blacks.
In 1855 Fee founded Berea College, the first college in the state that was interracial and coeducational. It began as a one-room schoolhouse, which also served as their local church. He modeled the school on Oberlin College of Ohio and hired some teachers from there as his school expanded. There was great interest in the college, as small as it was. Fee, J.A.R. Rogers, who acted as principal, and other supporters drew up a constitution for the school, and pledged their own support with more than 100 acres (0.40 km2) of land for the college's campus.
n 1859 Fee took his family to Boston, Massachusetts, where he attended the AMA Convention and did fund-raising for the school. Abolitionists also encouraged him to seek help from Henry Ward Beecher's church in Brooklyn, New York. Abolitionists and supporters of education created a broad national network that sustained such progressive efforts. Word of Fee's seeking help from Beecher made the news in Kentucky, in a distorted fashion, and stirred up pro-slavery sentiment against him.
With social tensions increasing in the years leading up to the American Civil War, and especially after John Brown's Raid, in December 1859 a band of armed pro-slavery men came to Berea while Fee was still away in the East. They delivered notice to J.A.R. Rogers and others to leave the state within 10 days, because of the group's opposition to Fee, their church and college. For a time townspeople abandoned the village and school. Abolitionists were expelled from Lewis and Bracken counties as well. After Fee's return to Bracken County, where he and his family were staying with his in-laws, a committee of 62 men of "high standing" told Fee he and his supporters had to leave Bracken County.
Fee lived with his family in exile in Cincinnati, Ohio until 1864. Although they tried to return to Berea before that, violent opposition to Fee and abolitionists forced them out of state again. Matilda Fee had returned to their house in Berea with two of their children without much incident, although both Union and Confederate troops were in the area. Fee was unable to get through to her, so she had to get back to Cincinnati.
In 1864 Fee and his wife returned to Berea. He soon was going frequently to Camp Nelson, where he became involved with preaching and teaching former slaves, who were being enlisted for military service in the Union Army. Their wives and children also came to the camp. Fee worked with the camp commandant and quartermaster on arrangements for a school, and urged building facilities for the families. He appealed to Salmon Chase, now with the national government, for funding, which was quickly approved. Barracks, a hospital and school buildings were constructed at Camp Nelson. Fee helped arrange for teachers for the freedmen and was closely involved in operations until after the end of the war. He and his wife used their own funds to help buy land in the area to be allocated as home lots, as well as raising a church and school near there.
After the war, Fee and Rogers returned with their families to Berea. For years Fee had been determinedly non-sectarian. When the AMA became aligned with the Congregational Church in 1865, Fee felt that he no longer could accept their aid, as he believed the AMA, like other sects or denominations, would divide the people of the South. In later years, Fee and others went on to establish the Christian Missionary Association of Kentucky, made up of individuals rather than churches. He also devoted his efforts to Berea College, which grew after the war. The school accepted freedmen and women, and expanded from its one room. In 1873 it awarded its first college degree.
To the glory of God and in loving memory of Lieut Godfrey Burton Cook 20th Hussars
Who was Killed in Action at Jassy(?) March 23rd 1918 Aged 23 years
This panelling was erected ****devoted(?) Father and Mother
COOK, GODFREY BURTON
Rank:……………………………………..Lieutenant
Date of Death:……………………….23/03/1918
Age:……………………………………….23
Regiment:………………………………20th Hussars
Grave Reference:…………………….I. H. 19.
Cemetery:……………………………….ST. SOUPLET BRITISH CEMETERY
Additional Information:
Son of Arthur Burton Cook and Alice Anne Cook, of "Sunlea," Sheringham, Norfolk.
CWGC: www.cwgc.org/find-war-dead/casualty/320621/COOK,%20GODFRE...
Godfrey was original buried at St Martin’s Military Cemetery Extension at. St Quentin, but the graves were re-located in 1924 to the St Souplet Cemtery. On the initial report it was stated that the original marker had him down as dieing on the 27th March 1918. The grave next to him was a Captain W H R Rayson of the Royal Field Artillery who died the same day. However the final report had been manually amended to show Godfrey dieing on the 29th March 1918.
(CWGC have added many additional documents to their database as part of the centenary. These can be accessed by going to the entry for Godfrey and using the CWGC Archive Online option).
ST. SOUPLET BRITISH CEMETERY
Historical Information
St. Souplet village was captured by the American 30th Division on the 10th October 1918.
The American troops made a cemetery of 371 American and seven British graves on the South-West side of the village, on the road to Vaux-Andigny. A smaller British cemetery was made alongside. The American graves were removed after the Armistice and the seven British graves were moved into the British cemetery. Further British graves were brought in from the surrounding battlefields and the ….smaller burial grounds (such as):-
ST. MARTIN MILITARY CEMETERY, ST. QUENTIN, a large cemetery of over 8,000 graves on the West side of the city, begun in 1914 and extended after the Armistice, contained 134 British graves.
www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/33100/ST.%20SOUPLET...
SDGW records that Lieutenant Godfrey Bruton Cook died of wounds on the 29th March 1918 whilst serving with the 19th (Queen Alexandra’s Own Royal) Hussars. There is a supplementary note that he was In Ger Hands, which I assume means he was a Prisoner of War.
Interestingly, the SDGW entry for Acting Captain William Humphrey Ronald Rayson of the 47th Brigade Royal Field Artillery also has him as Died of Wounds on the 27th March 1918 and the note clearly states In German Hands
On CWGC Captain Rayson’s date of death is still the 27th March, so its intriguing that the official entry for Godfrey has come forward to the 23rd.
www.cwgc.org/find-war-dead/casualty/320939/RAYSON,%20WILL...
There is no straight match for a Medal Index Card for Godfrey but the nearest match goes some way to explain the discrepancy between the unit shown on CWGC, (and this memorial), and the unit shown on SDGW. The Medal Index Card for a G B Cook is held at the National Archive under reference WO 372/4/238694
He was originally Private 1645 in the 3rd City of London Yeomanry before becoming a Second Lieutenant in the 20th Hussars. His final official rank was Lieutenant in the 19th Hussars.
discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/D1918351
No match on Picture Norfolk.
Godfrey is remembered on the Sheringham War Memorial.
www.sheringhamrbl.co.uk/warmemorial/names/cookgb.php
www.roll-of-honour.com/Norfolk/Sheringham.html
(He is not on the Beeston War Memorial).
The administration of the estate of Lieutenant Godfrey Burton of Sunlea, Sheringham, who died on the 23rd March 1918 in France serving with the 20th Hussars Special Reserve was granted at London on the 22nd June to Arthur Burton Cook, Gentleman. Estate was valued at £658 17s. Details from the 1918 Probate Calendar.
probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Cook&ye...
According to this web-site an old cousin who was the Lieutenant Colonel of the 20th Hussars would die on the 26th March, Killed in Action.
grangehill1922.wordpress.com/2014/03/30/george-trevor-rop...
Timeline
1895
The birth of Godfrey Burton Cook was recorded in the Newbury District of Berkshire in the January to March 1895 quarter.
1901
The 6 year old Godfrey Burton, born Newbury, Berkshire was recorded on the 1901 census at “Hilbre”, Holway Road, Sheringham. This was the household of his parents, Arthur Burton, (aged 42, no occupation listed and from Birkenhead), and Alice Ann, (aged 37 and from Shropshire). As well as Godfrey their children are:-
Clara Frances……………..aged 4………………..born Newbury
Edith…………………………aged under 10 weeks (?-tbc) …..born Sheringham
There are then three live in servants.
1911
By the time of the 1911 census the 16 year old Godfrey Burton was a Boarder at Malvern College, living at 5 The College Malvern, Worcestershire.
His parents and sisters Clara Frances and Edith were still recorded at “Hilbre”. Father Arthur is living off “Private Means”
1915 (Military Career)
In the supplement to the edition of the London Gazette for the 9th December 1915 there is a War Office announcement for the Special Reserve of Officers that the undermentioned to be Second Lieutenants (on probation), dated 10th December. Under Cavalry, 20th Hussars appears the name of Godfrey Burton Cook
www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/29397/supplement/12306/...
On the day
The International Red Cross have a file for a G B Cook under reference P.A.28681
Interestingly the cover sheet has a note 20 Hrs. (Is that 20th Hussars?)
The relevant page this reference applies to is headed
“Nachstehend aufgefuhrte Erkennungsmarken wurden v.K.Bays, Kriegs-ministerium Nachweiseburo Munchen uberwiesen 6.6.18. Die Jnhaber d.marken sind gefallen oder verstorben, Naheres unbekannt.
Akts.22452/W.”
It appears to be a list of English prisoners prepared 21.6.18 prepared by the “Zentral-Nachweiseburo” and received by the Red Cross on the 5th July 1918.
grandeguerre.icrc.org/en/File/Zoom/E/04/01/C_G1_E_04_01_0...
My Google translator comes back with
“Below listed dog tags were (with) v.K.Bays, War Ministry evidence bureau Munchen remitted 6.6.18.
The possessors d.marken have fallen or died, details unknown.”
As G B Cook has no serial number I’m assuming he’s an officer. If his details came from his dog tag and he’d recently changed unit then his dog tags may not have been altered.
Another Officer who did die of wounds received on the 23rd March 1918 was Lieutenant William Wickham Ogilvy who was leading a detachment of the 20th Hussars at “Jussy”.
1914-1918.invisionzone.com/forums/index.php?showtopic=192522
Jussy is a village some 13 km south-south-west of St. Quentin in the Department of the Aisne.
Day 3, 23 March
Early on the morning of Saturday 23 March, German troops broke through the line in the 14th Division sector on the canal at Jussy. The 54th Brigade were holding the line directly to their south and were initially unaware of their predicament, as they were unknowingly being outflanked and surrounded. The 54th Brigade History records "the weather still favoured the Germans. Fog was thick over the rivers, canals and little valleys, so that he could bring up fresh masses of troops unseen". In the confusion, Brigade HQ tried to establish what was happening around Jussy and by late morning the British were retreating in front of German troops who had crossed the Crozat Canal at many points. All lines of defence had been overcome and there was nothing left to stop the German advance; during the day Aubigny, Brouchy, Cugny and Eaucourt fell
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Michael
With many units in disarray or effectively wiped out, Dismounted units of the Cavalry Brigade were thrown in to stem the tide. Both 20th and 19th Hussars were inaction, so I was still no clearer as to which unit Geoffrey was serving with.
Fortunately forum member, “Old Scalyback” at the Great War Forum was able to help out, even going so far as to download the 20th Hussars War Diary from the National Archive.
Geoffrey was indeed serving with the 20th Hussars. Whether his move to the 19th was a future change which his death forestalled or whether he’d gone there and then transferred back we shall probably never know.
As well as the daily record of events, appendix 2 also lists personel coming and going. I’ve merged the two below.
22nd March 1918 – Battalion War Diary (Part)
(Cont). Turned out again 1.45 PM and moved to sandpits half way between FAILLOUEL and JUSSY to be ready to make a counter attack if enemy succeeded in crossing canal as the bridges over it were not completely broken. The enemy did cross at MENNESSIS on the right and worked along the canal into JUSSY.
7.15 PM. 8 MGs posted on a line south of the railway which runs on southern edge of JUSSY and 12 R.Lancers moved up into immediate support at Sandpits where 43rd Inf Bde HdQrs (under whom 5 CB still is) have been established. Signed J.H.G.
From Appendix 2 to the War Diary
Date 22nd March 1918.
3 Other Ranks Killed in Action
9 Other Ranks Wounded in Action
2 Other Ranks Missing
23rd March 1918 – Battalion War Diary
3 AM. Situation appears to be some enemy in JUSSY and following dispositions were made 20H and half RSGs in JUSSY railway embankment under orders of OC 9th Scottish Rifles, 8 MGs as above, 1 sqdn 12 R.L. at Sandpits 1 sqdn 12 RL about to move to high ground West of FAILLOUEL as escort to some guns in position there. Remainder of 12 R L, RSGs and MGs echeloned back on right flank and east of FAILLOUEL JUSSY road.
6AM. Infantry after a small counter attack reported JUSSY clear of enemy. Very heavy Trench Mortar bombardment all night and morning and by 8 am enemy reached line of railway south of Jussy. At same time enemy reported to have broken through on the right in direction of MENNESSIS.
11.30AM. Maj. LITTLE was sent to line of FAILLOUEL FLAVY LE MARTEL road to collect and stop the infantry who were retiring and 1 sqdn 12 R.L, 1 sqdn RSGs and 1 regt 4th Cav.Bde ordered to join him there. 43rd Inf Bde HQ and 5th CB HQ moved back to the south of DETROIT BLEU at 12 Noon. Maj.LITTLE was about to launch a counter attack to re-establish line of railway when enemy were seen prowling around the left flank. It was accordingly cancelled and the left was thrown back. Held roughly line of FAILLOUEL – FLAVY road for a further 2 hours and then retired on FAILLOUEL where touch was established with 4th Cav.Bde on right. Left still “in the air”.
About 3 PM enemy were again prowling round left so retired to edge of large wood to S.W of FAILLOUEL.After an hour there withdrew through a few French troops onto main CUGNY-UGNY line where all stragglers had been collected and made to dig in.
Arrived 7 PM and billeted for night behind infantry at LA NEUVILLE. There has been a thick fog up to about midday on all days since attack commenced. Signed J.H.G.
From Appendix 2 to the War Diary
Date 23rd March 1918.
1 Other Rank to England as candidate for a commission
1 Other Rank to Hospital
1 Other Rank from Hospital
Lieut. G B Cook Killed in Action
Lieut W W Ogilvy Died of Wounds
Lieut W J Jackson Wounded in Action
4 Other Ranks Killed in Action
31 Other Ranks Wounded in Action
16 Other Ranks Missing
1914-1918.invisionzone.com/forums/index.php?showtopic=230...
So for me the final mystery remains. If he was Killed in Action south of the village of Jussy on the 23rd March, why was his body collected from the battlefield and buried some 13 kilometres to the North East on the outskirts of San Quentin. It might explain the date on the original cross, with the 27th being the date his body was found, but not a lot else. My hunch is that he was badly wounded and left for dead, found by the Germans and then died at one of their aid stations \ hospitals nearer to St Quentin on the 27th or 29th. Theory two is that centres like St Quentin were subject to heavy attacks by the RAF from the 25th onwards in an attempt to stem the flow of the German Offensive. So either wounded or fully fit, he could have been killed in an air-raid.
They were the only pair amongst the regular seagulls.
Both are the same species, but I think the brown one is female by the way they were together. The black one would stay close to the brown one in a seemingly protective way.
And when she decided to fly, he followed her.
Or, the brown one could be a juvenile great black backed gull rather than a female. Google is not very clear on female images for this bird. Not sure.
Either way, the black one always kept an eye on the brown one.
....devoted and together.......
Photo credit: Tony Coash
Mother’s Day is an occasion to honor strong and devoted women in our lives. This year it was also a cause for celebration at the Jay Heritage Center as they announced their receipt of an exceptional collection of 19th century daguerrotypes of Jay women and their family members who lived in Rye at the historic 1838 Mansion. The gift was applauded on Saturday, May 12 with a gathering of Jay descendants and members of the Jay Heritage Center Board of Trustees. Westchester's Deputy County Executive, Kevin Plunkett presented Jay Heritage Center President, Suzanne Clary with a Proclamation from County Executive Rob Astorino commending her non-profit's organization for their work in preservation and education. Also on hand were Senator Suzi Oppenheimer and NY State Assemblyman George Latimer.
The highlight of the new collection is a never before seen mother and daughter portrait circa 1848 of Mrs. John Clarkson Jay (nee Laura Prime, daughter of NY banker Nathaniel Prime) and her eldest child Laura at 16 years old. Yet another charming vignette dated 1850 shows 2 of the youngest daughters, Alice and Sarah, in gingham dresses at age 4 and 2. These rare and luminous treasures were generously donated by architectural historian and preservationist, Anne Andrus Grady of Lexington, Massachusetts in memory of her aunt, Miriam Jay Wurts Andrus, a direct descendant of John Jay. Mrs. Andrus was born in New York City, the only child of Edith Maud Benedict and Pierre Jay Wurts. A 1931 graduate of Vassar College, she also attended Columbia University, and Johns Hopkins University where she studied international relations. During her lifetime she was known as an accomplished photographer as well as a civic activist and noted philanthropist. Her range of volunteer efforts benefited many academic and cultural institutions like the League of Women Voters, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, the Center Stage Theatre in Baltimore and Vassar College to name just a few. Mrs. Andrus’ niece, Anne Andrus Grady has distinguished herself as well as an outstanding champion of historic preservation in Massachusetts. She has authored numerous Historic Structure Reports and National Historic Landmark nominations, advising on the preservation of many of that state’s most prominent buildings such as Boston’s Old South Meeting House. Her work of 3 decades culminated in a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Massachusetts Historical Commission in 2010. She is delighted that the Jay daguerrotypes will be conserved and find a permanent home in Rye where they can be studied and interpreted.
The Andrus Collection is composed of 8 leather cased daguerreotype plates several of which are hand-tinted. For the Jay Heritage Center, a gift with this most meaningful provenance, including plates produced in the studios of well known New York Daguerrians, Rufus Anson and Jeremiah Gurney, opens the door to new educational programming about America’s “New Art” as photography was then dubbed. This magical method of capturing images on silvered copper plates was introduced in the United States by none other than Samuel F. B. Morse. Morse, who was a colleague of John Jay’s eldest son, Peter Augustus Jay, first brought the daguerrotype process back to America in 1839. Morse’s earliest students included Gurney, as well as a young man named Edward Anthony. Anthony produced popular steroviews during the Civil War and also branched out into the photographic supplies business, creating many of the decorative book-like cases in which Gurney’s and other Daguerrians’ photos were sealed. (Coincidentally Anthony’s granddaughter married John Clarkson Jay III in 1903.)
An opening reception and exhibit on the Andrus collection is scheduled for this fall at the 1838 Jay Mansion accompanied by a series of lectures on early American photography.
###
Jay Heritage Center
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A National Historic Landmark since 1993
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On NY State's Path Through History (2013)
This book concludes our tandem edition on Recombination and Meiosis. Subtitled Models, Means and Evolution, it follows its first-born twin with emphasis on Crossing-Over and Disjunction. In the commissioning of chapter topics we have tried to cover numerous aspects of the meiotic system from many different angles. Both these books are embedded as volumes 2 and 3 in a topical Series devoted to Genome Dynamics and Stability, where DNA transmission and maintenance functions are discussed from experimental and theoretical perspectives. The earlier vol. 1 dealt with Facets and Perspectives of Genome Integrity, focusing on DNA damage repair mechanisms, and an upcoming vol.4 is on transposable elements. These books on meiotic processes, together with other volumes in this Series on genome management in mitotic cells, provide a grass-roots level starting platform—initiating a prospective trajectory superimposable upon the exploding field of molecular cell physiology, or systems biology (see below). The preceding volume preferentially dealt with meiotic processes in multicellular organisms, such as plants and animals including man. Also, basic accomplishments from work on yeasts was presented in a comparative perspective—concerning the decisive roles of Spo11-induced breaks for crossing-over, of sister chromatid cohesion in chromosome disjunction, and cell cycle modulation in the global control of the meiotic program. The present book puts additional focus on yeasts as unicellular model organisms, where progress in revealing the mechanisms of meiotic recombination has taken place most rapidly and systematically. Also, a central aspect of genetic recombination in E. coli is included for its outstanding merits as a universal model. Furthermore, three facets of evolutionary relevance are also discussed. As for the models and means of meiotic recombination, two prominent and comprehensive chapters call for particular attention. Inasmuch as theoretical interpretations of empirical data about the exchange of genetical markers in successive generations has long preceded their biochemical elucidation,James E.Haber gives expert guidance on a veritable tour de force, presenting the Evolution of Recombination Models frompurely genetic crosses into the molecular era. He follows the historical record from simplistic breaking/joining schemes to break-induced replication, from suspected single-strand breaks to partner choice by single-strand annealing, and from the generation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) to their repair by the establishment and resolution of single or double Holliday junctions, and finally to DSB repair in the absence of crossing over accomplished through synthesis-dependent strand annealing that does not involve Holliday junctions. This scenic ride is aptly complemented from the enzymatic perspective, as displayed by Kirk T. Ehmsen and Wolf-Dietrich Heyer on the Biochemistry of Meiotic Recombination: Formation, Processing, and Resolution of Recombination Intermediates. These authors highlight the biochemistry of meiotic recombination, as more and more meiosis-specific enzymes have been added to the basic toolbox, which likewise is at work in mitotic cells (cf. GDS vol. 1, this Series). Overlapping with functions in replication and DSB repair these enzymes comprise topoisomerase, nuclease, recombinase, polymerase, and helicase activities, as well as single-strand stabilizing protein, a protective end-tethering complex and a range of modulating co-factors. The single most remarkable feature about the initiation of meiotic recombination is the deliberate and catalyzed introduction of numerous DSBs in the chromosomal DNA. Notably, the enzyme responsible for this pivotal and conserved activity is derived from a former topoisomerase (Spo11; Keeney, this SERIES), which as such had a cell-intrinsic function essential for the untangling of replication intermediates in every cell cycle. The total number of cuts is even larger than the number of effective crossovers later on2. The important question of how the sites to be cut are chosen in a given cell— among myriads of potentially equivalent sites that are ignored—is still one of the most vigorously pursued aspects of ongoing research. Foremost, the susceptible substrate for meiotic DSBs is not naked DNA, but DNA embedded in chromatin, as highlighted by Michael Lichten, in his chapter on Meiotic Chromatin—the Substrate for Recombination Initiation. The two yeasts compared for this traits how pronounced differences in the distribution of hotspot sites for DSB formation. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a fairly promiscuous DSB machinery can be assembled at about every stretch of accessible chromatin that has been opened up for other purposes, especially at activated promoter regions. Michael Lichten coins the term "opportunistic DSBs" for these phenomena, foremost in S. cerevisiae—differentiating meiotic DSBs from both lower
and higher degrees of sequence specificity: on one hand ionizing radiation induced DSBs,which occur with little sequence preference and without regard for chromatin structure, and on the other hand from the site-specific cuts of restriction-type endonucleases—or other nucleic acid transactions, such as transcription promotion, where both chromatinstructure and the recognition of DNA sequence elements contribute to specificity. Such opportunistic usage of promoter-modulated open chromatin can only in part explain the DSB pattern observed in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, where other determinants may play a significant, hotspot-specific role. Also to be determined by meiosis-specific chromatin organization, the assembly of and/or cleavage by the DSB machinery should not be all too promiscuous on a particular issue, in that at most one of two sister chromatids can become susceptible at any given site, whereas the other sister strand needs to be protected around the equivalent site. The molecular basis for this significant restriction still remains to be determined. After the meiosis-specific, Spo11-induced DSBs have been processed to protruding 3 ends, these single strands have to interact with the corresponding sequence on the homologous chromosome, in order to repair and seal the break by homologous recombination. In eukaryotes the crucial strand exchange reaction is catalyzed by RecA-like recombinases of the ubiquitous Rad51 family and/orthemeiosis-specificDmc1protein. As modeled by the most widely studied RecA recombinase of E.coli, Chantal Prévost, in herchapter on Searching for Homology by Filaments of RecA-Like Proteins, discerns their basic functions in the genome-wide search for complementary DNA strands so as to facilitate the initial strand exchange reaction in highly coordinated, helical DNA–protein filaments, which likewise are formed by the eukaryotic RecA homologs. Corresponding studies to the leading work on meiosis in S.cerevisiae have also been pursued in S.pombe,showing striking differences indetail at various levels. The most interesting aspects of this work are pointed out in two chapters specifically devoted to the fission yeast. For one thing, S. pombe belongs to the rather few organisms that have lost the ability to form synaptonemal complexes in meiotic prophase, which usually stands out as the most characteristic structural basis of bivalent synapsis. Instead, another conserved feature of canonical meiosis, the clustering of telomeres in the so-called bouquet arrangement, is vastly exaggerated in a series of nuclear movements, which in S. pombe facilitates a dynamical alignment
of homologous chromosomes from nuclear fusion throughout the entire prophase of meiosis (D.Q. Dingand Y. Hiraoka, this BOOK). Furthermore, the crossover mechanism itself is peculiar as well. Whilst many organisms including S. cerevisiae actually employ two partly overlapping crossover pathways, one of these pathways is entirely missing in S. pombe. Characteristically, the main recombinational intermediate in S.pombe consists of single Holliday junctions (G. Cromie and G.R.Smith, this BOOK), whilst earlier results on S. cerevisiae had suggested double Holliday junctions as the canonical model. The species-oriented chapter by Gareth Cromie and Gerald R. Smith, on Meiotic Recombination in S. pombe: A Paradigm for Genetic and Molecular Analysis,was published Online FirstinJune2007. At thatrelatively early date, most of their extensive data on DSB hotspot distribution in S. pombe were mentioned in brief as unpublished results. These significant data are now more fully discussed, as mentioned above, in Michael Lichten’s comparative chapter—with due reference to their recent publication in the mean time (Cromie et al. 2007). Unfortunate as such asynchrony appears to be, this is a price to pay for the advantages of Online First publication for the individual chapters as they are being completed—with a spread of Online First dates up to a year per book in such a series. Three evolutionary topics relating to meiosis have been selected to conclude this book: the putative origin of the meiotic system, the confinement of meiosis to the germline in animals, and the abandonment of meiosis in relatively few eukaryotic lineages, some of which are remarkably persistent on the evolutionary time scale—capable of lasting for millions of years. At the dawn of genetics, crossing-over and meiosis had been considered very much the same, but the early view of apparent congruence between the two phenomena has long since been abandoned. Instead, genetic recombination as such has proved to have much earlier and more fundamental roles than the complex and highly integrated pattern of mainstream meiosis, of which crossing-over has become the most characteristic ingredient. In short, homologous DNA recombination has directly co-evolved with faithful replication (see R. Egel and D.Penny, thisBOOK), clearing physical damageand/or broken replication forks as they arise (C. Rudolph, K.A. Schürer, and W. Kramer, GDS vol. 1, this Series)—potentially in each cell cycle of prokaryotes and eukaryotes alike. Of more sporadic occurrence, on the other hand, meiosis only happens once per generation,or life cycle—whatever meaning may be attached to these derived terms for unicellular organisms (see below). N.B., bacteria and archaea are proficient in recombinational repair of DSB damage to their DNA, but meiosis is missing altogether. In multicellular organisms, the meanings of generation and lifecycle are evident, and the complex inter-relationship of germline development and maintaining sexuality in animals and plants was already recognized by Charles Darwin and August Weissmann by the end of the 19th century. In his chapter on The Legacy of the Germ Line—Maintaining Sex and Life in Metazoans: Cognitive Roots of the Concept of Hierarchical Selection, Dirk-Henner Lankenau follows the germline concept to its historical roots, and he addresses the multiple levels of selective evolution related to this concept. Also, he fathoms Weismann’s prescient usage of germ plasm in its original meaning that nowadays has been replaced by genes and genomes—and he sketches a tie to modern frontiers, discussing the so-called nuage as a germline-specific germplasm organelle of multiple RNA processing, where a suspended term is thus revived in new guises. A hallmark of meiosis is the production of recombinant offspring, efficiently scrambling the parental genotypes. The overwhelming majority of taxonomic groups throughout eukaryotes show proficiency of meiosis, at least to begin with. Higher plants and animals would probably never have originated without the evolutionary thrust empowered by meiosis. Yet, sexual propagation including meiosis has been lost repeatedly in evolution, although major evolutionary innovations have never sprung from such secondarily asexual lineages. Hence, asexual lineages of relatively ancient origins can serve as virtual mirrors to reflect the evolutionary importance of meiosis in the remaining majority of animals and plants, as thoroughly discussed by Isa Schön, Dunja K.Lamatsch,
and Koen Martens in their chapter on Lessons to Learn from Ancient Asexuals. To single out a particular highlight, the purging of deleterious mutations by a meiotic recombination appears to be remarkably effective—readily compensating for the low mutation rates observed. As for the inferred origin of the meiotic system, this does not only far predate the emergence of multicellular animals, fungi and plants—it even dates back before the last common ancestor of all the eukaryotic phyla known today (LECA). As canonical meiosis, therefore, is a common heritage to all eukaryotes, there are no comparative cues among different lineages living today from which by parsimony to deduce a likely order of step-wise additions to the basic toolbox of meiotic mechanisms. On the other hand, the meiotic system is so complex in its widely conserved pattern, that its instantaneous invention from scratch appears unlikely. Against this rather uninformative backdrop, Richard Egel and David Penny, in their chapter On the Origin of Meiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution, propose a possible series of incremental steps towards meiosis, each of which could have added some selective advantage on its own. This series may well have started before the mitotic division system had been perfected to its present fidelity, e.g. when telomere-directed chromosome movements may have preceded the establishment of centromeres. Hence their hypothesis is subtitled Coevolution of Meiosis and Mitosis from Feeble Beginnings. A likely driving force to establish a proto-meiotic system—alternating with proto-mitotic nuclear division—is seen in maintaining a periodically needed dormancy program, so as to protect it against the accumulation of dormancy-deficient mutations at the higher error load presumed in early evolution. This is in line with the common correlation between meiosis and the formation of dormant spores or cysts in extant microbial eukaryotes. In a certain sense, therefore, a single generation in the life cycle of unicellular eukaryotes would last from one stage of encystment or sporulation to the next. With the commissioning and presentation of the various chapter topics on the genomic aspects of the meiotic system we hope to have served a salient need for integrating basic knowledge gained from studying diverse genetic model organisms. Research on meiotic exchange and segregation mechanisms may appear more esoteric than the vast resources spent on understanding metabolism and growth in mitotic cells. While emphasis on the latter area is motivated by the numerical predominance of mitotic divisions, as well as the direct connection of mitotic cell divisions to the immense problems of cancerous growth in human disease, meiosis in its paucity is more secluded and its medical aspects are limited to less pressing problems, such as impaired fertility or Down-like syndromes (H.Kokotas,M.Grigoriadou,andM.B.Petersen, this Series). Also, a certain twist of hierarchy is undeniable: whilst endless perpetuation of mitotic divisions can be viable as an evolutionarily stable strategy, a contiguous series of several meioses is certainly not. In this sense meiosis will always be the subordinate companion of mitosis. At the conceptual level, however, the complexity of molecular mechanisms applying to meiosis far exceeds that of its mitotic counterpart. And for the continuity of generations in most eukaryotic forms of life, both meiosis and mitosis are complementary features of general and essential interest. Traditionally, the largest share of meiotic research has been focused on DNA exchange and related features, whereas the immense field of protein–protein interactions in the rewiring of the meiotic cell out of and back into the mitotic cell cycle stood in second place. The concluding chapter of the preceding volume specifically deals with these meiotic aspects of molecular cell physiology (L. Pérez-Hidalgo, S. Moreno, and C. Martin-Castellanos, this Series). As pioneered with yeasts, genome-wide expression studies have started with identifying all the genes upregulated in meiotic cells and sorting them into functional categories. This is a long way off fromknowing all their particular functions. To illustrate the scope of the barely charted field: of 4,824 annotated genes in S. pombe, 955 proteins contain coiled-coil motifs4; of these, 180 are upregulated before, during or after meiosis—21 exclusively so, but not expressed during mitosis (Ohtaka et al. 2007). The interactive potential of so many proteins is enormous, and the systemsbiology of meiosis has merely just begun. To form a link between both books on Recombination and Meiosis, the list of chapter titles in the preceding volume is included after the Contents table of this book. In fact, as some of the individual chapters already had been published Online First, before the editorial decision to divide the printed edition into two books, the preliminary cross references had not yet accounted for the split. We apologize for any inconvenience this may cause, but the listing of all the chapter titles in both books should hopefully direct the reader to the proper destination. We would also like to point out that the missing chapter numbers are no neglect but reflect an obligatory compromise necessitated by publishing all manuscripts OnlineFirst immediately
after they have been peer-reviewed, revised, accepted and copy-edited (see, www.springerlink.com/content/119766/). We most cordially thank all the chapter authors for contributing to this topical edition of two accompanying books focusing on meiotic recombination. Without their expertise and dedicated work this comprehensive treatise would not have been possible. Receiving the incoming drafts as editors, we had the great privilege of being the first to read so many up-to-date reviews on the various aspects of meiotic recombination and model studies elucidating this ever-captivating field. Also, we greatly appreciate the productive input of numerous referees, who have assisted us in thriving for the highest level of expertship, comprehensiveness, and readability. We are again deeply indebted to the editorial staff at Springer. We would especially like to mention the editor Sabine Schwarz at Springer Life Sciences(Heidelberg), the deskeditor Ursula Gramm (Springer,Heidelberg),and the production editor Martin Weissgerber (le-tex publishing services oHG, Leipzig).
April 2008
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Website: lnkd.in/fQRNaMx
Short video clips, attempted to film the info on the wall in this small room, devoted to the history of the Civil War regarding Sulgrave Manor and the Washington family.
The Washington's sided with the Royalists and fled to the American Colonies in the 1650s.
Bits of the Washington family tree.
Sulgrave Manor is a Grade I listed building.
Manor house. Built c.1540-60 by Lawrence Washington, who acquired the Manor in 1539. c.1673 it passed to the Rev. Moses Hodges, whose son John made alterations to the house c.1700 and added the north-east wing. By the late C18 the house had become a farm and part was demolished. Of the centre, only the right half with the porch is original. The left half was rebuilt by Sir Reginald Blomfield who restored the house in 1920-30. Coursed limestone rubble, rendered porch, stone slate roof, brick and stone stacks. L-plan, through passage. 2 storeys and attic, 3 bays. Gabled 2-storey porch in centre has entrance with 4-centred arch under square hood with Washington arms in the spandrels. Washington coat of arms in plaster above, 3-light window with wood lintel and old iron casement on first floor. Plaster coat of arms of Queen Elizabeth I in the gable and a traingular device in plaster, said to be the wool stapler's symbol, at the apex. Inner doorway has 4-centred wood arch and C20 panelled door. 4-light wood mullioned and transomed windows with wood lintels on the ground floor. 4-light wood mullioned windows with wood lintels on the first floor. Coped left gable end with kneelers. Former brewhouse, now offices, attached to house by short stone wall to north. Probably c.1700, remodelled C20 by Sir Reginald Blomfield. Coursed limestone rubble, stone slate roof, one storey and loft. 4 bays. 2 doorways with wood lintels in plank doors to left, two C20 windows with wood mullion to right. Interior: Side walls of porch have large C16 plaster figures of a lion and dragon. Great Hall has screen designed by Blomfield and original open Fireplace with moulded timber 4-centred arch and stone jambs. Ceiling with moulded cross beams forming 24 square panels. The windows contain reproductions of stained glass arms of the Washington family. The originals are in Fawsley Church and Weston Hall. Oak Parlour on the ground floor has early C18 fireplace with moulded stone surround and panelled walls and overmantel of the same date. In the kitchen is a large open fireplace with ovens. Late C17 staircase with twisted balusters. The Great Chamber, on the first floor, has a fireplace similar to that in the hall and an open timber roof of 2-bays with central cambered collar beam and central moulded pendant, and arched braces carved on moulded wood corbel. Interior of former brew- house not inspected. Lawrence Washington was a wool merchant and became mayor of Northampton in 1532. In 1610 Sulgrave Manor was purchased by his grandson, Lawrence Makepeace. It was sold in 1659 and had no further connection with the Washington family. In 1914 it was purchased as a memorial to George Washington. (H. Clifford Smith, Sulgrave Manor and the Washingtons, London 1933).
The Postcard
A postally unused carte postale that was published by N.D. The card has a divided back.
The South Portal
The south portal, which was added later than the others, in the 13th. century, is devoted to events after the Crucifixion of Christ, and particularly to the Christian martyrs.
The decoration of the central bay concentrates on the Last Judgement and the Apostles; the left bay on the lives of martyrs; and the right bay is devoted to confessor saints.
This arrangement is repeated in the stained glass windows of the apse. The arches and columns of the porch are lavishly decorated with sculpture representing the labours of the months, the signs of the zodiac, and statues representing the virtues and vices.
On top of the porch, between the gables, are pinnacles in the arcades with statues of eighteen Kings, beginning with King David, representing the lineage of Christ, and linking the Old Testament and the New.
Chartres
Chartres is a city and capital of the Eure-et-Loir département in France. At the 2019 census, there were 38,534 individuals living in the city.
Chartres is famous worldwide for its Gothic cathedral which is in an exceptional state of preservation. The majority of the original stained glass windows survive intact, while the architecture has seen only minor changes since the early 13th. century.
Part the old town, including most of the library associated with the School of Chartres, was destroyed by Allied bombs in 1944.
The Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Chartres, is one of the finest and best preserved Gothic cathedrals in France and in Europe. Its historical and cultural importance has been recognized by its inclusion on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
Chartres is built on a hill on the left bank of the river Eure. The medieval cathedral is at the top of the hill, and its two spires are visible from miles away across the flat surrounding lands. To the southeast stretches the fertile plain of Beauce, the "Granary of France", of which the town is the commercial centre.
Chartres cathedral was built on the site of the former Chartres cathedral of Romanesque architecture, which was destroyed by fire (that former cathedral had been built on the ruins of an ancient Celtic temple, later replaced by a Roman temple).
Begun in 1205, the construction of Notre-Dame de Chartres was completed 66 years later.
The stained glass windows of the cathedral were financed by guilds of merchants and craftsmen, and by wealthy noblemen, whose names appear at the bottom. It is not known how the famous and unique blue, bleu de Chartres, of the glass was created, and it has been impossible to replicate it.
Chartres in WWII
In World War II, the city suffered heavy damage, both by bombing and during the battle of Chartres in August 1944, but the cathedral was spared by an American Army officer who challenged the order to destroy it.
On the 16th. August 1944, Colonel Welborn Barton Griffith Jr. questioned the necessity of destroying the cathedral, and volunteered to go behind enemy lines to find out whether the Germans were using it as an observation post.
With his driver, Griffith proceeded to the cathedral and, after searching it all the way up its bell tower, confirmed to Headquarters that it was empty of Germans. The order to destroy the cathedral was withdrawn.
Colonel Griffith was killed in action later on that day in the town of Lèves, 3.5 kilometres (2.2 miles) north of Chartres. For his heroic action both at Chartres and Lèves, Colonel Griffith received, posthumously, decorations awarded by the President of the United States and the U.S. Military, and also from the French government.
Following deep reconnaissance missions and after heavy fighting in and around the city, Chartres was liberated on the 18th. August 1944, by the U.S. 5th. Infantry and 7th. Armored Divisions commanded by General George S. Patton.
Churches of Chartres
The Église Saint-Pierre de Chartres was the church of the Benedictine Abbaye Saint-Père-en-Vallée, founded in the 7th. century by Queen Balthild. At the time of its construction, the abbey was outside the walls of the city. It contains fine stained glass and, formerly, twelve representations of the apostles in enamel, created circa 1547 by Léonard Limosin, which now can be seen in the fine arts museum.
Other noteworthy churches of Chartres are Saint-Aignan (13th., 16th. and 17th. centuries), and Saint-Martin-au-Val (12th. century), inside the Saint-Brice hospital.
Museums of Chartres
Chartres' Museums include:
-- Le Musée des Beaux-Arts, a fine arts museum, housed in the former episcopal palace adjacent to the cathedral.
-- Le Centre International du Vitrail, a workshop-museum and cultural center devoted to stained glass art, located 50 metres (160 feet) from the cathedral.
-- Le Conservatoire du Machinisme et des Pratiques Agricoles, an agricultural museum.
-- Le Musée le Grenier de l'Histoire, a history museum specializing in military uniforms and accoutrements, in Lèves, a suburb of Chartres.
-- Le Musée des Sciences Naturelles et de la Préhistoire, a Natural science and Prehistory Museum (closed since 2015).
Other Features of Chartres
The river Eure, which at this point divides into three branches, is crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is fringed in places by remains of the old fortifications, of which the Porte Guillaume (14th. century), a gateway flanked by towers, was the most complete specimen, until destroyed by the retreating German army on the night of the 15th./16th. August 1944.
The steep, narrow streets of the old town contrast with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle it and separate it from the suburbs. The Parc André-Gagnon lies to the north-west, and squares and open spaces are numerous.
Part of the Hôtel de Ville dates from the 17th. century, and is called l'Hôtel de Montescot. There is also La Maison Canoniale dating back to the 13th. century, and several medieval and Renaissance houses.
La Maison Picassiette, a house decorated inside and out with mosaics of shards of broken china and pottery, is also worth a visit.
There is also a statue of General Marceau (1769–1796), a native of Chartres and a general during the French Revolution.
The Economy of Chartres
Historically, game pies and other delicacies of Chartres are well known, and the city's industries have also included flour-milling, brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture, perfumes, dyeing, stained glass, billiard requisites and hosiery.
More recently, businesses include the manufacture of electronic equipment and car accessories. Since 1976 the fashion and perfumes company Puig has had a production plant in the commune.
Pilgrimages
Chartres has been a site of Catholic pilgrimages since the Middle Ages. The poet Charles Péguy, who was born in 1873, revived the pilgrimage route between Paris and Chartres before the Great War.
At the outbreak of the war, Péguy became a lieutenant in the French 276th. Infantry Regiment. He died at the age of 41 in battle, shot in the forehead, near Villeroy, Seine-et-Marne on the 5th. September 1914, the day before the beginning of the Battle of the Marne. There is a memorial to Charles near the field where he was killed.
After the war, a number of students carried on the pilgrimage in his memory. Since 1982, the association Notre-Dame de Chrétienté, with offices in Versailles, organizes the annual 100 km (62 mi) pilgrimage on foot from Notre-Dame de Paris to Notre-Dame de Chartres. About 15,000 pilgrims, from France and countries outside France, participate every year.
The Bataclan Theatre Massacre
Chartres was the home of Omar Ismael Mostefaï aged 29, one of the three gunmen who attacked the audience at the Bataclan concert venue on the 13th. November 2015, starting at 21.40.
It was part of a carefully co-ordinated attack on Paris; over a 20 minute period, Islamist militants also killed and injured people at the Stade de France, and at six restaurants and cafes along the 10th. and 11th. arrondissements.
One of the restaurants was a popular Cambodian eatery in the trendy Canal Saint-Martin area, where at least 12 people died. Another 19 people were killed at a busy restaurant on nearby Rue de Charonne.
Shootings and bomb blasts on that night left a total of 130 people dead and hundreds wounded, with more than 100 in a critical condition.
The Start of the Bataclan Massacre
On the evening of the 13th. November 2015, the American rock band Eagles of Death Metal was playing to an audience of about 1,500 people at the Bataclan on the Boulevard Voltaire in the 11th. arrondissement of Paris.
Three dark-clad gunmen had been waiting in a black rental car near the venue for more than an hour, and were armed with Zastava M70 assault rifles. The M70 is a derivative of the Soviet AK-47, and can fire at a rate of 620 rounds per minute. Over 4 million of the ghastly things have unfortunately been manufactured.
The terrorists were three French natives of Algerian descent. As the band was playing their song "Kiss the Devil", the three men got out of the car and opened fire on people outside the venue, killing three.
They then burst into the concert hall and sprayed the crowd with automatic gunfire. Witnesses heard shouts of "Allahu Akbar" as the terrorists opened fire. Initially, the audience mistook the gunfire for pyrotechnics. The band ran offstage and escaped with many of the crew, although their tour manager was killed.
Rows of people were mown down by gunfire or were forced to drop to the ground to avoid being shot. Survivors described hundreds of people lying beside and on top of each other in pools of blood, screaming in terror and pain.
The gunmen also fired up into the balconies, and dead bodies fell down onto the stalls below. For a few minutes, the hall was plunged into darkness, with only the flashes from the assault rifles as the gunmen kept shooting.
The terrorists shouted that they were there because of French airstrikes against Islamic State. A witness who was inside the Bataclan heard a gunman say:
"This is because of all the harm
done by Hollande to Muslims all
over the world."
A radio reporter attending the concert reported that:
"The terrorists were calm and determined, and they
reloaded three or four times. Two gunmen attacked
the concert hall; one gunman covered fire while
another reloaded to ensure maximum efficiency."
Whenever a gunman stopped to reload, members of the crowd, some with bullets in them, ran for the emergency exits, scrambling over each other to escape. Some were shot from behind as they fled, and the terrorists laughed as they shot them. Those who reached an emergency exit were shot by the third gunman, who had positioned himself there.
Other groups of people barricaded themselves in backstage rooms. Some smashed open the ceiling in an upstairs toilet, and hid among the rafters under the roof. Those who could not run lay still on the floor or under bodies pretending to be dead. One women was seen hanging from a third floor window.
According to survivors, the terrorists walked among those who were lying down, kicked them, and shot them in the head if there were any sign of life.
An eyewitness reported hearing the gunmen ask amongst themselves where the members of the Eagles of Death Metal were once the gunfire stopped. Mostefaï and another of the gunmen then went upstairs to the balconies, while the third attacker stayed downstairs and fired at people who tried to flee.
Initial Armed Response to the Terrorists
The Brigade of Research and Intervention (BRI) arrived on the scene at 22:15, soon followed by the elite tactical unit, RAID. At 22:15, the first two responding officers entered the building armed with handguns and encountered one of the terrorists who was standing on the stage.
The Jihadist died after being shot by the officers and detonating his explosive vest. Mostefaï and the other remaining gunman (Mohamed-Aggad) then fired upon the officers, forcing them to withdraw and wait for backup.
The Stand-Off
From this point, Mostefaï and the other attacker took about twenty hostages and herded them into a room at the end of a corridor located further within the building. They also seized the hostages' mobile phones and attempted to use them to access the Internet, but they were unable to find a signal.
Some of the hostages were forced to look down into the hall and out the windows and report what they saw. During this time, the two terrorists fired on police and first responders as they arrived at the scene.
At 23:30, an elite police squad entered the building. One unit evacuated survivors from downstairs, while another unit went upstairs. They found Mohamed-Aggad and Mostefaï, who had begun using hostages as human shields. They shouted out to police the number of a hostage's phone.
Over the next 50 minutes, they had four phone exchanges with a police negotiator, during which time they threatened to execute hostages unless they received a signed paper promising France's departure from Muslim lands.
The Police Assault
The police assault began at 00:20 and lasted three minutes. Police launched the assault because of reports that Mohamed-Aggad and Mostefaï had started killing hostages. Police using shields burst open the door to the room and exchanged fire with Mohamed-Aggad and Mostefaï while managing to pull the hostages one-by-one behind their shields. One terrorist detonated his explosive vest, and the other tried to do the same but was shot.
Ninety people were killed at the Bataclan on that night, and hundreds of others were wounded. Almost all of the deceased victims were killed within the first 20 minutes of the attack. All of the hostages were rescued without injury.
Police dog teams from the Brigade Cynophile assisted with body removal because of concerns that there could still be live explosives in the theatre. Identification and removal of the bodies took 10 hours, a process made difficult because some audience members had left their identity papers in the theatre's cloakroom.
Omar Ismael Mostefaï
The homegrown suicide bomber Omar Ismael Mostefaï was identified after his finger was found among the Bataclan concert hall carnage.
Mostefaï was born in the Paris suburb of Courcouronnes and had eight past convictions for petty crimes. He is said to have been radicalised by a Belgian hate preacher at a mosque in France.
The Jihadist was buried in the Cimetière Parisien de Thiais
located in Val-de-Marne.
Specimen of 'raw' precious coral in a temporary exhibition devoted to decorative use of precious coral, in Catania, Sicily (Italy).
This item was not in the exhibition catalogue, so I have no specific details for it. It is a specimen of precious red coral which has not yet been worked into decorative artefacts. The lighting conditions made it difficult to capture the details, and the photo lacks sharpness, though I like to think that gives the specimen a more abstract sculptural quality. But it is possible to get just a hint of the pattern of fine parallel furrows that run like wood grain along the branches, and the occasional pits marking the places where the living polyps would once have been. The photo also captures the natural bushy shape of precious coral growth. The colour in my original photo was biased towards orange, which is not really in the white-pink-vermilion-crimson range of precious coral, so I have edited the photo's colour to give the specimen a more realistic pinkish-red hue.
(The Flickr map of Catania is almost useless for street-names as most of them aren't given. I've had to use Google Maps for the street names.)
PRECIOUS CORAL
Precious coral has been widely collected and used in jewellery and decorative craft work for thousands of years, at least since the Iron Age. It is a cnidarian animal (a group that also includes jelly fish), belonging to the anthozoan subgroup. Within anthozoans, it is a gorgonian octocoral, and distantly related to the stony corals that build tropical coral reefs. Precious coral occurs throughout the Mediterranean, where the species is Corallium rubrum Linnaeus 1758. Very similar coral species are known from the seas around China and Japan but in the context of this exhibition, this is probably the Mediterranean one, C. rubrum.
The soft tissue of precious coral is stripped away when the coral is being prepared for craft work, leaving only the hard red core of the branches (made of calcium carbonate), which is then cut, shaped, carved and polished. This specimen, about 15-20 cm across (from memory) shows a piece of coral already stripped, ready for being worked. Many of the branch tips are broken, perhaps in the course of being dredged from the sea floor.
I often have to identify precious coral in ancient, historical and modern artefacts, as part of my work. Unlike ivory and tortoiseshell, precious coral is not (yet?) listed under CITES.
THE EXHIBITION
The exhibition was entitled I Grandi Capolavori del Corallo - I Coralli di Trapani del XVII e XVIII secolo. (Great Masterpieces of Coral - The Corals of Trapani of the 17th and 18th Centuries.). According to the guide to the exhibition, this was planned and organized by La Fondazione Puglisi Cosentino [gallery] who housed it in their building on via Vittorio Emanuele II. Trapani is on the NW tip of Sicily. The original Trapani craftmen were predominantly Jewish. However, most of the works themselves on display were religious and Christian so (I guess) were created by subsequent generations of craftsmen who were not necessarily Jewish.
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LONDON - PARIS - CATANIA - ROME - LONDON ----- DAY 4
Photo from the fourth day of our crazy long distance rail trip from home (London) to Sicily. We spent the first day travelling from home in London to Paris, by Eurostar train, and were meant to the take an overnight train from Paris to Rome that same evening. But our Eurostar train out of London was badly delayed due to 'a fatality [unexplained - perhaps fortunately] on the train'. So we missed our onward connection to Rome and had an unexpected but happy second day in Paris. We left Paris that evening, on the equivalent Rome service arriving in Rome on our third day where we changed for our onward train, arriving in Catania (Sicily) that same evening. Our fourth day was our first full day in Sicily, and we spent this in the centre of Catania itself.
By the end of the whole holiday trip we had seen things and sites from ancient Greek time to modern, so the trip felt like a mini Grand Tour. Or given the rich mythology of Sicily, Etna and the Straits of Messina (Odysseus, the Cyclops, Scylla & Charybdis, etc.) perhaps our trip was like a modern mini Odyssey of our times. Odysseus took ten years to get home. It took us ten trains - but no monsters.
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Photo
Darkroom Daze © Creative Commons.
If you would like to use or refer to this image, please attribute.
ID: DSC_6630 - Version 2
Tashiding Monastery is a Buddhist monastery of the Nyingma sect of Tibetan Buddhism in Western Sikkim, northeastern India. It is located on top of the hill rising between the Rathong chu and the Rangeet River, 40 kilometres from Gyalshing and 19 kilometres to the south east of Yuksam meaning Yuk-Lamas, Sam- Three in Lepcha Language which signifies the meeting place of three holy lamas from Tibet in 1641 A.D. Tashiding is the nearest town to the Tashiding Monastery (Gompa), which is the most sacred and holiest monasteries in Sikkim.
Tashiding means “The Devoted Central Glory” and the monastery by this name was founded in 1641 by Ngadak Sempa Chempo Phunshok Rigzing who belonged to the Nyingma sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Ngadak was one of the three wise men who held the consecration ceremony crowning the first King of Sikkim at Yuksom. It was extended and renovated in 1717 during the reign of the third Chogyal Chakdor Namgyal. 'Bhumchu Ceremony' or festival is a popular religious festival that is held on the 14th and 15th day of the first month of Tibetan Calendar.
The Tashiding Monastery is part of Buddhist religious pilgrimage circuit starting with the first monastery at Yuksam in Sikkim known as the Dubdi Monastery, Norbugang Chorten, Pemayangtse Monastery, the Rabdentse ruins, the Sanga Choeling Monastery, and the Khecheopalri Lake.
LEGEND
There are several legends linked to the most revered monastery and the Bhuchu festival that is held here.
According to one local legend Guru Padmasambhava shot an arrow into the air to select the place. Where the arrow he shot landed, he sat in meditation and that site eventually became the site of the Tashiding Monastery.
Another legend relates to the three monks who consecrated the first Chogyal of Sikkim at Yuksam. It is said that the three monks saw an unusual divine phenomenon of bright light shining on top of the Kanchendzonga mountain, which reflected to a site near the place where the present Tashiding Monastery has been built. Concurrently, a scented smell of incense followed by all pervading divine music was also noted. The first Chogyal who visited the site subsequent to hearing this unusual event, erected a small chorten at the site and named it as Thongwa-Rang-Grol. Legend further glorifies the site stating that a mere sight of it “confers self-emancipation”.
Another absorbing legend is related to the celebration of the Bhumchu festival at Tashiding Monastery. The legend is traced to the tantric art. Guru Padmasambhava, while teaching the tantric system of “Mahakarunika Avalokiteshvara Sadhana and initiation on emancipation from the cycle of mundane existence” to the King Trisong Duetsen, prince Murub Tsenpo, Yeshe Tsogyal and Verotsana in Tibet, sanctified the same holy vase with holy water, which is now kept in Tashiding Monastery and revered during the Bhumchu festival. This vase is made of five types prized jewels, divine soil and holy water said to have been gathered by Padmasambhava from religious centres in India, Odiuana and Zahor. The vase was made by the wrathful deity Damchen Gar-bgag and sanctified by Guru Padmasambhava himself by performing the “Sadhana of Yidam Chuchig Zhal (meaning tutelary deity of eleven heads)”. On this occasion, heavenly deities appeared in the sky and thereafter merged into the holy water contained in the vase. The vase then overflowed and the water dispersed in “all directions in the form of rays.” This ritual was immediately followed by an earthquake, which was considered an auspicious sign. The divine moment also witnessed the presence of the four guardian divinities namely, “the Gyalchen Dezhi/Cutur – Maharajika of Dharma and the gods of the thirty-three heavens (Samchu Tsasumgyi Lhanam) who showered flowers from the sky.” The event was witnessed by devotees and Padmasmabhava distributed the holy water from the vase to all assembled people, which spiritually benefited one and all. The vase was then hidden as a treasure under the care of the divine deities. However, the vase was rediscovered and passed through the hands of several holy men and finally placed at Tashiding by Terton Ngdag Sampachenpo. During the reign of the first ruler of Sikkim, Phuntshog Namgyal, the Terton recited the holy hymn “Om Mani Padme Hum” five billions when several unique events were also witnessed in Sikkim. After the religious ceremony the vase with the water has been kept on display in a small chamber in the Monastery under the custody of the Chogyal himself, which is opened once a year during the Bhumchu festival.
GEOGRAPHY
This monastery located at an altitude of 1465 m is built on top of a heart shaped hill or helmet shaped hill above the confluence of the Rathong Chu and Rangeet rivers, with the Mt. Kanchendzonga providing the scenic back drop. It is about 16 km from Yuksam, 40 km from Gezing via Legship.
The monastery is considered as the spiritual centre of Sikkim since it is encircled by many important monasteries in Sikkim in all directions such as: the Dubdi Monastery 23 km away on its northern direction, the Khecheopalri Lake (wish fulfilling lake) on the northwest, the Pemayangtse monastery on the west, the Shiva temple at Legship on the south, the Mongbrue gompa and Ravangla Bön monastery on the southeast, the Ravangla Gelug monastery on the east, the Karma Kagyud Ralang Monastery on the northeast.[citation needed] Gulia summarising the importance of this monastery has said:
For tashiding one can say: seeing is believing. The monastery is historically illustrious, geographically well located, aesthetically beautiful, spiritually divine – a place where nature and spirituality dwell together, urging the human race to be ecologically upright.
Geographically the Monastery and the Tashiding town are surrounded by four divine caves located in four cardinal directions. The four caves where Buddhist saints meditated are: On the East is the Sharchog Bephug, on the South is the Khandozangphu, in the West is Dechenpug cave and on the North is the Lhari Nyingphug. The main deity deified in the monastery is Tashiding and hence the monastery is also known as 'Dakkar Tashiding'.
HISTORY
In the 17th century, Ngadak Sempa Chemp built a small Lhakhang at this location. This was enlarged into the present monastery during the reign of Chogyal Chakdor Namgyal. Pedi Wangmo built the main monastery and installed many statues which are still seen in the monastery. Lhatsun Chenpo built the Chortens; which are considered holy. Yanchong Lodil, the Master craftsman crafted the flagstones that surround the monastery. These are carved with the holy Buddhist mantra 'Om Mane Padme Hum'.
ARCHITECTURE
An overall picture of the precincts of the monastery within the Tashiding town is provided in five distinct blocks namely, the Sinem market place, the outskirts, the main market place, the main Tashiding Monastery and the Chorten area.
The Sinek market place is located on an incline on the ridge between Rathong Chu and Rangeet River. There is a gompa here called the Sinolochu Gompa from where an approach leads to the Tashiding Monastery on the southern direction. The settlement is spread lengthwise and is 23 kilometres from Yuksom. A large 'Mani' stone is seen at the entrance to this settlement and the Tashiding market.
From the main market centre the approach to the Monastery is through a road, and also a foot path. The foot path in the southern direction has a gentle slope and passes through a Mani and then prayer wind wheels terminating at the entrance gate of the Monastery.
The Monastery itself consists of a 'Mani Lhakang' at the entrance surrounded by flags, and lead to the guest house. From this point ahead is the main 'Tashiding Gompa' which is called as Chogyal Lhakhang or the monastery, followed by the 'butter lamp house', four chortens, 'Tsenkhang', a new butter lamp house and finally terminating at the 'Guru Lhakhang', which is the temple of Guru Rinpoche. Other basic essential structures such as kitchen, school and residential housing are located on the left side of the approach path to the monastery.
In the 'Chorten area', there are 41 chortens categorised as 'Chortens of Enlightenment', 'Chortens of Reconciliation' and 'Chortens of Great Miracle', which are all of Rinpoches and Tathāgatas.
However, the main temple has undergone renovation work in modern times and rebuilt, but is still encircled by traditional buildings and chortens at the far end of the site, which holds the relics of Sikkim Chogyals and Lamas, including the 'Thong-Wa-rang-Dol' chorten which is believed to cleanse the soul of any person who looks at it.
Also of major note are the stone plates called the 'Mani', the work of Yanchong Lodil who inscribed them with the sacred Buddhist inscriptions, such as "Om Mane Padme Hum".
FESTIVALS
Bhumchu festival, which is linked by an ancient legend to Guru Padmasambhava, is about a divine vase filled with holy water kept in the monastery, which is opened for public display and worship every year on the night before the Full Moon day in the first month of Tibetan calendar. Bhumchu (Bhum=pot; Chu=water) is a Buddhist festival celebrated to predict the future. In this vase, water of Rathong chhu is stored for a year and kept in the Tashiding Monastery. It is opened during the festival by the lamas who inspect the water level and hence it is called the festival of holy water. The belief is that alteration in the quantity and quality of the water stored in the vase over a year would indicate the fortune of Sikkim and its people in the following year. If it is filled to the brim (which is interpreted as a measure of increase by 21 cups), the following year will be prosperous. If it is empty, famine will follow, and if it is half-filled also a prosperous year is predicted. If the water is polluted with dust it is interpreted as a sign of strife and clash. Once inspected and the Bhumchu festival is concluded, the lamas fill the vase with fresh water from the river and seal it for the opening in the following year.
The procedure followed for taking out the sacred water from the vase is that the first cup of sacred water is taken out for blessing the members of the Royal family of the Chogyals, then the second cup is meant for the Lamas and the third cup of water is meant for the devotees to whom it is distributed. Pilgrims come to the monastery from all regions of Sikkim to be blessed with the holy water. The festival is of particular importance to the Bhutias (ethnic Tibeteans) of Sikkim who hold the “life-sustaining water of the rivers” with great reverence. The festival falls on the 15th day Full Moon day of the first Tibetan month or Hindu month of Magh corresponding to February/March according to Gregorian calendar.
The basic purpose of the festival is to highlight the importance of water as a precious resource to be conserved and its purity preserved. The prophecy also sends a message to the people that waters should not be polluted and its environmental importance is propagated.
WIKIPEDIA