Subtle Acts of Resistance through the Practice of Everyday Life

A dinner devoted to the work of Michel de Certeau [1999]

 

As a part of a lecture series entitled, The Mediated Image*, De Geuzen hosted a three course dinner devoted to the work of Michel de Certeau. During the meal, there were related presentations and visual interventions by De Certeau admirers Rob van Kranenburg and Mike Tyler.

 

Michel de Certeau has been an important figure in shifting modes of analysis away from the study of media as object or textual surface towards the research of how people use, interpret and reinvent media for their own purposes. As an ethnologist and historian, de Certeau refused to remain faithful to any singular specialised discipline. The theoretical framework from which he operated was impressively broad, traversing the lines between anthropology, sociology, philosophy, history, mysticism and literature. He radically questioned his own position within discursive practices by problematising the inevitable power relation that arises in studying a subject while simultaneously laying bare the numerous limitations of representation. Beyond the more self-reflexive aspects of his project, he examined how the weak attain power through subtle tactics of manipulation and play. According to de Certeau, suppressed voices emerge through the employment of guises, appropriation of media and creation of interruptions. As he points out with acuity in his book, The Practice of Everyday Life (1974) "Everyday life invents itself by poaching in countless ways on the property of others".

  

Rob van Kranenburg (1964) Worked and taught at Tilburg University as a research assistant after his studies in Language and Literature. Currently, he is working in Ghent developing and designing idiosyncratic and explorative online learning environments in the culture curriculum. As a writer he is part of the artscollective Alarrb.

Mike Tyler (Ventura, California, 1964) Artist / garden designer / film maker currently based in Amsterdam. His work has appeared in numerous exhibitions and festivals including: Kunsthalle Bern, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, and Kunstlerhaus Bethanien, Berlin.

*The Mediated Image was a series of lectures and presentations programmed by De Geuzen looking at how images are constructed, interpreted, manipulated and received. Besides examining how images are made and displayed, the series explored key figures who have shaped contemporary media discourse, such as Guy Debord, Jean Baudrillard, Marshall McLuhan and Michel de Certeau.

Tombstone of judge William Dummer Powell (Novermber 5, 1755 - September 6, 1834), his wife, and his daughter. St. James Cemetery. Toronto, Canada. Spring afternoon, 2021. Pentax K1 II.

 

This was originally an upright tombstone but has since been lain flat on the ground and moss has filled in much of the lettering.

 

The inscription reads:

 

Sacred

To the memory of

The Hon. William Dummer Powell

Formerly Chief Justice of this Province

An eminent lawyer and an upright,

Judge who after a long life devoted to

The cause of Justice and Humanity

Died At Toronto On The

6th September 1834

Aged 79 Years

Also Anne

Widow of the late

Hon. William Dummer Powell

Died 10th March 1849

Also Elizabeth

Their daughter

Died 1st December 1855

Blessed are the dead who died in the Lord

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dummer_Powell

 

William Dummer Powell (November 5, 1755 - September 6, 1834) was a Loyalist lawyer, judge and political figure in Upper Canada.

 

Early life and education

 

Born at Boston, Massachusetts, he was named for his grandmother's brother William Dummer, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts. He was the eldest son of John Powell (d.1794), a prosperous merchant who for thirty years held the contract for provisioning the Royal Navy. His mother, Janet (d.1774), was the daughter of Sweton Grant (d.1744), of Newport, Rhode Island. Grant was a member of the Grant Baronets of Dalvey and Gartenbeg, who was probably involved in the slave trade and started a gunpowder business in Boston. Ironically, Grant was killed by an explosion.

 

Powell studied in Boston before being sent to England under the care of his maternal relative, Sir Alexander Grant, who sent him to board at Tonbridge School. Having in four years excelled at nothing other than cricket, he was next sent him to live with a merchant at Rotterdam where he was to learn French and Dutch while gaining a first-hand experience in business. Having returned to Boston in 1772, two years later he started his legal career in the offices of Jonathan Sewell, Attorney General of Massachusetts. After his marriage, he returned to England in 1775 where he studied law at the Middle Temple.

 

Career

 

As a Loyalist, Powell went to Quebec in 1779, entering private practice in Montreal. In 1783, he went to England to petition with other delegates against the Quebec Act. His formal call to the English bar, delayed because of finances, was finally arranged in 1784 and, later that year, he returned to Boston to attempt to recover his father's property which had been confiscated after the American Revolution. Unsuccessful, he returned to Montreal in 1785.

 

In 1789, he was appointed judge in the Western District. He lived in Detroit but the court sat at L'Assomption (Windsor). In 1794, he was appointed to the Court of King's Bench for Upper Canada and moved to Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake). In 1808, he was appointed to the Executive Council for the province. He settled at York (Toronto) and remained there during the American occupation during the War of 1812. He opposed the suspension of habeas corpus during the war. In 1814, he assisted Chief Justice Thomas Scott by presiding over several of the trials known as the "Bloody Assize" which were held at Ancaster to prosecute those charged with treason during the war.

 

When Chief Justice Thomas Scott was no longer able to chair the Executive Council in 1816, Powell took on that post, and also replaced him as Chief Justice later that same year.

 

He upset the province's administration by rejecting many of the charges brought by Lord Selkirk against those who had stirred up trouble for the Red River Colony. In 1823, he refused to swear in Alexander Wood as a commissioner for war claims arising from the War of 1812; Powell had originally opposed his appointment on moral grounds. Wood successfully sued him for damages. Although he opposed prosecuting Robert Fleming Gourlay for attacks on the administration of the province, he found himself forced to banish Gourlay from the province for sedition. In 1825, after he was rebuked by the Executive Council for exposing the administration to criticism, he resigned from that council; he was succeeded by William Campbell as Chief Justice later that year. He died in Toronto in 1834.

 

Family

 

In 1775, Powell married Anne Murray, daughter of Dr John Murray (b.1720) and Mary Boyles. John Murray was born in Scotland and became a surgeon in the Royal Navy. He established himself with a private medical practice at Wells and then Norwich, before moving to Boston.

Mrs. Anna Dummer Powell, Powell's grandmother painted in 1764 by John Singleton Copley.

 

They were survived by two children. Their son, Captain John Powell of Brockamour Manor, Niagara-on-the-Lake, married a daughter of General Æneas Shaw and they were the parents of John Powell, alderman and mayor of Toronto.

 

Justice William Powell was described as a dedicated family man, sitting in the middle of his family in his pew at church. His daughter died in 1822 when a boat she was on sank. The packet ship, the Albion, was one of the finest class of ships that operated between Liverpool and New York. She was scheduled to come to York on the previous voyage, but missed it for an unknown reason.

 

www.biographi.ca/en/bio/powell_william_dummer_6E.html

 

POWELL, WILLIAM DUMMER, lawyer, judge, office holder, politician, and author; b. 5 Nov. 1755 in Boston, eldest son of John Powell and Janet Grant; m. 3 Oct. 1775 Anne Murray*, and they had nine children; d. 6 Sept. 1834 in Toronto.

 

William Dummer Powell was descended on both sides of his family from 17th-century emigrants to Massachusetts from England. His maternal grandfather, William Dummer, had been lieutenant governor of the colony; his paternal grandfather, John Powell, had come out as Dummer’s secretary. His father, also named John Powell, was a prosperous Boston merchant, the holder for three decades before the American revolution of a naval victualling contract. The Powells had been Anglicans and royalists, the Dummers Presbyterians and parliamentarians. By an agreement between his parents, the second John Powell was brought up in the Church of England, but his two younger brothers were raised as Congregationalists. Even before the declaration of American independence the family was also politically divided, John being a declared loyalist and his brothers rebels.

 

By that time William Dummer Powell had completed his formal education and was trying to decide on a career. After three years at the Boston Free Grammar School he had been sent to an Anglican school in Tunbridge (Royal Tunbridge Wells), Kent, for four years and then to Rotterdam, where for two years he studied French and Dutch. At the age of 16 he had then returned to England for a year, where he “cultivated the good graces of the ladies more than any other pursuit,” until concern for his father’s health recalled him to Boston in 1772. By his own later admission he had been a far from assiduous student: fluency in French, an enthusiasm for cricket, and a continuing taste for the Latin classics seem to have been the main results of his schooling. The Powell view of what constituted frivolity was, however, severe; his letters to his parents reveal a rather priggish young man, serious if not especially studious. He already showed the intense concern for social position that was to characterize him all his life, reacting vehemently to an inaccurate report circulated at the Tunbridge school of his father’s insolvency.

 

Back in Boston, his father’s bout of rheumatic fever over, Powell set about looking for commercial opportunities. His father proved unwilling to give him a share of the naval victualling contract. A plan to go into business with his mother’s relatives in London having come to nothing, he visited Montreal in the summer of 1773 and Pennsylvania and New York in the next year. In the winters he studied law under the attorney general of Massachusetts, Jonathan Sewell (Sewall), but his object was to prepare himself for public life, not for a legal career. In 1774 Powell hoped to go into business in New York, where anti-imperial sentiment was less widespread than in Boston; but his journey there was interrupted by the death from smallpox of his mother, to whom his attachment was very strong. Returning to Boston, he threw himself into politics as one of the organizers of a declaration of loyal citizens against the revolutionary party (19 April 1775). He served in arms, although apparently not in action, as a volunteer with the British garrison. With open rebellion approaching and his opposition to it established beyond any chance of compromise, he decided to leave North America. He also met Anne Murray, the daughter of a Scottish physician, who had come to live with relatives in Boston. They were married just before leaving for England in October 1775 and settled near her family at Norwich.

 

His father followed within a year, taking up residence at Ludlow in Shropshire, the county from which his family had come. He continued to support his son, but his ability to do so was now diminished, mostly because a West Indian plantation in which he had invested heavily went bankrupt. A part of his Boston estates was confiscated on 30 April 1779 under an act of that year classifying him as an absentee rather than a traitor; but the confiscated part, inventoried at £902 1s. 2d., went to his rebel brother William, who had advanced him £1,000 when he left Boston. Under a later Massachusetts act of 1784 absentees were allowed to reclaim their property. It was to be a lifelong grievance of William Dummer Powell that he was never able to recover all his father’s estate under the terms of that act, but it seems that most of the elder Powell’s real property in America was retained in spite of his loyalism. It was nevertheless clear that the son would have to find a career to support his growing family.

 

He was unsuccessful in his competition with other loyalists for a government appointment, and a second scheme for going into business with a relative of his mother’s (this time in Jamaica) failed. He therefore decided upon the practice of law. By May 1779 he had kept the necessary terms at the Middle Temple. Unable then to afford the fees, he did not arrange his formal call to the English bar until 2 Feb. 1784. Yet another of his mother’s relatives, William Grant, the former attorney general of Quebec, recommended that province; and Powell arrived at Quebec in August 1779.

 

He obtained a licence to practise, but was disappointed in his hopes of patronage from the governor, Frederick Haldimand*. On the advice of the attorney general, James Monk, and the deputy commissary general, Isaac Winslow Clarke (a fellow Bostonian loyalist who later married his sister Anne), he went into private practice in Montreal. It proved a happy decision. Montreal was a growing commercial centre of some 15,000 people where there were not yet half a dozen lawyers. Powell did well enough to bring out his family, to acquire a house on Mount Royal, to command the highest fees at the Montreal bar, and perhaps even to dispense with his father’s assistance.

 

Yet he was soon dissatisfied in Montreal. Paradoxically, part of the reason was his success at the bar. His first client was Pierre Du Calvet*, charged with a libel against the judges of the Court of Common Pleas in Montreal. Du Calvet, displeased at an earlier judgement by the court, had published a letter critical of the judges and had beaten one of them, John Fraser, who had attacked him. Although warned by Monk that any lawyer who took the libel case would earn the resentment of the whole bench and of the governor as well, Powell defended Du Calvet and persuaded the jury to acquit him. In January 1780 he scored another triumph, this time before a court of quarter sessions without a jury. He was able to show that an old English statute on which Haldimand had relied to prosecute grain merchants for price-fixing had been repealed. Powell was willing to defy popular as well as official disapproval – he undertook prosecutions for refusals to transport military stores under the law of corvée – but his successes branded him as an opponent of the administration. That did not prevent his being retained on government as well as on commercial cases, but it was a role which his toryism made uncomfortable.

 

He was, however, convinced that government and the administration of justice under the Quebec Act of 1774 were arbitrary, in particular that English law relating to juries and the writ of habeas corpus must be introduced. He claimed later to have been silent himself and to have “inculcated silence and subordination in others,” but his views were well enough known to make him one of the delegates who sailed from Quebec on 25 Oct. 1783 with a petition against the Quebec Act. Nothing immediate came of the petition, but on his way back from England Powell spent almost a year in Boston. He attempted to recover the confiscated part of his father’s property. He agreed to manage the estates of his rebel uncle Jeremiah Powell for a time and he even hoped that, with the American war over, he could return to Boston without renouncing his British allegiance. The failure of his attempt, the disappointment of his hope, and the death of his uncle sent him back to Montreal early in 1785.

 

There he not only recovered his position at the bar, he found that most of the sources of his earlier discontent had been removed. An ordinance of 29 April 1784 had introduced habeas corpus, and another of 21 April 1785 soon adopted the general common law right to jury trials in civil cases. Perhaps best of all, Haldimand had gone. Sir Guy Carleton*, now Lord Dorchester, arrived in October 1786 for his second term as governor of Quebec; and under him Powell at last found official favour. He must be said to have earned it. In 1787 he served without remuneration as one of two commissioners sent to report on the dissatisfaction of loyalists settled on the upper St Lawrence, who were worried about the tenure of their lands. This commission recommended the 200-acre bonus for settlers who had made improvements to their land that became known as “Lord Dorchester’s bounty.” Powell wrote the commission’s report for a similar investigation of the seigneury of Sorel. He was on a commission to settle claims for freight charges against up-country traders who had used government vessels during the war. Finally, he led the board of inquiry into claims against the Quebec merchant John Cochrane, who had supplied specie to the army during the war and was accused of profiteering on bills of exchange. The board recommended dismissing the claims and found the court proceedings that had been taken against Cochrane improper. Powell therefore encountered the renewed hostility of the judges involved, Adam Mabane* and John Fraser. Mabane accused Powell of having taken an oath of allegiance to the American government, but he was not believed. Powell was granted the “few Acres of land” (in fact 3,000 acres) that Mabane was trying to deny him. Successful though his return to Montreal was, he could hardly look for a judicial appointment there.

 

The whole upper part of the province, which was to become Upper Canada in 1791, was still included in the district of Montreal. Except for justices of the peace, any two of whom could hear actions for debt up to £5, its only civil jurisdiction was the Montreal Court of Common Pleas. The St Lawrence loyalist settlers had petitioned for a separate province in 1785, and Montreal merchants in the next year made concerted complaints about the lack of courts in the interior. Dorchester opposed a separate province, but on 24 July 1788 he did create four new districts, each with a court of common pleas. The most westerly of them was Hesse (renamed the Western District from 15 Oct. 1792). Three judges were appointed for it, all residents of Detroit; Jacques Baby*, dit Dupéront, and William Robertson* were merchants, and Alexander McKee* was an officer in the Indian Department. All three joined in the inhabitants’ petition for a trained lawyer, following no other profession and not connected with trade. Powell, with his experience of up-country cases in Montreal, was an obvious choice. On 2 Feb. 1789 he was appointed first judge, and as it turned out the sole judge, of common pleas at Detroit. The stipend of £500 (sterling) probably exceeded his Montreal income. In retrospect, Powell claimed to have accepted the position “with the latent but confident expectation” of getting the chief legal appointment when a new province was created. At the time, it may have been enough that the court of Hesse, because the fur trade required it to have jurisdiction over acts outside its district (ordinance of 30 April 1789), was from a lawyer’s perspective the most important of the new courts.

 

Detroit was a rough town of about 4,000 people, the smallest and most remote place in which Powell had ever lived. He was to spend nearly all the rest of his life in smaller towns; York (Toronto) had not yet reached half that size when he retired there in 1825. Detroit was picturesque, and the officers of the garrison provided a society that Powell’s wife and sister Anne found agreeable, but the Powells were not happy there for long. He made no particular enemies through his court, which sat at L’Assomption (Sandwich) because Detroit itself was on American soil. He instituted simple procedure and dispensed quick justice, perhaps aided by the fact that he never called a jury. But he was also on the land board (7 Aug. 1789 to October 1792), where his refusal to recognize irregular purchases from the Indians and his faithful attendance – he missed only 5 of 53 meetings – made him a threat to the military and Indian Department officers who were unused to interference, especially from a newcomer. Powell’s life was threatened, his wife and children frightened by mock Indian ambushes, and his loyalty questioned. In October 1791 his wife took the family to England to keep them safe and to put the two eldest boys in school. Finally two officers, in what may have been intended as a cruel joke, forged a treasonable letter from Powell to the American secretary of war, Henry Knox.

 

By then Powell had other reasons for alarm. Upper Canada had been made a separate province, but Dorchester’s advice had been ignored in choosing the officials of its government. His choice for lieutenant governor, the loyalist Sir John Johnson, had been passed over. Their combined support for Powell did not get him the post of chief justice which he coveted, nor even a place on the Legislative and Executive councils. His authority as a judge of common pleas was extended beyond the Hesse District to cover the whole province (31 Dec. 1791), but his new masters were strangers with whom he had no influence. In February he went to Quebec to meet the new lieutenant governor, John Graves Simcoe*, and to disavow the forged letter. Their first acquaintance was reassuring to both of them, and he returned to his duties at Detroit. In the fall he went on leave to England, carrying Simcoe’s guarded endorsement that “the behaviour and conduct of Mr. Powell, as far as lies within my knowledge, has been in every respect such as becomes the station He holds.” He got similar assurance from the home secretary, Henry Dundas.

 

He remained an outsider under the new administration. The chief justice, William Osgoode, who had none of Powell’s experience of legal practice, of the bench, or of the province, did not consult him in reorganizing the courts. The new scheme replaced the district courts by a central court of king’s bench having criminal as well as civil jurisdiction. Before this judges like Powell had only limited criminal jurisdiction, supplied by temporary commissions of oyer and terminer and of general jail delivery. Powell was commissioned puisne judge of king’s bench on 9 July 1794. He first presided on the following 6 October at Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake), his wider jurisdiction having released him from Detroit. Since the only other regular judge of the court was the often absent chief justice, Powell bore the brunt of its work from the beginning, as he did for the rest of his career.

 

Except for the location of the capital at York, Powell did not object to the policies of Simcoe’s administration: his criticism of district land boards had already foreshadowed the grounds on which Simcoe abolished them, and he was an enthusiast for the plan of endowing the Church of England by leasing the clergy reserves. Yet he resented the young Englishmen set over him, was ostentatiously patient about the disappointment of his ambitions, and referred rather too often to “the long and unimpeached discharge of my Duty as the first Magistrate of this new Colony before its Seperation from Lower Canada.” He was right in questioning the legality of land grants made before 1791, but he did so in conjunction with the malcontent Niagara magnate Robert Hamilton*, leaving the provincial attorney general, John White*, to find out about it after the law officers in Westminster had given their opinion. Without the substance of opposition, he deliberately gave the appearance of it: knowing of Simcoe’s antipathy towards the governor at Quebec, he named his home at Newark “Mount Dorchester.” When Osgoode left the province, Powell was again passed over, Simcoe urging a chief justice who was “an English Lawyer.” There were private grounds for bitterness, too: the sale of Powell’s house in Montreal to Monk led to a long squabble, and Mrs Powell’s attempts to collect a Boston inheritance got her little except a quarrel with her brother, George Murray.

 

Powell’s patience was to be tried further. His friend Peter Russell*, who administered the government after Simcoe’s departure, lacked the influence to be his patron; Powell acted as chief justice for over two years, only to see the appointment go to John Elmsley*. His claims were not entirely unrecognized: another lobbying trip to England, obtained by a threat of resignation, won him half the chief justice’s salary, if that post was vacant, in addition to an increase in his own. This increase more than doubled his income whenever he was alone on the bench to £1,300 (sterling), although nearly half of that was taken up by the expense of making six district circuits a year. He had considerable political sense, as he showed in attempting to compose the quarrels of William Jarvis*, provincial secretary, with his colleagues. He advised David William Smith*, elected to the first assembly for the riding of Suffolk and Essex, that he could not expect French Canadian votes but could win without them. His advice against prosecuting the son of Joseph Brant [Thayendanegea*] for murder (3 Jan. 1797) was based on political considerations, although he did at that time think that Indians in their own villages were independent of the courts. On the first Heir and Devisee Commission from 1797 he showed the assiduity, grasp of detail, and concern for fairness that made him a good if unimaginative administrator.

 

He thought of himself as a man of principle, willing for its sake to risk the displeasure of authority, but his principles were apt to be most in evidence when his own interests or his partisan feelings were involved. When he called attention to the justice of loyalists’ claims to special importance in Upper Canada, he added his own claims to advancement. He pointed out, in the long wrangle among officials over land fees, that Jarvis’s share did not cover his costs; Jarvis was a friend, whose eldest son Samuel Peters* was to be Powell’s business agent and to marry his youngest daughter, Mary Boyles. When Lieutenant Governor Peter Hunter* put government during his frequent absences in the hands of a committee of the Executive Council, Powell insisted on the possible illegality of the arrangement; he had just been ignored again for a seat on the council, and offended by Hunter’s supersession of Russell. He felt himself to be “without Patronage in Europe,” as he wrote Dorchester, “in a species of disgrace here, where my local Information and Zeal for the Service were an unpardonable libel on the new Government.”

 

He continued to memorialize Whitehall on his merits and on the improvements to provincial legislation that he would have advised if asked. Before his ambition could be fulfilled, he had still to outlast two more immigrant chief justices: Henry Allcock* and Thomas Scott. He got along well enough with the latter to borrow $400 from him in July 1806 during the most melodramatic of his personal crises. His fourth son, Jeremiah, having joined a quixotic and farcical attempt to assist rebellion in the Spanish colony of Venezuela, lay in the notoriously fever-ridden prison of Omoa, near Cartagena (Colombia), sentenced to ten years’ hard labour. Powell took six months’ leave of absence to lobby in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, London, and Madrid for his son’s release. Jeremiah was set free in 1807, only to die at sea the following year. Powell’s success reveals that his connections outside Upper Canada were more extensive and effective than he admitted – they ranged from the Duke of Kent [Edward* Augustus] to the godmother of the son of the Spanish minister to the United States – and his grief did not prevent him from pressing his own case while in London. The deaths of his favourite sister Anne in childbirth at Montreal in 1792, of his infant daughter Anne in 1783, of his second son William Dummer in 1803, and of his youngest child Thomas William at school in Kingston in 1804 had been more tragic, but they had not drained his energies and finances as had Jeremiah’s escapade. He returned to York, worn out, in October 1807. He and his wife were now touchier and more status-conscious than ever, jealous of their claims to precedence in York society and ready to feel slighted at the formal manners of a new lieutenant governor, Francis Gore*. Mrs Powell was insulted in September 1807 at the prospect of having a wealthy York merchant, Laurent Quetton St George, as a son-in-law. She ignored her husband’s requests and risked Gore’s displeasure in refusing to cooperate in his attempt to rehabilitate Mrs John Small in York society.

 

In fact Gore’s arrival marked a turn in Powell’s fortunes. He declined the lieutenant governor’s first offer of a seat on the executive council, because it would have been unpaid; but a regular salaried place came open and he was sworn in on 8 March 1808. He remained stiffly independent, offending Gore by his decision on 15 July 1809, upheld on appeal to the imperial law officers, that David McGregor Rogers could not be dismissed as registrar of deeds because of his opposition in the House of Assembly. Gore however returned to the opinion he had expressed in the preceding March, that Powell was “a Gentleman who has discharged the duties of his important office with probity and honour for upwards of twenty years and whose local knowledge particularly fits him” to be an executive councillor. The council, with two assiduous and competent members in Powell and John McGill, now made progress with its backlog of business, Powell undertaking a simplification of the confused process by which land patents were issued. His credit rose steadily, and he soon had the satisfaction of being petitioned by such magnates as Richard Cartwright* and such prominent immigrants as John Strachan* to use his influence with the lieutenant governor.

 

That influence was exaggerated in popular conception at the time, as it was by the later reform critics Robert Gourlay*, Francis Collins, and William Lyon Mackenzie*. It also appears greater and more personal in retrospect than it really was, because the later correspondence between Gore and Powell reached a level of cordiality exceptional in Powell’s life. The two agreed that the subordinate officers of government should be men with experience of the province, but whereas that was a matter of practical common sense for Gore, for Powell it was a desire to “retain the Honors of the [legal] profession amongst ourselves.” Powell could obtain the appointment of his eldest son John as clerk of the Legislative Council (19 Feb. 1807) in succession to James Clark*, but not that of his protégé John Macdonell* (Greenfield) as attorney general. It was Isaac Brock*, administrator of the province during Gore’s absence, who agreed to Macdonell’s appointment and who recommended that Powell’s third son, Grant*, be made principal of the Court of Probate (April 1813). Powell drafted Brock’s celebrated reply of 22 July 1812 in response to Brigadier-General William Hull’s proclamation issued at Detroit. In Powell’s view at the time, Brock and later Sir George Murray* (administrator from 25 April to 30 June 1815) relied on his advice as much as Gore had done.

 

The decade up to 1818 saw the height of Powell’s career. Although in 1797 he had sworn never to settle his family at York, he now had an impressive house, Caer Howell, with another 100 acres in York Township and 5,000 more throughout the province. He assumed the obligations marking the status of which he, and still more his wife, were jealously proud; always complaining of the expense, he duly subscribed to building funds for a fire hall (1802) and for St James’ Church (1803), and was director of the subscription library (1814), the Loyal and Patriotic Society of Upper Canada (1812), and the Society for the Relief of Strangers in Distress (1817). As his wife was to write in 1819, “in an aristocratical Government, expences must be incurred according to the station held.” York was for him no longer, as he had called it in 1797, the seat of “the little policy of a remote Colony,” it was his home. His family ties to Boston had been cut well before the War of 1812 and he was committed to York, where most of his success and all of his prospects lay.

 

After the war came, he resolutely stayed at York during its occupation by American troops. He ran no military risk – “Our principal distress,” he wrote in 1815, “arose from the incredible Expense of living enhanced by the demands for the Army” – but he did keep British commanders informed of enemy movements and he sent regular reports on the state of the occupied town to the commander-in-chief, Sir George Prevost*. Less flamboyantly but just as firmly as Strachan, he insisted that the American commander maintain order and protect property against looting, whether by his own troops or by the civilians whom Powell thought chiefly responsible. The old charges of American sympathies, last raised briefly in 1807, were now totally implausible. By the end of the war, with Chief Justice Scott gravely ill and Gore returned from leave, Powell’s ascendancy on the bench and his influence in council were unquestioned. He was appointed to commissions to hear charges of treason (11 April 1814) and claims for wartime losses (21 Dec. 1815). The assembly granted him £1,000 for his continued work on the Heir and Devisee Commission. When Scott became unable to chair the Legislative Council, Powell felt strong enough to drive a mean bargain. He accepted a seat on the council and its speakership on condition that Scott resign them at once, giving up the salary. When commissioned (21 March 1816) Powell took no salary, but he recovered the arrears two years later. And at last he received the post to which he had felt himself entitled 25 years before and in which he had so often acted: on 1 Oct. 1816 he was commissioned chief justice of Upper Canada.

 

The war and his own success resolved some complications in his toryism. He no longer had reason to be jealous of appointees from England, and his self-consciousness as an American loyalist was no longer defensive. His old sense of grievance and of colonial inferiority persisted only in the retention of personal animosities: memories of Haldimand, Simcoe, Osgoode, Elmsley, Hunter, and Allcock were an irritant all his life. He was incurably, perhaps deliberately, provincial in dress, manners, and speech – he bought his clothes in Boston, when at home gobbled food with his fingers, and his voice never lost its Yankee twang – but these had become assertions of his independent character, not obstacles to his success. He remained convinced that Upper Canada was by right destined to be a special loyalist province and that most of the refugees from New York in 1784 would have come to it if imperial delays in arranging their reception had not left their establishment in New Brunswick “too far effected to think of removal.”

 

Upper Canada had become his country, with the imperial connection its essential support. The dangers that he saw to it arose not from imperial neglect or American aggression but from a spirit of democratic opposition and the pretensions of the legislative assembly. Much as he had disapproved of Robert Thorpe*’s combining his judgeship with political opposition in 1807, he had seen the main danger of Gore’s early critics as lying in the popularity of Joseph Willcocks*’s newspaper, the Upper Canada Guardian; or, Freeman’s Journal. He was worried enough by the radicalism of John Mills Jackson*’s A view of the political situation of the province of Upper Canada . . . (London, 1809) to annotate his copy for a reply. The reply actually published, however, Letters, from an American loyalist (Halifax, 1810), was written not by Powell, as Robert Thorpe supposed, but by Cartwright. The assembly’s claim to the sole initiative in introducing money bills had seemed to him a threat to the Legislative Council long before he took a seat on the latter, and he had denied the lower house’s right to examine administrative expenditures even when it was asserted against the lieutenant governor he most actively disliked, Hunter. The assembly’s final clash with Gore in April 1817, although it was led by Robert Nichol, a land speculator whose interests coincided with his own, was for him evidence that the province was facing the same danger of democratic subversion that had driven him from Boston.

 

Perhaps he had simply been a malcontent for so long that he needed an object of disapproval. At any rate, from early in 1817 the references in his correspondence to the society of Upper Canada were increasingly gloomy. Having undertaken to raise his granddaughter Anne Murray Powell at York, he shared his wife’s concern that “there can in this place be no distinction of classes,” and that the young lady might therefore acquire plebian manners. It was probably as much a source of comfort as of concern for the Powells to find after the election of 1828 that “the majority of the lower House are too low to render association pleasant,” but he had a growing sense that the province was departing from its original loyalist design. In 1822, by a passionate appeal to the “true British and Loyal” origins of the province, he secured the rejection of an assembly motion to restore the original name of Toronto to the town of York. When the town was at last incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, he recorded his objections to “the wild and Terrific Sound of toronto entailing upon its miserable Inhabitants the annual Curse of a popular Election to power to call forth all the bad passions of human nature.” His disapproval of popular elections might have been mitigated if he had lived to see his grandson John chosen alderman in Toronto in 1837 and mayor of the city, 1838–40.

 

His appointment as chief justice and his reputation as the most experienced member of the provincial administration did not end his capacity for making enemies. His neighbour in York, John Strachan, conceded in 1816 that Powell’s “knowledge of this Province (and perhaps of the Lower) exceeds that of any man living,” but he was offended that Powell’s displacement of Scott was “not conducted with delicacy.” The two soon disagreed over plans to endow the Church of England in the province. It was Powell’s early view that the term “Protestant clergy” in the Constitutional Act of 1791 did not confine the clergy reserves to the Church of England. He changed his mind some time before February 1828, when he sent to the secretary of state, William Huskisson, a pamphlet On clergy reserves objecting to Presbyterian claims to a share of the revenue from them. He held to the opinion that the reserves had been intended as a substitute for tithes, which Strachan hoped to introduce. Apart from any question of their legality, Powell thought that it would be impractical to attempt the collection of tithes. It was hard enough to find tenants for the clergy reserves, because settlers with so much land open to them required “very strong baits to spend their labour on another’s soil.” By May 1817 Strachan had relegated Powell to being only “Perhaps” an adherent to the Church of England, although Powell’s daughters were teaching in his Sunday school, and was regretting that Powell would be “a little indifferent or inclined towards opposition but would be afraid to come forward boldly” in the Legislative Council against Strachan’s plans for the clergy reserves.

 

Apart from disagreements on policy, they were both jealously ambitious men; if Strachan resented Powell’s greater influence, Powell resented Strachan’s pretensions. They were also rivals over which of them could claim to be the patron of John Beverley Robinson*, Strachan’s pupil who with Powell’s support had risen to be acting attorney general (1812–14) and solicitor general (13 Feb. 1815). Powell helped Robinson to get two and a half years’ leave to study law in England, but Robinson returned with London connections of his own that secured his appointment as attorney general (11 Feb. 1818) and left him little need of either Strachan’s or Powell’s favour. He also returned with an English wife, dashing the hopes of Powell’s daughter Anne. As attorney general he soon found that Powell was not an easily managed judge. A new lieutenant governor, Sir Peregrine Maitland*, found the same. The two parted company over a plan to tax unimproved lands. Maitland wanted legislation to make an existing tax effective. Powell objected to bringing the assembly into a matter that belonged to the courts and the administration. Maitland thought him pedantic, opinionated, and self-interested, while he thought Maitland neglectful of the royal prerogative and indifferent to local experience. In 1821 Powell was humiliated in the Legislative Council, which replaced him with Robinson as a commissioner to seek imperial help in settling the division of customs duties with Lower Canada. Powell, bitter at being displaced by his own protégé, believed that Robinson and Strachan had conspired against him; but it is more likely that his irascibility had simply offended too many people and would have made him a bad commissioner. There was worse to come: his daughter Anne, still enamoured of Robinson, defied her parents to follow him when he went to England as commissioner and was drowned in the wreck of the ship Albion (22 April 1822).

 

Powell’s primary loyalty was always to the principles of English common law, not to the provincial administration of Upper Canada. The pettiness, the ungenerous spirit of calculation, and the tendency to store up resentment which characterized his pursuit of office contrasted with his joviality and concern for defendants on the bench. His judicial humour was merely conventional: to a divided jury in a murder trial he explained that he could neither half hang the defendant nor hang half of him, so that the verdict amounted to acquittal. His faith in jury trials did not involve a high opinion of jurors’ ability to understand the law or even to distinguish the relevant facts in a case. His instructions to juries left little doubt as to which witnesses he himself found credible or what verdict he expected. When the slave Jack York* was tried for burglary in September 1800, Powell cautioned the jury emphatically against the self-interest of York’s owner, James Girty, as a defence witness. York was convicted, and Powell sentenced him to death. A month earlier, he had pronounced the same sentence on William Newberry, the son of a loyalist, after his conviction on the same charge. If the two cases were parallel in law, however, Powell did not think that the practical results ought to be the same. He expected the letter of the law to be tempered with mercy; but mercy was properly a matter of prerogative discretion, not for the sympathy of juries. York, whose owner was connected with the Indian Department officers with whom Powell had clashed at Detroit, would have hanged if he had not managed to escape from jail; but Powell recommended to the lieutenant governor that Newberry’s sentence be reduced. In a less dramatic case in August 1810, having charged the jury to convict a Methodist minister of illegally solemnizing marriages, he recommended a pardon.

 

Powell opposed the suspension of habeas corpus and the declaration of martial law during the War of 1812 and disliked the resort to special commissions on treason charges, because he thought that the regular course of the common law should not be interrupted for the sake of administrative expediency. In June 1814 he took turns with Chief Justice Scott and Mr Justice William Campbell in presiding over treason trials at the Ancaster assizes. He charged the jury to convict only 7 of the 50 defendants whose cases came before him in absentia, despite his personal belief that they all deserved punishment. He presided over 6 of the 18 trials at which prisoners appeared to plead not guilty. His harsh view of what constituted a treasonable act, uncompromisingly conveyed to the jury, resulted in the conviction of the luckless Jacob Overholser*. Three others, against whom there was an abundance of evidence, were also convicted. Yet, of the four prisoners acquitted at Ancaster, two, Robert Troup and Jesse Holly, were tried when Powell was presiding; and his summaries of the evidence clearly anticipated their acquittal. He was, however, unwilling to extend anything beyond strict justice to traitors: unlike the other two judges, he made no recommendations for mercy.

 

In the years after he attained the post of chief justice, Powell’s crankiness began to show itself on the bench. He had long felt that the rules of his court were inconveniently restricted by statute; his original procedures, after having been changed to a more elaborate English model by Elmsley, had been partly restored by the assembly in 1797, in an act “ill comprehended by the Law makers . . . almost compelling the Court to evade by Shifts, Anomalies and Inconsistencies which could not be reconciled.” He responded by an increasing, and to many it seemed an increasingly partisan, tendency to raise technicalities in the law, some of them of doubtful application. In August 1819, charging the jurors in an action for damages (Randal v. Phelps), he was said by the plaintiff Robert Randal to have threatened them with a writ of attaint – a writ unused for more than 100 years – if they did not follow his own preference for the defendant. He told the grand jury at Sandwich (Windsor) in 1821 that Indians, although subject by common law to the regular courts, might be exempt from their jurisdiction by treaty. The next year this remark became the basis for the defence in the murder trial of Shawanakiskie, whose conviction was therefore not confirmed until after reference to the imperial law officers four years later. In October 1823 the trial for infanticide of a servant girl, Mary Thompson, showed how far Powell had retreated into technicalities. The jury in convicting her recommended clemency, and Powell himself felt sympathy for her, but her pathetic circumstances were not enough to make him recommend a pardon. It was only after finding that some of the evidence he had allowed against her would not have been admissible in contemporary English practice that he changed his mind. Growing finicky about the letter of the law did not prevent him, near the end of his career, from becoming a little vague about the limits of his authority. In 1823 he refused to support the nomination as commissioner for war claims of Alexander Wood*, to whose morals he objected. When Wood was appointed anyway on Strachan’s recommendation, Powell as chief justice refused to swear him in. Wood successfully sued him for £120 damages. Powell tried to set aside the judgement by a bill of exceptions, which would have required Maitland to have acted as a judge in equity. Even when this dubious and obscure device failed, he refused to pay; and the debt was forgiven after his death.

 

His descent with advancing age into pedantic crankiness was not surprising in one who had always been so self-consciously insistent on the independence of the bench. Perhaps the only concession to administrative expediency that he ever made as a judge was to refrain in the winter of 1791–92 from questioning the continued legality of his Quebec commission after Upper Canada was proclaimed a separate province. In 1818 he caused inconvenience to the provincial administration in a series of decisions arising from the quarrels of the Earl of Selkirk [Douglas*] in the Red River colony, some of which produced law suits in the courts of Upper Canada. To the chagrin of Robinson, he rejected charges of conspiracy against Selkirk; and to the outrage of Strachan he threw out most of the charges that Selkirk had brought against his opponents. In the most spectacular of his trials, however, Powell found himself trapped by the law into unwilling cooperation in a course of action that he thought unnecessary at best. He thoroughly disapproved of Robert Gourlay and recommended that land grants should be withheld from those who attended Gourlay’s convention at York in July 1818, but he repeatedly advised that there were no legal grounds for prosecuting Gourlay’s attacks on the administration of the province. When such grounds were found under the Sedition Act of 1804 and persisted in by Robinson in spite of Gourlay’s obviously incapacitating illness, Powell had no choice but to pronounce a sentence of banishment.

 

Most of his cases, however, were mundane. He was uncompromising in the belief not only that convicted debtors should be imprisoned but that those accused of debt should be held in jail for trial. A survey of the province’s 11 district jails in 1827 showed them to have a capacity of 298 cells, 264 of them occupied. Of the prisoners, 159 were being held for debt, and only 29 for felonies. In his last years on the bench he defied both the assembly and the councils by insisting that even legislators were not immune from arrest for debt. By 1824 his judicial duties had become as wearisome to Powell as his administrative work, and he planned to retire from the bench when he reached the age of 70 in November 1825.

 

He had made too many enemies to be left to a peaceful retirement. On 24 Oct. 1824 Mackenzie published a letter in the Colonial Advocate signed A Spanish Freeholder, which in the course of attacking the York élite lampooned Powell as “Cardinal Alberoni, Lord Chief Justice of His Imperial Majesty of Spain.” It revived the old charges of his American sympathies at Detroit, alleged that he had obtained the chief justiceship in return for the harshness of his sentences at the Ancaster assizes, and condemned his behaviour on the bench in a case not named, but clearly that of Singleton Gardiner in 1822–23. Gardiner, a Middlesex farmer politically at odds with two local tory magistrates, Mahlon Burwell* and Leslie Patterson, had brought a suit against them. Powell doubted that he had a good legal case, but by referring it to a jury he publicized the magistrates’ abuse of their authority. He had acted correctly, but probably also with malice: Burwell in the assembly had promoted Robinson’s appointment as commissioner in 1821, and he was the lieutenant of Thomas Talbot*, towards whom Powell’s enmity went back to Gore’s administration. The Spanish freeholder was probably Burwell’s younger brother, Adam Hood Burwell*. Before it was printed in Mackenzie’s paper, his letter received an approving notice, hinting broadly that it referred to Powell, in Charles Fothergill*’s Weekly Register. The letter soon received an equally intemperate reply in a pamphlet, The answer to the awful libel of the Spanish freeholder, against the Cardinal Alberoni, published under the pseudonym Diego ([York, 1824]).

 

Although Diego’s pamphlet has been attributed to Powell and to his son-in-law Samuel Peters Jarvis, it is far more likely to have been the work of John Rolph*, Jarvis’s law partner and the recent victor over Mahlon Burwell in the election of 1824. Even before the pamphlet appeared, however, Powell’s temper had led him into indiscretions that neither Maitland nor the councils had the slightest disposition to forgive. Refusing to be content with the grudging apology that Maitland had exacted from Fothergill, the angry old judge prepared two pamphlets of his own: Correspondence and remarks, elicited by a malignant libel, signed “a Spanish freeholder” and Spanish freeholder, app.A. They had little to do with the recent libel: the first rehearsed his grievances against Maitland and his secretary, George Hillier*; the second was addressed to his quarrel with Robinson in 1821; and both printed correspondence meant to be private. Beginning as the victim in the affair, he had turned himself in the eyes of the York administration into the chief offender. On 28 Jan. 1825 the Executive Council reported that he had laid himself open to the legal charge of repeating a libel, had abused the lieutenant governor’s confidence, and had exposed “measures of Government to public contempt and reprehension.” This rebuke was the more bitter because its author was John Strachan, the other two councillors present being the quiescent James Baby and the aged Samuel Smith. And although Strachan was by this time more an instrument of the lieutenant governor than an influence upon him, he felt secure enough to add that the chief justice had been sulking ever since Robinson’s appointment as attorney general. Maitland refused to speak to Powell again except in the presence of a witness.

 

Powell was obliged to resign from the Executive Council in September 1825. He remained a legislative councillor until his death, but had to yield the speakership to William Campbell, who also succeeded him as chief justice (17 Oct. 1825). The secretary of state, Lord Bathurst, allowed Powell a pension of £1,000 (sterling) a year, in spite of the Executive Council’s advice that he was “unworthy of such a favour.” After almost three years in England, securing his pension and justifying his conduct, he returned in 1829 to spend his last years at York. He took no further part in public affairs, except to publish his correspondence with Maitland over the Wood affair.

 

No one else had put such sustained effort and such shrewd intelligence into the government of Upper Canada. In the history of the province, only Allcock in Hunter’s administration and Robinson in Maitland’s had greater influence than Powell. Strachan and Christopher Alexander Hagerman* may have approached it, but only briefly. Powell had achieved prosperity and seen his surviving children comfortably established. Yet he was pessimistic about the state of the province, with reform politics rising in the House of Assembly, and he had been without real friends in the administration ever since Gore’s departure. Gourlay had well nicknamed him “Pawkie,” for his awkwardness in personal relationships never left him. As his health declined, so did his mental powers, obviously enough to give malicious satisfaction to his erstwhile allies, Robinson and Strachan. He reviewed the quarrels of his life, writing self justifying memoranda on them, and publishing a rather maudlin outline of his life, Story of a refugee (York, 1833). In the end, all his formal successes brought him little pleasure and little faith in the future of his adopted province.

   

"I will never let you go, you are my veery best maid. You are mine forever!" The mistress replied to a relieved maid

A fungus (pl.: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

 

A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

 

Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.

 

The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.

 

Etymology

The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel ('mold').

 

The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" (mycologicæ) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville. In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to mycology as the study of fungi.

 

A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular). The term mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora. The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that the phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and funga.

 

Characteristics

 

Fungal hyphae cells

Hyphal wall

Septum

Mitochondrion

Vacuole

Ergosterol crystal

Ribosome

Nucleus

Endoplasmic reticulum

Lipid body

Plasma membrane

Spitzenkörper

Golgi apparatus

 

Fungal cell cycle showing Dikaryons typical of Higher Fungi

Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among the general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around the start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:

 

With other eukaryotes: Fungal cells contain membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and coding regions called exons. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type. They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, which is also found in animals).

With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed organic compounds as energy sources.

With plants: Fungi have a cell wall and vacuoles. They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses) produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have haploid nuclei.

With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria produce the amino acid L-lysine in specific biosynthesis steps, called the α-aminoadipate pathway.

The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like (filamentous) structures called hyphae, which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles—cellular structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and other organic molecules—called the Spitzenkörper. Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells. In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous green algae, grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells. There are also single-celled fungi (yeasts) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi have both hyphal and yeast forms.

In common with some plant and animal species, more than one hundred fungal species display bioluminescence.

Unique features:

 

Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by budding or fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions.

The fungal cell wall is made of a chitin-glucan complex; while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods, fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose.

A whitish fan or funnel-shaped mushroom growing at the base of a tree.

Omphalotus nidiformis, a bioluminescent mushroom

Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.

 

Diversity

Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans, parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling them to propel itself through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.

 

As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2000 with a peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown The following year, 2905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups.

 

Mycology

Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.

 

The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.

 

History

Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy.

 

Morphology

Microscopic structures

Monochrome micrograph showing Penicillium hyphae as long, transparent, tube-like structures a few micrometres across. Conidiophores branch out laterally from the hyphae, terminating in bundles of phialides on which spherical condidiophores are arranged like beads on a string. Septa are faintly visible as dark lines crossing the hyphae.

An environmental isolate of Penicillium

Hypha

Conidiophore

Phialide

Conidia

Septa

Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells.

 

Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla,[63] and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.

 

Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.

 

Macroscopic structures

Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years.

 

The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.

 

Growth and physiology

Time-lapse photography sequence of a peach becoming progressively discolored and disfigured

Mold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.

The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues.[71] The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi).[71] The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes.

 

The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication.

 

Fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.

 

Reproduction

Two thickly stemmed brownish mushrooms with scales on the upper surface, growing out of a tree trunk

Polyporus squamosus

Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.

 

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.

 

Sexual reproduction

See also: Mating in fungi and Sexual selection in fungi

Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of the opposite mating type, whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself.

 

Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).

 

In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division, the formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.

 

Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section).

 

In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.

 

Spore dispersal

The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances.

 

Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.

 

Homothallism

In homothallic sexual reproduction, two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis. Homothallic fungi include species with an Aspergillus-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of the ascomycete genus Cochliobolus, and the ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii. The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction.

 

Other sexual processes

Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.

 

Evolution

In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.

 

The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times.

 

In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae, in the Canadian Arctic, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma).

 

Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.

 

Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary.

 

Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap".

 

Taxonomy

Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.

 

There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants, fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms).

 

The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar, "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and Tedersoo et al. 2018. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances.

 

The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. As of 2019, nine major lineages have been identified: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycotina, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.

 

Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). Previously considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought to be either a basal branch of the Fungi, or a sister group–each other's closest evolutionary relative.

 

The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.

 

The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.

 

The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.

 

Microscopic view of a layer of translucent grayish cells, some containing small dark-color spheres

Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.

Cross-section of a cup-shaped structure showing locations of developing meiotic asci (upper edge of cup, left side, arrows pointing to two gray cells containing four and two small circles), sterile hyphae (upper edge of cup, right side, arrows pointing to white cells with a single small circle in them), and mature asci (upper edge of cup, pointing to two gray cells with eight small circles in them)

Diagram of an apothecium (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.

Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.

 

The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., Neurospora crassa).

 

Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.

 

Fungus-like organisms

Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to an ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy.

 

Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.

 

The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.

 

The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" Rozella, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. Alternatively, Rozella can be classified as a basal fungal group.

 

The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. Many Actinomycetales (Actinomycetota), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.

 

Ecology

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.

 

Symbiosis

Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.

 

With plants

Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.

 

A microscopic view of blue-stained cells, some with dark wavy lines in them

The dark filaments are hyphae of the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala in the intercellular spaces of tall fescue leaf sheath tissue

The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at least 400 million years. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.

 

With algae and cyanobacteria

A green, leaf-like structure attached to a tree, with a pattern of ridges and depression on the bottom surface

The lichen Lobaria pulmonaria, a symbiosis of fungal, algal, and cyanobacterial species

Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.

 

With insects

Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the domatia (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods). Ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi growing in dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.

 

A thin brown stick positioned horizontally with roughly two dozen clustered orange-red leaves originating from a single point in the middle of the stick. These orange leaves are three to four times larger than the few other green leaves growing out of the stick, and are covered on the lower leaf surface with hundreds of tiny bumps. The background shows the green leaves and branches of neighboring shrubs.

The plant pathogen Puccinia magellanicum (calafate rust) causes the defect known as witch's broom, seen here on a barberry shrub in Chile.

 

Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab from a woman with candidiasis, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 µm in diameter.

Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch elm disease, Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, and Phymatotrichopsis omnivora causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as Magnaporthe oryzae, can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including Asterotremella albida, which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead.

 

Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.

 

As targets of mycoparasites

Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal diseases. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses.

 

Communication

Main article: Mycorrhizal networks

There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics.

 

Possible impact on climate

According to a study published in the academic journal Current Biology, fungi can soak from the atmosphere around 36% of global fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions.

 

Mycotoxins

(6aR,9R)-N-((2R,5S,10aS,10bS)-5-benzyl-10b-hydroxy-2-methyl-3,6-dioxooctahydro-2H-oxazolo[3,2-a] pyrrolo[2,1-c]pyrazin-2-yl)-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide

Ergotamine, a major mycotoxin produced by Claviceps species, which if ingested can cause gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations

Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.

 

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human use below.

 

Pathogenic mechanisms

Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1. The response protects U. maydis from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence. Furthermore, U. maydis has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.

 

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.

 

Human use

See also: Human interactions with fungi

Microscopic view of five spherical structures; one of the spheres is considerably smaller than the rest and attached to one of the larger spheres

Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells shown with DIC microscopy

The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms. Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy, with applications under research and development including use for textiles, meat substitution and general fungal biotechnology.

 

Therapeutic uses

Modern chemotherapeutics

Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs.

 

Antibiotics

Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.

 

Other

Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom. Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for therapeutic use and appears to cause global increases in brain network integration. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.

 

Traditional medicine

Upper surface view of a kidney-shaped fungus, brownish-red with a lighter yellow-brown margin, and a somewhat varnished or shiny appearance

Two dried yellow-orange caterpillars, one with a curly grayish fungus growing out of one of its ends. The grayish fungus is roughly equal to or slightly greater in length than the caterpillar, and tapers in thickness to a narrow end.

The fungi Ganoderma lucidum (left) and Ophiocordyceps sinensis (right) are used in traditional medicine practices

Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

 

Cultured foods

Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.

(Not a fanzine)

The evolution of souvenirs: what models are present and which are the new languages?

··························································································································································

Who hasn’t, at some time, bought a holiday souvenir as a gift for a friend or as an eternal reminder of a memorable trip – a monument in miniature, a T-shirt or a mug. From 15 July to 13 December, Disseny Hub Barcelona (DHUB) is hosting the exhibition, “Souvenir Effect”, devoted to such kitsch objects, those perennial must-haves of any trip, steeped in the territory of nostalgia.

 

Curated by Òscar Guayabero, this show plunges into the history of the souvenir, having dipped into various museums around the world in search of both the “pastiest” and “coolest” metasouvenir, and commissioned five Spanish design teams to draw souvenirs of imaginary places. Can you help but smile if you see yourself reflected in them?

 

“Souvenir Effect” winds up the programme, “Tourism. Fiction Spaces” — a look at the world of tourism planning, projection and design — which DHUB has been staging since last December 2008.

 

Hand embroidery on linen, 4"

Panthera, the world’s leading organization devoted exclusively to the conservation of the world’s 37 wild cat species, and the National Geographic Society’s Big Cats Initiative (BCI) have formed an important collaboration to further the global fight to save big cats in the wild. Officials from Panthera, and the National Geographic Society signed a Memorandum of Understanding designating Panthera as a scientific and strategic collaborator on the BCI. The collaboration will facilitate the development and implementation of global conservation strategies for the most imperiled cats around the world, including tigers, lions, leopards and cheetahs.

 

Read a press release about this collaboration @ bit.ly/xTqHBn

 

Learn more about Panthera’s wild cat conservation initiatives at www.panthera.org

 

Learn more about National Geographic’s Big Cats Initiative at animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/big-cats/

 

Between 1465 and 1475 Mantegna devoted his energies to painting frescoes at the Ducal Palace, immortalizing Ludovico, his family, retainers, dogs and horses in an illusionistic gilded pavilion with landscape views, in what is now called the Camera degli Sposi.

The effort paid off and he was granted land amid orchards and gardens to the south of Mantua. In October 1476 he laid the house's foundation stone.

 

The design was revolutionary, consisting of an external cube containing a circular atrium open to the sky and echoing a Roman amphitheatre, set back slightly in the square to create larger frontal spaces to left and right. The overall proportions were calculated from complex mathematical, geometrical and probably musical harmonic principles.

The project turned into an epic. In 1478 Mantegna appealed to Ludovico for funds, but Mantua was in economic crisis and the Marquis had nothing to spare. In 1483, when the Florentine ruler Lorenzo the Magnificent visited Mantua, Mantegna showed him the site and his collection of antiquities, later writing to him to request assistance. There is no record of a reply. Over a decade later, Mantegna wrote to Ludovico's grandson, Francesco II, then ruling Mantua, to denounce a neighbour for stealing his bricks. Twenty years after construction began, Mantegna and his family finally moved in.

 

Their idyll lasted just five years. In 1501, burdened with debt, he was obliged to sign over the property to Francesco, in exchange for another house.

 

Memories of its historic importance and associations gradually faded, and by the 18th century it had fallen into disrepair. It later became part of a technical school.

 

Above the door is written A B OLIMPO which echoes the memory of the workshop of Phidias at Olympia.

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=xn2kSs0Wu1I

Panthera, the world’s leading organization devoted exclusively to the conservation of the world’s 37 wild cat species, and the National Geographic Society’s Big Cats Initiative (BCI) have formed an important collaboration to further the global fight to save big cats in the wild. Officials from Panthera, and the National Geographic Society signed a Memorandum of Understanding designating Panthera as a scientific and strategic collaborator on the BCI. The collaboration will facilitate the development and implementation of global conservation strategies for the most imperiled cats around the world, including tigers, lions, leopards and cheetahs.

 

Read a press release about this collaboration @ bit.ly/xTqHBn

 

Learn more about Panthera’s wild cat conservation initiatives at www.panthera.org

 

Learn more about National Geographic’s Big Cats Initiative at animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/big-cats/

 

Inbetween the heavy winds during the cyclone on 1-22-11. Imagine this forlorn creature singing the Rolling Stones song "Gimme Shelter", then take a look at the video on the right.

 

POEM PARKING LOT

 

MOONLIGHT

 

Moonlight softens a multitude of sins.

Glows delicately, soft, not blazing, just

Reflecting. Shines a gentler light on things.

Reminds us that we’re not really as hard

As we pretend. Let the fragile side of

Yourself out of its shell, enjoy the night

Sky’s splendor. Make time for someone

Special to you. Moonlight reminds us

How precious calm can be, that we

Needn’t spend each moment in a flurry.

How we’re meant to do more than just

Fight our way through existence, either

Conquering or breaking free. Sometimes

It’s clear how all this conflict is just so

Much invention, mostly needless. Leave

All of that alone for now. Let moonlight

Remind you how in the midst of all we

Resist there’s still a natural wonder it’s

No sin to give in to.

 

HOT PLATE

 

That which can’t be spoken of in honorable

Terms. That which has been declared off-

Limits, old business, trashed, abused,

Treated like something of no value. No use.

Responsibility dropped like a hot plate that

Ought to shatter but doesn’t. Hear it clang

Like an unwanted gong ringing awareness

You haven’t forgotten and never will. Try

Harder? Smash it to pieces like you wish

You could smash the pain into dust for the

Next wind? Passionate as it might appear,

Destroying plates as some kind of display

Seems so undignified. Unnecessary to

Victimize the kitchenware. Angrily, sadly,

This kitchen reeks of indignity already, and

It’s not the dishes’ fault. Silly old fashioned

Me, I thought we were supposed to value

That which doesn’t break.

 

SEEDS

 

A burger would look barmy claiming to

Be a cow. Potatoes grow in the ground,

Not potato chips. Oranges grow in

Florida, but orange juice comes from

A factory. Metal comes from the earth,

But your car, mostly metal, didn’t just

Drive up from some garage under the

Surface. That laptop facilitating your

Interaction with the world is mostly

Plastic, which comes these days from

Corn, but nobody credits the corn for

Social networking. The whole point is

No matter who or what we come from,

Life changes us into something separate,

Distinct, different, new called ourselves.

When this happens with natural things,

We say it’s so great, but when it happens

With people, for some it’s a sign of the

End times. Maybe not all transformation

Is good, but can you think of anything

Worse than none at all? So we needn’t

See ourselves as betrayers if we stray

From our roots – that’s what seeds do.

It’s moving forward, not ending. Worry

Not, beloved sisters and brothers, time

Won’t end till you’ve paid off your debts,

Which we all know will never happen.

 

UGLY

 

You say my poems sound like they’re

Afraid to go somewhere ugly? As if

Ugliness, that decreasingly vague

Sense of threat, needs any more

Expression – just turn on the news.

Watch people struggling, starving,

Stealing, raping, destroying, killing

For no good reason, but our steady

Diet of violence has made us numb

To others suffering. Ugly enough?

Certain social entities want you

Convinced the world’s a dangerous

And ugly place, because conveniently

They have a solution to sell you,

Provided you sign up for their program.

Fear and ugliness do good business,

So they’d prefer you forget there’s

A way that’s free. You don’t need a

Program to appreciate beauty.That’s

All someone like me tries to remind

People of. Ugliness is the wolf at

My door, and my means or resistance

Is to reach all I can for harmony before

I’m consumed too by some ugly hunger.

In the midst of so much ugliness,

Embracing what’s beautiful is almost

An act of subversion. I want to subvert,

With a passion.

 

INVENT

 

When you invent me in your mind as

Someone you can’t trust, can’t open

Up to, can’t reach out to, can’t relate

To, can’t use period, it’s too bad you’re

Not writing for Hollywood. When you

Assume a whole ideology, value system,

Attitude, belief, sensibility and you

Attribute it to me without even asking,

That’s an astounding leap of faith and

Confidence in your own convictions

I wish you’d save for your religion.

Good thing you’re not as convinced

You can walk on water or part the

Red Sea as you are that you have me

All figured out.

 

REASONS

 

Some reasons are like weeds, you think

You’re rid of them but the just spring

Back up. The longer you leave them the

More they take over. Dealing with them

Is the price you pay for having a garden.

I guess you’d classify this type of reason

As doubts. Other reasons are like trees,

Standing tall no matter what nasty acts

Of nature take place. With age, they

Attain a certain height, and can shelter

Other living things. I guess you’d refer

To this type of reason as faith. Stranger

Reasons are like cactus, living where

Most life would die, protecting what’s

Precious under sharp thorns but unable

To reach out or be reached without

Hurting. If you want to reach them, it’s

Going to hurt. I can’t decide whether

To call these reasons cynicism, damages,

Or life insurance. Maybe all three.

 

SO PURE

 

I really should resolve to market

Myself more effectively. Problem is,

I’ve got this deep seated conviction

That it’s classier to just give things

Away. This sort of begs the question

As to whether anyone genuinely

Values that which they’re just given.

So tell me, would you take my poetry

More seriously if you had to pay for it?

Think carefully – my future creativity

Could be riding on your answer. And

Truthfully, the only reason I need

Money is to stop worrying about it.

So how is it I’m not prospering

When my intentions are so pure?

 

TRADE SECRET

 

Do you wonder where all these

Poems come from? Well, it’s

Simple. I have a Good Angel on

One shoulder and a Bad Angel

On the other, both vying for

My attention, to be the one

Taken seriously, establish

Credibility, each whispering

Profound, provocative, pure,

Soily, sacred, profane, mystical,

Physical, sexual, intellectual,

Spiritual, selfless, selfish, true,

False, angry, forgiving, gentle,

Devoted, demented, violent,

Me me me and you you you

Influences on my outlook from

Moment to moment. Poems

Are what’s left over when the

Crossfire momentarily ceases.

 

HOMES

 

I feel at home in more than one place.

There’s the home where I was born, the

Home where I live, and the homes I’ve

Discovered and return to when I can.

No ambivalence about my citizenship,

But I’ve left a little bit of myself and

Taken with me something from all the

Different places I’ve called home, even

If only for a few days. They’re all part of

Me now, regardless of where my feet

Kick back at any moment, just like you

Don’t have to be right beside someone

To love them deeply, even if you wish

You could be. That’s why, contrary to

Appearances, I don’t think of this at all

As an exile.

 

DRAMATIC BAGGAGE

 

Maybe I was left in front of the TV

At too early an age. I didn’t just

Watch the shows, I felt them too.

(What else is a good show supposed

To make you do?) That’s my earliest

Impression of human conflict and

Resolution. Now I wonder whether

Unconsciously I still expect everything

To be too black and white like our old

TV, too cut and dried. In theory I’m

Aware of complexity, but emotionally

It’s a different story – if my feelings

You’re engaged, you’re either a hero

Or a villain. Villains must be punished

Or defeated for heroes to come out

Shining before the last commercial. I

Know that’s distorted, but we don’t

Just think about people, we feel them

Too. So if you’re going to get dramatic,

Know that all it does is warm the tubes

Of my old TV feelings that never leave,

Just leave more dramatic baggage than

I know how to handle. As a child, to me

Everyone on TV seemed so much more

Alive, but involvement with them was

Just something you could always turn

Off anytime you liked.

 

TRAVELING

 

Traveling is my freedom and my prison,

My choice as well as my inescapable

Fate. Like a shark starts to fade if it

Doesn't circulate, I need to move. In

The shadows between one location

And the next, there's somewhere all

Is still, my only moments of peace.

It's not just arriving, not just leaving,

But the movement between that keeps

The weeds and vines from encircling,

Enclosing. Can you ever really be

Close to someone who won't stay

Put? Yes. Be a partner, not an

Anchor.

 

WHAT A DOG

 

Dog with a bone can’t let go. For all

He knows, it’s dog nirvana. Canine

Heaven made flesh (or in this case

Bone). Never seen him so fully

Committed, or willing to lay down

His life to protect what’s so precious

To him. Never seen him so happy,

Wagging his tail at its sight, gamboling

Like he thinks he’s a lamb, savoring its

Taste, aroused by its scent, licking

Tongue expressing the depths of his

Affection, barking baritone love songs

Of faith and devotion. Playing with it

Like each moment they have together

Is golden. Makes you wonder how they

Ever did without one another. They’re

Partners till he’s gnawed the last of

The marrow from its insides. When

It loses its special appeal, dog thinks

Nothing of moving on to the next one.

What a dog.

 

DREAMS

 

In their isolation, inhabitants of tiny

Islands, known to and knowing only

Themselves, weave mythologies that

Map their location as the center of

The universe, of creation, of time.

Dwarves who don’t know better

Think they’re giants. Same with

Dreams – won’t acknowledge limits

If they don’t have to, sometimes

Growing big enough to think they

Can depose reality. Poor dreamer,

Then, what mutiny must brew in

Your soul. For we know how reality

Has taken many a battering, but

Always is the one left standing

Because dreams seldom outlive

The dreamers. Through rebellion

Is more romantic, at least in teen

Novels, dreams might do better to

Treat reality more politely, to make

Their pleas free of expectation reality

Will listen, just with a humble hope

Reality might point the way to truth

Just as real as it was in your dream.

 

GUESS

 

No more guesses. Nothing brings on

A flood of bad emotions like feeling

With all your being that you’re right

Then realizing you’ve simply guessed

Wrong. Maybe the more something

Means to you personally the less

Clearly you can really see it. There’s

A time to be objective, and a time to

Follow your heart and dive right in.

Too bad sometimes we can only

Guess which is which. I feel like I

Dove into a pool that turned out to

Be empty. The water was imaginary,

Unlike the concrete. So please, don’t

Expect me to guess. If you want me

To believe you, first believe in what

You want to convey enough to say it

Face to face.

 

BEATNIK MOSQUITOES

 

Poems are like mosquitoes drunk on the

Blood of a nicotine addict such as moi,

Haphazardly careening in circular flight,

Their mission - inner space exploration,

Little bitty buzzings sounding like jazz

Saxophones soundtracking beatnik

Free verse, these insect Allen Ginsburgs,

Improvising wildly like a Dixieland band.

Jazz poetry from beatnik mosquitoes

Drunk on my blood - how beautiful!

 

SLAP

 

Poems are like mosquitoes, flying

Around sucking on people’s feelings,

Spreading disease, making you

Itch, disrupting your sleep,

Inspiring a good slap or two.

 

WHEN WE WERE NORMAL

 

Inter-generational conflict rendered

Me less than at my best for a long time.

I resigned myself to the reality that my

Elders were clueless and my peers were

Crazy. By necessity, I kept a foot in both

Camps, but my head and heart were

Somewhere else. It’s all cooled off by

Now, but the cynicism I got from the

Bad years has stayed with me like an

Unwanted tattoo. Worse is the feeling

That while now-meaningless battles

Consumed our thoughts, something

Slipped by us. We still see the world

Like we did when we were normal,

But that was a long, long time ago.

 

POOR OLD ROBOT

 

Poor old robot from a second hand

Robot store. Can’t find your parts

Anymore, can’t find your owner.

Poor old robot, feeling outmoded,

Knowing your warranty expired

Yesterday but refusing to just sit

Around and decay. Poor old robot,

All your friends in the junkyard,

Sadly mute, reminding you of a

More animated past. Poor old

Robot, wanting to be helpful but

Only speaking Chinese, confusing

The elderly and frightening the

Young. Poor old robot, short-circuiting

Your own speakers issuing distorted

Robot moans about how nobody

Appreciates you, sounding more

Annoying than rap (in Chinese)

Through a broken boom box. Poor

Old robot, voice of every invention

First coveted greedily then tossed

Aside casually as soon as there’s a

Newer version. Poor old robot,

Wishing you could take your metallic

Hands and throttle whoever saddled

You with this limited lifespan. Poor

Old robot, I want to shoot you just

To shut you up, but you look at me

With those tortured robot eyes and

It scares me how easily I can relate.

 

DUSK

 

Dusk, and the day’s content to let

Its light relax and fade. There’s

Still work to be done, but for now

That’s enough. Now day and night,

Opposites but still ideal partners,

Do their changing of the guard at

Dusk. Then the light disappears,

No one knows where to and no

One asks. After all it does for us,

It’s entitled to its privacy. There’s

A time to shine as bright as you can,

And a time to do nothing more than

Enjoy being alive. In the long run,

It’s the steadiness that counts,

Finding a comfortable rhythm that

Won’t grind you down. Day and

Night split their time equally. We

Should learn from that balance.

 

DEVIL’S TOOLS

 

During the bad years I was judged

Constantly, even for things I’d never

Actually done. No one can justify

Another’s pretensions, no matter

How well-intended, but there was

Still some expectation the prodigal

Son might turn out to be a golden

Boy after all. When that didn’t

Happen, they imagined the worst.

Someone’s anger stings no less

Just because you know it’s based

On a mistake – the real sting is

What they’d believe about you.

Wrong ideas, in the minds of

People firmly convinced they

Can’t be anything but right, are

The devil’s tools for dismantling

Families.

 

AUSTIN

 

Take me with you back to Austin – I’m not

Understood here, much less appreciated.

Here, I have to sing in a language I can’t

Speak. In Austin, I can sing in English, and

I’ll learn as much Spanish as I have to. In

That kind of milieu, they'd more likely take

Me to heart. Here, I get shot down just

For showing I care, and if anyone cares

For me, they’ll be damned before they’d

Admit it. Austin might find me more

Socially acceptable, value my cultural

Contribution more highly than my home

Town Lilliputians. Plus I’ll make you money –

Be my manager. Austin’s feminist enough

For a woman Colonel Parker. I can be like

Your Mexican, except I’m a citizen. So it

Makes perfect sense economically, socially,

Emotionally and culturally that you take

Me with you back to Austin, home of the

Armadillo. I really can do better, but not

Here, where every time I open my mouth

I remind everyone they didn’t invent music.

 

INOTE: You know who Colonel Parker is, right? In case you're clueless, Colonel Parker was Elvis' manager. See, reading my poems is very educational.)

 

CALI PHONE YA

 

I will miss you, sprawling industrial district.

You too, cold winds at night. You too,

Mall after mall, all the same stores. You

Too, people everywere on cells, lost in

One way conversations for all appearances.

You too, healthy, skinny, multi-ethnic

Residients reminding me to diet. You too,

Radio where they play what they like,

Acoustic western swing for cruising. You

Too, old people acting young. You too,

Redemption tickets at Indian gambling

Palaces, payback for white wrongs. You

Too, taquerias on wheels, food names I

can't pronounce. You too, tall eucalyptus

Straddling the highway. California, land of

Great distances. Spent half my time here

Driving. Almost always worth it. A week

Here is like a month at home. Gotta say

Bye before I flame out, die of fun.

 

IN FRONT OF STORES

 

In old Samoa they would sit around

The fire at night. Now boys sit in front

Of stores from twilight till closing time.

One of the side effects of society based

On industry and wages is boys with

Nowhere better to go than bus stops

Or store parking lots. They have homes

They can’t go to, parents they can’t be

Around. What kind of adults will they

Become, growing up feeling like home

And family have to be avoided? For the

Sake of our future, every adolescent

Should be asked to think about the

Questions: what should a family be,

And how does it turn into something

You want to run from?

 

STICKS AND LEAVES

 

Once upon a time the two had a

Mansion. One they didn’t have to

Earn, but came to them naturally.

Then, for reasons that vary

Depending on who’s explaining,

Their mansion lay in ruins. What

Are their options? They could say,

It doesn’t matter, we’ll make a

Shelter of sticks and leaves, and it

Will do as long as we’re together,

Or they could turn their attention

Separately to other mansions that

Just happen to have an empty room

And role they could easily fill. Sounds

Cold, I know, but you’d be surprised

How many would go for it given the

Circumstances. One day you may

Have to choose between insisting

On the mansion class at any cost,

Or accepting when you have

Nothing but sticks and leaves left

With someone, and saying it’s a

Start, not the end.

 

WALL

 

Quite a big wall to keep out

Just one person, don’t you

Think? Oh right, the wall’s

Not for me, not a message.

It’s for vampires, werewolves,

Traveling salesmen, Santa,

Elves, reindeer, postmen

With colds and girls scouts

Trying to push their cookies

On you. What’s sad about

Walls is what can’t get out,

Not just what can’t get in.

What if a rainbow ends on

The other side, with a pot

Of gold that’s yours for the

Taking, but you can’t get

Over your own wall?

 

ROADRUNNER

 

Too fast to be caught, never held

Back, I wanted to be Roadrunner.

A life of highways to explore at full

Speed. Grant me the freedom to

Travel and I’m happy. Take it all in,

And take off running before you’re

Tied to anything or anyone. Beep,

Beep, moving on. I wanted to be

Roadrunner – life in the fast lane.

Amazing it lasted as long as it did.

Sad I’d finally find someone I’d

Love to run with right when fate

Has forced me to hit the brakes.

It’s clear each time you beep beep

By like you don’t even know me –

I wanted to be Roadrunner, but

Ended up Coyote.

 

DEATH SENTENCE

 

I think I know what’s going to

Kill me – stupidity. Involuntary

Meditative state 24/7 where

The mantra is, “That was stupid.”

Stupidity is relative, therefore

Relatives are stupid.

 

OBJECTS

 

Objects have a history. Objects

Could tell stories, given where

They’ve been and what they’ve

Seen, but instead they must sit

Mute and just watch. Objects

Are a paradox – they’ve never

Had what we’d describe as life

And yet they’ll still be here long

After us, and in fact they’ll be

Here forever until someone

Destroys them. To remember us,

Those still here will preserve our

Objects. But that’s nothing like

The kind of interaction it would

Be with us in person, is it? So

Better interact now, and not be

Shy about it either. It’s sort of

The movements of our akimbo

Limbs, and sort of the yappings

Of our colorful tongues, and

Sort of many other things, but

Mostly it’s the sweet essence

Of life itself that makes us more

Than just objects.

 

DISCLOSURE

 

My own point of view is

Hopelessly biased – there,

I admit it. I put it out there

Anyway because… Well,

Why not? The worst that

Can happen is you think

I’m delusional. Yep, like

Zillions of others, like the

Wavering masses. like

You too in many ways.

The best that can happen

Is that you know we’re

Really thinking the same

Thing, or not far from it.

That means something.

What? I don’t know, it’s

Always still unwritten.

Anything you want, and

Hopefully nothing you

Don’t. Just for the record,

Thank you for your time

And kind attention. That’s

Today’s disclosure.

 

ART FILM

 

Strangest movie you’ve ever seen,

But hey, this is an art film not some

Hollywood product. Human voices

Narrate, but people have no presence

Onscreen. Objects and images stand

As visual metaphors for the story, as if

These better convey something literal

Action or even narration can’t. The

Silhouette of a village sticking up

Through a forest evokes home existing

Only in memory. Railroad tracks and

Nearby debris symbolize childhood

Displacement. Changing light on photos

Indicates the passage of time. Lives are

Represented by bottles floating on

The sea. When its 15 minutes are up,

A buzz in the audience ensues. An

Esteemed panel of judges seems

Speechless, muttering terms like

“Startling”, “innovative”, and “rich in

“Emotion”. The filmmakers just say

That’s what happens when you don’t

Have a budget and you’ve never made

A film, you just really want to, when

You don’t know what you’re doing but

You’re not about to let a minor detail

Like that stop you.

 

TELL OF WONDERS

 

If I could tell of wonders, I’d write

The stories here, not to bring me

Glory by association, but to share

My best. Because this is all I can

Share with you until things change,

The only way I can talk to you. If I

Could tell of wonders, I would, but

Most of my stories are rather

Mundane, just people dealing

With day to day life, sometimes

Discovering themselves through

Each other, sometimes catching

Just a glimpse of something bigger

That ties the mysteries together.

 

THE WORD MUSIC

 

The word music is closely related to

The word muse, the reason why

Writers write. The act of writing is

Seen as petitioning fate to intervene

In the hopes your muse will view you

Favorably. Music does the same with

Sound. Notes carry messages words

Can’t. Music, as a word, is not far

From magic. Music works an alchemy

Of its own - let it in and it'll take you

Somewhere. Resist and you’ll get

Noise instead of enjoyment. In those

Moments when music sings to the

Soul, a meaning you needn’t think

About comes through, as if on an

Invisible wire. It’s an open secret

Known to anyone who listens and

Feels, and doesn’t just analyze in

A vacuum. If music doesn’t prove

There’s magic, it at least reminds

That you get out of something what

You put in.

 

STRAYS

 

Our dogs simply want something

To eat. They were never farmers

In the first place, but hunters

Who’ve forgotten they ever had

That skill, defenders with nothing

Left to defend but the few scraps

They can pilfer from our leftovers.

More often they go hungry in their

Learned dependence on generosity.

They once served a worthwhile

Purpose for someone or other,

Once had a part in our functioning,

But now they’re strays, deprived of

A livelihood. They’d be more than

Happy to work hard for a crumb of

Your kindness just to survive, living

By their wits but unaware of their

Place in the bigger picture, and not

Caring either.

 

DELICATE

 

Can you pull your weeds without

Ruining your garden? Careful, most

Beautiful things are delicate, you

Can’t just slash and burn, as much

As you hate the weeds. Delicate

Things require patience and care,

But look what happiness they bring

Nature is delicate. Life is delicate.

Our deepest feelings are delicate.

How ironic, then, that even apes

Can have more patience and care

Than man, who finds delicacy

Inferior to efficiency, and wants

To slash and burn his way through

Everything, including people.

 

UNLESS YOU’RE THE POPE

 

So, are you convinced you can’t be

Forgiven, or just too proud to ask?

It’s pretty arrogant to forgive

Someone who even hasn’t asked

For it, unless you’re the Pope and

Really in a hurry. And if someone

Has the guts to ask, it’s pretty

Heartless to make them grovel,

Unless you want to convince them

They shouldn’t have bothered.

 

CLUELESS

 

Hey, pretend you’re a priest while

I make a confession – I’m clueless.

My memory’s ok, but as far as

Processing what those memories

Mean, forget it. I’ve been turned

Around more than once, and no

Sooner do I finish feeling dizzy than

I start feeling clueless. Meanings

Seem to have shifted, signs signify

Differently. It’s all unfamiliar again

To me. I’m blank – will you fill me in?

Maybe my sensibilities just reflect

An earlier time with a different

Notion of what doing right means,

A different approach. But in the

Here and know, I know how my

Cluelessness must appear to you

As if the dinosaurs never left.

 

EXPOSED

 

Eyeballs with wings, following us around

As if we’re breaking news, walking sitcoms,

Like our every moment captured can be

Used for selling ads. We’re never wanting

For an audience. Eyeballs with wings,

Posing as innocent bystanders, trying to

Blend in with the birds, swarming in our

Moments of embarrassment like locusts,

Thinking here’s a good one for prime time

Tonight. Eyeballs with wings, all-seeing, no

Heart for understanding. Disdaining eyes,

Ready to bear witness to anything they

Find suspicious. Wish I could shoot them

From the sky, find out if they’re capable

Of tears, but they’re in my head. Eyeballs

With wings, hanging upside down like bats

Outside my bedroom. Even when no one

Wants to know, I still walk around feeling

Exposed.

 

PORTRAIT

 

I suppose if you put all the poems

Together, a certain portrait might

Emerge. An attitude embedded in

The language, values suggested

By the style. But don’t be fooled –

Let an artist paint themselves and

It’ll be the most distorted portrait

You could ask for. Expression can

Be a defense, an elaborate disguise,

Pure fiction, the occasional naked

Truth. I must confess to reveling in

The freedom of never being sure if

I’m taken seriously. Gives me room

To evolve, explore, experiment.

If I ever touch your sensibilities

In some way, I’m truly flattered,

But it’s an accident. My thought

Collisions occasionally summon a

Connection rather than an ambulance.

Were a truly accurate portrait to

Crawl from the wreckage of my

Pages, you’d see a shell shocked

Crash test dummy, mangled, head

Backwards, heart sideways, limbs

Akimbo, lips fixed in a grimace,

Jumping right into the next car.

 

LION TAMER

 

Taming lions, do you need a circus

Mind? A grasp of animal psychology?

The talent to get them to trust you

Above their own instincts? Can they

Unlearn what another nasty trainer

Has whipped into them, once he’s

Manipulated their wants and needs

To make them behave his way?

Make them feel they’re safe not

Biting the head off anyone who

Doesn’t give them exactly what

They expect? Don’t be like a lion

Trained by the Romans to tear

Apart criminals, deviants and

Religious dissidents to entertain a

Bloodthirsty colosseum audience.

 

BURRITO

 

What gets folded-into our story?

What doesn’t? Our story is like a

Burrito – by themselves the

Ingredients would make one big

Mess, cross no-fly zones, riot on

The plate, stain your clothes, soil

The floor. However, these same

Ingredients, when something holds

Them in one place, create an

Unexpected combination of tastes,

Rendered in the burrito’s case all

The more palatable by a Nobel

Prize-worthy masterpiece of

Culinary engineering, a design

With equally valid practical,

Cultural and gastronomical

Qualities. What we think wasn’t

Meant to co-exist in one dish

Somehow does - with willingness

And creativity, and a good salsa

Always helps. Every burrito across

The USA at this very moment

Stands as a testament to what

Hunger and ingenuity can do.

 

COLUMBUS

 

History is great – I’m re-learning it all

The time. Like the little-known fact

That besides collecting information

For maps, Columbus also collected

Several hundred Indians to take

Home and sell as slaves. Well, how

Else was he supposed to pay for the

Trip? And besides, in exchange for a

Few hundred slaves, not all of whom

Even made it to Europe, look what

We got. No Columbus, no Las Vegas.

No Seattle. No Boise, Idaho. No Alamo,

No Annie Oakley, no Little Big Horn, no

George Washington, no Ben Franklin.

No Star Spangled Banner. No Civil War,

No Blues, no Jazz, no Rock & Roll. No

Lincoln, no Lincoln Center. No Pearl

Harbor, no 9-11, no Boston Tea Party,

No Boston Strangler, no McDonalds.

No Margaret Mitchell, no Margaret

Mead, no Miley Cyrus. No Fox News.

No American Idol, no FBI, no Civil Rights.

None of this and more would ever have

Come to pass if it hadn’t been for

Columbus. You wouldn’t even be here,

So hey, just let the slave thing slide.

 

TELEVISION

 

Television, you pampered only child

Of an arranged marriage between

Hollywood and Wall Street. Television,

Shaping our culture while taping its

Mouth shut and binding its hands.

Television, who do your represent,

Anyway? Am I no longer in tune with

Society since you don’t make sense?

Television, aimed at some imaginary

America where everyone takes your

Word on what’s worth buying and

Believing. Television, you’re teaching

Escape. Television, your signals go

Out into space. Alien races are curious

About you, Television, and now firmly

Believe earth’s highest-evolved life

Form motivates and manipulates its

Own masses by dangling desired

Material items and idealized states

Of being in front of them like you’d

Dangle a carrot in front of a donkey.

 

RIVERBOAT

 

Flowing on the slow river of time,

Before you know it you’ve come

Farther than you believed possible.

Whenever this river seems about

To end, it’s only changing, following

A way passed down from the ages.

Why stray from a proven route?

Someone once told me there’s an

Ocean where all rivers meet, where

Their long travels end, but curiously,

Rivers take their sweet time keeping

The appointment. Who’s in a hurry?

We’ll arrive when it’s time. Until

Then, the river is single-mined,

Stopping everywhere, staying

Nowhere, enticing us with a free

One-way ticket. The river wants us

To mix, discover what’s out there.

Learn from and love every moment

On the water. We’re lucky we can

Join this voyage even for a short

Time, and few among us have

Passage all the way to its end.

 

PANIC

 

Calm serenity is an illusion, but shout

That lie as loud as you can because the

Truth is panic. As soon as we’re out of

The womb, we’re screaming. As soon

As whatever situation we’re in starts

Spinning out of control, we’re right back

To the panic we reacted with as soon as

We opened our eyes. And not just babies.

No one wants the pressure of keeping it

All together, but who will prevent our

Serenity from descending into anarchy

If not ourselves? Calm serenity reminds

Us of Heaven, a place within us where it

Doesn’t seem like it could all blow apart

Any second. We need that thought to

Deal with the world, keep reminding

The deaf public and dumb governments

There’s always a better solution than

Bombs. Calm serenity is an illusion, so

Forgive me for cultivating dishonesty –

I’m just trying not to panic.

 

BETRAYAL

 

If I talk about betrayal, it doesn’t

Mean I’m talking about you, just

About the thousand ways you can

Feel betrayed. I know it doesn’t do

Any good to talk about feeling

Betrayed, but every time I’m right

On the brink of being kind for no

Other reason than just to be kind,

That feeling comes creeping back:

You’re gonna get betrayed. Betrayal

Is the risk you take when you give.

If you give in the right way, there’s

A tiny chance you won’t be betrayed,

But it’s really tiny. Much more

Straightforward to be a taker, a

Heartbreaker, a bastard, a user.

You can’t be betrayed if you just

Don’t care. Might as well betray

Someone else before they do it

To you. Betrayal is a parachute

For those who can’t stand feeling

Trapped, held back. Betrayal is a

Cancer in the marrow of our

Society and personal lives, eating

The blood cells faith needs. Betrayal

Goes back to the Bible – Judas might

Have been forgiven for his betrayal,

But I’m not so saintly.

 

FOR MARIE ANTOINETTE

 

If you doubt the power of propaganda,

Consider this. Marie Antoinette, one of

History’s coldest, most heartless bitches,

Once famously remarked that peasants

Starving for bread could eat cake instead.

This immortal utterance, which so well

Characterizes corruption, anywhere,

Anytime, guarantees that Marie won’t

Soon be forgotten. Imagine my surprise,

Then, when I read that there’s actually

No concrete evidence she really said it!

That historians consider the source of

The quote highly unreliable! A tabloid,

No less. Louis and Marie apparently

Believed in freedom of the press, but

As is still so often the case, attacking

The unpopular sold copies. Therefore,

Exaggerations and lies about the

Monarchy were commonplace. But so

What? With a quote so memorable,

Questions of legitimacy are secondary.

Still, imagine going down in history for

Something you never actually said!

History has force fed Marie that very

Same cake allegedly recommended

To the peasants.

 

R.I.P. LOU REED

 

The different don’t feel so different

Anymore, not like they used to, not

Like when they had to deny the very

Idea of their natures. The different had

Lou Reed to sing for them. Lou didn’t

Pander for shock value, he just figured

He’d get real, real for him, maybe real

Too for others out there in dark corners,

The margins, the gutters, the alleys, the

Toilets, the jails, the mental hospitals.

This was when being a freak wasn’t chic,

It was dangerous, could cost you your

Life. Sometimes Lou didn’t mind who

He offended, other times he cloaked

His real meanings in clever language,

But no one could probe as deeply into

The taboo shadows of our collective

Psyche with the same boldness or

With as much humanity. That’s what

I’ll remember Lou for, his humanity,

His occasional tenderness, his trying

To find the heart in life’s confusions,

His frequent rubbing of life’s seediest

Sides in your face. He had his own face

Rubbed in it too, but turned the smears

Into part of his costume for the role of

Bard of the forbidden, anarchist of

Sexuality giving all the rejects a voice.

 

TONGUE TIED

 

Tongue tied, falling right into a

Role I’m not sure how to play.

Tongue tied, no idea how to

Say what I’m thinking, it might

Be impolite, not to your liking.

Tongue tied, talking around

The subject, trying to say it

Indirectly.Tongue tied, wanting

So bad for the words to sound

Right that they won’t come out

At all. Tongue tied, silently

Screaming.

 

IT’S MY JOB

 

You can deny my love if it’s

Not what you want, refuse it

If it’s not good enough, just

Doesn’t move you. You have

Every right by your own free

Will. I just feel like, right or

Wrong, good or bad, happy

Or sad, wise or foolish, it’s

Just my job to let you know

Somebody loves you. No one

Said anything about you

Having to accept it.

 

REINCARNATION

 

With every person you’ve ever felt

A passion for, you create a child in

The spiritual world. You may meet

Them there, before or after their

Turn comes to be made real, born

As human. How else to explain why

A poet from a thousand years ago

Reminds me of someone I only met

Yesterday, or why grandparents

Sometimes make more sense than

Mom and dad, or why someone

You rarely even see can still fill you

With both joy and sadness longer

Than time itself whenever you

Think of them?

 

MORE NEXT DOOR ("CYCLONE SCENE 2")

I must confess that I have not good relationships with cats.

But this one is an exception as she is the guardian of our cottage.

Though we don't go there often, always she is waiting in the yard for our appearance.

 

Thanks for the visit.

You're invited to see my interesting photos on Flickrriver

youtu.be/rSSgM94sSxQ

Starring Richard Egan, Constance Dowling, Herbert Marshall, John Wengraf, Philip Van Zandt, and William Schallert. Directed by Herbert L. Strock.

When two scientists at a top-secret government installation devoted to space research are killed -- in their own test chamber, seemingly by an experiment gone awry -- Dr. David Sheppard (Richard Egan) is sent out from Washington to investigate. Sheppard mixes easily enough with the somewhat eccentric team of scientists, though he always seems in danger of being distracted by the presence of Joanne Merritt (Constance Dowling), who serves as the aide to the project director Dr. Van Ness (Herbert Marshall) but is, in reality, another security agent. Sheppard is as puzzled as anyone else by the seemingly inexplicable series of events overtaking the installation -- properly operating equipment suddenly undergoing lethal malfunctions, and the radar tracking aircraft that aren't there -- until he puts it together with the operations of NOVAC (Nuclear Operated Variable Automatic Computer), the central brain of the complex. But the mystery deepens when he discovers that NOVAC was shut down during one of the "accidents" -- and even the computer's operators can't account fully for the whereabouts of GOG and MAGOG, the two robots under the computer's control.

"...and then without warning, the machine became a frankenstein of steel," says the sensationalist poster text. This is the third story in Ivan Tors' OSI trilogy. His first "Office of Scientific Investigation" story was Magnetic Monster in early 1953. The second was Riders to the Stars in early '54. With Gog the loose trilogy is complete. Unlike the Star Wars trilogy in which the stories build upon each other, each of the three OSI stories are separate tales which have nothing to do with each other. The common thread is the idea of there being a sort of Science FBI agency whose job it is, is to check out the scientifically strange. In that regard, Tors' OSI is a bit like a foreshadowing of the X-Files TV series, but without any of the New Age paranormal focus.

 

In keeping with the previous two stories, Gog is more of a detective murder mystery movie. Tors was a huge fan of "hard" science, not fanciful fiction fluff, so Gog, like the other two movies, is chock full of reveling in sciencey stuff in an almost geeky way. This reverence for real science keeps things from getting out on shaky limb, as many sci-fi films to. The events are much more plausible, less fantastic.

 

Synopsis

At a secret underground research facility, far out in the desert, scientists working on preparations for a manned space mission, are getting murdered mysteriously. Two agents from the OSI are dispatched to solve the mystery and keep the super secret space station program on track. The scientists are killed in various ways, mostly through equipment malfunctions. The facility director and the agents suspect sabotage. Small transmitter/receiver boxes are found within equipment in different parts of the facility. They suggest that someone on the outside is transmitting in the "malfunctions" in order to kill off the program's scientists. Occasional alarms indicate some flying high intruder, but nothing is clearly found. One of the base's two robots, named Gog, kills another technician while it's mate, Magog, tries to set up an overload within the base's atomic pile. The OSI agents stop Magog with a flame thrower. Meanwhile, interceptor jets scramble and find the highflying spy jet and destroy it with missiles. Once the trouble is past, the Director announces that they will be launching their prototype space station the next day, despite the sabotage attempts to stop it. The End.

  

The time spent reveling in techno-geekery has a certain Popular Science charm to it. There's an evident gee-whiz air about space and defense sciences which is fun to see. People were fascinated with things rockety and atomic. For various fun bits, see the Notes section.

  

Gog oozes Cold War from every frame. First is the base's underground location to make them safe from A-bombs. Next is the mysterious killer trying to stop the space station program. The high-flying mystery plane is "not one of ours." (that leaves: Them, and we all knew who they were.) The space station is to be powered by a solar mirror. Even that benign mirror has sinister possibilities. While demonstrating the mirror, the scientists use it to burn a model of a city. "This could happen...if we're not the first to reach space," says the Director. Space is the next "high ground" to be contested. At the end of the movie, when discussing the launch (despite the sabotage attempt) of the prototype space station, the Director says, "Through it's eye, we'll be able to see everything that goes on upon this tired old earth." The Defense Secretary says, "Nothing will take us by surprise again." An obvious reference to Pearl Harbor.

 

B-films often re-used props and sets from prior films in order to save on their budgets. Gog, even though shot in Eastman Color, was no exception. Two old prop friends show up in Gog. One is our venerable old friend, the space suits from Destination Moon ('50). Look for the centrifuge scene. The research assistants are dressed in them, and as an added bonus, they wear the all-acrylic fish bowl helmets used in Abbot and Costello Go to Mars ('53). Our second old friend is scene in the radar / security room, (the one with the annoying tuning fork device). Check out the monitor wall. It's been gussied up a bit, but it is the spaceship control panel wall from Catwomen of the Moon and Project Moon Base -- complete with the empty 16mm film reels on the right side. It's fun to see old friends.

 

B-films often include stock footage of military units, tanks, jets, battleships, etc. to fill things out. Gog is no different, and even commits the common continuity error of showing one type of plane taking off, but a different kind in the air.

 

What amounts to a small treat amid the usual stock footage of jets, some shots of a rather obscure bit of USAF hardware -- the F-94C Starfire with its straight wings and huge wing tanks. In 1954, the Starfire was one of America's coolest combat jets, yet we hear little about it. The swept-wing F-86 Sabers (which we see taxiing and taking off) were the agile fighter which gained fame over Korea. They're common stock footage stars. The F-94, with its onboard radar (in the nose cone) was deemed too advanced to risk falling into enemy hands. So, it didn't see much action , and therefore little fame. The heavier, yet powerful F-94C (one of the first US jets to have an afterburner) was 1954 America's hottest Interceptor -- designed to stop high flying Soviet bombers. It's blatant cameo appearance in Gog, intercepting the high-flying mystery plane, was a fun little bit of patriotic showing off.

 

The very name of the movie, Gog, is charged with meaning to American audiences of the mid 50s, though virtually lost on viewers of the 21st century. The names of the two robots, Gog and Magog, come from the Bible. More specifically, from the prophecies of Ezekiel (Chapter 38) and the Book of Revelation (chapter 20). While just who they are (nations? kings?) has been debated for centuries, their role as tools of Satan in the battle of Armageddon is clear. Mainstream American patriotic Christendom had settled on the idea that the Soviet Union was the prophesied "nations from the north" who would join Satan to oppose God. This gives the title of the movie a special Cold War significance. It also puts an interesting spin on the Dr. Zeitman character for having named the two robots in the first place. Since they were tools of the mega-computer NOVAC, what was he saying about NOVAC?

 

It is interesting that the base's radar could not detect the mystery plane (which was beaming in the 'kill' instructions to NOVAC) because it was made of "fiberglass" which rendered it invisible to radar. Now, fiberglass itself isn't sturdy enough for high-speed jets, and it would take until the 1990s before composite materials advanced to make the dream of a stealth aircraft a reality. Nonetheless, the dream (or nightmare) of stealth aircraft was on-screen in 1954 in Gog.

 

The super computer, NOVAC, controlled everything on the base. Even though the machines were not really killing scientists on their own, but following human orders from the mystery plane, there was the on-screen depiction of machines having a murderous mind of their own. (all pre-Steven King) In the techno starry-eyed 50s, it was fairly uncommon for the technology itself to be turning on its masters. This idea would gain traction later in the 50s, and especially in the 60s, but in '54, it was unusual.

 

A cautionary subtext to Gog is the danger of trusting in a supercomputer to manage defenses and a whole base. NOVAC doesn't go bad on its own, as the computer will in The Invisible Boy, Hal in 2001 or Colossus in The Forbin Project. In this movie, it was the nefarious "others" who hacked into NOVAC to make it do the killing, but this just demonstrates the danger. People were getting a little nervous about letting machines take over too much responsibility. We were starting to distrust our creations.

 

Until Gog, robots were fairly humanoid.

 

They had two legs, two arms, a torso and a head. Audiences had seen the mechanical Maria in Metropolis ('27), the fedora-wearing metal men in Gene Autrey's Phantom Empire serial ('35). The water-heater-like Republic robot appeared in several rocketman serials. There was the gleaming giant Gort in The Day the Earth Stood Still ('51) and the cute left over fedora-dudes in Captain Video ('51). The metal giant in Devil Girl from Mars ('54) was also humaniod, in a chunky way. Gog and Magog were a departure from the stereotype. They were noticeably in-human, which was part of the mood.

 

Bottom line? Gog seems a bit bland, as far as sci-fi tends to go, but it has a lot in it for fans of 50s sci-fi.

 

“Sacred to the memory of Martha Plukenette, the dearly loved and devoted wife of Alexander William Brett, Fleet Paymaster Royal Navy, of Blackrock, in the County of Dublin,

Born 16th October 1851, Died at Cheltenham 20th January 1891

God will be done”

 

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About Martha Plukenette Brett (née Wisdom)

 

Married by special licence at Eglington Park, Kingstown, Dublin to Alexander William Brett on 11 Sep 1877.

She was the widow of Charles A. N. Nixon of Blackrock, county Dublin. (They had married on 3 Sep 1874. He died on 7 Apr 1875)

(Births, Deaths, Marriages and Obituaries . Freeman's Journal and Daily Commercial Advertiser (Dublin, Ireland), Friday, September 14, 1877)

 

She was the 4th daughter of Thomas Howard Wisdom of Dublin.

 

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About Alexander William Brett

 

Born: 30 Aug 1838

 

Entered the Royal Navy on 26 February 1855 as an Assistant Clerk (naval cadet) aboard H.M.S. Edinburgh.

 

Awarded the Baltic Medal (approved in 1856) for issue to officers and men of the Royal Navy, Royal Marines and Royal Sappers and Miners who served in the Baltic Sea operations (1854-5) during the Crimean War. wikipedia

 

Painting of The Bombardment of Sveaborg, 9 August 1855

 

---------------------

 

Promoted to Clerk (midshipman) and posted to HMS Cambridge in Mar 1857.

 

In Aug 1857, transferred to the paddle frigate, HMS Valorious

 

---------------------

.

To Assistant-Paymaster (sub-lieutenant) on 11 Mar 1860 while serving on HMS Valorous, and later, became secretary’s clerk on the flagship HMS Nile, both ships being on the West Indies station.

 

In Jan 1865, transferred to HMS St George.

 

On 1 Nov 1867, he was serving on the Nereus as Assistant-Paymaster in charge.

 

---------------------

 

Promoted to Paymaster (lieutenant) on 9 Aug 1870, on HMS Spiteful.

 

Served as Secretary to a number of Rear-Admirals during the period 1873-80, before resuming his position as Paymaster.

(In Dec 1873, he was Secretary to Rear-Admiral Randolph, on board HMS St Vincent.

In 1877, Secretary to the Rear-Admiral Commanding on the Coast of Ireland.)

 

In Dec 1880, to HMS Champion.

 

In Mar 1881, transferred to the newly commissioned HMS Briton.

 

Was serving as Paymaster on HMS Briton, during the operations at Suakin in 1884.

 

------------------

 

In Feb 1885 he was appointed Fleet Paymaster (commander) for the Coastguard Service at Holyhead

 

In Apr 1888, transferred to the Swiftsure

 

In Oct 1893, he was to move to HMS Colossus

 

------------------

 

Died: 4th Nov 1893 at Liscard, (then in the County of Chester)

 

------------------

 

Sources:

"Obituary." Times [London, England] 13 Nov. 1893: 7. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 24 Aug. 2015

 

RN Paymasters and Pursers

 

Dix Noonan Webb Auctions site

 

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Their sons

 

Francis William Brett C.M.G. (youngest son)

 

Born 18 May 1885

 

Educated: Royal Naval School, Eltham

 

Entered Colonial Civil Service as Assistant District Commissioner, East Africa Protectorate 1908

Private Secretary to Governor, 1912

District Commissioner 1915

Seconded to Royal Flying Corps, 1915-1916

Political Officer, German East Africa 1917-18

Provincial Commissioner, Tanganyika since 1926. Living in Dar-es-Salaam.

Who's Who, Men and Women of the Time, 1935

(Mocavo)

 

Died: 2 Dec 1936

 

====================================================

  

A high speed Christie Cruiser.

J Walter Christie was a cantankerous American inventor devoted to the development of high speed tanks. He made very little progress at home but managed to sell some prototypes to Russia. In 1936 the British General Wavell, accompanied by Colonel Martel, visited the Red Army manoeuvres and they were amazed by the number of tanks the Russians had, and the speed of their Christie machines. Once home they persuaded Lord Nuffield to purchase a tank from Christie and from that time all British cruiser tanks up to 1945 had Christie suspension.

 

This is the Cruiser Mark III with an up-armoured turret, bringing its appearance close to that of the Cruiser Mark IV. The additional armour on the turret sides was spaced from the body of the turret in an effort to defeat rounds from anti-tank rifles. However it is possible to tell them apart, if the front lower corners of the additional armour do not form a continuous line, as on our exhibit, then it is an uparmoured Mk III, on a Mark IV this section forms one straight line. Large diameter road wheels are a characteristic of Christie tanks; each wheel is on a short swinging arm, bearing against a long coil spring (hidden behind the armour) which permits considerable freedom of movement. It makes the tank fast and gives a comfortable ride.

 

Our exhibit is painted to represent the tank commanded by one of our volunteers, Mr Ron Huggins, of 10th Royal Hussars in 1st Armoured Division with the British Expeditionary Force in France, 1940. The 1st Armoured Division operated mainly in western France and was still in action for some time after the Dunkirk evacuation.

 

Developed by Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero and Chief Superintendent of Design from an original Christie vehicle purchases from U.S.A. First British tank to use Christie suspension. Hull is double skinned. Vehicles of this type saw action in France in 1940 and early campaigns in the Western Desert (1941).

 

Precise Name: Tank, Cruiser Mark III; the correct number of this exhibit is T4425 and before the war it carried civil registration HMC778. It was built under Contract number T.5114 of 22 January 1938 by Nuffield Mechanization & Aero Ltd.

 

Other Name: A13

 

DESCRIPTION

 

The Tank, Cruiser Mark III is notable as the first of a long line of British tanks to use the Christie suspension. The last was the Comet of 1944, (See E 1952.35, Tank, Cruiser Comet). An eccentric American tank designer, J. Walter Christie, developed this novel suspension during the 1920s and early 1930s.

 

Although Christie only managed to sell a few prototypes to the US Army his ideas were taken up in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and were applied to the BT series of fast light/medium tanks. In essence the tank ran on large road wheels attached to swing arms that were controlled by big coil compression springs, mounted within a double wall that formed the sides of the hull. Christies’ designs also had powerful lightweight aero-engines which when combined with his suspension allowed the tanks to achieve high speeds of up to 50mph (80kph) on roads and 30mph (50kph) across country.

 

The British Army was apparently unaware of Christie’s work until Lt. Colonel G le Q Martel saw BT series tanks when he attended the 1936 army manoeuvres in the Soviet Union as an observer. Impressed by the performance of the BT tanks Martel persuaded the General Staff that a tank greatly superior to the A9, then under development, could be produced using the Christie suspension and an aero engine. (See E1949.352 Tank, Cruiser Mark I).

 

After evaluating the Christie prototyps the War Office decided to develop a new tank that used the principles of the Christie suspension married to a new hull and a turret that was essentially similar to that of the Tank Cruiser Mark I, the A9. It mounted the 2pdr (40mm) gun that was found on all British Cruiser tanks of this period. The new tank (given the designation A13, Tank Cruiser Mark III) was to be powered by a variant of a World War I aero engine, the American Liberty. This gave the new tank a power to weight ratio 2.5 times better than that of the A9. Its’ armour was like that of the A9 with a maximum thickness of 14mm; too thin to keep out anything larger than a rifle bullet.

 

The existing UK design teams (at Vickers and the Royal Ordnance Factories) were fully committed to other projects so the design of the Cruiser Mark III was entrusted to a new team at Morris Motors. Funds were allocated to build two prototypes as the A13E2 and A13E3 and the first of these was running by October 1937. It demonstrated a top speed of 35mph (56kph) but suffered from many teething problems. These were soon rectified, in part by limiting the top speed to 30mph, and an order for 65 vehicles placed with Nuffield Mechanisations and Aero Ltd, a new arms manufacturing plant set up by Morris as part of the British rearmament programme. These tanks were all delivered by the summer of 1939, less than two years from the debut of the prototype.

 

The Tank Museum’s example has an up-armoured turret, similar to that fitted to the Cruiser Mark IV. Additional sloped armour was added to the turret sides in an effort to defeat rounds from anti-tank rifles. The tank is painted to represent the vehicle commanded by one of the Museum’s volunteers, Mr. Ron Huggins, of the 10th Royal Hussars, the 1st Armoured Division, France 1940.

 

The first Armoured Division fought on in Western France in June 1940 after the Dunkirk evacuation until the surviving personnel were evacuated to Britain at the end of June 1940. A small number Cruiser Mark III tanks also served with the 7th Armoured Division in the Western Desert of Egypt in 1941.

 

Period of Service : 1939-1941

 

FURTHER READING

 

P. Chamberlain and C. Ellis 1969. British and American Tanks of World War 2. SBN 85368 033 7, Arms and Armour Press, London 1969.

 

D. Fletcher 1991. Mechanised Force. British tanks between the wars. ISBN 0 11 290487 4, HMSO, London 1991.

 

D. Fletcher 1989. The Great Tank Scandal, British Armour in the Second World War, Part I. ISBN 0 11 290460 2, HMSO, London 1989.

 

R.P. Hunnicutt, 1994. Sherman. A history of the American medium tank. ISBN 0-89141-080-5, Presidio Press, Novato, CA. USA. [A good account of J. Walter Christie’s early vehicles and of their testing by the US Army.]

 

J.P Harris, (in J.P Harris and F.N. Toase editors), 1990. Armoured Warfare. ISBN 0 7134 5962 X, B.T. Batsford, London 1990.

 

Summary text by Mike Garth V1.0

Other Numbers

 

NumberType

34749Original Accession

T9143 (previously listed as T4425)Serial

1949.1014Original Entry

Main utility type

 

Medium/Cruiser

Military unit

 

Royal Armoured Corps

Country of Use

 

U.K. (1939)

 

Production

Object Production

 

RoleAttributionDatePlaceNotes

Manufactured1939Nuffield Mechanisation & Aero Ltd.United KingdomBirmingham

Era

 

World War 2

Nationality

 

British

 

Location

Current Location

 

BOVTM - B18F - The Tank Story - Blitzkrieg (Moved here on 21/07/2009)

 

Physical

Features

 

Part NameDescriptionNotes

Tracks/WheelsFull Tracked

Armament - Main Weapon TypeGun - 2 Pounder Gun Mark IX-XA (40mm)

Armament - Secondary Weapon Type.303" Vickers Machine Gun

EngineNuffield Liberty, Mark I and Mark II, V-12 single OHC, liquid cooled 27 litre, 340bhp

Transmission4 Forward, 1 Reverse

SuspensionChristie Type

Power to Weight Ratio23.9 bhp/ton

Dimensions

 

Part NameDimensionValueUnitPrecisionNotes

CrewNumber4

OverallWeight14.2tons14.43 tonnes

Speed - RoadMaximum30mph48.3kph

Main GunCalibre2pdr

Engine OutputPower340 bhp@ 1500 rpm

FuelTypePetrol

FuelVolume110gall500 litres

RangeRadius90ml

Armour ThicknessMaximum14mm0.55in

OverallLength6.01m19ft 8.5in

OverallWidth2.54m8ft 4in

OverallHeight2.59m8ft 6in

ProjectileNumber87rounds

FuelConsumption0.8mpgRoad345 l/100km

 

info from www.tankmuseum.org/ixbin/indexplus?_IXSS_=_IXMENU_%3dVehi...

The central nave of the Catherdral “Sagrada Familia”, the master piece designed

by the ingenious Catalan architect Antonio Gaudi, who worked on the project from

1883 & devoted the last fifteen years of his life entirely to the endeavour. The Cathedral

is under construction since 1882 & is not expected to be complete until 100 years after

Gaudis death in 2026.

After Gaudí's death in 1926, work continued under the direction of Domènech Sugranyes until interrupted by the Spanish Civil War in 1936. Parts of the unfinished basilica, Gaudí's models & workshop were destroyed during the war by Catalan anarchists.

The Church will have three grand façades;

The “Passion Façade” to the West is particularly striking for its spare, gaunt, tormented characters, as well as emaciated figures of Christ being flogged & on the crucifix. These controversial designs are the work of Josep Maria Subirachs.

the “Nativity Façade” to the East, constructed between 1894 & 1930, it was the first façade to be completed, the façade was built before work was interrupted in 1935 & bears the most direct Gaudí influence. Four towers completing the façade & are each dedicated to a Saint, Matthias the Apostle, Saint Barnabas, Jude the Apostle & Simon the Zealot.

The “Glory Façade”, which began construction in 2002, will be the largest and most monumental of the three & will represent one’s ascension to God, it will also portray a range of scenes such as Hell, Purgatory & will include elements such as the Seven Deadly Sins & the Seven Heavenly Virtues.

 

Antoni Plàcid Guillem Gaudí i Cornet, better known as Antonio Gaudí, 1852 –1926†, an ingenious Catalan architect, his work period became famous for his unique & highly individualistic designs regarded as beyond the scope of modernism.

His exposure to nature at an early age, which is thought to have inspired him to incorporate natural shapes & themes into his later work seen in his designs & mosaics.

June, 7. 1926 Gaudí was stroked by a tram, because of his worn out attire, empty pockets & no identification papers, cab drivers refused to pick him up out of fear that he would be unable to pay the taxi fare. Eventually he was taken to a paupers' hospital in Barcelona where nobody recognized the injured architect, until his friends found him the next day. When they tried to move him into a better hospital, Gaudí refused, apparently saying "I belong here among the poor." He died three days later at age 73, with half of Barcelona mourning his death. He was buried in the midst of “La Sagrada Família”

 

This summer, an exhibition devoted to signage in the trenches took place at the Abri Mémoire in Uffholtz. This exhibition presented, among other things, a collection of panels collected at the end of the conflict by a resident of one of the neighboring municipalities of the Hartmannswillerkopf.

 

This collection survived the years sheltered from bad weather and was bequeathed to Les Amis du Hartmannswillerkopf (The Friends of Hartmannswillerkopf) association after the death of its curator.

 

Les Amis du Hartmannswillerkopf have chosen to exhibit part of this exceptional heritage that we share here through a series of photos.

 

This sign recommends to " Close the lid " ...

  

Cet été avait lieu à l'Abri Mémoire d'Uffholtz une exposition consacrée à la signalétique dans les tranchées. Cette exposition présentait, entre autre, une collection de panneaux rassemblés dès la fin du conflit par un habitant de l'une des communes voisines du Hartmannswillerkopf.

 

Cette collection a traversé le temps à l'abri des intempéries et été léguée à l'association des Amis du Hartmannswillerkopf après le décès de son conservateur.

 

Les Amis du Hartmannswillerkopf ont choisi d'exposer une partie de ce patrimoine exceptionnel que nous partageons ici à travers une série de photos.

 

Ce panneau demande de " Fermer le couvercle " ...

youtu.be/rSSgM94sSxQ

Starring Richard Egan, Constance Dowling, Herbert Marshall, John Wengraf, Philip Van Zandt, and William Schallert. Directed by Herbert L. Strock.

When two scientists at a top-secret government installation devoted to space research are killed -- in their own test chamber, seemingly by an experiment gone awry -- Dr. David Sheppard (Richard Egan) is sent out from Washington to investigate. Sheppard mixes easily enough with the somewhat eccentric team of scientists, though he always seems in danger of being distracted by the presence of Joanne Merritt (Constance Dowling), who serves as the aide to the project director Dr. Van Ness (Herbert Marshall) but is, in reality, another security agent. Sheppard is as puzzled as anyone else by the seemingly inexplicable series of events overtaking the installation -- properly operating equipment suddenly undergoing lethal malfunctions, and the radar tracking aircraft that aren't there -- until he puts it together with the operations of NOVAC (Nuclear Operated Variable Automatic Computer), the central brain of the complex. But the mystery deepens when he discovers that NOVAC was shut down during one of the "accidents" -- and even the computer's operators can't account fully for the whereabouts of GOG and MAGOG, the two robots under the computer's control.

"...and then without warning, the machine became a frankenstein of steel," says the sensationalist poster text. This is the third story in Ivan Tors' OSI trilogy. His first "Office of Scientific Investigation" story was Magnetic Monster in early 1953. The second was Riders to the Stars in early '54. With Gog the loose trilogy is complete. Unlike the Star Wars trilogy in which the stories build upon each other, each of the three OSI stories are separate tales which have nothing to do with each other. The common thread is the idea of there being a sort of Science FBI agency whose job it is, is to check out the scientifically strange. In that regard, Tors' OSI is a bit like a foreshadowing of the X-Files TV series, but without any of the New Age paranormal focus.

 

In keeping with the previous two stories, Gog is more of a detective murder mystery movie. Tors was a huge fan of "hard" science, not fanciful fiction fluff, so Gog, like the other two movies, is chock full of reveling in sciencey stuff in an almost geeky way. This reverence for real science keeps things from getting out on shaky limb, as many sci-fi films to. The events are much more plausible, less fantastic.

 

Synopsis

At a secret underground research facility, far out in the desert, scientists working on preparations for a manned space mission, are getting murdered mysteriously. Two agents from the OSI are dispatched to solve the mystery and keep the super secret space station program on track. The scientists are killed in various ways, mostly through equipment malfunctions. The facility director and the agents suspect sabotage. Small transmitter/receiver boxes are found within equipment in different parts of the facility. They suggest that someone on the outside is transmitting in the "malfunctions" in order to kill off the program's scientists. Occasional alarms indicate some flying high intruder, but nothing is clearly found. One of the base's two robots, named Gog, kills another technician while it's mate, Magog, tries to set up an overload within the base's atomic pile. The OSI agents stop Magog with a flame thrower. Meanwhile, interceptor jets scramble and find the highflying spy jet and destroy it with missiles. Once the trouble is past, the Director announces that they will be launching their prototype space station the next day, despite the sabotage attempts to stop it. The End.

  

The time spent reveling in techno-geekery has a certain Popular Science charm to it. There's an evident gee-whiz air about space and defense sciences which is fun to see. People were fascinated with things rockety and atomic. For various fun bits, see the Notes section.

  

Gog oozes Cold War from every frame. First is the base's underground location to make them safe from A-bombs. Next is the mysterious killer trying to stop the space station program. The high-flying mystery plane is "not one of ours." (that leaves: Them, and we all knew who they were.) The space station is to be powered by a solar mirror. Even that benign mirror has sinister possibilities. While demonstrating the mirror, the scientists use it to burn a model of a city. "This could happen...if we're not the first to reach space," says the Director. Space is the next "high ground" to be contested. At the end of the movie, when discussing the launch (despite the sabotage attempt) of the prototype space station, the Director says, "Through it's eye, we'll be able to see everything that goes on upon this tired old earth." The Defense Secretary says, "Nothing will take us by surprise again." An obvious reference to Pearl Harbor.

 

B-films often re-used props and sets from prior films in order to save on their budgets. Gog, even though shot in Eastman Color, was no exception. Two old prop friends show up in Gog. One is our venerable old friend, the space suits from Destination Moon ('50). Look for the centrifuge scene. The research assistants are dressed in them, and as an added bonus, they wear the all-acrylic fish bowl helmets used in Abbot and Costello Go to Mars ('53). Our second old friend is scene in the radar / security room, (the one with the annoying tuning fork device). Check out the monitor wall. It's been gussied up a bit, but it is the spaceship control panel wall from Catwomen of the Moon and Project Moon Base -- complete with the empty 16mm film reels on the right side. It's fun to see old friends.

 

B-films often include stock footage of military units, tanks, jets, battleships, etc. to fill things out. Gog is no different, and even commits the common continuity error of showing one type of plane taking off, but a different kind in the air.

 

What amounts to a small treat amid the usual stock footage of jets, some shots of a rather obscure bit of USAF hardware -- the F-94C Starfire with its straight wings and huge wing tanks. In 1954, the Starfire was one of America's coolest combat jets, yet we hear little about it. The swept-wing F-86 Sabers (which we see taxiing and taking off) were the agile fighter which gained fame over Korea. They're common stock footage stars. The F-94, with its onboard radar (in the nose cone) was deemed too advanced to risk falling into enemy hands. So, it didn't see much action , and therefore little fame. The heavier, yet powerful F-94C (one of the first US jets to have an afterburner) was 1954 America's hottest Interceptor -- designed to stop high flying Soviet bombers. It's blatant cameo appearance in Gog, intercepting the high-flying mystery plane, was a fun little bit of patriotic showing off.

 

The very name of the movie, Gog, is charged with meaning to American audiences of the mid 50s, though virtually lost on viewers of the 21st century. The names of the two robots, Gog and Magog, come from the Bible. More specifically, from the prophecies of Ezekiel (Chapter 38) and the Book of Revelation (chapter 20). While just who they are (nations? kings?) has been debated for centuries, their role as tools of Satan in the battle of Armageddon is clear. Mainstream American patriotic Christendom had settled on the idea that the Soviet Union was the prophesied "nations from the north" who would join Satan to oppose God. This gives the title of the movie a special Cold War significance. It also puts an interesting spin on the Dr. Zeitman character for having named the two robots in the first place. Since they were tools of the mega-computer NOVAC, what was he saying about NOVAC?

 

It is interesting that the base's radar could not detect the mystery plane (which was beaming in the 'kill' instructions to NOVAC) because it was made of "fiberglass" which rendered it invisible to radar. Now, fiberglass itself isn't sturdy enough for high-speed jets, and it would take until the 1990s before composite materials advanced to make the dream of a stealth aircraft a reality. Nonetheless, the dream (or nightmare) of stealth aircraft was on-screen in 1954 in Gog.

 

The super computer, NOVAC, controlled everything on the base. Even though the machines were not really killing scientists on their own, but following human orders from the mystery plane, there was the on-screen depiction of machines having a murderous mind of their own. (all pre-Steven King) In the techno starry-eyed 50s, it was fairly uncommon for the technology itself to be turning on its masters. This idea would gain traction later in the 50s, and especially in the 60s, but in '54, it was unusual.

 

A cautionary subtext to Gog is the danger of trusting in a supercomputer to manage defenses and a whole base. NOVAC doesn't go bad on its own, as the computer will in The Invisible Boy, Hal in 2001 or Colossus in The Forbin Project. In this movie, it was the nefarious "others" who hacked into NOVAC to make it do the killing, but this just demonstrates the danger. People were getting a little nervous about letting machines take over too much responsibility. We were starting to distrust our creations.

 

Until Gog, robots were fairly humanoid.

 

They had two legs, two arms, a torso and a head. Audiences had seen the mechanical Maria in Metropolis ('27), the fedora-wearing metal men in Gene Autrey's Phantom Empire serial ('35). The water-heater-like Republic robot appeared in several rocketman serials. There was the gleaming giant Gort in The Day the Earth Stood Still ('51) and the cute left over fedora-dudes in Captain Video ('51). The metal giant in Devil Girl from Mars ('54) was also humaniod, in a chunky way. Gog and Magog were a departure from the stereotype. They were noticeably in-human, which was part of the mood.

 

Bottom line? Gog seems a bit bland, as far as sci-fi tends to go, but it has a lot in it for fans of 50s sci-fi.

 

Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov[b] (22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until his death in 1924, and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia, and later the Soviet Union, became a one-party socialist state governed by the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism.

 

Born to a schoolteacher's family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brother's 1887 execution. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Tsarist government, he devoted the following years to a law degree. He relocated to Saint Petersburg in 1893 where he became a senior Marxist activist. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye in Siberia for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent theorist in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). In 1903, he took a key role in the RSDLP ideological split, leading the Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Following Russia's failed Revolution of 1905, he initially campaigned for the First World War to be transformed into a Europe-wide proletarian revolution, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the overthrow of capitalism and the rise of socialism. After the 1917 February Revolution ousted the Tsar and established a Provisional Government, he returned to Russia and played a leading role in the October Revolution, in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the new government.

 

Lenin's Bolshevik government initially shared power with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, elected soviets, and a multi-party Constituent Assembly, although by 1918 it had centralised power in the new Communist Party. Lenin's administration redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry. It withdrew from the First World War by signing a treaty conceding territory to the Central Powers, and promoted world revolution through the Communist International. Opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign administered by the state security services; tens of thousands were killed or interned in concentration camps. His administration defeated right and left-wing anti-Bolshevik armies in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922 and oversaw the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. Responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin encouraged economic growth through the New Economic Policy. Several non-Russian nations had secured independence from Russia after 1917, but five were forcibly re-united into the new Soviet Union in 1922, while others repelled Soviet invasions. His health failing, Lenin died in Gorki, with Joseph Stalin succeeding him as the pre-eminent figure in the Soviet government.

 

Widely considered one of the most significant and influential figures of the 20th century, Lenin was the posthumous subject of a pervasive personality cult within the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. He became an ideological figurehead behind Marxism–Leninism and a prominent influence over the international communist movement. A controversial and highly divisive historical figure, Lenin is viewed by his supporters as a champion of socialism, communism, anti-imperialism and the working class, while his critics accuse him of establishing a totalitarian dictatorship that oversaw mass killings and political repression of dissidents.

 

University and political radicalisation: 1887–1893

Upon entering Kazan University in August 1887, Lenin moved into a nearby flat. There, he joined a zemlyachestvo, a form of university society that represented the men of a particular region. This group elected him as its representative to the university's zemlyachestvo council, and he took part in a December demonstration against government restrictions that banned student societies. The police arrested Lenin and accused him of being a ringleader in the demonstration; he was expelled from the university, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs exiled him to his family's Kokushkino estate. There, he read voraciously, becoming enamoured with Nikolay Chernyshevsky's 1863 pro-revolutionary novel What Is to Be Done?

 

Lenin's mother was concerned by her son's radicalisation, and was instrumental in convincing the Interior Ministry to allow him to return to the city of Kazan, but not the university. On his return, he joined Nikolai Fedoseev's revolutionary circle, through which he discovered Karl Marx's 1867 book Capital. This sparked his interest in Marxism, a socio-political theory that argued that society developed in stages, that this development resulted from class struggle, and that capitalist society would ultimately give way to socialist society and then communist society. Wary of his political views, Lenin's mother bought a country estate in Alakaevka village, Samara Oblast, in the hope that her son would turn his attention to agriculture. He had little interest in farm management, and his mother soon sold the land, keeping the house as a summer home.

 

In September 1889, the Ulyanov family moved to the city of Samara, where Lenin joined Alexei Sklyarenko's socialist discussion circle. There, Lenin fully embraced Marxism and produced a Russian language translation of Marx and Friedrich Engels's 1848 political pamphlet, The Communist Manifesto. He began to read the works of the Russian Marxist Georgi Plekhanov, agreeing with Plekhanov's argument that Russia was moving from feudalism to capitalism and so socialism would be implemented by the proletariat, or urban working class, rather than the peasantry. This Marxist perspective contrasted with the view of the agrarian-socialist Narodnik movement, which held that the peasantry could establish socialism in Russia by forming peasant communes, thereby bypassing capitalism. This Narodnik view developed in the 1860s with the People's Freedom Party and was then dominant within the Russian revolutionary movement. Lenin rejected the premise of the agrarian-socialist argument but was influenced by agrarian-socialists like Pyotr Tkachev and Sergei Nechaev and befriended several Narodniks.

 

In May 1890, Maria, who retained societal influence as the widow of a nobleman, persuaded the authorities to allow Lenin to take his exams externally at the University of St Petersburg, where he obtained the equivalent of a first-class degree with honours. The graduation celebrations were marred when his sister Olga died of typhoid. Lenin remained in Samara for several years, working first as a legal assistant for a regional court and then for a local lawyer. He devoted much time to radical politics, remaining active in Sklyarenko's group and formulating ideas about how Marxism applied to Russia. Inspired by Plekhanov's work, Lenin collected data on Russian society, using it to support a Marxist interpretation of societal development and counter the claims of the Narodniks. He wrote a paper on peasant economics; it was rejected by the liberal journal Russian Thought.

 

Revolutionary activity

Early activism and imprisonment: 1893–1900

In late 1893, Lenin moved to Saint Petersburg. There, he worked as a barrister's assistant and rose to a senior position in a Marxist revolutionary cell that called itself the Social-Democrats after the Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany. Championing Marxism within the socialist movement, he encouraged the founding of revolutionary cells in Russia's industrial centres. By late 1894, he was leading a Marxist workers' circle, and meticulously covered his tracks to evade police spies. He began a romantic relationship with Nadezhda "Nadya" Krupskaya, a Marxist schoolteacher. He also authored a political tract criticising the Narodnik agrarian-socialists, What the "Friends of the People" Are and How They Fight the Social-Democrats; around 200 copies were illegally printed in 1894.

 

Hoping to cement connections between his Social-Democrats and Emancipation of Labour, a group of Russian Marxists based in Switzerland, Lenin visited the country to meet group members Plekhanov and Pavel Axelrod. He proceeded to Paris to meet Marx's son-in-law Paul Lafargue and to research the Paris Commune of 1871, which he considered an early prototype for a proletarian government. Financed by his mother, he stayed in a Swiss health spa before travelling to Berlin, where he studied for six weeks at the Staatsbibliothek and met the Marxist Wilhelm Liebknecht. Returning to Russia with a stash of illegal revolutionary publications, he travelled to various cities distributing literature to striking workers. While involved in producing a news sheet, Rabochee delo (Workers' Cause), he was among 40 activists arrested in St. Petersburg and charged with sedition.

 

Refused legal representation or bail, Lenin denied all charges against him but remained imprisoned for a year before sentencing. He spent this time theorising and writing. In this work he noted that the rise of industrial capitalism in Russia had caused large numbers of peasants to move to the cities, where they formed a proletariat. From his Marxist perspective, Lenin argued that this Russian proletariat would develop class consciousness, which would in turn lead them to violently overthrow tsarism, the aristocracy, and the bourgeoisie and to establish a proletariat state that would move toward socialism.

 

In February 1897, Lenin was sentenced without trial to three years' exile in eastern Siberia. He was granted a few days in Saint Petersburg to put his affairs in order and used this time to meet with the Social-Democrats, who had renamed themselves the League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. His journey to eastern Siberia took 11 weeks, for much of which he was accompanied by his mother and sisters. Deemed only a minor threat to the government, he was exiled to Shushenskoye, Minusinsky District, where he was kept under police surveillance; he was nevertheless able to correspond with other revolutionaries, many of whom visited him, and permitted to go on trips to swim in the Yenisei River and to hunt duck and snipe.

 

In May 1898, Nadya joined him in exile, having been arrested in August 1896 for organising a strike. She was initially posted to Ufa, but persuaded the authorities to move her to Shushenskoye, where she and Lenin married on 10 July 1898. Settling into a family life with Nadya's mother Elizaveta Vasilyevna, in Shushenskoye the couple translated English socialist literature into Russian. There, Lenin wrote A Protest by Russian Social-Democrats to criticise German Marxist revisionists like Eduard Bernstein who advocated a peaceful, electoral path to socialism. He also finished The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899), his longest book to date, which criticised the agrarian-socialists and promoted a Marxist analysis of Russian economic development. Published under the pseudonym of Vladimir Ilin, upon publication it received predominantly poor reviews.

 

Munich, London, and Geneva: 1900–1905

After his exile, Lenin settled in Pskov in early 1900. There, he began raising funds for a newspaper, Iskra (Spark), a new organ of the Russian Marxist party, now calling itself the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). In July 1900, Lenin left Russia for Western Europe; in Switzerland he met other Russian Marxists, and at a Corsier conference they agreed to launch the paper from Munich, where Lenin relocated in September. Containing contributions from prominent European Marxists, Iskra was smuggled into Russia, becoming the country's most successful underground publication for 50 years. He first adopted the pseudonym Lenin in December 1901, possibly based on the Siberian River Lena; he often used the fuller pseudonym of N. Lenin, and while the N did not stand for anything, a popular misconception later arose that it represented Nikolai. Under this pseudonym, in 1902 he published his most influential publication to date, the pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, which outlined his thoughts on the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat to revolution.

 

Nadya joined Lenin in Munich and became his secretary. They continued their political agitation, as Lenin wrote for Iskra and drafted the RSDLP programme, attacking ideological dissenters and external critics, particularly the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR),[ a Narodnik agrarian-socialist group founded in 1901. Despite remaining a Marxist, he accepted the Narodnik view on the revolutionary power of the Russian peasantry, accordingly, penning the 1903 pamphlet To the Village Poor. To evade Bavarian police, Lenin moved to London with Iskra in April 1902, where he befriended fellow Russian-Ukrainian Marxist Leon Trotsky. Lenin fell ill with erysipelas and was unable to take such a leading role on the Iskra editorial board; in his absence, the board moved its base of operations to Geneva.

 

The second RSDLP Congress was held in London in July 1903. At the conference, a schism emerged between Lenin's supporters and those of Julius Martov. Martov argued that party members should be able to express themselves independently of the party leadership; Lenin disagreed, emphasising the need for a strong leadership with complete control over the party. Lenin's supporters were in the majority, and he termed them the "majoritarians" (bol'sheviki in Russian; Bolsheviks); in response, Martov termed his followers the "minoritarians" (men'sheviki in Russian; Mensheviks). Arguments between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks continued after the conference; the Bolsheviks accused their rivals of being opportunists and reformists who lacked discipline, while the Mensheviks accused Lenin of being a despot and autocrat. Enraged at the Mensheviks, Lenin resigned from the Iskra editorial board and in May 1904 published the anti-Menshevik tract One Step Forward, Two Steps Back. The stress made Lenin ill, and to recuperate he holidayed in Switzerland. The Bolshevik faction grew in strength; by spring 1905, the whole RSDLP Central Committee was Bolshevik, and in December they founded the newspaper Vperyod (Forward).

 

Revolution of 1905 and its aftermath: 1905–1914

In January 1905, the Bloody Sunday massacre of protesters in St. Petersburg sparked a spate of civil unrest in the Russian Empire known as the Revolution of 1905. Lenin urged Bolsheviks to take a greater role in the events, encouraging violent insurrection. In doing so, he adopted SR slogans regarding "armed insurrection", "mass terror", and "the expropriation of gentry land", resulting in Menshevik accusations that he had deviated from orthodox Marxism. In turn, he insisted that the Bolsheviks split completely with the Mensheviks; many Bolsheviks refused, and both groups attended the Third RSDLP Congress, held in London in April 1905. Lenin presented many of his ideas in the pamphlet Two Tactics of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution, published in August 1905. Here, he predicted that Russia's liberal bourgeoisie would be sated by a transition to constitutional monarchy and thus betray the revolution; instead, he argued that the proletariat would have to build an alliance with the peasantry to overthrow the Tsarist regime and establish the "provisional revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry."

 

The uprising has begun. Force against Force. Street fighting is raging, barricades are being thrown up, rifles are cracking, guns are booming. Rivers of blood are flowing, the civil war for freedom is blazing up. Moscow and the South, the Caucasus and Poland are ready to join the proletariat of St. Petersburg. The slogan of the workers has become: Death or Freedom!

 

In response to the revolution of 1905, which had failed to overthrow the government, Tsar Nicholas II accepted a series of liberal reforms in his October Manifesto. In this climate, Lenin felt it safe to return to St. Petersburg. Joining the editorial board of Novaya Zhizn (New Life), a radical legal newspaper run by Maria Andreyeva, he used it to discuss issues facing the RSDLP. He encouraged the party to seek out a much wider membership, and advocated the continual escalation of violent confrontation, believing both to be necessary for a successful revolution. Recognising that membership fees and donations from a few wealthy sympathisers were insufficient to finance the Bolsheviks' activities, Lenin endorsed the idea of robbing post offices, railway stations, trains, and banks. Under the lead of Leonid Krasin, a group of Bolsheviks began carrying out such criminal actions, the best-known taking place in June 1907, when a group of Bolsheviks acting under the leadership of Joseph Stalin committed an armed robbery of the State Bank in Tiflis, Georgia.

 

Although he briefly supported the idea of reconciliation between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, Lenin's advocacy of violence and robbery was condemned by the Mensheviks at the Fourth RSDLP Congress, held in Stockholm in April 1906. Lenin was involved in setting up a Bolshevik Centre in Kuokkala, Grand Duchy of Finland, which was at the time an autonomous state within the Russian Empire, before the Bolsheviks regained dominance of the RSDLP at its Fifth Congress, held in London in May 1907. As the Tsarist government cracked down on opposition, both by disbanding Russia's legislative assembly, the Second Duma, and by ordering its secret police, the Okhrana, to arrest revolutionaries, Lenin fled Finland for Switzerland. There, he tried to exchange those banknotes stolen in Tiflis that had identifiable serial numbers on them.

 

Alexander Bogdanov and other prominent Bolsheviks decided to relocate the Bolshevik Centre to Paris; although Lenin disagreed, he moved to the city in December 1908. Lenin disliked Paris, lambasting it as "a foul hole", and while there he sued a motorist who knocked him off his bike. Lenin became very critical of Bogdanov's view that Russia's proletariat had to develop a socialist culture in order to become a successful revolutionary vehicle. Instead, Lenin favoured a vanguard of socialist intelligentsia who would lead the working-classes in revolution. Furthermore, Bogdanov, influenced by Ernest Mach, believed that all concepts of the world were relative, whereas Lenin stuck to the orthodox Marxist view that there was an objective reality independent of human observation. Bogdanov and Lenin holidayed together at Maxim Gorky's villa in Capri in April 1908 on returning to Paris, Lenin encouraged a split within the Bolshevik faction between his and Bogdanov's followers, accusing the latter of deviating from Marxism.

 

In May 1908, Lenin lived briefly in London, where he used the British Museum Reading Room to write Materialism and Empirio-criticism, an attack on what he described as the "bourgeois-reactionary falsehood" of Bogdanov's relativism. Lenin's factionalism began to alienate increasing numbers of Bolsheviks, including his former close supporters Alexei Rykov and Lev Kamenev. The Okhrana exploited his factionalist attitude by sending a spy, Roman Malinovsky, to act as a vocal Lenin supporter within the party. Various Bolsheviks expressed their suspicions about Malinovsky to Lenin, although it is unclear if the latter was aware of the spy's duplicity; it is possible that he used Malinovsky to feed false information to the Okhrana.

 

In August 1910, Lenin attended the Eighth Congress of the Second International, an international meeting of socialists, in Copenhagen as the RSDLP's representative, following this with a holiday in Stockholm with his mother. With his wife and sisters, he then moved to France, settling first in Bombon and then Paris. Here, he became a close friend to the French Bolshevik Inessa Armand; some biographers suggest that they had an extra-marital affair from 1910 to 1912. Meanwhile, at a Paris meeting in June 1911, the RSDLP Central Committee decided to move their focus of operations back to Russia, ordering the closure of the Bolshevik Centre and its newspaper, Proletari. Seeking to rebuild his influence in the party, Lenin arranged for a party conference to be held in Prague in January 1912, and although 16 of the 18 attendants were Bolsheviks, he was heavily criticised for his factionalist tendencies and failed to boost his status within the party.

 

Moving to Kraków in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a culturally Polish part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he used Jagiellonian University's library to conduct research. He stayed in close contact with the RSDLP, which was operating in the Russian Empire, convincing the Duma's Bolshevik members to split from their parliamentary alliance with the Mensheviks. In January 1913, Stalin, whom Lenin referred to as the "wonderful Georgian", visited him, and they discussed the future of non-Russian ethnic groups in the Empire. Due to the ailing health of both Lenin and his wife, they moved to the rural town of Biały Dunajec, before heading to Bern for Nadya to have surgery on her goitre.

 

First World War: 1914–1917

The [First World] war is being waged for the division of colonies and the robbery of foreign territory; thieves have fallen out–and to refer to the defeats at a given moment of one of the thieves in order to identify the interests of all thieves with the interests of the nation or the fatherland is an unconscionable bourgeois lie.

 

Lenin was in Galicia when the First World War broke out. The war pitted the Russian Empire against the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and due to his Russian citizenship, Lenin was arrested and briefly imprisoned until his anti-Tsarist credentials were explained. Lenin and his wife returned to Bern, before relocating to Zürich in February 1916. Lenin was angry that the German Social-Democratic Party was supporting the German war effort, which was a direct contravention of the Second International's Stuttgart resolution that socialist parties would oppose the conflict and saw the Second International as defunct. He attended the Zimmerwald Conference in September 1915 and the Kienthal Conference in April 1916, urging socialists across the continent to convert the "imperialist war" into a continent-wide "civil war" with the proletariat pitted against the bourgeoisie and aristocracy. In July 1916, Lenin's mother died, but he was unable to attend her funeral. Her death deeply affected him, and he became depressed, fearing that he too would die before seeing the proletarian revolution.

 

In September 1917, Lenin published Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, which argued that imperialism was a product of monopoly capitalism, as capitalists sought to increase their profits by extending into new territories where wages were lower and raw materials cheaper. He believed that competition and conflict would increase and that war between the imperialist powers would continue until they were overthrown by proletariat revolution and socialism established. He spent much of this time reading the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Aristotle, all of whom had been key influences on Marx. This changed Lenin's interpretation of Marxism; whereas he once believed that policies could be developed based on predetermined scientific principles, he concluded that the only test of whether a policy was correct was its practice. He still perceived himself as an orthodox Marxist, but he began to diverge from some of Marx's predictions about societal development; whereas Marx had believed that a "bourgeoisie-democratic revolution" of the middle-classes had to take place before a "socialist revolution" of the proletariat, Lenin believed that in Russia the proletariat could overthrow the Tsarist regime without an intermediate revolution.

 

February Revolution and the July Days: 1917

In February 1917, the February Revolution broke out in St. Petersburg, renamed Petrograd at the beginning of the First World War, as industrial workers went on strike over food shortages and deteriorating factory conditions. The unrest spread to other parts of Russia, and fearing that he would be violently overthrown, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. The State Duma took over control of the country, establishing the Russian Provisional Government and converting the Empire into a new Russian Republic. When Lenin learned of this from his base in Switzerland, he celebrated with other dissidents. He decided to return to Russia to take charge of the Bolsheviks but found that most passages into the country were blocked due to the ongoing conflict. He organised a plan with other dissidents to negotiate a passage for them through Germany, with which Russia was then at war. Recognising that these dissidents could cause problems for their Russian enemies, the German government agreed to permit 32 Russian citizens to travel by train through their territory, among them Lenin and his wife. For political reasons, Lenin and the Germans agreed to a cover story that Lenin had travelled by sealed train carriage through German territory, but in fact the train was not truly sealed, and the passengers were allowed to disembark to, for example, spend the night in Frankfurt. The group travelled by train from Zürich to Sassnitz, proceeding by ferry to Trelleborg, Sweden, and from there to the Haparanda–Tornio border crossing and then to Helsinki before taking the final train to Petrograd in disguise.

 

Arriving at Petrograd's Finland Station in April, Lenin gave a speech to Bolshevik supporters condemning the Provisional Government and again calling for a continent-wide European proletarian revolution. Over the following days, he spoke at Bolshevik meetings, lambasting those who wanted reconciliation with the Mensheviks and revealing his "April Theses", an outline of his plans for the Bolsheviks, which he had written on the journey from Switzerland. He publicly condemned both the Mensheviks and the Social Revolutionaries, who dominated the influential Petrograd Soviet, for supporting the Provisional Government, denouncing them as traitors to socialism. Considering the government to be just as imperialist as the Tsarist regime, he advocated immediate peace with Germany and Austria-Hungary, rule by soviets, the nationalisation of industry and banks, and the state expropriation of land, all with the intention of establishing a proletariat government and pushing toward a socialist society. By contrast, the Mensheviks believed that Russia was insufficiently developed to transition to socialism and accused Lenin of trying to plunge the new Republic into civil war. Over the coming months Lenin campaigned for his policies, attending the meetings of the Bolshevik Central Committee, prolifically writing for the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda, and giving public speeches in Petrograd aimed at converting workers, soldiers, sailors, and peasants to his cause.

 

Sensing growing frustration among Bolshevik supporters, Lenin suggested an armed political demonstration in Petrograd to test the government's response. Amid deteriorating health, he left the city to recuperate in the Finnish village of Neivola. The Bolsheviks' armed demonstration, the July Days, took place while Lenin was away, but upon learning that demonstrators had violently clashed with government forces, he returned to Petrograd and called for calm. Responding to the violence, the government ordered the arrest of Lenin and other prominent Bolsheviks, raiding their offices, and publicly alleging that he was a German agent provocateur. Evading arrest, Lenin hid in a series of Petrograd safe houses. Fearing that he would be killed, Lenin and fellow senior Bolshevik Grigory Zinoviev escaped Petrograd in disguise, relocating to Razliv. There, Lenin began work on the book that became The State and Revolution, an exposition on how he believed the socialist state would develop after the proletariat revolution, and how from then on the state would gradually wither away, leaving a pure communist society. He began arguing for a Bolshevik-led armed insurrection to topple the government, but at a clandestine meeting of the party's central committee this idea was rejected. Lenin then headed by train and by foot to Finland, arriving at Helsinki on 10 August, where he hid away in safe houses belonging to Bolshevik sympathisers.

 

October Revolution: 1917

In August 1917, while Lenin was in Finland, General Lavr Kornilov, the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, sent troops to Petrograd in what appeared to be a military coup attempt against the Provisional Government. Premier Alexander Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet, including its Bolshevik members, for help, allowing the revolutionaries to organise workers as Red Guards to defend the city. The coup petered out before it reached Petrograd, but the events had allowed the Bolsheviks to return to the open political arena. Fearing a counter-revolution from right-wing forces hostile to socialism, the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries who dominated the Petrograd Soviet had been instrumental in pressuring the government to normalise relations with the Bolsheviks. Both the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries had lost much popular support because of their affiliation with the Provisional Government and its unpopular continuation of the war. The Bolsheviks capitalised on this, and soon the pro-Bolshevik Marxist Trotsky was elected leader of the Petrograd Soviet. In September, the Bolsheviks gained a majority in the workers' sections of both the Moscow and Petrograd Soviets.

 

Recognising that the situation was safer for him, Lenin returned to Petrograd. There he attended a meeting of the Bolshevik Central Committee on 10 October, where he again argued that the party should lead an armed insurrection to topple the Provisional Government. This time the argument won with ten votes against two. Critics of the plan, Zinoviev and Kamenev, argued that Russian workers would not support a violent coup against the regime and that there was no clear evidence for Lenin's assertion that all of Europe was on the verge of proletarian revolution. The party began plans to organise the offensive, holding a final meeting at the Smolny Institute on 24 October. This was the base of the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), an armed militia largely loyal to the Bolsheviks that had been established by the Petrograd Soviet during Kornilov's alleged coup.

 

In October, the MRC was ordered to take control of Petrograd's key transport, communication, printing and utilities hubs, and did so without bloodshed. Bolsheviks besieged the government in the Winter Palace and overcame it and arrested its ministers after the cruiser Aurora, controlled by Bolshevik seamen, fired a blank shot to signal the start of the revolution. During the insurrection, Lenin gave a speech to the Petrograd Soviet announcing that the Provisional Government had been overthrown. The Bolsheviks declared the formation of a new government, the Council of People's Commissars, or Sovnarkom. Lenin initially turned down the leading position of Chairman, suggesting Trotsky for the job, but other Bolsheviks insisted and ultimately Lenin relented. Lenin and other Bolsheviks then attended the Second Congress of Soviets on 26 and 27 October and announced the creation of the new government. Menshevik attendees condemned the illegitimate seizure of power and the risk of civil war. In these early days of the new regime, Lenin avoided talking in Marxist and socialist terms so as not to alienate Russia's population, and instead spoke about having a country controlled by the workers. Lenin and many other Bolsheviks expected proletariat revolution to sweep across Europe in days or months.

 

Lenin's government

Organising the Soviet government: 1917–1918

The Provisional Government had planned for a Constituent Assembly to be elected in November 1917; against Lenin's objections, Sovnarkom agreed for the vote to take place as scheduled. In the constitutional election, the Bolsheviks gained approximately a quarter of the vote, being defeated by the agrarian-focused Socialist-Revolutionaries. Lenin argued that the election was not a fair reflection of the people's will, that the electorate had not had time to learn the Bolsheviks' political programme, and that the candidacy lists had been drawn up before the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries split from the Socialist-Revolutionaries. Nevertheless, the newly elected Russian Constituent Assembly convened in Petrograd in January 1918. Sovnarkom argued that it was counter-revolutionary because it sought to remove power from the soviets, but the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks denied this. The Bolsheviks presented the Assembly with a motion that would strip it of most of its legal powers; when the Assembly rejected the motion, Sovnarkom declared this as evidence of its counter-revolutionary nature and forcibly disbanded it.

 

Lenin rejected repeated calls, including from some Bolsheviks, to establish a coalition government with other socialist parties. Although refusing a coalition with the Mensheviks or Socialist-Revolutionaries, Sovnarkom partially relented; they allowed the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries five posts in the cabinet in December 1917. This coalition only lasted four months until March 1918, when the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries pulled out of the government over a disagreement about the Bolsheviks' approach to ending the First World War. At their 7th Congress in March 1918, the Bolsheviks changed their official name from the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party to the Russian Communist Party, as Lenin wanted to both distance his group from the increasingly reformist German Social Democratic Party and to emphasise its ultimate goal, that of a communist society.

 

Although ultimate power officially rested with the country's government in the form of Sovnarkom and the Executive Committee (VTSIK) elected by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (ARCS), the Communist Party was de facto in control in Russia, as acknowledged by its members at the time. By 1918, Sovnarkom began acting unilaterally, claiming a need for expediency, with the ARCS and VTSIK becoming increasingly marginalised, so the soviets no longer had a role in governing Russia. During 1918 and 1919, the government expelled Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries from the soviets. Russia had become a one-party state.

 

Within the party was established a Political Bureau (Politburo) and Organisation Bureau (Orgburo) to accompany the existing Central Committee; the decisions of these party bodies had to be adopted by Sovnarkom and the Council of Labour and Defence. Lenin was the most significant figure in this governance structure as well as being the Chairman of Sovnarkom and sitting on the Council of Labour and Defence, and on the Central Committee and Politburo of the Communist Party. The only individual to have anywhere near this influence was Lenin's right-hand man, Yakov Sverdlov, who died in March 1919 during a flu pandemic. In November 1917, Lenin and his wife took a two-room flat within the Smolny Institute; the following month they left for a brief holiday in Halila, Finland. In January 1918, he survived an assassination attempt in Petrograd; Fritz Platten, who was with Lenin at the time, shielded him and was injured by a bullet.

 

Concerned that the German Army posed a threat to Petrograd, in March 1918 Sovnarkom relocated to Moscow, initially as a temporary measure. There, Lenin, Trotsky, and other Bolshevik leaders moved into the Kremlin, where Lenin lived with his wife and sister Maria in a first-floor apartment adjacent to the room in which the Sovnarkom meetings were held. Lenin disliked Moscow, but rarely left the city centre during the rest of his life. He survived a second assassination attempt, in Moscow in August 1918; he was shot following a public speech and injured badly. A Socialist-Revolutionary, Fanny Kaplan, was arrested and executed. The attack was widely covered in the Russian press, generating much sympathy for Lenin and boosting his popularity. As a respite, he was driven in September 1918 to the luxurious Gorki estate, just outside Moscow, recently nationalized for him by the government.

 

Social, legal, and economic reform: 1917–1918

To All Workers, Soldiers and Peasants. The Soviet authority will at once propose a democratic peace to all nations and an immediate armistice on all fronts. It will safeguard the transfer without compensation of all land—landlord, imperial, and monastery—to the peasants' committees; it will defend the soldiers' rights, introducing a complete democratisation of the army; it will establish workers' control over industry; it will ensure the convocation of the Constituent Assembly on the date set; it will supply the cities with bread and the villages with articles of first necessity; and it will secure to all nationalities inhabiting Russia the right of self-determination ... Long live the revolution!

 

Upon taking power, Lenin's regime issued a series of decrees. The first was a Decree on Land, which declared that the landed estates of the aristocracy and the Orthodox Church should be nationalised and redistributed to peasants by local governments. This contrasted with Lenin's desire for agricultural collectivisation but provided governmental recognition of the widespread peasant land seizures that had already occurred. In November 1917, the government issued the Decree on the Press that closed many opposition media outlets deemed counter revolutionary. They claimed the measure would be temporary; the decree was widely criticised, including by many Bolsheviks, for compromising freedom of the press.

 

In November 1917, Lenin issued the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, which stated that non-Russian ethnic groups living inside the Republic had the right to secede from Russian authority and establish their own independent nation-states. Many nations declared independence (Finland and Lithuania in December 1917, Latvia and Ukraine in January 1918, Estonia in February 1918, Transcaucasia in April 1918, and Poland in November 1918). Soon, the Bolsheviks actively promoted communist parties in these independent nation-states, while at the Fifth All-Russian Congress of the Soviets in July 1918 a constitution was approved that reformed the Russian Republic into the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Seeking to modernise the country, the government officially converted Russia from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar used in Europe.

 

In November 1917, Sovnarkom issued a decree abolishing Russia's legal system, calling on the use of "revolutionary conscience" to replace the abolished laws. The courts were replaced by a two-tier system, namely the Revolutionary Tribunals to deal with counter-revolutionary crimes, and the People's Courts to deal with civil and other criminal offences. They were instructed to ignore pre-existing laws and base their rulings on the Sovnarkom decrees and a "socialist sense of justice." November also saw an overhaul of the armed forces; Sovnarkom implemented egalitarian measures, abolished previous ranks, titles, and medals, and called on soldiers to establish committees to elect their commanders.

 

Earth of Filth".

In October 1917, Lenin issued a decree limiting work for everyone in Russia to eight hours per day. He also issued the Decree on Popular Education that stipulated that the government would guarantee free, secular education for all children in Russia, and a decree establishing a system of state orphanages. To combat mass illiteracy, a literacy campaign was initiated; an estimated 5 million people enrolled in crash courses of basic literacy from 1920 to 1926. Embracing the equality of the sexes, laws were introduced that helped to emancipate women, by giving them economic autonomy from their husbands and removing restrictions on divorce. Zhenotdel, a Bolshevik women's organisation, was established to further these aims. Under Lenin, Russia became the first country to legalize abortion on demand in the first trimester. Militantly atheist, Lenin and the Communist Party wanted to demolish organised religion. In January 1918, the government decreed the separation of church and state, and prohibited religious instruction in schools.

 

In November 1917, Lenin issued the Decree on Workers' Control, which called on the workers of each enterprise to establish an elected committee to monitor their enterprise's management. That month they also issued an order requisitioning the country's gold, and nationalised the banks, which Lenin saw as a major step toward socialism. In December, Sovnarkom established a Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh), which had authority over industry, banking, agriculture, and trade. The factory committees were subordinate to the trade unions, which were subordinate to VSNKh; the state's centralised economic plan was prioritised over the workers' local economic interests. In early 1918, Sovnarkom cancelled all foreign debts and refused to pay interest owed on them. In April 1918, it nationalised foreign trade, establishing a state monopoly on imports and exports. In June 1918, it decreed nationalisation of public utilities, railways, engineering, textiles, metallurgy, and mining, although often these were state-owned in name only. Full-scale nationalisation did not take place until November 1920, when small-scale industrial enterprises were brought under state control.

 

A faction of the Bolsheviks known as the "Left Communists" criticised Sovnarkom's economic policy as too moderate; they wanted nationalisation of all industry, agriculture, trade, finance, transport, and communication. Lenin believed that this was impractical at that stage and that the government should only nationalise Russia's large-scale capitalist enterprises, such as the banks, railways, larger landed estates, and larger factories and mines, allowing smaller businesses to operate privately until they grew large enough to be successfully nationalised. Lenin also disagreed with the Left Communists about the economic organisation; in June 1918, he argued that centralised economic control of industry was needed, whereas Left Communists wanted each factory to be controlled by its workers, a syndicalist approach that Lenin considered detrimental to the cause of socialism.

 

Adopting a left-libertarian perspective, both the Left Communists and other factions in the Communist Party critiqued the decline of democratic institutions in Russia. Internationally, many socialists decried Lenin's regime and denied that he was establishing socialism; in particular, they highlighted the lack of widespread political participation, popular consultation, and industrial democracy. In late 1918, the Czech-Austrian Marxist Karl Kautsky authored an anti-Leninist pamphlet condemning the anti-democratic nature of Soviet Russia, to which Lenin published a vociferous reply, The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky. German Marxist Rosa Luxemburg echoed Kautsky's views, while Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin described the Bolshevik seizure of power as "the burial of the Russian Revolution."

 

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: 1917–1918

[By prolonging the war] we unusually strengthen German imperialism, and the peace will have to be concluded anyway, but then the peace will be worse because it will be concluded by someone other than ourselves. No doubt the peace which we are now being forced to conclude is an indecent peace, but if war commences our government will be swept away and the peace will be concluded by another government.

 

Upon taking power, Lenin believed that a key policy of his government must be to withdraw from the First World War by establishing an armistice with the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. He believed that ongoing war would create resentment among war-weary Russian troops, to whom he had promised peace, and that these troops and the advancing German Army threatened both his own government and the cause of international socialism. By contrast, other Bolsheviks, in particular Nikolai Bukharin and the Left Communists, believed that peace with the Central Powers would be a betrayal of international socialism and that Russia should instead wage "a war of revolutionary defence" that would provoke an uprising of the German proletariat against their own government.

 

Lenin proposed a three-month armistice in his Decree on Peace of November 1917, which was approved by the Second Congress of Soviets and presented to the German and Austro-Hungarian governments. The Germans responded positively, viewing this as an opportunity to focus on the Western Front and stave off looming defeat. In November, armistice talks began at Brest-Litovsk, the headquarters of the German high command on the Eastern Front, with the Russian delegation being led by Trotsky and Adolph Joffe. Meanwhile, a ceasefire until January was agreed. During negotiations, the Germans insisted on keeping their wartime conquests, which included Poland, Lithuania, and Courland, whereas the Russians countered that this was a violation of these nations' rights to self-determination. Some Bolsheviks had expressed hopes of dragging out negotiations until proletarian revolution broke out throughout Europe. On 7 January 1918, Trotsky returned from Brest-Litovsk to St. Petersburg with an ultimatum from the Central Powers: either Russia accept Germany's territorial demands or the war would resume.

 

In January and again in February, Lenin urged the Bolsheviks to accept Germany's proposals. He argued that the territorial losses were acceptable if it ensured the survival of the Bolshevik-led government. The majority of Bolsheviks rejected his position, hoping to prolong the armistice and call Germany's bluff. On 18 February, the German Army launched Operation Faustschlag, advancing further into Russian-controlled territory and conquering Dvinsk within a day. At this point, Lenin finally convinced a small majority of the Bolshevik Central Committee to accept the Central Powers' demands. On 23 February, the Central Powers issued a new ultimatum: Russia had to recognise German control not only of Poland and the Baltic states but also of Ukraine or face a full-scale invasion.

 

On 3 March, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. It resulted in massive territorial losses for Russia, with 26% of the former Empire's population, 37% of its agricultural harvest area, 28% of its industry, 26% of its railway tracks, and three-quarters of its coal and iron deposits being transferred to German control. Accordingly, the Treaty was deeply unpopular across Russia's political spectrum, and several Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries resigned from Sovnarkom in protest. After the Treaty, Sovnarkom focused on trying to foment proletarian revolution in Germany, issuing an array of anti-war and anti-government publications in the country; the German government retaliated by expelling Russia's diplomats. The Treaty nevertheless failed to stop the Central Powers' defeat; in November 1918, the German Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated and the country's new administration signed the Armistice with the Allies. As a result, Sovnarkom proclaimed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk void.

 

Anti-Kulak campaigns, Cheka, and Red Terror: 1918–1922

[The bourgeoisie] practised terror against the workers, soldiers and peasants in the interests of a small group of landowners and bankers, whereas the Soviet regime applies decisive measures against landowners, plunderers and their accomplices in the interests of the workers, soldiers and peasants.

 

By early 1918, many cities in western Russia faced famine as a result of chronic food shortages. Lenin blamed this on the kulaks, or wealthier peasants, who allegedly hoarded the grain that they had produced to increase its financial value. In May 1918, he issued a requisitioning order that established armed detachments to confiscate grain from kulaks for distribution in the cities, and in June called for the formation of Committees of Poor Peasants to aid in requisitioning. This policy resulted in vast social disorder and violence, as armed detachments often clashed with peasant groups, helping to set the stage for the civil war. A prominent example of Lenin's views was his August 1918 telegram to the Bolsheviks of Penza, which called upon them to suppress a peasant insurrection by publicly hanging at least 100 "known kulaks, rich men, [and] bloodsuckers."

 

The requisitions disincentivised peasants from producing more grain than they could personally consume, and thus production slumped. A booming black market supplemented the official state-sanctioned economy, and Lenin called on speculators, black marketeers and looters to be shot. Both the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries condemned the armed appropriations of grain at the Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets in July 1918. Realising that the Committees of the Poor Peasants were also persecuting peasants who were not kulaks and thus contributing to anti-government feeling among the peasantry, in December 1918 Lenin abolished them.

 

Lenin repeatedly emphasised the need for terror and violence in overthrowing the old order and ensuring the success of the revolution. Speaking to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets in November 1917, he declared that "the state is an institution built up for the sake of exercising violence. Previously, this violence was exercised by a handful of moneybags over the entire people; now we want [...] to organise violence in the interests of the people." He strongly opposed suggestions to abolish capital punishment. Fearing anti-Bolshevik forces would overthrow his administration, in December 1917 Lenin ordered the establishment of the Emergency Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage, or Cheka, a political police force led by Felix Dzerzhinsky.

 

In September 1918, Sovnarkom passed a decree that inaugurated the Red Terror, a system of repression orchestrated by the Cheka secret police.[261] Although sometimes described as an attempt to eliminate the entire bourgeoisie, Lenin did not want to exterminate all members of this class, merely those who sought to reinstate their rule. The majority of the Terror's victims were well-to-do citizens or former members of the Tsarist administration; others were non-bourgeois anti-Bolsheviks and perceived social undesirables such as prostitutes. The Cheka claimed the right to both sentence and execute anyone whom it deemed to be an enemy of the government, without recourse to the Revolutionary Tribunals. Accordingly, throughout Soviet Russia the Cheka carried out killings, often in large numbers. For example, the Petrograd Cheka executed 512 people in a few days. There are no surviving records to provide an accurate figure of how many perished in the Red Terror; later estimates of historians have ranged between 10,000 and 15,000, and 50,000 to 140,000.

 

Lenin never witnessed this violence or participated in it first-hand, and publicly distanced himself from it. His published articles and speeches rarely called for executions, but he regularly did so in his coded telegrams and confidential notes. Many Bolsheviks expressed disapproval of the Cheka's mass executions and feared the organisation's apparent unaccountability. The Communist Party tried to restrain its activities in February 1919, stripping it of its powers of tribunal and execution in those areas not under official martial law, but the Cheka continued as before in swathes of the country. By 1920, the Cheka had become the most powerful institution in Soviet Russia, exerting influence over all other state apparatus.

 

A decree in April 1919 resulted in the establishment of concentration camps, which were entrusted to the Cheka, later administered by a new government agency, Gulag. By the end of 1920, 84 camps had been established across Soviet Russia, holding about 50,000 prisoners; by October 1923, this had grown to 315 camps and about 70,000 inmates. Those interned in the camps were used as slave labour. From July 1922, intellectuals deemed to be opposing the Bolshevik government were exiled to inhospitable regions or deported from Russia altogether; Lenin personally scrutinised the lists of those to be dealt with in this manner. In May 1922, Lenin issued a decree calling for the execution of anti-Bolshevik priests, causing between 14,000 and 20,000 deaths. The Russian Orthodox Church was worst affected; the government's anti-religious policies also harmed Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, Jewish synagogues, and Islamic mosques.

 

Civil War and the Polish–Soviet War: 1918–1920

The existence of the Soviet Republic alongside the imperialist states over the long run is unthinkable. In the end, either the one or the other will triumph. And until that end will have arrived, a series of the most terrible conflicts between the Soviet Republic and the bourgeois governments is unavoidable. This means that the ruling class, the proletariat, if it only wishes to rule and is to rule, must demonstrate this also with its military organization.

 

Lenin expected Russia's aristocracy and bourgeoisie to oppose his government, but he believed that the numerical superiority of the lower classes, coupled with the Bolsheviks' ability to effectively organise them, guaranteed a swift victory in any conflict. In this, he failed to anticipate the intensity of the violent opposition to Bolshevik rule in Russia. A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Bolshevik Reds and the anti-Bolshevik Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It also encompassed ethnic conflicts on Russia's borders, and anti-Bolshevik peasant and left-wing uprisings throughout the former Empire. Accordingly, various historians have seen the civil war as representing two distinct conflicts: one between the revolutionaries and the counterrevolutionaries, and the other between different revolutionary factions.

 

The White armies were established by former Tsarist military officers, and included Anton Denikin's Volunteer Army in South Russia, Alexander Kolchak's forces in Siberia, and Nikolai Yudenich's troops in the newly independent Baltic states. The Whites were bolstered when 35,000 members of the Czech Legion, who were prisoners of war from the conflict with the Central Powers, turned against Sovnarkom and allied with the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch), an anti-Bolshevik government established in Samara. The Whites were also backed by Western governments who perceived the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a betrayal of the Allied war effort and feared the Bolsheviks' calls for world revolution. In 1918, Great Britain, France, United States, Canada, Italy, and Serbia landed 10,000 troops in Murmansk, seizing Kandalaksha, while later that year British, American, and Japanese forces landed in Vladivostok. Western troops soon pulled out of the civil war, instead only supporting the Whites with officers, technicians and armaments, but Japan remained because they saw the conflict as an opportunity for territorial expansion.

 

Lenin tasked Trotsky with establishing a Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, and with his support, Trotsky organised a Revolutionary Military Council in September 1918, remaining its chairman until 1925. Recognising their valuable military experience, Lenin agreed that officers from the old Tsarist army could serve in the Red Army, although Trotsky established military councils to monitor their activities. The Reds held control of Russia's two largest cities, Moscow and Petrograd, as well as most of Great Russia, while the Whites were located largely on the former Empire's peripheries. The latter were therefore hindered by being both fragmented and geographically scattered, and because their ethnic Russian supremacism alienated the region's national minorities. Anti-Bolshevik armies carried out the White Terror, a campaign of violence against perceived Bolshevik supporters which was typically more spontaneous than the state-sanctioned Red Terror. Both White and Red Armies were responsible for attacks against Jewish communities, prompting Lenin to issue a condemnation of antisemitism, blaming prejudice against Jews on capitalist propaganda.

 

In July 1918, Sverdlov informed Sovnarkom that the Ural Regional Soviet had overseen the murder of the former Tsar and his immediate family in Yekaterinburg to prevent them from being rescued by advancing White troops. Although lacking proof, biographers and historians like Richard Pipes and Dmitri Volkogonov have expressed the view that the killing was probably sanctioned by Lenin; conversely, historian James Ryan cautioned that there was "no reason" to believe this. Whether Lenin sanctioned it or not, he still regarded it as necessary, highlighting the precedent set by the execution of Louis XVI in the French Revolution.

 

After the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries had abandoned the coalition and increasingly viewed the Bolsheviks as traitors to the revolution. In July 1918, the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Yakov Blumkin assassinated the German ambassador to Russia, Wilhelm von Mirbach, hoping that the ensuing diplomatic incident would lead to a relaunched revolutionary war against Germany. The Left Socialist-Revolutionaries then launched a coup in Moscow, shelling the Kremlin and seizing the city's central post office before being stopped by Trotsky's forces. The party's leaders and many members were arrested and imprisoned but were treated more leniently than other opponents of the Bolsheviks.

 

By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts. Although Sovnarkom were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced, for many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence. In March 1921, during a related war against Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly independent nations of the former Empire, although their success was limited. Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania all repelled Soviet invasions, while Ukraine, Belarus (as a result of the Polish–Soviet War), Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia were occupied by the Red Army. By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the Caucasus, although anti-Bolshevik uprisings in Central Asia lasted until the late 1920s.

 

After the German Ober Ost garrisons were withdrawn from the Eastern Front following the Armistice, both Soviet Russian armies and Polish ones moved in to fill the vacuum. The newly independent Polish state and the Soviet government each sought territorial expansion in the region. Polish and Russian troops first clashed in February 1919, with the conflict developing into the Polish–Soviet War. Unlike the Soviets' previous conflicts, this had greater implications for the export of revolution and the future of Europe. Polish forces pushed into Ukraine and by May 1920 had taken Kiev from the Soviets. After forcing the Polish Army back, Lenin urged the Red Army to invade Poland itself, believing that the Polish proletariat would rise up to support the Russian troops and thus spark European revolution. Trotsky and other Bolsheviks were sceptical, but agreed to the invasion. The Polish proletariat did not rise, and the Red Army was defeated at the Battle of Warsaw. The Polish armies pushed the Red Army back into Russia, forcing Sovnarkom to sue for peace; the war culminated in the Peace of Riga, in which Russia ceded territory to Poland.

 

Death and funeral: 1923–1924

Lenin's funeral, as painted by Isaac Brodsky, 1925

In March 1923, Lenin had a third stroke and lost his ability to speak; that month, he experienced partial paralysis on his right side and began exhibiting sensory aphasia. By May, he appeared to be making a slow recovery, regaining some of his mobility, speech, and writing skills. In October, he made a final visit to the Kremlin. In his final weeks, Lenin was visited by Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Bukharin; the latter visited him at his Gorki mansion on the day of his death. On 21 January 1924, Lenin fell into a coma and died later that day at age 53. His official cause of death was recorded as an incurable disease of the blood vessels. "Good dog", are said to have been Lenin's last words, upon his dog having brought him a dead bird.

 

The Soviet government publicly announced Lenin's death the following day. On 23 January, mourners from the Communist Party, trade unions, and Soviets visited his Gorki home to inspect the body, which was carried aloft in a red coffin by leading Bolsheviks. Transported by train to Moscow, the coffin was taken to the House of Trade Unions, where the body lay in state. Over the next three days, around a million mourners came to see the body, many queuing for hours in the freezing conditions. On 26 January, the eleventh All-Union Congress of Soviets met to pay respects, with speeches by Kalinin, Zinoviev, and Stalin. Notably, Trotsky was absent; he had been convalescing in the Caucasus, and he later claimed that Stalin sent him a telegram with the incorrect date of the planned funeral, making it impossible for him to arrive in time. Lenin's funeral took place the following day, when his body was carried to Red Square, accompanied by martial music, where assembled crowds listened to a series of speeches before the corpse was placed into the vault of a specially erected mausoleum. Despite the freezing temperatures, tens of thousands attended.

 

Against Krupskaya's protestations, Lenin's body was embalmed to preserve it for long-term public display in the Red Square mausoleum. During this process, Lenin's brain was removed; in 1925 an institute was established to dissect it, revealing that Lenin had had severe sclerosis. In July 1929, the Politburo agreed to replace the temporary mausoleum with a permanent one in granite, which was finished in 1933. His sarcophagus was replaced in 1940 and again in 1970. For safety amid the Second World War, from 1941 to 1945 the body was temporarily moved to Tyumen. As of 2023, his body remains on public display in Lenin's Mausoleum on Red Square.

For the Techlug Architecture contest devoted to official residences, I choose to build a modern presidential palace : the palace of the Dawn (Palácio da Alvorada or Palais de l'Aube in french) located in Brasilia in Brasil designed by the famous brasilian architect Oscar Niemeyer who past away nearly one year ago.

 

For more details, see its description on the Eurobricks Forum :

www.eurobricks.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=88745

 

Support it on Cuusoo

lego.cuusoo.com/ideas/view/53461

Paul de Vivie - Velocio ! 1853-1930

 

VELOCIO, GRAND SEIGNEUR

by Clifford L. Graves, M.D.

May 1965

 

When a throng of cyclists from all corners of France converged on Saint-Etienne one day last July as they had done for more than forty years, they were paying homage to a man who accomplished great things in a small corner of the world. He was a man who devoted a lifetime to the perfection of the bicycle and the art of riding it, a man who inspired countless others through the strength of his character and the beauty of his writings, a man who even in his old age was capable of prodigious riding feats; in short, a man who might well be called the patron saint of cyclists. That man was Paul de Vivie, better know as Velocio.

 

Paul de Vivie was born in 1853 in the small village of Perne in Southern France. His early years were unremarkable except that he distinguished himself by his love for the classics. If it is the mark of the educated man that he enjoys the exercise of his mind, Paul was exceedingly well educated. He graduated from the lycée, served an apprenticeship in the silk industry, and started his own business before he was thirty. With a beautiful wife and three handsome children, he seemed headed for a life of ease and elegance.

 

The change came gradually. In 1881, when he was twenty-eight, he bought his first bicycle. It was an "ordinary" or high wheel, the safety bicycle still being in the future. The ordinary was a monster. With a precarious balance and an immoderate weight, it was a vehicle only for the strong and intrepid. That was exactly Paul's cup of tea. He began exploring the neighborhood on his newfangled contraption and he taught himself all the tricks of his wobbly perch. One day, on a bet, he rode sixty-six miles in six hours. This trip took him to the mountain resort of Chaise-Dieu. Suddenly he discovered a new world. The vigorous exercise, the fresh air, the beautiful countryside, these things took possession of him. He did not realize it but his life was beginning to take shape.

 

The decade of the 1880s was a momentous one, both for Paul and for the bicycle. For Paul, it was the start of an arduous and lifelong pursuit. For the bicycle, it was the end of a long and painful gestation.

 

This gestation had started in 1816 when the Baron von Drais in Germany discovered that he could balance two wheels in tandem as long as he kept moving. He moved by kicking the ground with his feet, and his vehicle came to be known as the draisine, or hobbyhorse.

 

In 1829 Kirkpatrick Macmillan in Scotland eliminated the necessity for kicking by fitting cranks and treadles to the wheels.

 

In 1863 or 1864 Pierre Michaux in Paris, with the help of his mechanic, Pierre Lallement, improved on the treadles by fitting pedals. This vehicle was a boneshaker, or velocipede.

 

Neither the hobbyhorse nor the boneshaker was a hit because of the bruising weight and the merciless bouncing.

 

In 1870 came the high wheel, and this did make a hit. Although the height of the wheel was a distinct and ceaseless hazard, this very height made it possible to travel farther with each revolution of the pedals. The high wheel caught the public fancy when four riders in 1872 rode the 860 miles in Great Britain from Lands End to John o'Groats in fifteen days. Clubs were formed, inns were opened, and touring started in earnest. The high wheel lasted until 1885 when it was replaced by the safety bicycle, which caused a further surge of excitement. Thus, when Paul de Vivie appeared on the scene in 1881, the bicycle was indeed on the threshold of its golden age.

 

Paul rode his ordinary only a year. Then he bought a Bayliss tricycle, followed by a tandem tricycle and various other early models. These were the days when the bicycle industry was well established in Coventry, while France was lagging. Fired by enthusiasm, Paul started shuttling back and forth. He was searching for a better bicycle, a search that was taking more and more of his time. Clearly, he could not push this search and also run his silk business. He made his decision in 1887 at the age of thirty-four.

 

In that year, he sold his silk business, moved to Saint-Etienne, opened a small shop, and started a magazine, Le Cycliste. Considering that he was invading a completely new field in which he had never had any training, it was a leap in the dark. In this leap, he discovered himself, and one of the things he discovered was that he could write. Words welled up within him as naturally as water tumbles down a cataract--and as gracefully. In his writing he always signed himself Velocio, and that became his name henceforth. It fitted him to perfection.

 

For the first two years, Velocio was content to import bicycles from Coventry. But all the time he was experimenting. For us, who have grown up with the bicycle, the design problems that assailed Velocio seem elementary. To him, they were formidable. The safety bicycle of 1885 left many questions unanswered. The shape of the frame, the kind of transmission, the length of the cranks, the position of the handlebars, the type of tires, and above all the gearing, these were matters that caused endless discussion and experimentation, not only in the shop but on the road.

 

Velocio's first model in 1889 was La Gauloise. It had the familiar diamond frame, a chain transmission, and a single gear of about fifty inches. It was the first bicycle produced in France, but it did not satisfy Velocio. The region around Saint-Etienne is mountainous. Velocio could see the need for variable gears. How to achieve these? In England, all the work was in the direction of epicyclic and planetary gears. Velocio struck out in a totally different direction. He conceived the idea of the derailleur.

 

His first attempt was two concentric chain wheels with a single chain that had to be lifted by hand from one to the other. Now he had two gears. Next, he built two concentric chain wheels on the left side of the bottom bracket. Now he had four gears. In 1901 he came on the four-speed protean gear of the English Whippet. Here, the changes were made by the expansion of a split chain wheel. Partial reverse rotation of the pedals caused cams to open the two halves of the chain wheel and secure them in any one of the four positions by pawls. Velocio took this idea and worked it into his Chemineau, the derailleur as we now know it. This was in 1906. By 1908 four French manufacturers were introducing their own models because Velocio had been too busy to take out a patent.

 

Incredible as it seems today, Velocio actually had to fight for the adoption of his derailleur gear. The cyclists of the period resented this marvelous invention as a stigma of weakness. They stoutly maintained that only a fixed gear could lead to smooth pedaling. Even Henri Desgrange, the originator of the Tour de France, attacked Velocio. To defend himself, Velocio wrote dozens of articles, answered hundreds of letters, cycled thousands of miles (average, 12,000 a year). At his suggestion the Touring Club de France organized a test in 1902. Competitors were to ride a mountainous course of 150 miles with a total climb of 12,000 feet. The champion of the day, Edouard Fischer, on a single-speed was pitched against Marthe Hesse on a Gauloise with a three-speed derailleur. The Gauloise won hands down. The newspapers were ecstatic because "the winner never set foot to the ground over the entire course." Still, Desgrange would not concede. Wrote he in his influential magazine, L'Equipe:

 

"I applaud this test, but I still feel that variable gears are only for people over forty-five. Isn't it better to triumph by the strength of your muscles than by the artifice of a derailleur? We are getting soft. Come on, fellows. Let's say that the test was a fine demonstration--for our grandparents! As for me, give me a fixed gear!"

 

Said Velocio with admirable restraint: "No comment."

 

The battle of the derailleur dragged on for a full thirty years. It was not until the 1920s that it was finally won. Velocio himself advocated wide-ratio gears for touring: from 35 to 85. His normal riding gear was 72.

 

In this battle for the derailleur gear, Velocio had a powerful weapon in his magazine, Le Cycliste. By 1900 this publication had grown from a fragile and unpretentious sheet of local circulation to an eloquent and influential journal that was widely read because of its incisive articles and vivid writing. Much of this writing was by Velocio himself, who never tired of describing his fantastic tours in the most colorful language. To read Le Cycliste is to read the history of cycle touring.

 

But Le Cycliste is more than a repository of history. With a passage of the years, Velocio became a philosopher. Having given up the quest for money and fame in the dim days of 1887, he could look at the world with complete equanimity. He read the classics in the original, and he applied their teachings to his own life. Between his articles on cycling, he counseled his readers on diet, on exercise, on hygiene, on physical fitness, on self-discipline, in fact on all the facets of what is commonly called a well-rounded life. His theme was a sound mind in a sound body. In wine-drinking France he spoke out unequivocally for sobriety; and he warned against the hazards of smoking sixty year before a presidential commission in the United States did so. These statements he made only after he had proved the benefits on himself because he was not a man to mouth platitudes. Thus, Le Cycliste became much more than a magazine for cyclists. It became a manifesto of brisk living, the credo of a dedicated man, a profession of faith.

 

Brisk and dedicated are also the words to describe Velocio as a cyclist. By nature, temperament, and physique he was what he called a "veloceman." Something of his enthusiasm can be gleaned from his ride to Chaise-Dieu in 1881, sixty-six miles in six hours on a clumsy high wheel. His serious cycling started in 1886 on a Eureka with solid rubber tires (pneumatics came in 1889). On this bicycle he rode 90 miles from Saint-Etienne to Vichy before noon. In 1889 he made his first 150-miler, a round trip from Saint-Etienne to Charlieu on a British Star weighing fifty-five pounds.

 

But these were only the probings of the beginner. Partly from his tremendous drive and partly from his compelling desire to show what the bicycle was capable of, he began to extend his tours. Sometimes alone, sometimes with a small group of friends, he would ride through the night, through the second day, through the second night, and into the third day without more that an occasional rest to eat or change clothes. Consider these feats:

 

In 1900, when he was forty-seven, he toured the high passes in Switzerland and Italy, 400 miles with a total climb of 18,000 feet, in forty-eight hours.

 

For Easter in 1903, at the age of fifty, he rode from Saint-Etienne to Menton and back in four days: 600 miles on a bicycle weighing sixty-six pounds including baggage.

 

For Christmas 1904 he cycled from Saint-Etienne to Arles and back on a night so cold that icicles formed on his moustache.

 

His "spring cure" in 1910 took him from Saint-Etienne to Nice, a distance of 350 miles, in thirty-two hours. At Nice he joined a group of friends for 250 miles of leisurely touring in three days.

 

The following summer he tackled one of the highest Alpine passes, the Lautaret, in the company of a young friend: 300 miles in thirty-one hours.

 

In 1912 also, when he was fifty-nine, he undertook an experimental ride from Saint-Etienne to Aix-en-Provence. 400 miles in forty-six hours, at the end of which he had to admit that his companion, thirty-five, tolerated the second night on the road better than he. "From now on," he wrote in Le Cycliste, "I will limit myself to stages of forty hours and leave it to the younger generation to prove that the human motor can run for three days and two nights without excessive fatigue."

 

"Every cyclist between twenty and sixty in good health," wrote Velocio with the fervor of a missionary "can ride 130 miles in a day with 600 feet of climbing, provided he eats properly and provided he has the proper bicycle." Proper food, in his opinion, meant no meat. A proper bicycle meant a comfortable bicycle with wide-ratio gears, a fairly long wheelbase, and wide-section tires. A bicycle with close-ratio gears, a short wheelbase, and narrow-section tires will roll better at first, he pointed out, but it will wear its rider down on long-distance attempts. The first consideration is comfort. His diet on tour consisted of fruit, rice, cakes, eggs, and milk.

 

Obviously, Velocio was a very special kind of cycle tourist. Not for him the Sunday ride with stops every half hour. "Cycling in this fashion is undoubtedly enjoyable," he wrote, "but it ruins your rhythm and squanders your energy. To get in your stride, you have to use a certain amount of discipline. My aim is to show that long rides of hundreds of miles with only an occasional stop are no strain on the healthy organism. To prove this point is not only a pleasure, it is a duty for me."

 

Velocio was sometimes criticized for his long-distance riding. It was said that he was hypnotized by speed and mileage and that he could not see anything of the country at that rate. He answered:

 

"These people do not realize that vigorous riding impels the senses. Perception is sharpened, impressions are heightened, blood circulates faster, and the brain functions better. I can still vividly remember the smallest details of tours of many years ago. Hypnotized? It is the traveler in a train of car who is hypnotized."

 

If anyone doubts that Velocio could see anything, let him read short passage from a story of an Alpine crossing:

 

"A shaft of gold pierced the sky and came to rest on a snowy peak, which, moments before, had been caressed by soft moonlight. For an instant, showers of sparks bounced off the pinnacle and tumbled down the mountain in a heavenly cataract. The king of the universe, the magnificent dispenser of light and warmth and life, gave notice of his imminent arrival. But only for an instant. Like a spent meteor, the spectacle dissolved in the sea of darkness that engulfed me in the depths of the gorge. The scintillating reflections, the exploding fireballs--they were gone. Once again, the snow assumed its cold and ghostly face."

 

Could this passage have come from the pen of a cyclist obsessed by the mechanics of cycling? No--Velocio loved his bicycle because it brought him priceless freedom, because it gave him exhilarating exercise, because it opened his mind to the music of the wind, because it imparted a delicious feeling of being alive.

 

"After a long day on my bicycle," he said, "I feel refreshed, cleansed, purified. I feel that I have established contact with my environment and that I am at peace. On days like that I am permeated with a profound gratitude for my bicycle." It was Velocio who coined the term "little queen" for the bicycle, a term that is still in common use in France.

 

And again: "Even if I did not enjoy riding, I would still do it for my peace of mind. What a wonderful tonic to be exposed to bright sunshine, drenching rain, choking dust, dripping fog, frigid air, punishing winds! I will never forget the day I climbed Puy Mary [a 5,000-foot eminence near his home]. There were two of us on a fine day in May. We started in the sunshine and stripped to the waist. Halfway, clouds enveloped us and the temperature tumbled. Gradually it got colder and wetter, but we did not notice it. In fact, it heightened our pleasure. We did not bother to put on our jackets or our capes, and we arrived at the little hotel at the top with rivulets of rain and sweat running down our sides. I tingled from top to bottom." Passages almost exactly like this can be found in the books of John Muir.

 

It was from experiences like these that Velocio formulated the seven commandments for the cyclist:

1. Keep your rests short and infrequent to maintain your rhythm.

2. Eat before you are hungry and drink before you are thirsty.

3. Never ride to the point of exhaustion where you can't eat or sleep.

4. Cover up before you are cold, peel off before you are hot.

5. Don't drink, smoke, or eat meat on tour.

6. Never force the pace, especially during the first hours.

7. Never ride just for the sake of riding.

 

Velocio was not a promoter. His efforts to create a national bicycle touring society like the Cycle Touring Club in England floundered, and he never had an organized bicycle club even in his hometown. What he did have was a constantly growing body of friends and admirers who gathered around the master in his shop, at the rallies, and on his tours. Those who lived nearby formed a loose-knit group known as L'Ecole Stéphanoise, or School of Saint-Etienne. A quorum was always on hand for Velocio's favorite ride to the top of the Col du Grand Bois. It was this ride that eventually grew into Velocio Day.

 

The Col du Grand Bois is a 3,800-foot passage across the Massif du Pilat. The road starts on the outskirts of Saint-Etienne and rises without letup over a distance of eight miles. Velocio used to make this ride as a constitutional before breakfast. In 1922 his friends surprised him by inviting all cyclists in the area to join in the ride in a gesture of reverence. Today, Velocio Day is a unique spectacle, the only one of its kind in the world.

 

This gradual emergence of Velocio as a dominant figure, not only among cyclists but among the people of his age, is one of the most interesting things about the man because he never made a conscious attempt to attract public notice. All he wanted was his bicycle and his friends. He never moved his shop, he never had much money, and he never rested on his laurels. Twice a year, he would have a little notice in Le Cycliste, inviting all and sundry to a rally. These rallies became famous. At first strictly local affairs, they eventually became national institutions and some of them are still observed, such as the Easter gathering in Provence. Velocio himself was not aware of his stature until he was invited to appear in Paris in the Criterium des Vieilles Gloires when he was seventy-six. Then it was obvious that he completely over-shadowed all the others. Thousands gathered around him, just to shake his hand and wish him well.

 

On February 27, 1930, Velocio started his day with a reading from one of the classics, as was his custom. It was a letter from Seneca to Lucilius. "Death follows me and life escapes me. When I go to sleep, I think that I may never awake. When I wake up, I think that I may never go to sleep. When I go out, I think that I may never come back. When I come back, I think that I may never go out again. Always, the interval between life and death is short."

 

Velocio went out. Traffic was heavy, and he decided to walk and lead his bicycle. He crossed the street ahead of the streetcar coming from his left, saw another car coming from his right, stepped back, and was hit by the first. It was a mortal blow. He died clutching his beloved bicycle.

 

Today, thirty-five years later, Velocio lives on, while others, equally dedicated and equally inventive, are forgotten. Why is this?

 

It is because Velocio used his bicycle to demonstrate the great truths. Velocio's influence grew, not because of his exploits on the bicycle, but because he showed how these exploits will shape the character of a man. Velocio was a humanist. His philosophy came from the ancients who considered discipline the cardinal virtue. Discipline is of two kinds: physical and moral. Velocio used the physical discipline of the bicycle to lead him to moral discipline. Through the bicycle he was able to commune with the sun, the rain, the wind. For him, the bicycle was the expression of a personal philosophy. For him, the bicycle was the road to freedom, physical and spiritual. He gave up much, but he found more.

 

Velocio--the cyclists of the world salute you.

There were lots of toads and a few frogs mating in the Skating Pond at Bodnant Gardens. We also saw quite a few dismembered frog (or toad) legs in the edge of the pool but couldn't imagine what would have done that - any ideas?

Bempton Gannets are on fine form this year

youtu.be/rSSgM94sSxQ

Starring Richard Egan, Constance Dowling, Herbert Marshall, John Wengraf, Philip Van Zandt, and William Schallert. Directed by Herbert L. Strock.

When two scientists at a top-secret government installation devoted to space research are killed -- in their own test chamber, seemingly by an experiment gone awry -- Dr. David Sheppard (Richard Egan) is sent out from Washington to investigate. Sheppard mixes easily enough with the somewhat eccentric team of scientists, though he always seems in danger of being distracted by the presence of Joanne Merritt (Constance Dowling), who serves as the aide to the project director Dr. Van Ness (Herbert Marshall) but is, in reality, another security agent. Sheppard is as puzzled as anyone else by the seemingly inexplicable series of events overtaking the installation -- properly operating equipment suddenly undergoing lethal malfunctions, and the radar tracking aircraft that aren't there -- until he puts it together with the operations of NOVAC (Nuclear Operated Variable Automatic Computer), the central brain of the complex. But the mystery deepens when he discovers that NOVAC was shut down during one of the "accidents" -- and even the computer's operators can't account fully for the whereabouts of GOG and MAGOG, the two robots under the computer's control.

"...and then without warning, the machine became a frankenstein of steel," says the sensationalist poster text. This is the third story in Ivan Tors' OSI trilogy. His first "Office of Scientific Investigation" story was Magnetic Monster in early 1953. The second was Riders to the Stars in early '54. With Gog the loose trilogy is complete. Unlike the Star Wars trilogy in which the stories build upon each other, each of the three OSI stories are separate tales which have nothing to do with each other. The common thread is the idea of there being a sort of Science FBI agency whose job it is, is to check out the scientifically strange. In that regard, Tors' OSI is a bit like a foreshadowing of the X-Files TV series, but without any of the New Age paranormal focus.

 

In keeping with the previous two stories, Gog is more of a detective murder mystery movie. Tors was a huge fan of "hard" science, not fanciful fiction fluff, so Gog, like the other two movies, is chock full of reveling in sciencey stuff in an almost geeky way. This reverence for real science keeps things from getting out on shaky limb, as many sci-fi films to. The events are much more plausible, less fantastic.

 

Synopsis

At a secret underground research facility, far out in the desert, scientists working on preparations for a manned space mission, are getting murdered mysteriously. Two agents from the OSI are dispatched to solve the mystery and keep the super secret space station program on track. The scientists are killed in various ways, mostly through equipment malfunctions. The facility director and the agents suspect sabotage. Small transmitter/receiver boxes are found within equipment in different parts of the facility. They suggest that someone on the outside is transmitting in the "malfunctions" in order to kill off the program's scientists. Occasional alarms indicate some flying high intruder, but nothing is clearly found. One of the base's two robots, named Gog, kills another technician while it's mate, Magog, tries to set up an overload within the base's atomic pile. The OSI agents stop Magog with a flame thrower. Meanwhile, interceptor jets scramble and find the highflying spy jet and destroy it with missiles. Once the trouble is past, the Director announces that they will be launching their prototype space station the next day, despite the sabotage attempts to stop it. The End.

  

The time spent reveling in techno-geekery has a certain Popular Science charm to it. There's an evident gee-whiz air about space and defense sciences which is fun to see. People were fascinated with things rockety and atomic. For various fun bits, see the Notes section.

  

Gog oozes Cold War from every frame. First is the base's underground location to make them safe from A-bombs. Next is the mysterious killer trying to stop the space station program. The high-flying mystery plane is "not one of ours." (that leaves: Them, and we all knew who they were.) The space station is to be powered by a solar mirror. Even that benign mirror has sinister possibilities. While demonstrating the mirror, the scientists use it to burn a model of a city. "This could happen...if we're not the first to reach space," says the Director. Space is the next "high ground" to be contested. At the end of the movie, when discussing the launch (despite the sabotage attempt) of the prototype space station, the Director says, "Through it's eye, we'll be able to see everything that goes on upon this tired old earth." The Defense Secretary says, "Nothing will take us by surprise again." An obvious reference to Pearl Harbor.

 

B-films often re-used props and sets from prior films in order to save on their budgets. Gog, even though shot in Eastman Color, was no exception. Two old prop friends show up in Gog. One is our venerable old friend, the space suits from Destination Moon ('50). Look for the centrifuge scene. The research assistants are dressed in them, and as an added bonus, they wear the all-acrylic fish bowl helmets used in Abbot and Costello Go to Mars ('53). Our second old friend is scene in the radar / security room, (the one with the annoying tuning fork device). Check out the monitor wall. It's been gussied up a bit, but it is the spaceship control panel wall from Catwomen of the Moon and Project Moon Base -- complete with the empty 16mm film reels on the right side. It's fun to see old friends.

 

B-films often include stock footage of military units, tanks, jets, battleships, etc. to fill things out. Gog is no different, and even commits the common continuity error of showing one type of plane taking off, but a different kind in the air.

 

What amounts to a small treat amid the usual stock footage of jets, some shots of a rather obscure bit of USAF hardware -- the F-94C Starfire with its straight wings and huge wing tanks. In 1954, the Starfire was one of America's coolest combat jets, yet we hear little about it. The swept-wing F-86 Sabers (which we see taxiing and taking off) were the agile fighter which gained fame over Korea. They're common stock footage stars. The F-94, with its onboard radar (in the nose cone) was deemed too advanced to risk falling into enemy hands. So, it didn't see much action , and therefore little fame. The heavier, yet powerful F-94C (one of the first US jets to have an afterburner) was 1954 America's hottest Interceptor -- designed to stop high flying Soviet bombers. It's blatant cameo appearance in Gog, intercepting the high-flying mystery plane, was a fun little bit of patriotic showing off.

 

The very name of the movie, Gog, is charged with meaning to American audiences of the mid 50s, though virtually lost on viewers of the 21st century. The names of the two robots, Gog and Magog, come from the Bible. More specifically, from the prophecies of Ezekiel (Chapter 38) and the Book of Revelation (chapter 20). While just who they are (nations? kings?) has been debated for centuries, their role as tools of Satan in the battle of Armageddon is clear. Mainstream American patriotic Christendom had settled on the idea that the Soviet Union was the prophesied "nations from the north" who would join Satan to oppose God. This gives the title of the movie a special Cold War significance. It also puts an interesting spin on the Dr. Zeitman character for having named the two robots in the first place. Since they were tools of the mega-computer NOVAC, what was he saying about NOVAC?

 

It is interesting that the base's radar could not detect the mystery plane (which was beaming in the 'kill' instructions to NOVAC) because it was made of "fiberglass" which rendered it invisible to radar. Now, fiberglass itself isn't sturdy enough for high-speed jets, and it would take until the 1990s before composite materials advanced to make the dream of a stealth aircraft a reality. Nonetheless, the dream (or nightmare) of stealth aircraft was on-screen in 1954 in Gog.

 

The super computer, NOVAC, controlled everything on the base. Even though the machines were not really killing scientists on their own, but following human orders from the mystery plane, there was the on-screen depiction of machines having a murderous mind of their own. (all pre-Steven King) In the techno starry-eyed 50s, it was fairly uncommon for the technology itself to be turning on its masters. This idea would gain traction later in the 50s, and especially in the 60s, but in '54, it was unusual.

 

A cautionary subtext to Gog is the danger of trusting in a supercomputer to manage defenses and a whole base. NOVAC doesn't go bad on its own, as the computer will in The Invisible Boy, Hal in 2001 or Colossus in The Forbin Project. In this movie, it was the nefarious "others" who hacked into NOVAC to make it do the killing, but this just demonstrates the danger. People were getting a little nervous about letting machines take over too much responsibility. We were starting to distrust our creations.

 

Until Gog, robots were fairly humanoid.

 

They had two legs, two arms, a torso and a head. Audiences had seen the mechanical Maria in Metropolis ('27), the fedora-wearing metal men in Gene Autrey's Phantom Empire serial ('35). The water-heater-like Republic robot appeared in several rocketman serials. There was the gleaming giant Gort in The Day the Earth Stood Still ('51) and the cute left over fedora-dudes in Captain Video ('51). The metal giant in Devil Girl from Mars ('54) was also humaniod, in a chunky way. Gog and Magog were a departure from the stereotype. They were noticeably in-human, which was part of the mood.

 

Bottom line? Gog seems a bit bland, as far as sci-fi tends to go, but it has a lot in it for fans of 50s sci-fi.

 

AutoMuseum Volkswagen is an automobile museum in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Opened in April 1985, it is one of two museums in Wolfsburg devoted to the history of the Volkswagen brand; the other is at nearby Autostadt.

 

The museum houses around 130 cars on permanent display ranging from the earliest VW Beetles to concept design studies of VW models. The museum is housed in a former clothing factory, very close to the Volkswagen Werke, where new Volkswagens are made. Since January 1992, it has been owned and operated by a charitable foundation, Stiftung AutoMuseum Volkswagen.

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The Cadillac Eldorado is a personal luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1953 to 2002 over ten generations. Competitors and similar vehicles included the Lincoln Mark series, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado and Chrysler's Imperial Coupe.

 

The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line during early model years. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years, and the Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 until 1966. Eldorados carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972.

 

NAME

The nameplate Eldorado is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical South American "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.

 

Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating the company's golden anniversary, the name Eldorado was proposed by Mary-Ann Marini (née Zukosky), a secretary in Cadillac's merchandising department — and was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.

 

Palm Springs Life magazine incorrectly attributes the name to the Eldorado Country Club in Indian Wells, California, a favorite resort of General Motors executives in the Coachella Valley — though the resort opened in 1957, five years after Cadillac's own naming competition.

 

Cadillac began using the nameplates 'Eldorado Seville' and 'Eldorado Biarritz' to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The 'Seville' name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1977.

 

FIRST GENERATION (1953)

The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets (aka dagmars) from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.

 

The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheetmetal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors (Aztec red, Alpine white, azure blue and artisan ochre — the last is a yellow hue, although it was shown erroneously as black in the color folder issued on this rare model). Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option, as were wire wheels. The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top in the open car version.

 

Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible, sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750. The 5,610 mm long, 2,030 mm wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. The Eldorado comprised only 5% of Cadillac's sales in 1953.

 

SECOND GENERATION (1954–1956)

In 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price and see a substantial increase in sales. The Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fenderbreaks and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear bodysides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum and also appeared on a unique one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. Two thousand one hundred and fifty Eldorados were sold, nearly four times as many as in 1953.

 

For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender, pointed tailfins. These contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time and were an example of the Eldorado once again pointing the way forward. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.

 

For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version appeared, called the Eldorado Seville at which point the convertible was named the "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Eldorados accounted for nearly 4% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

THIRD GENERATION (1957-1960)

1957 saw the Eldorado (in both convertible and Seville hardtop bodystyles) with a revised rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by a pointed, in-board fin. The rear fenders were commonly referred to as "chipmunk cheeks". This concept was used for two years, but did not spawn any imitators. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The rear fender and deck contour was trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels. Also seen were "shark" style fins pointing towards the back of the cars. A three section built in front bumper was another exclusive trait of the Series 62 Eldorados, which came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sedan Sevilles were also built in 1957.

 

1957 was chiefly notable for the introduction of one of GM's most memorable designs, the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham. Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the Eldorado Brougham was a hand-built, limited car derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953-54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, it featured the first appearance of quad headlights and totally unique trim. The exterior ornamentation included wide, ribbed lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. This four-door hardtop with rear-hinged rear doors was an ultra-luxury car that cost an astonishing $13,074 — twice the price of any other 1957 Eldorado and more than the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud of the same year. It featured a stainless steel roof, self leveling air suspension, the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener, cruise control, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, automatic-release parking brake, electric door locks, dual heating system, silver magnetized glovebox, drink tumblers, cigarette and tissue dispensers, lipstick and cologne, ladies' compact with powder puff, mirror and matching leather notebook, comb and mirror, Arpège atomizer with Lanvin perfume, automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.

 

There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.

 

The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name. The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. Only 400 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1957.

 

An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco Radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.

 

For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.

 

On 1958 2-door Eldorados, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script were mounted to the deck lid. Two-door Eldorados also had ten vertical chevron slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. Broad, sculptured beauty panels decorated the lower rear quarters on all Series 62 Eldorados and extended around the wheel opening to stretch along the body sills. All-new was a special-order Series 62 Eldorado Seville, of which only one was actually built.

 

The major changes to the Eldorado Brougham in 1958 were seen inside the car. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors. A total of 304 Eldorado Broughams were sold in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy.

 

The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels. In 1959 the Series 62 became the Series 6200. De Villes and 2-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the Series 6300 and Series 6400 respectively, though they all, including the 4-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to Series 6900), shared the same 3,302 mm wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert, but other trim and equipment features varied. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even 345 hp (257 kW) from the 6.4 L engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with Air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, acruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.

 

The 1960 Cadillacs had smoother, more restrained styling. General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins with oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Cambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.

 

A different Eldorado Brougham was sold for 1959 and 1960. These cars were not quite so extravagantly styled but were very unusual pieces in themselves. Priced at $13,075, they cost $1 more, each, than their older siblings. The company contracted out the assembly to Pininfarina of Italy, with whom the division has had a long-running relationship, and these Eldorados were essentially hand-built in Italy. Ironically only now did it acquire Fleetwood wheel discs and doorsill moldings, presumably because the design work and final touches were still being done by Fleetwood. Discreet, narrow taillights integrated into modest tailfins, and a squared-off rear roof line with rear ventiplanes caused the Italian-built Brougham to contrast sharply to the rounded roof lines, and especially the new "rocketship" taillights and flamboyant fins of the standard 1959 Cadillacs, which are a feature only of that year. A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. It did not sport Eldorado front fender letters or body sill headlights. A fin-like crest, or "skeg," ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodysides and there were special crest medallions on the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The Brougham's styling cues would prove to indicate where standard Cadillac styling would head from 1960 through the early-mid-1960s. The standard equipment list was pared down to match those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass. The Brougham build-quality was not nearly to the standard of the Detroit hand-built 1957–1958 models, and thus the 1959–1960 Broughams did not sell as well as their forebears. However, collector interest and values for these cars remain high. The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 for its remaining two years.

 

The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series Northern Exposure.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (1961–1964)

Cadillac was restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plan, and sat between dual headlamps. New forward slanting front pillars with non-wraparound windshield glass were seen. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back up lights, windshield washer, dual speed wipers, wheel discs, plain fender skirts, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, 6-way power bench seat or bucket seats, power vent windows, whitewall tires, and remote control trunk lock. Rubberized front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone sales fell to 1,450.

 

A mild face lift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertical nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the radiator grille. Standard equipment included all of last year’s equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.

 

In 1963 Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies and immediately acquired Fleetwood crests on its rear quarters[26] and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. Exterior changes imparted a bolder and longer look. Hoods and deck lids were redesigned. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was entirely eliminated. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the flush-fender dual headlamps. Smaller circular front parking lamps were mounted in those extensions. The Eldorado also had a rectangular grid pattern rear decorative grille. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, 6.4 l and 325 hp (242 kW).

It was time for another facelift in 1964 and really a minor one. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes. The main horizontal grille bar was now carried around the body sides. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to 7 l, with 340 hp (253.5 kW) available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at 30 to 80 km/h traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special.

 

FITH GENERATION (1965–1966)

The Eldorado became a Fleetwood sub-series in 1965, although there was strictly speaking no separate Fleetwood series at this time. It was consequently marketed as the Cadillac Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Cadillac Fleetwood Series 75 and the Cadillac Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long absent Seville and Brougham. This was the last generation to be installed with rear wheel drive.

 

In 1966 changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac crests and V-shaped moldings, front and rear, were identifiers. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.

 

SIXTH GENERATION (1967–1970)

The Eldorado was radically redesigned in 1967 to capitalize on the burgeoning era's personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year. To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adopted the Toronado's front-wheel drive Unified Powerplant Package, adapted to a standard Cadillac 429 V8 coupled to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Based on the Turbo-Hydramatic 400, the THM425 placed the torque converter next to the planetary gearbox, which it drove through a metal, motorcycle-style roller chain. Disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel. The Unified Powerplant Package was later shared with the GMC Motorhome starting in 1972.

 

The new Eldorado was a great departure from the previous generation, which had become little more than a dressed-up version of Cadillac's De Ville. Its crisp styling, initiated by GM styling chief Bill Mitchell, was distinctive and unique, more angular than the streamlined Riviera and Toronado. This was the only production Cadillac to be equipped with concealed headlights behind vacuum operated doors.

 

Performance was 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in less than nine seconds and a top speed of 120 mph (192 km/h). Roadability and handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.

 

In 1968, the Eldorado received Cadillac's new 375 hp (280 kW) (SAE gross) 7.7 L V8, and disc brakes became standard. Only slight exterior changes were made to comply with new federal safety legislation. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorados accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

In 1969 hidden headlamps were eliminated, and a halo vinyl roof was available as an option, joined later in the model year by a power sunroof.

 

In 1970 the Eldorado introduced the new 8.2 L V8 engine, the largest-ever production V8, rated SAE gross 400 hp (298 kW) and 550 lb·ft (746 N·m), which would remain exclusive until it became standard on all full size Cadillacs in the 1975 model year.

 

SEVENTH GENERATION (1971–1978)

The Eldorado underwent a substantial redesign in 1971, growing two inches in length but six in wheelbase. The result was a rounder, much heavier looking automobile, made even more rotund by the return of standard fender skirts. While Eldorado door glass remained frameless, the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A convertible model rejoined the line-up. This 126.3-inch (3,210 mm) wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving facelifts in 1973 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.

 

In 1972 sales rose to 40,074.

 

Performance was not competitive with contemporary premium personal luxury cars. However, none but the Lincoln were 6 passenger vehicles.

 

In 1973 the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The '73 models received a facelift featuring new front and rear bumpers, egg-crate grille, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps.

 

The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the pace car for the Indy 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Total sales soared to 51,451, over a sixth of all Cadillac sales.

 

1974 models featured a redesigned rear bumper, to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Styling changes include horizontal taillamps, and a fine mesh grille. Inside, there was a new, redesigned instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.

 

For 1975, the Eldorado was given rectangular headlamps, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and crisper lines which resulted in a much sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967-70 models.

 

In 1976 GM heavily promoted the Eldorado convertibles as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. These cars were white with a dual-color red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside. When GM reintroduced Eldorado convertibles for the 1984 model year, owners of 1976 Eldorados felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit.

 

In 1977 the Eldorado received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few new 1977 and 1978s Eldorados into coach convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The 8.2L V8 of 1970-76 gave way to a new 7L V8 with 180 bhp (134 kW). For the first time in 1977 all GM E-body cars were front-wheel drive, as the Riviera underwent a two-year hiatus before joining them in 1979.

 

A new grille was the only major change in 1978. The Eldorado was totally redisigned for 1979.

 

ELDORADO BIARRITZ

Unlike the Cadillac Sixty Special and De Ville, Eldorado did not have a unique luxury package to provide it with a title change (such as the "d'Elegance" package). This was rectified in mid-year 1976 with the Biarritz package. A unique trim feature of Biarritz, a name that had not been used since the 1964 model year (although the Eldorado was Fleetwood bodied from the 1963 model year on, the Fleetwood designation was only applied to all Eldorados produced from the 1965 through 1972 model years) was a brushed stainless steel roof covering the front passenger compartment for model years 1979-1985. This was a styling cue reminiscent of the 1957/58 Eldorado Brougham. The rear half of the roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. The interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" velour or leather seating, with contrasting piping, along with an array of other options available.

 

The 1978 Biarritz option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom Biarritz ($1,865.00); w/Astroroof ($2,946.00); w/Sunroof ($2,746.00) and Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classic ($2,466.00); w/Astroroof ($3,547.00); w/Sunroof ($3,347.00).

 

For the 1978 Eldorado model year only, 2,000 Eldorado Custom Biarritz Classics were produced in Two-Tone Arizona Beige/Demitasse Brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no Sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with Sunroofs and one (1) was produced with a Power Sliding T-Top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Division.

 

The Biarritz option stayed with the Eldorado through the 1991 model year. Some of the original styling cues vanished after the 1985 model year, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing and the interior seating designs, but the Biarritz remained unique just the same.

 

EIGHTH GENERATION (1979–1985)

A new, trimmer Eldorado was introduced for 1979, for the first time sharing its chassis with both the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. Smaller, more fuel efficient 350 and 368 in³ (5.7 and 6.0 L) V8's replaced the 500 and 425 in³ (8.2 and 7.0 L) engines. A diesel 350 was available as an option.

 

In 1980, the gas 350 was replaced with the 368 except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was used. In both the 1980 Seville and Eldorado (which shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI (later known as throttle body injection when it was later used with other GM corporate engines), whereas in the larger RWD Cadillacs it came only with a 4-barrel Quadrajet carburetor. Independent rear suspension was adopted, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado Biarritz model resurrected the stainless-steel roof concept from the first Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and the rear quarter windows re-appeared as they did before 1971, without a thick "B" pillar. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed. Sales set a new record at 67,436.[citation needed]

 

For 1981, Cadillac offered the V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate some cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy ("CAFE") averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-year 1977–1979 425. The engine itself was extremely rugged and durable, but its complex electronics were the source of customer complaints.

 

Another engine was introduced for 1982. The 4.1 L HT-4100 was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Some HT-4100s were replaced under warranty.

 

From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered an 'Eldorado Touring Coupe', with heavier duty suspension, alloy wheels, blackwall tires, minimal exterior ornamentation and limited paint colors. These were marketed as 'driver's cars' and included bucket seats and a center console.

 

In 1984, Cadillac also introduced a convertible version of Eldorado Biarritz. It was 91 kg heavier featuring the same interior as other Biarritz versions. The model year of 1985 was the last year for the ASC, Inc., aftermarket conversion Eldorado convertible. Total sales set an all-time record of 77,806, accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.

 

Prior to the 'official' 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979-83 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. American Sunroof Corporation, Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio - this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles), Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coachbuilders also converted the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera into a ragtop.

 

Late in the 1985 model year, an optional 'Commemorative Edition' package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a "Commemorative Edition" badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in Dark Blue or White, or a two-tone with Dark Blue and White) was included in the package, along with a Dark Blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were Cotillion White or Commodore Blue.

 

NINTH GENERATION (1986–1991)

The Eldorado was downsized again in 1986. In a fairly extreme makeover it lost about 16" in length and some 350 pounds in weight. Just like in previous generations, the Eldorado shared its chassis with the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera, as well as Eldorado's four-door companion, the Cadillac Seville. However, the coupés from Buick and Oldsmobile both utilized Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while Cadillac continued to use their exclusive 4.1 liter V8. The convertible bodystyle was ceded to the Cadillac Allanté roadster.

 

The $24,251 Eldorado was now the same size that GM's own compact cars had been only a few years earlier, and considerably smaller than Lincoln's competing Mark VII, and no similar offering from Chrysler as the Imperial coupe was discontinued in 1983. Its styling seemed uninspired and stubby, and in a final unfortunate flourish, for the first time the Eldorado abandoned its "hardtop" heritage and featured framed door glass. News reports later indicated that GM had been led astray by a consultant's prediction that gasoline would be at $3 per gallon in the U.S. by 1986, and that smaller luxury cars would be in demand. In fact, gasoline prices were less than half that. With a sales drop of 60%, seldom has any model experienced a more precipitous fall. Production was only about a fifth of what it had been just two years earlier.

 

Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, Eldorado received very few changes for 1987. A price drop, to $23,740, did not raise sales any, as only 17,775 were made this year (21,342 for 1986). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) Touring Suspension, with deflected-disc strut valves and 15" alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of Eldorado's most expensive singluar options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850, it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a hidden microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a clever radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use at the same time, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone. On an interesting note, the square marker lamp, located on the bumper extension molding just behind the rear wheel well on 1986 and '87 Eldorado models, would suddenly re-appear on the 1990 & '91 Seville (base models only) and Eldorado Touring Coupé.

1988 was met with an extensive restyle, and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. While the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged, new body panels gave the 1988 model a more identifiable "Eldorado" appearance. Now available in just 17 exterior colors (previously 19), the new Eldorado was 3" longer than last year. Underneath the restyled hood was Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Longer front fenders held "bladed" tips, and a new grille above the revamped front bumper. In back, new three-sided tail lamps - reminiscent of the 1987 Deville - appeared along with a new bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14" aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15" snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the Touring Suspension option. The interior held wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles (replacing the former door pull straps). New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter bringing back the tufted-button design - last seen in the 1985 Eldorado Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full roof top, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows - similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the roof top, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and '87, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976 - 1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the roof top, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Pricing went up this year - to $24,891. This 1988 restyle would be the last, until the model was replaced by an all-new Eldorado for 1992.

 

TENTH GENERATION (1992–2002)

The 1992 Eldorado was all new, drawing both interior and exterior styling cues from the 1988 Cadillac Solitaire show car. It was significantly larger than its predecessor – approximately 11" longer, 3" wider, and substantially heavier. Window glass was once again frameless, and shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and 295 hp (220 kW) variants, replacing the 200 hp (150 kW) 4.9 L. Sales were up, though never again at record heights.

 

The Eldorado continued for the rest of the decade with incremental changes and tapering sales. A passenger side airbag was added as standard equipment in 1993. Styling was freshened in 1995, with updated bumpers front and rear, side cladding, and a new grille. In 1996, the interior received attention, with a new upholstery style, larger analog gauge cluster, relocated climate control system, updated stereo faces and standard daytime running lights. The ETC receives rain-sensing wipers called "Rainsense."

 

In 1997, the Integrated Chassis Control System was added. It involved microprocessor integration of engine, traction control, Stabilitrak electronic stability control, steering, and adaptive continuously variable road sensing suspension CVRSS, with the intent of improving responsiveness to driver input, performance, and overall safety. Similar to Toyota/Lexus Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management VDIM.

 

In the wake of declining sales, circulating reports that the Eldorado would get a redesign for 1999 — similar to that which the Seville underwent for 1998 — would prove false as the car soldiered on largely unchanged into the new millennium, although it did get some upgrades from the 1999 Seville.

 

The car was sold under Cadillac ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) and ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) trim.

 

In 2001 GM announced that the Eldorado's 50th model year (2002) would be its last. To mark the end of the nameplate, a limited production run of 1,596 cars in red or white - the colors available on the original 1953 convertible - were produced in three batches of 532, signifying the Eldorado's first year of production. These last cars featured specially tuned exhaust notes imitating their forerunners from a half-century earlier, and a dash-mounted plaque indicating each car's sequence in production.

 

Production ended on April 22, 2002, with the Lansing Craft Centre retooled to build the Chevrolet SSR.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Taken at Blessed Be Thy Name, Hopelessly Devoted (152, 105, 1003)

Elaborate monument with the effigy of Mary, wife of the 2nd Lord Coventry, who died 18th October 1634 aged 29 after the birth of her 5th child in six years

"That most illustrious Lady Maria, devoted wife of Thomas Coventry, eldest son of Thomas Baron Coventry of Allesborough, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England. A truly most admirable woman, upon whom God lavished beauty, and what is rarer in her sex, virtue, her loveliness surpassing any woman’s, her generosity surpassing any man’s, of unblemished reputation and purity of life, with a lively mind, strong judgment, an easy eloquence and pleasant speech, calmly in control of her feelings, and finally not just a wise but a calm mistress of all these gifts. A fertile mother of four children, she arrived at the last fatal confinement, bringing forth a son, against nature, rather to death than to life, so that even while trying to share out her life, she lost it, and herself yielded to fate a short time after her child, amid general lamentation".

 

Mary was the wealthy daughter of Sir William Craven and Elizabeth daughter of alderman Sir William Whitmore 1593 of & Bishops Lydeard , Balmes Manor Hackney & Apley Hall Shropshire a haberdasher of Lombard Street. . by Anne daughter of Alderman William Bond a wealthy merchant & Ann Aldy

She was the niece of Margaret Whitmore Grobham flic.kr/p/5Vhptz 2nd wife of Sir John St John flic.kr/p/5VmZdq at Lydiard Tregoze & Jane Still at Hutton Somerset flic.kr/p/oPbetd

 

She m (1627) at St. Andrew Undershaft, Thomas 2nd Baron Coventry d1661 www.flickr.com/gp/52219527@N00/fZ76bY son of Thomas 1st Baron Coventry , Lord Keeper, of the Privy Seal, by 1st wife Sarah daughter of John Sebright of Besford and Anne Bullingham

Children www.flickr.com/gp/52219527@N00/bki10i

1. George 3rd Baron Coventry 1628-1680 m Margaret daughter of John Tufton, 2nd Earl of Thanet and Margaret coheiress of Richard Sackville 3rd Earl of Dorset

2.Thomas Coventry, 1st Earl of Coventry 1629-1699 m1 Winifred 1694 daughter of Col. Piers Edgcumbe & Mary Glanville m2 Elizabeth 1724 daughter of Richard Grimes 0f St. Giles's Cripplegate

3. daughter b1631 died young

4. daughter b1633 died young

5. Son b/d 1634 after whose birth his mother died

. - Church of St Mary Magdalene , Croome D'Abitot, Worcestershire

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Coventry,_2nd_Baron_Coventry...

Steely Dan is an American rock duo founded in 1972 by core members Walter Becker (guitars, bass, backing vocals) and Donald Fagen (keyboards, lead vocals). Blending rock, jazz, latin music, reggae, traditional pop, R&B, blues,[2] and sophisticated studio production with cryptic and ironic lyrics, the band enjoyed critical and commercial success starting from the early 1970s until breaking up in 1981.[2] Throughout their career, the duo recorded with a revolving cast of session musicians, and in 1974 retired from live performances to become a studio-only band. Rolling Stone has called them "the perfect musical antiheroes for the Seventies".[4]

 

After the group disbanded in 1981, Becker and Fagen were less active throughout most of the next decade, though a cult following[2] remained devoted to the group. Since reuniting in 1993, Steely Dan has toured steadily and released two albums of new material, the first of which, Two Against Nature, earned a Grammy Award for Album of the Year. They have sold more than 40 million albums worldwide and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2001.[5][6][7][8] VH1 ranked Steely Dan at #82 on their list of the 100 greatest musical artists of all time.[9] Founding member Walter Becker died on September 3, 2017, leaving Fagen as the sole official member.

  

Contents

1History

1.1Formative and early years (1967–1972)

1.2Can't Buy a Thrill and Countdown to Ecstasy (1972–1973)

1.3Pretzel Logic and Katy Lied (1974–1976)

1.4The Royal Scam and Aja (1976–1978)

1.5Gaucho and breakup (1978–1981)

1.6Time off (1981–1993)

1.7Reunion, Alive in America (1993–2000)

1.8Two Against Nature and Everything Must Go (2000–2003)

1.8.1Firing of Roger Nichols

1.9Touring, solo activity (2003–2017)

1.10After Becker's death (2017–present)

2Musical and lyrical style

2.1Music

2.1.1Overall sound

2.1.2Backing vocals

2.1.3Horns

2.1.4Composition and chord use

2.2Lyrics

3Members

3.1Timeline

4Discography

5See also

6References

7External links

History

Formative and early years (1967–1972)

Becker and Fagen met in 1967 at Bard College, in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. As Fagen passed by a café, The Red Balloon, he heard Becker practicing the electric guitar.[10] In an interview, Fagen recounted the experience: "I hear this guy practicing, and it sounded very professional and contemporary. It sounded like, you know, like a black person, really."[10] He introduced himself to Becker and asked, "Do you want to be in a band?"[10] Discovering that they enjoyed similar music, the two began writing songs together.

 

Becker and Fagen began playing in local groups. One such group, known as the Don Fagen Jazz Trio, the Bad Rock Group and later the Leather Canary, included future comedy star Chevy Chase on drums. They played covers of songs by The Rolling Stones ("Dandelion"), Moby Grape ("Hey Grandma"), and Willie Dixon ("Spoonful"), as well as some original compositions.[10] Terence Boylan, another Bard musician, remembered that Fagen took readily to the beatnik life while attending college: "They never came out of their room, they stayed up all night. They looked like ghosts—black turtlenecks and skin so white that it looked like yogurt. Absolutely no activity, chain-smoking Lucky Strikes and dope."[10] Fagen himself would later remember it as "probably the only time in my life that I actually had friends."[11]

 

After Fagen graduated in 1969, the two moved to Brooklyn and tried to peddle their tunes in the Brill Building in midtown Manhattan. Kenny Vance (of Jay and the Americans), who had a production office in the building, took an interest in their music, which led to work on the soundtrack of the low-budget Richard Pryor film You've Got to Walk It Like You Talk It or You'll Lose That Beat. Becker later said bluntly, "We did it for the money."[12] A series of demos from 1968 to 1971 are available in multiple different releases, not authorized by Becker and Fagen.[13] This collection features approximately 25 tracks and is notable for its sparse arrangements (Fagen plays solo piano on many songs) and lo-fi production, a contrast with Steely Dan's later work. Although some of these songs ("Caves of Altamira", "Brooklyn", "Barrytown") were re-recorded for Steely Dan albums, most were never officially released.

 

Becker and Fagen joined the touring band of Jay and the Americans for about a year and a half.[14] They were at first paid $100 per show, but partway through their tenure the band's tour manager cut their salaries in half.[14] The group's lead singer, Jay Black, dubbed Becker and Fagen "the Manson and Starkweather of rock 'n' roll", referring to cult leader Charles Manson and spree killer Charles Starkweather.[14]

 

They had little success after moving to Brooklyn, although Barbra Streisand recorded their song "I Mean To Shine" on her 1971 Barbra Joan Streisand album. Their fortunes changed when one of Vance's associates, Gary Katz, moved to Los Angeles to become a staff producer for ABC Records. He hired Becker and Fagen as staff songwriters; they flew to California. Katz would produce all their 1970s albums in collaboration with engineer Roger Nichols. Nichols would win six Grammy Awards for his work with the band from the 1970s to 2001.[15]

 

After realizing that their songs were too complex for other ABC artists, at Katz's suggestion Becker and Fagen formed their own band with guitarists Denny Dias and Jeff "Skunk" Baxter, drummer Jim Hodder and singer David Palmer, and Katz signed them to ABC as recording artists. Fans of Beat Generation literature, Fagen and Becker named the band after a "revolutionary" steam-powered dildo mentioned in the William S. Burroughs novel Naked Lunch.[16][17][18] Palmer joined as a second lead vocalist because of Fagen's occasional stage fright, his reluctance to sing in front of an audience, and because the label believed that his voice was not "commercial" enough.

 

In 1972, ABC issued Steely Dan's first single, "Dallas", backed with "Sail the Waterway". Distribution of "stock" copies available to the general public was apparently extremely limited;[19] the single sold so poorly that promotional copies are much more readily available than stock copies in today's collectors market. As of 2015, "Dallas" and "Sail the Waterway" are the only officially released Steely Dan tracks that have not been reissued on cassette or compact disc. In an interview (1995), Becker and Fagen called the songs "stinko."[20] "Dallas" was later covered by Poco on their Head Over Heels album.

 

Can't Buy a Thrill and Countdown to Ecstasy (1972–1973)

Can't Buy a Thrill, Steely Dan's debut album, was released in 1972. Its hit singles "Do It Again" and "Reelin' In the Years" reached No. 6 and No. 11 respectively on the Billboard singles chart. Along with "Dirty Work" (sung by David Palmer), the songs became staples on classic rock radio.

 

Because of Fagen's reluctance to sing live, Palmer handled most of the vocal duties on stage. During the first tour, however, Katz and Becker decided that they preferred Fagen's interpretations of the band's songs, persuading him to take over. Palmer quietly left the group while it recorded its second album. He wrote the No. 2 hit "Jazzman" (1974) with Carole King.

 

Released in 1973, Countdown to Ecstasy was not as commercially successful as Steely Dan's first album. Becker and Fagen were unhappy with some of the performances on the record and believed that it sold poorly because it had been recorded hastily on tour. The album's singles were "Show Biz Kids" and "My Old School", both of which stayed in the lower half of the Billboard charts (though "My Old School" and—to a lesser extent—"Bodhisattva" became minor FM Rock staples in time).

 

Pretzel Logic and Katy Lied (1974–1976)

 

Guitarist Jeff "Skunk" Baxter left Steely Dan in 1974 when they ceased performing live and began working in the studio exclusively.

Pretzel Logic was released in early 1974. A diverse set, it includes the group's most successful single, "Rikki Don't Lose That Number" (No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100), and a note-for-note rendition of Duke Ellington and James "Bubber" Miley's "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo".

 

During the previous album's tour, the band had added vocalist-percussionist Royce Jones, vocalist-keyboardist Michael McDonald, and session drummer Jeff Porcaro.[21] Porcaro played the sole drum track on one song, "Night By Night" on Pretzel Logic (Jim Gordon played drums on all the remaining tracks, and he and Porcaro both played on "Parker's Band"), reflecting Steely Dan's increasing reliance on session musicians (including Dean Parks and Rick Derringer). Jeff Porcaro and Katy Lied pianist David Paich would go on to form Toto. Striving for perfection, Becker and Fagen sometimes asked musicians to record as many as forty takes of each track.[22]

 

Pretzel Logic was the first Steely Dan album to feature Walter Becker on guitar. "Once I met [session musician] Chuck Rainey", he explained, "I felt there really was no need for me to be bringing my bass guitar to the studio anymore".[22]

 

A rift began growing between Becker-Fagen and Steely Dan's other members (particularly Baxter and Hodder), who wanted to tour. Becker and Fagen disliked constant touring and wanted to concentrate solely on writing and recording. The other members gradually left the band, discouraged by this and by their diminishing roles in the studio. However, Dias remained with the group until 1980's Gaucho and Michael McDonald contributed vocals until the group's twenty-year hiatus after Gaucho. Baxter and McDonald went on to join The Doobie Brothers. Steely Dan's last tour performance was on July 5, 1974, a concert at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in California.[23]

 

Becker and Fagen recruited a diverse group of session players for Katy Lied (1975), including Porcaro, Paich, and McDonald, as well as guitarist Elliott Randall, jazz saxophonist Phil Woods, saxophonist/bass-guitarist Wilton Felder, percussionist/vibraphonist/keyboardist Victor Feldman, keyboardist (and later producer) Michael Omartian, and guitarist Larry Carlton—Dias, Becker, and Fagen being Steely Dan's only original members. The album went gold on the strength of "Black Friday" and "Bad Sneakers", but Becker and Fagen were so dissatisfied with the album's sound (compromised by a faulty DBX noise reduction system) that they publicly apologized for it (on the album's back cover) and for years refused to listen to it in its final form.[24] Katy Lied also included "Doctor Wu" and "Chain Lightning".

 

The Royal Scam and Aja (1976–1978)

The Royal Scam was released in May 1976. Partly because of Carlton's prominent contributions, it is the band's most guitar-oriented album. It also features performances by session drummer Bernard Purdie. The album sold well in the United States, though without the strength of a hit single. "Haitian Divorce" (Top 20) drove sales in the UK, becoming Steely Dan's first major hit in that country.[25] Steely Dan's sixth album, the jazz-influenced Aja, was released in September 1977. Aja reached the Top Five in the U.S. charts within three weeks, winning the Grammy award for "Engineer – Best Engineered Recording – Non-Classical." It was also one of the first American LPs to be certified 'platinum' for sales of over 1 million albums.[26][27]

 

Roger [Nichols] made those records sound like they did. He was extraordinary in his willingness and desire to make records sound better.[28] The records we did could not have been done without Roger. He was just maniacal about making the sound of the records be what we liked... He always thought there was a better way to do it, and he would find a way to do what we needed to in ways that other people hadn't done yet.[29]

~ Steely Dan producer Gary Katz regarding Roger Nichols' role in the band's recording legacy.

Featuring Michael McDonald's backing vocals, "Peg" (No. 11) was the album's first single, followed by "Josie" (No. 26) and "Deacon Blues" (No. 19). Aja solidified Becker's and Fagen's reputations as songwriters and studio perfectionists. It features such jazz and fusion luminaries as guitarists Larry Carlton and Lee Ritenour; bassist Chuck Rainey; saxophonists Wayne Shorter, Pete Christlieb, and Tom Scott; drummers Steve Gadd, Rick Marotta and Bernard Purdie; pianist Joe Sample and ex-Miles Davis pianist/vibraphonist Victor Feldman and Grammy award-winning producer/arranger Michael Omartian (piano).

 

Planning to tour in support of Aja, Steely Dan assembled a live band. Rehearsal ended and the tour was canceled when backing musicians began comparing pay.[30] The album's history was documented in an episode of the TV and DVD series Classic Albums.

 

After Aja's success, Becker and Fagen were asked to write the title track for the movie FM. The movie was a box-office disaster, but the song was a hit, earning Steely Dan another engineering Grammy award. It was a minor hit in the UK and barely missed the Top 20 in the U.S.A.[25]

 

Gaucho and breakup (1978–1981)

 

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Becker and Fagen took a break from songwriting for most of 1978 before starting work on Gaucho. The project would not go smoothly: technical, legal, and personal setbacks delayed the album's release and subsequently led Becker and Fagen to suspend their partnership for over a decade.

 

Misfortune struck early when an assistant engineer accidentally erased most of "The Second Arrangement", a favorite track of Katz and Nichols,[31] which was never recovered. More trouble — this time legal — followed. In March 1979, MCA Records bought ABC, and for much of the next two years Steely Dan could not release an album. Becker and Fagen had planned on leaving ABC for Warner Bros. Records, but MCA claimed ownership of their music, preventing them from changing labels.

 

Turmoil in Becker's personal life also interfered. His girlfriend died of a drug overdose in their Upper West Side apartment, and he was sued for $17 million. Becker settled out of court, but he was shocked by the accusations and by the tabloid press coverage that followed. Soon after, Becker was struck by a taxi while crossing a Manhattan street, shattering his right leg in several places and forcing him to use crutches.

 

Still more legal trouble was to come. Jazz composer Keith Jarrett sued Steely Dan for copyright infringement, claiming that they had based Gaucho's title track on one of his compositions, "Long As You Know You're Living Yours" (Fagen later admitted that he'd loved the song and that it had been a strong influence).[32]

 

Gaucho was finally released in November 1980. Despite its tortured history, it was another major success. The album's first single, "Hey Nineteen", reached No. 10 on the pop chart in early 1981, and "Time Out of Mind" (featuring guitarist Mark Knopfler of Dire Straits) was a moderate hit in the spring. "My Rival" was featured in John Huston's 1980 film Phobia. Roger Nichols won a third engineering Grammy award for his work on the album.

 

Time off (1981–1993)

Steely Dan disbanded in June 1981.[33] Becker and his family moved to Maui, where he became an "avocado rancher and self-styled critic of the contemporary scene."[34] He stopped using drugs, which he had used for most of his career.[35][36][37] Meanwhile, Fagen released a solo album, The Nightfly (1982), which went platinum in both the U.S. and the U.K. and yielded the Top Twenty hit "I.G.Y. (What a Beautiful World)." In 1988 Fagen wrote the score of Bright Lights, Big City and a song for its soundtrack, but otherwise recorded little. He occasionally did production work for other artists, as did Becker. The most prominent of these were two albums Becker produced for the British sophisti-pop group China Crisis, who were strongly influenced by Steely Dan.[38] Becker is listed as an official member of China Crisis on the first of these albums, 1985's Flaunt the Imperfection, and played keyboards on the band's Top 20 UK hit "Black Man Ray". For the second of the two albums, 1989's Diary of a Hollow Horse, Becker is only listed as a producer and not as a band member.

 

In 1986 Becker and Fagen performed on Zazu, an album by former model Rosie Vela produced by Gary Katz.[39] The two rekindled their friendship and held songwriting sessions between 1986 and 1987, leaving the results unfinished.[40] On October 23, 1991, Becker attended a concert by New York Rock and Soul Revue, co-founded by Fagen and producer/singer Libby Titus (who was for many years the partner of Levon Helm of The Band and would later become Fagen's wife), and spontaneously performed with the group.

 

Becker produced Fagen's second solo album, Kamakiriad, in 1993. Fagen conceived the album as a sequel to The Nightfly.[citation needed]

 

Reunion, Alive in America (1993–2000)

 

Steely Dan, shown here in 2007, toured frequently after reforming in 1993.

Becker and Fagen reunited for an American tour to support Kamakiriad, which sold poorly despite a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year. With Becker playing lead and rhythm guitar, the pair assembled a band that included a second keyboard player, second lead guitarist, bassist, drummer, vibraphonist, three female backing singers, and four-piece saxophone section. Among the musicians from the live band, several would continue to work with Steely Dan over the next decade, including bassist Tom Barney and saxophone players Cornelius Bumpus and Chris Potter. During this tour, Fagen introduced himself as "Rick Strauss" and Becker as "Frank Poulenc".

 

The next year, MCA released Citizen Steely Dan, a boxed set featuring their entire catalog (except their debut single "Dallas"/"Sail The Waterway") on four CDs, plus four extra tracks: "Here at the Western World" (originally released on 1978's "Greatest Hits"), "FM" (1978 single), a 1971 demo of "Everyone's Gone to the Movies" and "Bodhisattva (live)", the latter recorded on a cassette in 1974 and released as a B-side in 1980. That year Becker released his debut solo album, 11 Tracks of Whack, which Fagen co-produced.

 

Steely Dan toured again in support of the boxed set and Tracks. In 1995 they released a live CD, Alive in America, compiled from recordings of several 1993 and 1994 concerts. The Art Crimes Tour followed, including dates in the United States, Japan, and their first European shows in 22 years. After this activity, Becker and Fagen returned to the studio to begin work on a new album.

 

Two Against Nature and Everything Must Go (2000–2003)

In 2000 Steely Dan released their first studio album in 20 years: Two Against Nature. It won four Grammy Awards: Best Engineered Album – Non-Classical, Best Pop Vocal Album, Best Pop Performance by Duo or Group with Vocal ("Cousin Dupree"), and Album of the Year (despite competition in this category from Eminem's The Marshall Mathers LP and Radiohead's Kid A). In the summer of 2000, they began another American tour, followed by an international tour later that year. The tour featured guitarist Jon Herington, who would go on to play with the band over the next two decades. The group released the Plush TV Jazz-Rock Party DVD, documenting a live-in-the-studio concert performance of popular songs from throughout Steely Dan's career. In March 2001, Steely Dan was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.[5][6]

 

In 2003 Steely Dan released Everything Must Go. In contrast to their earlier work, they had tried to write music that captured a live feel. Becker sang lead vocals on a Steely Dan studio album for the first time ("Slang of Ages" — he had sung lead on his own "Book of Liars" on Alive in America). Fewer session musicians played on Everything Must Go than had become typical of Steely Dan albums: Becker played bass on every track and lead guitar on five tracks; Fagen added piano, electric piano, organ, synthesizers, and percussion on top of his vocals; touring drummer Keith Carlock played on every track.

 

Firing of Roger Nichols

In 2002 during the recording of Everything Must Go, Becker and Fagen fired their engineer Roger Nichols, who had worked with them for 30 years, without explanation or notification, according to band biographer Brian Sweet's 2018 revision of his book Reelin' in the Years.[41]

 

Touring, solo activity (2003–2017)

To complete his Nightfly trilogy, Fagen issued Morph the Cat in 2006. Steely Dan returned to annual touring that year with the Steelyard "Sugartooth" McDan and The Fab-Originees.com Tour.[42] Despite much fluctuation in membership, the live band featured mainstays Herrington, Carlock, bassist Freddie Washington, the horn section of Michael Leonhart, Jim Pugh, Roger Rosenberg, and Walt Weiskopf, and backing vocalists Carolyn Leonhart and Cindy Mizelle. The 2007 Heavy Rollers Tour included dates in North America, Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, making it their most expansive tour.[43]

 

The smaller Think Fast Tour followed in 2008, with keyboardist Jim Beard joining the live band. That year Becker released a second album, Circus Money, produced by Larry Klein and inspired by Jamaican music. In 2009 Steely Dan toured Europe and America extensively in their Left Bank Holiday and Rent Party Tour, alternating between standard one-date concerts at large venues and multi-night theater shows that featured performances of The Royal Scam, Aja, or Gaucho in their entirety on certain nights. The following year, Fagen formed the touring supergroup Dukes of September Rhythm Revue with McDonald, Boz Scaggs, and members of Steely Dan's live band, whose repertoire included songs by all three songwriters. Longtime studio engineer Roger Nichols died of pancreatic cancer on April 10, 2011.[44] Steely Dan's Shuffle Diplomacy Tour that year included an expanded set list and dates in Australia and New Zealand. Fagen released his fourth album, Sunken Condos, in 2012. It was his first solo release unrelated to the Nightfly trilogy.

 

The Mood Swings: 8 Miles to Pancake Day Tour began in July 2013 and featured an eight-night run at the Beacon Theatre in New York City.[45] Jamalot Ever After, their 2014 United States tour, ran from July 2 in Portland, Oregon to September 20 in Port Chester, New York.[46] 2015's Rockabye Gollie Angel Tour included opening act Elvis Costello and the Imposters and dates at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. The Dan Who Knew Too Much tour followed in 2016, with Steve Winwood opening. Steely Dan also performed at The Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles with an accompanying orchestra.

 

The band played its final shows with Becker in 2017. In April, they played the 12-date Reelin' In the Chips residency in Las Vegas and Southern California.[47] Becker's final performance came on May 27 at the Greenwich Town Party in Greenwich, Connecticut.[48] Due to illness, Becker did not play Steely Dan's two Classics East and West concerts at Dodger Stadium and Citi Field in July.[49] Fagen embarked on a tour that summer with a new backing band, The Nightflyers.

 

After Becker's death (2017–present)

Becker died from complications of esophageal cancer on September 3, 2017.[50] In a note released to the media, Fagen remembered his longtime friend and bandmate, and promised to "keep the music we created together alive as long as I can with the Steely Dan band."[51] After Becker's death, Steely Dan honored commitments to perform a short North American tour in October 2017 and three concert dates in the United Kingdom and Ireland for Bluesfest on a double bill with the Doobie Brothers.[52] The band played its first concert following Becker's death in Thackerville, Oklahoma, on October 13.[52] In tribute to Becker, they performed his solo song "Book of Liars", with Fagen singing the lead vocals, at several concerts on the tour.[53]

 

Becker's widow and estate sued Fagen later that year, arguing that the estate should control 50% of the band's shares.[54] Fagen filed a counter suit, arguing that the band had drawn up plans in 1972 stating that band members leaving the band or dying relinquish shares of the band's output to the surviving members. In December, Fagen said that he would rather have retired the Steely Dan name after Becker's death, and would instead have toured with the current iteration of the group under another name, but was persuaded not to by promoters for commercial reasons.[55]

 

In 2018, Steely Dan performed on a summer tour of the United States with The Doobie Brothers as co-headliners.[56] The band also played a nine-show residency at the Beacon Theatre in New York City that October.[57] In February 2019, the band embarked on a tour of Great Britain with Steve Winwood.[58] Guitarist Connor Kennedy of The Nightflyers joined the live band, beginning with a nine-night residency at The Venetian Resort in Las Vegas in April 2019.[59]

 

On June 25, 2019, The New York Times Magazine listed Steely Dan among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.[60]

 

Musical and lyrical style

Music

Overall sound

Special attention is given to the individual sound of each instrument. Recording is done with the utmost fidelity and attention to sonic detail, and mixed so that all the instruments are heard and none are given undue priority. Their albums are also notable for the characteristically 'warm' and 'dry' production sound, and the sparing use of echo and reverberation.

 

Backing vocals

Becker and Fagen favored a distinctly soul-influenced style of backing vocals, which after the first few albums were almost always performed by a female chorus (although Michael McDonald features prominently on several tracks, including the 1975 song "Black Friday" and the 1977 song "Peg"). Venetta Fields, Sherlie Matthews and Clydie King were the preferred trio for backing vocals on the group's late 1970s albums.[61] Other backing vocalists include Timothy B. Schmit, Tawatha Agee, Brenda White-King, Carolyn Leonhart, Janice Pendarvis, Catherine Russell, Cynthia Calhoun, Victoria Cave, Cindy Mizelle, and Jeff Young. The band also featured singers like Patti Austin and Valerie Simpson on later projects such as Gaucho.

 

Horns

Horn arrangements have been used on songs from all Steely Dan albums. They typically feature instruments such as trumpets, trombones and saxophones, although they have also used other instruments such as flutes and clarinets. The horn parts occasionally integrate simple synth lines to alter the tone quality of individual horn lines; for example in "Deacon Blues" this was done to "thicken" one of the saxophone lines. On their earlier albums Steely Dan featured guest arrangers and on their later albums the arrangement work is credited to Fagen.

 

Composition and chord use

Steely Dan is famous for their use of chord sequences and harmonies that explore the area of musical tension between traditional pop sounds and jazz. In particular, they are known for their use of the add 2 chord, a type of added tone chord, which they nicknamed the mu major.[62][63][64] Other common chords used by Steely Dan include slash chords for example Bb/C or E7/A. This notation shows a chord (shown to the left of the slash) with a note other than the tonic (shown to the right of the slash) as the lowest pitched note.[65]

 

Lyrics

 

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Steely Dan's lyrical subjects are diverse, but in their basic approach they often create fictional personae that participate in a narrative or situation. The duo have said that in retrospect, most of their albums have a "feel" of either Los Angeles or New York City, the two main cities where Becker and Fagen lived and worked. Characters appear in their songs that evoke these cities. Steely Dan's lyrics are often puzzling to the listener,[66] with the true meaning of the song "uncoded" through repeated listening, and a richer understanding of the references within the lyrics. For example, in the song "Everyone's Gone to the Movies," the line "I know you're used to 16 or more, sorry we only have eight" refers not to the count of some article, but to eight-millimeter film, which was lower quality than 16 mm or larger formats, underscoring the illicitness of Mr. Lapage's movie parties.

 

Thematically, Steely Dan creates a universe peopled by losers, creeps and failed dreamers, often victims of their own obsessions and delusions. These motifs are introduced in the Dan's first hit song, "Do It Again," which contains a description of a murderous cowboy who beats the gallows, a man taken advantage of by a cheating girlfriend, and an obsessive gambler, all of whom are unable to command their own destinies; similar themes of being trapped in a death spiral of one's own making appear throughout their catalog. Other themes that they explore include prejudice, aging, poverty, and middle-class ennui.

 

Many would argue that Steely Dan never wrote a genuine love song, instead dealing with personal passion in the guise of a destructive obsession.[67] Many of their songs concern love, but typical of Steely Dan songs is an ironic or disturbing twist in the lyrics that reveals a darker reality. For example, expressed "love" is actually about prostitution ("Pearl of the Quarter"), incest ("Cousin Dupree"), pornography ("Everyone's Gone to the Movies"), or some other socially unacceptable subject.[68] However, some of their demo-era recordings show Fagen and Becker expressing romance, including "This Seat's Been Taken", "Oh, Wow, It's You" and "Come Back Baby".

 

Steely Dan's lyrics contain subtle and encoded references, unusual (and sometimes original) slang expressions, a wide variety of "word games." The obscure and sometimes teasing lyrics have given rise to considerable efforts by fans to explain the "inner meaning" of certain songs.[69][70] Jazz is a recurring theme, and there are numerous other film, television and literary references and allusions, such as "Home at Last" (from Aja), which was inspired by Homer's Odyssey.

 

Some of their lyrics are notable for their unusual meter patterns; a prime example of this is their 1972 hit "Reelin' In the Years", which crams an unusually large number of words into each line, giving it a highly syncopated quality.

 

"Name dropping" is another Steely Dan lyrical device; references to real places and people abound in their songs. The song "My Old School" is an example, referring to Annandale (Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, is home to Bard College, which both attended and where they met), and the Two Against Nature album (2000) contains numerous references to the duo's original region, the New York metro area, including the district of Gramercy Park, the Strand Bookstore, and the upscale food store Dean & DeLuca. In the song "Glamour Profession" the conclusion of a drug deal is celebrated with dumplings at Mr. Chow, a Chinese restaurant in Beverly Hills. The band even employed self-reference; in the song "Show Biz Kids," the titular subjects are sardonically portrayed as owning "the Steely Dan T-shirt."

 

The band also often name-checks drinks, typically alcoholic, in their songs: rum and cokes ("Daddy Don't Live in That New York City No More"), piña coladas ("Bad Sneakers"), zombies ("Haitian Divorce"), black cows ("Black Cow"), Scotch whisky ("Deacon Blues"), retsina ("Home at Last"), grapefruit wine ("FM"), cherry wine ("Time Out of Mind"), Cuervo Gold ("Hey Nineteen"), kirschwasser ("Babylon Sisters"), Tanqueray ("Lunch with Gina"), Cuban breeze (Fagen's solo track "The Goodbye Look"), and margaritas ("Everything Must Go") are all mentioned in Steely Dan lyrics.[71]

 

Members

Current members

 

Donald Fagen – lead vocals, keyboards (1972–1981, 1993–present)

Former members

 

Walter Becker – guitar, bass, backing and lead vocals (1972–1981, 1993–2017; his death)

Jeff "Skunk" Baxter – guitar, backing vocals (1972–1974)

Denny Dias – guitar (1972–1974, studio contributions until 1977)

Jim Hodder – drums, backing and lead vocals (1972–1974; died 1990)

David Palmer – backing and lead vocals (1972–1973)

Royce Jones – backing and lead vocals, percussion (1973–1974)

Michael McDonald – keyboards, backing vocals (1974, studio contributions until 1980)

Jeff Porcaro – drums (1974, studio contributions until 1980; died 1992)

Sony HX200V---These Valley Quail are part of a covey of ten, but these two are usually close together. They both participate in raising their chicks and are brave and constantly alert in their defense.

Seodaemun Museum of Natural History,seoul korea..this one is my most favourite of the dinosaur display because it is well litted,the museum was rather dark as it was a gloomy day that week.

[by David UU].

 

Toronto, Ganglia Press, september 197o. [approx.4oo copies] issued as grOnk ser.7 nr.1.

 

1o pp printed, offset. 8-1/2 x 11, side-stapled selfcovers.

 

a variety of works under a host of pseudonyms, all contributors to this issue disguised Ws, the least common of the 7th series issues devoted to UU's work & editorial direction.

 

65.oo

The Kingston Whig Standard created a full page article devoted to supercentenarian Dave Trumble who lived in Northbrook, Onario. The article is very legible when zoomed in.

 

David Albert Trumble (15 December 1867?/1882? – 5 April 1986) was a Canadian supercentenarian claimant whose age is currently unvalidated by the Gerontology Research Group (GRG). If his claimed age of 118 is accurate, he would be the oldest man ever, but research shows his age is likely exaggerated by 15 years and he likely died aged 103.

 

Dave's interesting life was captured in his autobiography 'When I was a Boy' written in 1976 and is still available on Amazon.

 

Further quotes by Dave can be read here: www.tudorandcashel.com/history/david-trumble-when-i-was-a... at the Tudor and Cashel website.

 

Part of the Richard and Olive Hook Album.

The Abbey church was built in 1160, by a band of Cistercian monks who had devoted themselves to the worship of Christ. They had no room in their lives for dark romantic fantasies, and if one of them happened to feel a bit queasy around the time of a full moon, he would have taken himself straight off to the infirmary and asked for a fortifying herbal drink.

 

Cistercian monks were distinguished by their white robes, or habits. They believed in working the land so that their monastery was self-sufficient. This meant growing crops, keeping sheep and shearing them for wool, and grinding corn to bake bread. Any food left over from the monks’ table was given to the poor, and Fountains Abbey received a steady stream of hungry visitors once its reputation for generosity became widely known.

 

There were two kinds of monks living at Fountains Abbey: choir monks and lay brothers. The choir monks observed the Canonical Hours; seven times a day, the tolling of the bell in the lantern tower would summon them to prayer. Even at two o’clock in the morning, they would rise from their dormitory and walk down the stone stairs into the church below, guided only by candlelight. There was no point in complaining – the bell didn’t have a snooze button – and they had taken a vow of silence, anyway.

 

The lay brothers, on the other hand, did lots of manual labour. Their job was to plough the fields, harvest the crops, tend the livestock, operate the mill, tan hides for leather, brew ale, supervise the store-rooms and prepare meals. Some of them helped in the infirmary, while others were skilled stonemasons and carpenters.

 

It all seems such a peaceful rural idyll: no arguments, no suffering, no violence, and definitely no blood-letting. Wait…did I say no blood-letting?

 

Well, one thing that the monks were very careful about was their health. They ate a frugal but fairly varied diet, consisting mainly of vegetables, fruit and fish. However, during the Middle Ages, medical practices were primitive by today’s standards and science was mingled with folklore and fear. If diseases were unsavoury, sometimes the remedies were just as unpleasant. The abbot of Fountains Abbey obviously felt that prevention was better than cure, and every few months he gave orders for a bit of blood letting. Organised, peaceful blood letting however; not salivating, going-for-the-jugular kind of blood letting.

 

This procedure was believed to purge and purify the body, and it took place in the Warming Room, where massive log fires were left blazing. We don’t know how much blood was taken from each monk, but apparently it was considered sacred, and it was carried away and buried in the grounds of the Abbey. The monks were allowed to rest afterwards before resuming their duties.

 

What seems, to our modern eyes, a rather weird and gruesome practice was rooted in deeply-held beliefs: the monks were simply respecting the principles laid down by their holy order. But I’m sure at least some of them would have been glad to take a couple of vitamin tablets instead!

 

Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries Fountains Abbey grew to become one of Britain’s wealthiest monasteries, owning vast estates in the north of England and exporting fleeces to Flanders and Italy. But for the monks, time was running out.

 

In 1539, incensed with the Pope in not allowing his divorce of Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII hunted for revenge – and where better than the rich monasteries scattered across his country, all under the guardianship of the Roman Catholic church? He set about destroying them, seizing their assets, and turning the monks out of their homes. Four hundred years of worship at Fountains Abbey came to an undignified end. Today it stands in ruins, although an atmosphere of serenity still remains.

As you gaze up at the spectacular remains of Fountains Abbey, in its heyday one of the richest monasteries in medieval Britain, it strikes you as somewhat ironic that its founders had abandoned a comfortable lifestyle in favour of simplicity, servitude… and a considerable degree of suffering.

 

In December 1132, the atmosphere in the nearby Benedictine Abbey of St Mary’s in York was somewhat less than peaceful. Far from following the discipline prescribed by St Benedict in the sixth century, the monks at St Mary’s were indulging themselves a little too freely for the liking of some of their brethren.

 

According to reputable sources, a riot broke out and the rebels – 13 monks who craved a more spartan existence – fled to the Archbishop of York for protection. The Archbishop was not too badly off himself, owning extensive lands around Ripon, and he granted them permission to establish a new monastery in the valley of the River Skell.

 

Snowdrop carpetView from west, showing dormitory and cellariumGreat news for the monks… they could build a new life for themselves! The bad news was that it was winter, and they had nowhere to stay. The valley, far from being the rural idyll that it appears today, was considered at that time to be “more fit for wild beasts than men to inhabit.” It did, however, offer a degree of shelter as well as a plentiful source of building materials and a good supply of drinking water. The National Trust guidebook says that the monks lived under an elm tree and covered themselves with straw; if this was indeed the case, they were hardy and committed individuals.

 

Although the Archbishop of York sent regular supplies of bread, the monks needed support of a different kind. They wrote to Bernard, the Abbot of Clairvaux Abbey in France, who despatched a monk to instruct them in the observance of Canonical Hours; he would also teach them how to build an abbey in accordance with Cistercian principles.

 

DoorwayThe first church was made of wood, but soon afterwards a much more impressive edifice was rising from the valley floor: the present Abbey church, with its magnificent west front, was finished around 1160. Stonemasons used locally-hewn sandstone, and massive oak beams supported the roof. Inside, the white-painted walls reflected the sunlight that streamed in through the many windows, and the effect must have been both stunning and uplifting. What must it have been like to hear a choir singing in there?

 

The Cistercian order, which the monks had adopted, called for a life of self-imposed hardship; they wore coarse wool habits and followed a strict routine of prayer and meditation, which involved long night vigils as well as daytime worship. They must have been freezing for most of the time… although there is a crumb of comfort in the survival of a ‘warming room’, where huge log fires allowed them a precious few minutes of warmth before embarking on their next duty. In the south end of the transept there is still a doorway, through which the monks would have emerged at two o’clock in the morning as they made their way from their dormitory and down some stairs towards the church, their steps lit only by candlelight.

 

In 1170, around 60 monks were living at Fountains Abbey, along with 200 lay brothers. The lay brothers were essential to the survival of the Abbey, because they were skilled craftsmen such as stonemasons, shoemakers, smiths and tanners. Many more were farm labourers and shepherds, managing the monastery’s ever-expanding estates. Some of them slept in the large dormitory at Fountains Abbey, while others lived on neighbouring farms. The system worked so efficiently that, by the mid-1400s, the monastery was one of the richest in England, and fleeces from the sheep were being sold as far afield as Italy. Hardly the spartan establishment to which its founders had aspired.

 

With guest houses, abbots’ quarters, dormitories, a refectory, kitchens, a cellarium for food storage, an infirmary, and a muniment room for the safe keeping of important books and papers, this large complex required precise and careful management. The monks were pretty much self-sufficient: there was a mill just across the river, grinding wheat, rye, barley and oats for bread; in the wool house, fleeces from the Abbey’s sheep were made into clothes and blankets; a tannery ensured an ongoing supply of leather and skins, and fishponds offered a healthy source of food. Hillside springs provided fresh water, while the toilets or ‘reredorter’ were contained in a two-storey extension over the River Skell. Not a bad idea! Although chilly, I should imagine.

 

Passing travellers were always welcome, and beggars were given food left over from the monks’ table. While ordinary visitors were shown into modest accommodation, the more prestigious guests were entertained in style; there are records of minstrels, travelling players and a ‘strange fabulist’ in the Abbey’s expense sheets. The elderly and the sick were cared for in the infirmary, which was a sizeable building in itself. But no women were admitted within the sacred walls: they had to remain in the Outer Court.

 

Blood-letting was one of the monks’ less attractive pastimes, as if they didn’t already subject themselves to enough rigours. The practice, which was carried out three or four times a year, was intended to purify the body. (If I was ever in any doubt of my absolute unsuitability for a cloistered life, this seals the matter). The extracted blood was later buried in reverence.

 

It sounds as if they all did pretty well – blood-letting notwithstanding – but that’s not to say that the Abbey and its inhabitants never suffered hard times. There were years of poor harvests and famine, and these in turn led to skirmishes by desperate raiders from Scotland. In the mid-1300s the Black Death reared its ugly face, carrying away at least a third of the Abbey’s inhabitants and leaving a shortage of labourers to till the fields.

 

East frontThe Abbey’s most noticeable feature, the 167-foot tower known as Huby’s Tower, was a comparatively late addition; prior to this, there would have been a smaller ‘lantern tower’ placed centrally over the church. Built in 1500, Huby’s Tower was the inspiration of Abbot Marmaduke Huby, and it bears a Latin inscription on each face, as well as carvings and statues. Today its broken crenellations are home to a flock of jackdaws; when they all take flight, they look like bees around an enormous beehive.

 

Old bridgeThings went very badly pear-shaped in 1539, as they did for monasteries up and down the kingdom. Henry VIII, furious with the Pope for denying him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, hit on an ingenious but ruthless solution. He turned his back on the Roman Catholic Church and declared himself head of the new Church of England. No more Pope-worship for him – he preferred the seductive delights of Anne Boleyn.

 

England’s abbeys and nunneries, which had been rising to a state of comfortable wealth over the centuries, were now in the firing line. To Henry, they represented an establishment that he hated with a vengeance – but their assets would come in very handy. He lost no time in destroying the buildings, evicting their occupants and seizing their estates.

 

A deed of surrender was signed at Fountains Abbey in 1539. In keeping with Henry’s orders, the place had to be made unfit for worship. The roof was pulled off, the lead and glass were stripped from the windows and any remaining religious relics were removed. Stone was plundered for new buildings elsewhere, and nature began to reclaim the broken bones of former glory.

 

The story of Fountains Abbey didn’t end at that point, though it was over 200 years before it entered a surprising new chapter. In 1767 the estate was acquired by William Aislabie, who soon set to work designing an elegant pleasure park. He planted trees, dug lakes and created paths that led past Gothic-style temples and summerhouses to a point on the opposite side of the valley, where guests could enjoy a ‘surprise view’ of the Abbey in its picturesque state of decay. Poets and artists came to explore and be inspired: J M W Turner painted the Abbey on several occasions.

 

Today, the ruins of Fountains Abbey are carefully tended, so they don’t have quite the same romantic abandon which they must have presented in Turner’s time. On the other hand, they are in much less danger of imminent collapse! As you walk down the nave towards the Chapel of Nine Altars the great east window gapes in front of you, bereft of its beautiful tracery and glasswork, but breathtaking all the same. Anyone who entered the church in its heyday would have been almost struck dumb with awe.

 

Huby's TowerBlind doorways in Huby's TowerColumns and arches soar to dizzying heights, and as your gaze follows them upwards, your attention is drawn to isolated wooden doors, once clasped by cold, pious hands, now leading into nothing but thin air. Deep shadows lurk in the aisles and transept, intriguing but not unkindly. Sacrilegious though it might appear, I searched for ‘Fountains Abbey hauntings’ and found that the voices of a ghostly choir sometimes echo through the Chapel of Nine Altars. That’s something I’d quite like to hear.

 

With a sudden flapping of wings, a pigeon launches itself from a window ledge. The songs of blackbirds and thrushes float across from the woodland. Otherwise, silence reigns – and it’s a peaceful silence.

  

Waga Wooden Carved Sculptures Devoted To The Dead Konso Tribe Omo Valley Ethiopia

© Eric Lafforgue

www.ericlafforgue.com

An afternoon devoted to, not one, but three of the new(er) dancers now performing at the Med Hookah. Rida will dress up later as a belly dancer, but now appears in her other advocation, that of fitness instructor. Hopefully these pics show she is certainly "fit" for that line of work. :-)

Photo by Bill Tricomi

Original Caption: 10,000 acres of the island of Hawaii is devoted to growing macadamia nuts, and production is increasing. At the Royal Hawaiian plant near Keaau, workers plant new trees in an expansion which is doubling the size of the growing stock. This plant is the largest processor in the world. Hiroshi Ooka, horticulturalist for the plant, inspects a screen he designed for catching valuable nuts, November 1973

 

U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 412-DA-11658

 

Photographer: O'Rear, Charles, 1941-

  

Subjects:

Hilo (Hawaii)

Environmental Protection Agency

Project DOCUMERICA

  

Persistent URL: research.archives.gov/description/554110

 

Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.

 

For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html

 

Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html

 

Access Restrictions: Unrestricted

Use Restrictions: Unrestricted

Unknown reader in the park.

Holon Israel

Haridwar is an ancient city and municipality in the Haridwar district of Uttarakhand, India. The River Ganges, after flowing for 253 kilometres from its source at Gaumukh at the edge of the Gangotri Glacier, enters the Indo-Gangetic Plains of North India for the first time at Haridwar, which gave the city its ancient name, Gangadwára.

 

Haridwar is regarded as one of the seven holiest places (Sapta Puri) to Hindus. According to the Samudra manthan, Haridwar along with Ujjain, Nashik and Prayag (Allahabad) is one of four sites where drops of Amrit, the elixir of immortality, accidentally spilled over from the pitcher while being carried by the celestial bird Garuda. This is manifested in the Kumbha Mela being celebrated every 3 years in one of the 4 places, and thus every 12 years in Haridwar. Amidst the Kumbha Mela, millions of pilgrims, devotees, and tourists congregate in Haridwar to perform ritualistic bathing on the banks of the river Ganges to wash away their sins to attain Moksha. Brahma Kund, the spot where the Amrit fell, is located at Har ki Pauri (literally, "footsteps of the Lord") and is considered to be the most sacred ghat of Haridwar.

 

Haridwar is the headquarters and the largest city of the district. Today, the city is developing beyond its religious importance, with the fast developing industrial estate of State Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand (SIDCUL) and the close by township of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited in Ranipur, Uttarakhand as well as its affiliated ancillaries.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The name of the town has two spellings: Hardwar and Haridwar. Each of these names has its own connotation.

 

In Sanskrit, Hara means "Lord Shiva" and Dwara means "gate" or "gateway". Hence, Hardwar stands for "Gateway to Lord Shiva". Hardwar has been a typical place to start a pilgrim's journey in order to reach Mount Kailash, the eternal abode of Lord Shiva, Kedarnath, the northernmost Jyotirlinga and one of the sites of the smaller Char Dham pilgrimage circuit and Gaumukh, the source of River Ganga. Har ki Pauri or footsteps of Lord Shiva is considered the most sacred site in Hardwar.

 

On the other hand, Hari means "Lord Vishnu". So, Haridwar stands for "Gateway to Lord Vishnu". In order to reach Badrinath, one of the four Char Dhams, with a temple of Lord Vishnu, Haridwar is a typical place to start a pilgrim's journey. Therefore, the name Haridwar.

 

Haridwar is also known as the home of Devi Sati and the palace of her father Daksha. In ancient times, the town was also referred to as Gangadwára (गंगाद्वार), the place where the Ganges descends to the plains.

 

SEVEN HOLY PLACES

Haridwar (purnaic name Maya) is one of the seven most holy Hindu places in India, with Varanasi usually considered the holiest.

 

“ Ayodhyā Mathurā Māyā Kāśī Kāñcī Avantikā I

Purī Dvārāvatī caiva saptaitā mokṣadāyikāḥII – Garuḍa Purāṇa I XVI .14”

 

HISTORY

In the scriptures, Haridwar has been variously mentioned as Kapilasthana, Gangadwara and Mayapuri. It is also an entry point to the Char Dham (the four main centres of pilgrimage in Uttarakhand viz, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri), hence, Shaivaites (followers of Lord Shiva) and Vaishnavites (followers of Lord Vishnu) call this place Hardwar and Haridwar respectively, corresponding to Hara being Shiv and Hari being Vishnu.

 

In the Vanaparva of the Mahabharat, where sage Dhaumya tells Yudhisthira about the tirthas of India, Gangadwar, i.e., Haridwar and Kankhal, have been referred to, the text also mentions that Agastya Rishi did penance here, with the help of his wife, Lopamudra (the princess of Vidharba).

 

Sage Kapila is said to have an ashram here giving it, its ancient name, Kapila or Kapilasthana.

 

The legendary King, Bhagiratha, the great-grandson of the Suryavanshi King Sagar (an ancestor of Rama), is said to have brought the river Ganges down from heaven, through years of penance in Satya Yuga, for the salvation of 60,000 of his ancestors from the curse of the saint Kapila, a tradition continued by thousands of devout Hindus, who brings the ashes of their departed family members, in hope of their salvation. Lord Vishnu is said to have left his footprint on the stone that is set in the upper wall of Har Ki Pauri, where the Holy Ganges touches it at all times.

 

Haridwar came under the rule of the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), and later under the Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries). Archaeological findings have proved that terra cotta culture dating between 1700 BCE and 1200 BCE existed in this region. First modern era written evidence of Haridwar is found in the accounts of a Chinese traveller, Huan Tsang, who visited India in 629 AD. during the reign of King Harshavardhan (590–647) records Haridwar as 'Mo-yu-lo', the remains of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with broken stone sculptures, he also mentions the presence of a temple, north of Mo-yu-lo called 'Gangadwara', Gateway of the Ganges.

 

The city also fell to the Central Asian conqueror Timur Lang (1336–1405) on 13 January 1399.

 

During his visit to Haridwar, first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak (1469–1539) bathed at 'Kushawart Ghat', wherein the famous, 'watering the crops' episode took place, his visit is today commemorated by a gurudwara (Gurudwara Nanakwara), according to two Sikh Janamsakhis, this visit took place on the Baisakhi day in 1504 AD, he later also visited Kankhal en route to Kotdwara in Garhwal. Pandas of the Haridwar have been known to keep genealogy records of most of the Hindu population. Known as vahis, these records are updated on each visit to the city, and are a repository of vast family trees of family in North India.

 

Ain-e-Akbari, written by Abul Fazal in the 16th century during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar, refers to it as Maya (Mayapur), known as Hardwar on the Ganges”, as seven sacred cities of Hindus. It further mentions it is eighteen kos (each approx. 2 km) in length, and large numbers of pilgrims assemble on the 10th of Chaitra. It also mentions that during his travels and also while at home, Mughal Emperor, Akbar drank water from the Ganges river, which he called 'the water of immortality'. Special people were stationed at Sorun and later Haridwar to dispatch water, in sealed jars, to wherever he was stationed

 

During the Mughal period, there was mint for Akbar's copper coinage at Haridwar. It is said that Raja Man Singh of Amber, laid that foundation of the present day city of Haridwar and also renovated the ghats at Hark Ki Pauri. After his death, his ashes are also said to have been immersed at Brahma Kund by Mughal emperor Akbar himself. Thomas Coryat, an English traveller, who visited the city in the reign of Emperor Jahangir (1596–1627) mentions it as 'Haridwara', the capital of Shiva.

 

Being one of the oldest living cities, Haridwar finds its mention in the ancient Hindu scriptures as it weaves through the life and time stretching from the period of the Buddha, to the more recent British advent. Haridwar has a rich and ancient religious and cultural heritage. It still has many old havelis and mansions bearing exquisite murals and intricate stonework.

 

One of the two major dams on the river Ganges, the Bhimgoda, is situated here. Built in 1840s, it diverts the waters of the Ganges to the Upper Ganges Canal, which irrigated the surrounding lands. Though this caused severe deterioration to the Ganges water flow, and is a major cause for the decay of the Ganges as an inland waterway, which till 18th century was used heavily by the ships of the East India Company, and a town as high up as Tehri, was considered a port city The headworks of the Ganges Canal system are located in Haridwar. The Upper Ganges Canal was opened in 1854 after the work began in April 1842, prompted by the famine of 1837–38. The unique feature of the canal is the half-kilometre-long aqueduct over Solani river at Roorkee, which raises the canal 25 metres above the original river.

 

'Haridwar Union Municipality' was constituted in 1868, which included the then villages of Mayapur and Kankhal. Haridwar was first connected with railways, via Laksar, through branch line in 1886, when the Awadh and Rohilakhand Railway line was extended through Roorkee to Saharanpur, this was later extended to Dehradun in 1900.

 

In 1901, it had a population of 25,597 and was a part of the Roorkee tehsil, in Saharanpur district of the United Province,[10] and remained so till the creation of Uttar Pradesh in 1947.

 

Haridwar has been an abode of the weary in body, mind and spirit. It has also been a centre of attraction for learning various arts, science, and culture. The city has a long-standing position as a great source of Ayurvedic medicines and herbal remedies and is home to the unique Gurukul (school of traditional education), including the Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, which has a vast campus, and has been providing traditional education of its own kind, since 1902. Development of Haridwar took an upturn in the 1960s, with the setting up of a temple of modern civilisation, BHEL, a 'Navratna PSU' in 1962, which brought along not just a its own township of BHEL, Ranipur, close to the existing Ranipur village, but also a set of ancillaries in the region. The University of Roorkee, now IIT Roorkee, is one of the oldest and most prestigious institutes of learning in the fields of science and engineering.

 

GEOGRAPHY

The Ganges emerges from the mountains to touch the plains. The water in the river Ganges is mostly clear and generally cold, except in the rainy season, during which soil from the upper regions flows down into it.

 

The river Ganges flows in a series of channels separated from each other called aits, most of which are well wooded. Other minor seasonal streams are Ranipur Rao, Pathri Rao, Ravi Rao, Harnaui Rao, Begham Nadi etc. A large part of the district is forested, and Rajaji National Park is within the bounds of the district, making it an ideal destination for wildlife and adventure lovers. Rajaji is accessible through different gates; the Ramgarh Gate and Mohand Gate are within 25 km of Dehradun, while the Motichur, Ranipur and Chilla Gates are just about 9 km from Haridwar. Kunaon Gate is 6 km from Rishikesh, and Laldhang gate is 25 km from Kotdwara.

 

Haridwar district, covering an area of about 2360 km², is in the southwestern part of Uttarakhand state of India.

 

Haridwar is situated at height of 314 metres from the sea level, between Shivalik Hills in the North and Northeast and the Ganges River in the South.

 

HINDU GENEALOGY REGISTERS AT HARIDWAR

Something that is not well known today to Indians and to those settled abroad, in an ancient custom detailed family genealogies of Hindu families for the past several generations are kept by professional Hindu Brahmins popularly known as Pandas, at the Hindu holy city of Haridwar in hand written registers passed down to them over generations by their Brahmin ancestors which are classified according to original districts and villages of ones ancestors, with special designated Brahmin families being in charge of designated district registers, even for cases where ancestral districts and villages that have been left behind in Pakistan after Partition of India with Hindus having to migrate to India. In several cases present day decedents are now Sikhs and many maybe Muslims or even Christians. It is common for one to find details of up to, or even more than, ones seven past generations in these genealogy registers kept by the Pandas of Haridwar.

 

For centuries when Hindu ancestors visited the holy town of Haridwar for any purpose which may have mostly been for pilgrimage purposes or/and for cremation of their dead or for immersion of ashes and bones of their kin after cremation into the waters of the holy river Ganges as required by Hindu religious custom, it has been an ancient custom to go to the Pandit who is in charge of ones family register and update the family's genealogical family tree with details of all marriages, births and deaths from ones extended joint family.

 

In present day India people visiting Haridwar are dumbfounded when Pandas out of the blue solicit them to come and update their very own ancestral genealogical family tree, news travels like wildfire among the Pandas with ones family's designated Panda being quickly notified of ones visit. Nowadays with Hindu joint family system having broken down with people preferring more nuclear families, record keeping Pandits prefer visitors to Haridwar to come prepared after getting in touch with all of ones extended family and bringing all relevant details regarding ones ancestral district and village, names of grand parents and great grand parents and marriages, births and deaths that have occurred in the extended family, even with as much details as possible of the families married into. A visiting family member is required to personally sign the family genealogical register furnished by ones Family Panda after updating it for future family visitors and generations to see and to authenticate the updated entries, friends and other family members accompanying on the visit may also be requested to sign as witnesses. However it is preferable to visit one's family pandas before immerson of ashes of one's kin as they will help properly in this rituals.

 

PLACES OF INTEREST

In Hindu traditions, the 'Panch Tirth' (Five Pilgrimages) within Haridwar, are "Gangadwar" (Har ki Pauri), Kushawart (Ghat in Kankhal), Bilwa Tirtha (Mansa Devi Temple) and Neel Parvat (Chandi Devi Temple). There are several other temples and ashrams located in and around the city. Also, alcohol and non-vegetarian food is not permitted in Haridwar.

 

HAR KI PAURI

This sacred Ghat was constructed by King Vikramaditya (1st century BC) in memory of his brother Bharthari. It is believed that Bharthari came to Haridwar and meditated on the banks of the holy Ganges. When he died, his brother constructed a Ghat in his name, which later came to be known as Har Ki Pauri. The most sacred ghat within Har Ki Pauri is Brahmakund. The evening prayer (Aarti) at dusk offered to Goddess Ganga at Har Ki Pauri (steps of God Hara or Shiva) is an enchanting experience for any visitor. A spectacle of sound and colour is seen when, after the ceremony, pilgrims float Diyas (floral floats with lamps) and incense on the river, commemorating their deceased ancestors. Thousands of people from all around the world do make a point to attend this prayer on their visit to Haridwar. A majority of present ghats were largely developed in the 1800s. On the night of Dussehra or a few days before that the Ganga Canal is dried in Haridwar to clean the riverbed. The water is restored on Dewali. It is believed that on Dussera Maa Ganga goes to her father's house and returns after Bhai Duj or Bhai Phota. It is for this reason that the waters in the Ganga canal in Haridwar are partially dried on the night of Dussehra and the waters are restored on the day of Bhai Duj or Bhai Phota.

 

CHANDI DEVI TEMPLE

The temple is dedicated to Goddess Chandi, who sits atop the 'Neel Parvat' on the eastern bank of the river Ganges. It was constructed in 1929 A.D. by the king of Kashmir, Suchat Singh. Skanda Purana mentions a legend, in which Chanda-Munda, the Army Chief of a local Demon Kings Shumbha and Nishumbha were killed by goddess Chandi here, after which the place got the name Chandi Devi. It is believed that the main statue was established by the Adi Shankaracharya in 8th century A.D. The temple is a 3 km trek from Chandighat and can also be reached through a ropeway.

 

MAYA DEVI TEMPLE

Situated at the top of Bilwa Parwat, the temple of Goddess Mansa Devi, literally meaning the Goddess who fulfills desires (Mansa), is a popular tourist destination, especially because of the cable cars, which offer a picturesque view of the entire city. The main temple houses two idols of the Goddess, one with three mouths and five arms, while the other one has eight arms.

 

KANKHAL

The ancient temple of Daksha Mahadev also known as Daksheshwar Mahadev Temple, is situated in the south Kankhal town. According to Hindu texts, King Daksha Prajapati, father of Dakshayani, Lord Shiva's first wife, performed a yagña, to which he deliberately did not invite Lord Shiva. When she arrived uninvited, he was further insulted by the king, seeing which Sati felt infuriated and self-immolated herself in the yagna kund. King Daksha was later killed by the demon Virabhadra, born out of Shiva's anger. Later the king was brought to life and given a goat's head by Shiva. Daksha Mahadev temple is a tribute to this legend.

 

Sati Kund, another well-known mythological heritage worth a visit is situated in the Kankhal. Legend has it that Sati immolated herself in this kund.

 

PIRAN KALIYAR

Piran Kaliyar Sharif, built by Ibrahim Lodhi, a ruler of Delhi, this 'Dargah' of Hazrat Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari, a 13th-century, Sufi Saint of Chishti Order (also known as Sarkar Sabir Pak), in Kaliyar village, 7 km. from Roorkee, is visited by devotees from all over the world, during the annual 'Urs' festival, which is celebrated from 1st day of sighting the moon to 16th day of Rabi al-awwal month, in the Islamic calendar.

 

NEEL DHARA PAKSHI VIHAR

This Bird Sanctuary is situated on the main Ganges river, or Neel Dhara, at the Bhimgoda Barrage, it is a paradise for bird watchers and home to many migratory birds during the winter season.

 

BHIMGODA TANK

This tank is situated at a distance of about 1 km from Har Ki Pauri. It is said that while Pandavas were going to Himalayas through Haridwar, prince Bhima drew water from the rocks here by thrusting his knee (goda), to the very ground.

 

DUHADHARI BARFANI TEMPLE

Part of the ashram of Dudhadhari Barfani Baba, this temple complex in white marble is one of most beautiful temples in Haridwar, especially the temples of Rama-Sita and Hanumana.

 

SUREHVARA DEVI TEMPLE

Temple of Goddess Sureshwari, situated in midst of Rajaji National Park. Serene and religious makes this temple abode of worshipers, saints etc. Located at outskirts of Haridwar in Ranipur and permission from forest rangers is necessary. The location of the temple is beyond the boundary of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Haridwar.

 

PAWAN DHAM

A modern temple, made entirely of glass pieces, Pawan Dham is now a popular tourist destination. The temple complex was constructed by the effort of Swami Vedantanand Maharaj and the institute located there is growing under the leadership of Swami Sahaj Prakash Maharaj. People from Moga in Punjab have put considerable efforts and money to erect this place.

 

BHARAT MATA MANDIR

Bharat Mata Mandir is a multi-storey temple dedicated to Bharat Mata (Mother India). Bharat Mata Mandir was inaugurated on 15 May 1983 by Indira Gandhi on the banks of the river Ganges. It is situated adjacent to the Samanvaya Ashram, and stands eight stories tall to a height of 55 m. Each floor depicts an era in the Indian history, from the days of Ramayana until India's independence.

 

On the first floor is the statue of Bharat Mata. The second floor, Shur Mandir, is dedicated to the well renowned heroes of India. The third floor Matri Mandir is dedicated to the achievements of India's revered women, such as Radha, Mira, Savitri, Draupadi, Ahilya, Anusuya, Maitri, Gargi etc. The great saints from various religions, including Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism are featured on the fourth floor Sant Mandir. The assembly hall with walls depicting symbolic coexistence of all religions practised in India and paintings portraying history and beauty in various provinces, is situated on the fifth floor. The various forms of the Goddess Shakti can be seen on the sixth floor, whilst the seventh floor is devoted to all incarnations of Lord Vishnu. The eighth floor holds the shrine of Lord Shiva from which devotees can gain a panoramic view of Himalayas, Haridwar, and the splendour of the entire campus of Sapta Sarovar.

 

The temple was built under the former Shankaracharya Maha-Mandleshwar Swami Satyamitranand Giri Maharaj. Since the inception of the Swami Satyamitranand foundation in 1998, several other branches have been opened, namely in Renukut, Jabalpur, Jodhpur, Indore, and Ahmedabad.

   

“…HERE WILL RISE A FITTING STRUCTURE—A SYMBOL OF DEVOTED PATRIOTISM AND UNSELFISH SERVICE. WE IN AMERICA DO NOT BUILD MONUMENTS TO WAR: WE DO NOT BUILD MONUMENTS TO CONQUESTS; WE BUILD MONUMENTS TO COMMEMORATE THE SPIRIT OF SACRIFICE IN WAR—REMINDERS OF OUR DESIRE FOR PEACE. THE MEMORY OF THOSE, WHOM THE WAR CALLED TO THE BEYOND, URGES US TO CONSECRATE THE BEST THAT IS IN US TO THE SERVICE OF COUNTRY IN TIMES OF PEACE. WE BEST HONOR THE MEMORY OF THOSE DEAD BY STRIVING FOR PEACE, THAT THE TERROR OF THE DAYS OF WAR WILL BE WITH US NO MORE. MAY THE BEAUTY OF THIS MONUMENT, WHICH WILL RISE ON THIS SITE, CAST A BENEFICENT LIGHT ON THE MEMORIES OF OUR COMRADES, MAY A SUBSTANTIAL STRUCTURE TYPIFY THE STRENGTH OF THEIR PURPOSE, AND MAY IT INSPIRE FUTURE GENERATIONS WITH A DESIRE TO BE OF SERVICE TO THEIR FELLOWS AND THEIR COUNTRY.”

 

-President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the dedication of the site for the Soldiers Memorial building in St. Louis, Missouri, on October 14, 1936.

 

Opening on Memorial Day, May 30, 1938, the Soldiers' Memorial in downtown St. Louis, Missouri, was originally designed by the architectural firm of Mauran, Russell & Crowell to commemorate the St. Louis citizens who gave their lives in World War I. The building houses the Soldiers Memorial Military Museum, which contains military displays and memorabilia from World War I and subsequent American wars.

 

Operated for many years by the St. Louis Board of Public Service, the City of St. Louis recently signed an agreement to turn over operations to the Missouri Historical Society. Beginning February 28, 2016, the Historical Society will close the museum for approximately two years to begin a multi-million dollar renovation of the historic structure in order to create a state-of-the-art museum facility.

 

This is a view of the exterior of the building which is made of Bedford limestone.

 

© All rights reserved - - No Usage Allowed in Any Form Without the Written Consent of the photographer.

 

The best way to view my photostream is on Flickriver: Nikon66's photos on Flickriver

SPECIAL GUEST CHAT April 19, 2019 - SWFLEC Co-founders Andy Pritchett and Ginnie Pritchett McSpadden.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Good evening everyone. Our SWFEC extended family would like to extend a warm welcome to SWFEC’s co-founders Andy Pritchett and Ginnie Pritchett McSpadden! Thanks to their love of eagles and generosity thousands of people around the world have been given a special window into the lives of Harriet and her family.

We want to thank the Pritchetts not only the incredible cameras they installed that show the spectacular views of the nest and surrounding areas, but for the many hours they have devoted keeping the cameras streaming. And we can’t forget to thank you for providing this chat!

We are very excited to have you both join us this evening. Many of our SWFEC viewers provided questions earlier for Andy and Ginnie. They will try to answer as many as time allows. The first part of the session will address the questions that were already submitted.

If you could limit your comments during this part of the session, that would help us manage the session. If there is time the chat may be open to more questions addressed to Andy or Ginnie. Please join us as we welcome Andy and Ginnie to SWFEC’s chat.

We will post your greetings before the first session begins. But before we open, our group would like to extend their greetings. Then chat will open for all at 7:55pm.

 

GinnyLWI (Admin): Good evening Ginnie and Andy. So glad you are able to do this special chat . Thank you. We are all looking forward to your answers to the great questions the viewers have submitted.

MsSmith57 (Admin): Thank you for this special session Andy and Ginnie We sure appreciate your time with us on the chat!

Sue_Lyons (Admin): Ginnie and Andy, we are so happy that you have the time to spend with all of us tonight, thank you so much!

purpleagle (Admin): Welcome Andy and Ginnie--we are all so happy to welcome you this evening to our special chat! Thank you for sharing your time!

Raptor1 (Admin): Thank you for sharing this with everyone, and for me to be a part of an awesome experience

 

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Hi Everyone! What a pleasure this is

 

Essec09 (Admin): Chat is now open for our SWFEC family.

 

HOeagletfan1: howdy all thanks Andy and Ginnie for being with us tonite

djt: Thank you Andy and Ginnie, you have given us a wonderful gift!

LCampbell75: Hi Andy and Ginny..Thank you so much for being here tonight and for this wonderful site and Cams..you guys are awesome!! Love you guys!

LNBirdLady: Thank you Andy and Ginnie and your whole family for providing us with this awesome experience to watch the beautiful eagles year after year and for all the friends we've met thru chat.

Gugs-Girl: Hello and thank you so much for all you do for our wonderful fine-feathered friends!

TaraTrac: Hello Andy and Ginnie. What a pleasure and honor to be with you tonight. You've brightened the lives of many. Thank you!

 

wskrsnwings (Admin): Hi everyone. Enjoy talking with Andy and Ginnie.

 

Daunelle Danish: I'm not much of a chatter but just wanted to say thank you!

Apr 19, 5:55 PM

jsheptwo: Hello Andy and Ginnie....welcome and thank you for this time you are giving to all of us tonight.

DonnaFL47: Hello Andy and Ginny. Thank you for all you have done.

MtGal30: Thank you Andy & Ginnie for being here to night.

sherbertt: What an amazing group this has become. Thanks so much to the Pritchett and our fabulous mod squad. This is truly a special place to enjoy these beautiful eagles.

E9Lover2: Thank you Andy & Ginny for joining us tonight & thank you for this wonderful experience into the eagles world!

 

Hummingbird: GE All. Hope I can stay on chat. Tornado warning

Essec09 (Admin): Stay safe, Hummingbird.

 

Magd: Hi Andy, Hi Ginnie... so nice to be here tonight..thank you “special hi from Anja Edelman.. still stuck on the way to North Ft.Myers”

samour17 (Admin): Magd so nice of you to join us all the way from Egypt this evening. Happy to see you.

 

MagEagle9: Thank you Ginnie and Andy for this 'gift' from your family!

Randy Hester: the BEST live streaming I ever watched..thank you Andy and Ginny...

Margaret N Nightingale: Good evening Andy and Ginnie (and wskrsndwings). Thank you for this amazing site and all the opportunities to watch the natural development of these beautiful creatures.

hootie-hoo: Thank you for sharing your evening with us!!

Elaine Herbert: Hi Andy and Ginnie! Thanks for spending this special time with all of us!

Eagletoe06: Hello Andy & Ginny! Many thanks for this amazing Cam!

CarrieB: Hello To All~Andy & Ginny You are @ the top of the List of kindness

puzzel: I've been enjoying these eagles since 2014 and they are a hoot. Also I cannot hear their calls when watching and don't know why, anyone have ideas?. I could always hear them from the camera all other years..

Shelli22 (Admin): Ginnie and Andy thanks so much for stopping by and spending time with us this evening! I know the viewers are excited to hear what you both have to say.

Pat Kwap Kemble: Thank you Andy and Ginnie for this special gift to witness nature up close even though I am in CT

 

Gerry Bohn: Can I view chat from here, as usual?

Essec09 (Admin): Gerry, I think the answer to that is yes.

 

lucybird: Thank you Andy & Ginny for such a great experience each year you all are so special !!

patlogan: Oh my, welcome Andy and Ginnie. I saw earlier that you were going to be on tonight. I have loved this site for the last 3 seasons. Thank you so much for sharing this awesome experience with us.

LuvsE9: Haven't been on chat much this year but didn't want to miss the opportunity to send a world of thanks to Andy and Ginnie.You have made so many lives much happier with your generosity.Thank you from the bottom of my heart.

Ilene Horwitz: Hi Andy and Ginnie, Welcome to a place you have made so special!

JudyJirasek: Thank you so much for letting us view this wonderful family.

 

Essec09 (Admin): If you have a question, we will try to get to it after the session. Thank you!

 

Lianne Sarnecke: Hello, Andy and Ginnie - Thank you for sharing this wonderful eagle family with the world.

Dorothy Frey: I thank you both for all you have done & are doing so we can enjoy Harriet, M and all of the eaglets! Love the eagles!

KittyHawk3 (Admin): Good Evening Ginnie and Andy! Thanks so much for taking the time for this special chat session.

Jackie Brown: Good evening y'all. Thank you so very much Andy and Ginnie for coming to see us!! ((HUGS)))

RobertoD (Admin): Thank you Andy and Ginnie, we have all been looking forward to this evening

cats3eagles: Many many thanks to you both Ginnie & Andy! What a wonderful gift your family has given us!

Darlene Dennis: Good evening Ginny and Andy!

Carol Guarco Myers: Thank you for chatting!!

MelodyCS: Good evening and thank you so much for these wonderful cams❤

patlogan: Andy, I will never forget when E9 stopped you cold on the driveway...could hardly stop laughing. That was classic E9.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Ginnie and Andy, anytime you are ready.

 

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Thanks for having us!

 

Essec09 (Admin): At this time, we will not post comments until after the first part of the session. Thank you!

 

vlpritchett (Moderator): Hello Everyone, Like Andy said, thank you so much for being here, watching the cams and hosting us tonight!

 

Essec09 (Admin): Lynn Baranski York asks: What motivated you to create SWFEC?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Thanks Lynn, In 2012 we heard about the Decorah Eagle Cam and how popular it had become. We as a family one night were discussing it and thought how neat it would be to put a camera up of our own. 4 months later, October 1 of 2012 was when we officially started the SWFEC.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Eagletoe06 asks: When & who had the idea first for sharing this beautiful property of this eagle nest & sharing with the world? And has there ever been another E besides E12 that has been so fascinated with the pond & office side of the property?Thanks!

vlpritchett (Moderator): It was a family decision and little did we know it would be shared with the world.

For the second part of the question, I would say all the eaglets have enjoyed the pasture and the different parts of it but E12 definitely loves the water that’s for sure! Its been so fun to watch them play there this year

 

Essec09 (Admin): GinnyLWI asks: Ginnie and Andy did you ever think your project in just seven seasons would have well over 138 million viewers from over 130 countries and now all 50 states represented by viewers in chat? We all thank you so very much!

Andy Pritchett (Admin): The short answer, absolutely not! I remember calling Ginnie and telling her, “We’ve got a 1,000 total views!” We couldn’t believe that people wanted to watch our live stream.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Peggy Main asks: For either of you: What do you feel has been the most significant impact of having the live cam and site, professionally or personally?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): For me (Andy), it has been hearing about how the cameras have impacted our viewers’ lives. Knowing that what we are doing is bringing joy to so many around the world is something I never expected to happen but am grateful to be able to do. Our original commitment was to foster education and appreciation for the bald eagle.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Like Andy says, hearing stories and meeting so many amazing viewers has been a huge impact on my life. Also getting to know and keep in touch on a daily basis with all our amazing moderators. Also being able to understand and educate others on the Bald Eagle species (especially through our new book A Day with Harriet) has become a fun thing for me!

 

Essec09 (Admin): Babs Liberty asks: Is/was Dick Pritchett your Dad?Could you tell us a bit about him and if he has/had any involvement in putting up the cams or noticing Ozzie & Harriet in the area or love of Eagles?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Dick Pritchett was our grandfather. He moved to Fort Myers in 1950's and was a pioneer in the local real estate market. Our father has followed in his footsteps and continues the business today.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Tammy Boren Boyle asks: I'm just curious if the Pritchetts know just how much this has touched people's lives and opened up a whole new world that I , for one, didn't even know exists....That said, THANK YOU for giving us this opportunity to go into these eagle's lives.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thank you Tammy. Its been a wild amazing ride. We never expected any of this so every season we look at it as a blessing to be able to provide this experience.

 

Essec09 (Admin): lucybird asks: How did you go about assembling such a great / fantastic crew of moderators and camera folks?

vlpritchett (Moderator): Lucybird, That’s a great question! We have been extremely fortunate to have the moderators that we have.They are the real stars who make this camera such an amazing experience for the viewers. We are forever grateful to the team that has supported us over the years. This is a great opportunity to say, THANK YOU!!!!!!

Essec09 (Admin): (your check is in the mail lucybird).

 

Essec09 (Admin): LCampbell75 asks: I just wanted ask them what their favorite memory is of any season since they had their cams on live??

Andy Pritchett (Admin): If I had to choose just 1 and only 1, I’d pick Season 1. The excitement that I felt and the nerves can’t be replicated. It was such a fantastic learning experience and it really opened our eyes to the lives that Ozzie and Harriet lived. I remember it like it was yesterday watching the eggs hatch thinking, how cool is this!

vlpritchett (Moderator): I would actually say the same. We were so native and new at everything. We were basically learning along with Hope & Honor. And then when they accidentally fledged together, and then had a successful season. It was a great season all around.

wskrsnwings (Admin): 😊

 

Essec09 (Admin): Peggy180 asks: I would like to ask the Pritchetts if any of their family are zoomies?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): We may control the cameras a little bit during the early part of the season but we like to leave that responsibility to the professionals

 

Essec09 (Admin): E9Lover2 asks: 1) What made you decide to create this website? 2) Did you ever think that this website/family of eagles would be seen by millions of people all over the world?Finally, I would like to thank you & your family for this amazing opportunity you have given so many. The world would be a better place with more people like you in it! Thank You.

vlpritchett (Moderator): First of all, a big Thank you to you as well for watching and supporting the cameras. Secondly, never in our wildest dreams did we think that this would happen. The original goal was to create something that the local community could share in and enjoy. Little did we know the power of the internet and how the local community would include people from all over the world.It really is humbling to think that so many people watch the site daily.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Kayrh asks: Afternoon! I check in first thing in the morning and off and on throughout the day and again at bedtime.My questions are: how did they come to be involved in eagle watching, Making the connection with AEF etc. Also, are fallen trees/bushes like the one near the nest left in the area for natural environmental reasons?

I have to say that my life has been changed by watching these Eagle nests in so many ways. We have had two tragedies in the last 4 years and to be able to turn to the nest to watch was normal.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thanks for watching every day Kayrh! We are no eagle experts but after learned so much the last 7 years and tried to meet and work with the best in the eagle/raptor world.The pasture has pretty much been left as is to help keep the Eagle’s habitat as normal as possible. We may have to remove some in the future for safety concerns but no plans as of yet.

 

Essec09 (Admin): jsheptwo asks: Did you have an interest in bald eagles before the nest was built in your pasture or is that when you started following them?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Our family has been lucky enough to be around nature and the outdoors our whole life so we have a strong appreciation and respect for nature. Seeing the Eagles build so close, sparked an interest that quickly grew into a bigger passion project for us.

 

Essec09 (Admin): JudyJirasek asks: Were you young kids when you started watching Harriet and Ozzie? Did you see them when they had a nest across the street?

vlpritchett (Moderator): We always knew there was a nest over there and occasionally did see an eagle pair. There are many eagles in the area so it would be difficult to tell if it was. It wasn't until they moved across the street that we had the chance to really "get to know them"!

 

Essec09 (Admin): PamW2017 asks: How does anyone get any work done during eagle season at your office? Is anyone allowed to go outside after fledging? Can you send me a job application? LOL

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Everyone in the office loves the Eagles and watches 24/7 but we do work hard and always aware the Eagles are there.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Ilene Horwitz asks: How often do either of you go to lecture in the surrounding schools or in the surrounding community? For Ginnie, Have you thought of continuing with this series of books on the Eagles for young children? I think that her first one is just terrific. Like others I so appreciate what everybody has done here and I wish that we didn’t have to look forward to them leaving so soon but I’m happy they’re healthy and ready to fly.

vlpritchett (Moderator): We have actually been doing more this season and hope to increase that. Having the Children’s Book connection has helped start the conversation and been an easy transition to meeting with groups & starting partnerships like the ones we have with CROW & now the Audubon.

We do hope to have a series of Books! Stay tuned this summer for details on Book #2!

 

Essec09 (Admin): Mary Cay Sullivan asks: I love the children’s book about Harriet. Have you ever thought about doing a pictorial book (i.e. a “coffee table” book) about this nest?

vlpritchett (Moderator): A great question but we leave the amazing photography to those on the ground. We do have a Zazzle Store if folks do want a customized Eagle Family item. www.zazzle.com/store/swfleaglecam

 

Essec09 (Admin): SueUMc: Have you ever considered a lightning protection system for the tree? Thank you for providing such a great gift for the world.

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Not for the tree itself. We do everything we can to protect the camera equipment from lighting so that there isn’t any technical failure during the eagle season. Protecting the tree is something we have been looking into

 

Essec09 (Admin): djt asks: Are any more cams in the plan or different ones?

vlpritchett (Moderator): Hey DJT, I think you probably mean new cams but in regards to this nest location, technology is ever changing and we hope to make these nest cams better than ever over the coming season

 

Essec09 (Admin): Beverly Morden Hall asks: Are there any new plans for next season? And is there anything we haven't asked that you would like to tell us? Thank you so much for all you have done.

vlpritchett (Moderator): We also plan to fix all of the unfortunate technical difficulties we had this season

Which I know will make EVERYONE VERY HAPPY!

LuvsE9: We are all VERY HAPPY already Ginnie!

 

Essec09 (Admin): morsy asks: Good evening. If Harriet decides to build a new nest in the west pasture, would you relocate the cams?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): We would do everything we can to continue the live streams but never want to compromise the natural habitat to make it happen so it really all depends. Let’s all hope we never have to find out

 

Essec09 (Admin): AndrewNH26 asks: Can you hear the Es Squees from your office, and if so, how do you concentrate with all that racket ? lol

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Yes we hear them all the time! I will never grow tired of hearing the eagles.

 

Essec09 (Admin): djt asks: Do you watch Harriet & M15 during the summer months? How often do you see them?

vlpritchett (Moderator): They normally stay in the area for a while after the cams shut off and only take extended periods of time away from the area. Each year is different and they continue to surprise us!

 

Essec09 (Admin): MtGal30 asks: When you started this did you have a clue to how popular it would be, even globally!? TY! HAGN n SED'S...I miss this Eagle Family already, shamwows arrived!

Andy Pritchett (Admin): NO IDEA! We still laugh about it all the time. The first few months we got so excited about 25 people watching, never in our wildest dreams did we think this would snowball into something so amazing.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Diane Beatty asks: You ever think of doing a cartoon type movie about H and M15and the Es for Chlldren for the classroom for teachers to use as a teaching tool? ty for allowing us to watch on cam look forward to it year after year.Your mods and zoomies rock.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Diane! This is my dream! My ultimate goal in the educational space is actually an animated movie that educates and entertains young minds in a way today’s cartoon movies do!

And Hoped A Day with Harriet would be the natural first step in that direction

 

Essec09 (Admin): Ziva asks: Hi everyone! Is there any chance you will tag the babies in the future. I miss E9 and the other babies so very much. It’s sad to know if we see him we won’t know for sure.He will be forever missed and worried about. They tag babes that need medical attention. Can you tag these babes in the future?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): We don’t have any specific plans right now to tag the eaglets or adult eagles. We would never intentional disrupt their season to tag but if for some unfortunate reason they were receiving medical treatment, we would look at all the options and have in the past. Understanding their life beyond their final fledge is a mystery to us all that we would love to try and help solve.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Ziva asks: Is the gator on your property? If so, can you remove it? I’m sure it would be expensive but a go fund me page could help with that. I’m worried about our family. TY for all you do.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thanks for your concern. NO Gators on property just lots of small fish, turtles and horses in that pond.

 

Essec09 (Admin): trusteagles asks: Do you ever sit out on the screen porch and watch eagles from there? Is there a big screen TV at the office?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): We always take a few moments out of our day to appreciate the eagles. NO big screen just our laptops

 

Essec09 (Admin): JudyJirasek asks: Do any of the neighboring businesses or homes ever complain about the eagles? Do they ever steal food from BBQ grills?

vlpritchett (Moderator): They have not. There is plenty of food available for the eagles in their natural environment. Many have even stopped to say they too watch the eagles every day and appreciate our efforts. It's been a wonderful community project for so many

 

Essec09 (Admin): mdofmich asks: I saw a school bus one day by the stables. Do you have class room children visit the horse area?Thanks for making this cam available to all of us.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Mdofmich, the stables are operated by the family and are private horses. During the summer there are occasional camps that are put on that might have utilized a school bus but I can’t say for sure.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Jackie Brown asks: Thanks Andy and Ginnie for joining us in chat. Andy, we see Ginnie in chat once in a while. Do you read chat and why don't you sign and say hello?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Yes I do Jackie. Whenever I do watch chat I enjoy reading the questions and answers. I’m always learning as well and our moderators always do such a fantastic job that I never want to interrupt.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Jackie Brown asks: I always ask for the donation info to be posted. Why is it that this site does not post at the end of each chat- the request for donations? Thanks Pritchett family for allowing people all over the world into M15 and Harriet's home and your pasture.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thanks for the reminder Jackie, while donations are always greatly appreciated, we don’t want anyone to ever feel pressured or obligated to donate. We do this with 100%no expectation of a viewer to donate but always so honored and floored when viewers do.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Babs Liberty asks: Andy, I know that the mods posted your comments in chat about the day you were in your truck with E9 on the driveway but I am sure there are many that have not seen it (or would just like to hear it again). Could you talk about your thoughts that day? I know many watching the cams at that time were terrified E9 was going to be hit not realizing that was you and that you were well aware of E9 being there and would take the necessary precautions. Thanks!

Andy Pritchett (Admin): What a day that was! Even when life gets busy and you have places to be, that was a great reminder to slow down and enjoy the little things in life. I never thought that day would be so impactful but I did sit there and think, how lucky am I to be able to witness E9 learn and explore for the very first time. I also had a pretty good excuse to why I was running late.

 

Essec09 (Admin): hootie-hoo asks: Andy Prichett .......what was going through your mind when E9 was in front of your truck in the driveway?? And how long did that incident last??

Andy Pritchett (Admin): It probably lasted for about 5 minutes but what a neat experience to be able to watch!

 

Essec09 (Admin): WandaE9 comment: "In addition to my heart-felt gratitude for the LIVE stream, thank you for having your 1st CHAT on my B-DAY...the BEST gift I could ask for." Woo Hoo, lol!

vlpritchett (Moderator): HAPPY BIRTHDAY WANDA!!!

Essec09 (Admin): The following comment needs to be posted in segments -

Lauren Roberts comment: Hello to the Pritchett’s!I just wanted to thank you for all you have done by making this webcam available to all of us…to the world. But on a personal note I want you to know how you have touched us without even knowing it.

Andrew, I’m not sure if you remember and it is quite alright if you don’t, I know you are busy… Almost 2 years ago to the day I emailed you in regards to a book I was planning on writing about Harriet and M15…during E9’s season. I said I would send you excerpts of the book when it was completed wherever the Pritchett name, mods or zoomie was mentioned for your permission.

I am currently on the 5th edit of the book. So I will be sending you excerpts very soon! But my main reason for bringing this up tonight is since I started the book, we have had some challenging times. I mentioned recently on chat that my husband was diagnosed with a “c” word that I don’t speak of. It has been torture watching him go through treatments, but like the eagles, he is resilient!

I had to let you know that while we were going through the most difficult part of treatment the cameras came back up for this season. I want to thank you both from the bottom of my heart for giving us some peace, some happiness and joy through some very rough days.

By you providing this window into this eagle family’s lives, you brought peace and happiness to our world that had suddenly been turned upside down. I just wanted to thank you for giving us something to look forward to and something that had nothing to do with doctors! We wanted you to know that without even knowing us, you have filled our hearts and home with so much needed joy. Thank you both so much…God Bless.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thank you Lauren! We are sending good vibes your way and hope for the best for you and your family! So glad we could help provide a little comfort through the cams!

 

Essec09 (Admin): At this time Ginnie and Andy will try to answer some of the questions that have come in tonight.

 

Hummingbird: Question. What happen to the sound this year.What are the plans to fix this. I have been here for so many years and I have to say this is something I missed this year

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Great question...technical difficulties. It will be fixed next year

vlpritchett (Moderator): We know it was frustrating for all and so appreciate you sticking by us through the downed times and the good!

 

Macky Miller: I get the feeling that cars drive by, totally obvious to the piece of paradise they are passing. Do you attempt to keep it somewhat low key in the area to protect both the E's and your property? Or, is it just drivers being drivers and in a hurry to get to wherever they are going----which happens to be fine with me.Leave the E's to the rest of us.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Because we do have a business on the property, we try to keep it as normal as possible. Bayshore Rd is a busy road but think many do appreciate their proximity to the nest everyday while on the go.

I know I do every time I drive by

 

patlogan: After the season ends and Harriet and M15 leave the area to go “on vacation” do you ever worry that they might not come back for what ever reason...I know I have before I’m actually able to see them.

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Absolutly, every year. All we can do is prepare and hope they do return.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Like Andy mentioned, We know how fortunate we are for this and never take a day for granted

Andy Pritchett (Admin): We do everything we can to take care of their habitat

 

svad9561: This entire venture makes my heart so very happy. I enjoy it so much that I forget that the eagles don't know that we are watching. It feels like they are performing for us!

E9Lover2: Essec, I apologize if this question was asked, if so disregard & will check for answer after chat. Q-Andy or Ginny, if for some reason Harriet & M15 decided to relocated (lets hope not), say across the street would you still be able to have cams there?

 

Journi: Have you noticed Harriet & M15 bringing any more sticks to that west pasture tree this season? They seem to like that tree!Thank you for this amazing experience!

vlpritchett (Moderator): A lot of talk about the West Pasture! Such an unknown but the Eagles know best and we will always do what we can to bring the live cams back year after year.

 

Robin Oliveira: I want to add to the chorus of gratitude here for the cameras. I watch from Seattle, keeping the cameras to the side as I work from home on my computer. But I was also able to visit the nest this year, and it was so terrific to see the eagles in person.Thank you for opening your property, too. We stood to the side of your long driveway and while I was there I was so grateful to you for your generosity. I look forward to the eagles every year.

Maewood Hamlin: A huge thank you for sharing your time with is Jenny and Andy! What a beautiful thing your family has given us

Janet Moore: Hello from Panama! I started watching this cam from the first season when I still lived in the states. I just love every fall when the cams go up! I'm mostly a lurker but from time to time say hi! I just wanted to thank you for this experience. You have the very best stream set-up out there. Thank you from the bottom of my heart,

 

MelodyCS: Ginnie and Andy, thank you so much. Where did all the fish come from in the pond?

WPBEgal: Question. Many have said that there were no fish in the pasture pond. Recent events have showed that to be wrong. Did you all "stock" the pond and if not how did fish get in there?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): The pond is actually county maintained and is regularly stocked with local fish

 

plnlct: Good evening. Where did the eagle statues come from?

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Sebring, FL. A local artist hand poured and hand painted them.

 

Peggy180: Thank you so much, Ginny & Andy. You' ve given us so much to be able to share the life cycles of "our" eagle family and to enjoy seeing your beautiful pasture and property. I've learned so much and met so many good people.

Dorothy Frey: I live local so I have had the wonderful pleasure of coming to the nest & seeing them in person. Thanks to you millions of people came enjoy this lovely eagle family.

 

Jackie Brown: Andy, will you do me the honor? Please post the Donation info. Your donations ARE tax DEDUCTIBLE>Tyvm

Apr 19, 6:50 PM

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Yes, tax deductable. Best place to visit is southwestfloridaeaglecam.com

 

JudyJirasek: Do you own any of the horses in the pasture?

vlpritchett (Moderator): We personally do not but my aunt runs a boarding business in the back and many of the horses are owned by her or her boarders.

 

BckEE: A sincere, from the heart ❤ Thank You, Andy and Ginnie,and crew! 😊 For all that you do! Q: Are you aware that E12 now owns the pond? lol

Amy Ravenscraft: A quick thanks to those who bring us this fascinating and educational view every year. So majestic!

eaglelover60: hi everyone, not one to chat much. wanted to say hello and thank you to the pritchett family for everything they do.and ty for the cams to watch our beautiful eagles.

Randy Hester: vlpritchett...you think maybe during the summer the sound will be fixed?

magben: Hello Ginnie and Andy, so nice to have you with us!

 

MagEagle9: I know when Season 5 went viral it took you all by wonderful surprise with thousands of new devoted followers! I wonder though if you realize how many folks lives were changed and sent down wonderful new paths? Paths of raptor rescue &rehabilitation, EagleWatch volunteers, conservation and education messages being shared by individuals and more. Your cam opened this door for me that I would never have otherwise seen. I think of E9 with every raptor I help treat & EagleWatch nest I monitor. I'm so grateful!

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thank you Mag! It astounds us every day and to hear everyone's story is the biggest thank you we can receive

Doing stuff like this is also so fun and makes the long days worth it as we balance our day jobs, families and this project

 

SueUMc: Andy and Ginnie- good evening and thank you for sharing your time with us and also providing this great gift into the eagle's world. The entire SWFEC team is by far the best and obviously because they were chosen by the best. God bless you and Happy Easter.

Shannon Jemison Price: Thank you so much for everything. You have brought much joy to my granson and I. We share the watching of the eagles every year. Thank you for allowing us to join in and share such a special family!

DaveinMissouri: Alula and Happy Easter to the Pritchett family!

trusteagles: 138 million views and easily 138 million thanks and good wishes. Cool. I’d like to thank you, especially, for inviting these wonderful mods to come and teach us so much. I’ve never enjoyed school like this. Thank you for the chat tonight and every day and night. Wow. Stocked pond. I think we all learned something here! Maybe E12 DID catch that fish this morning.Wouldn’t that be something? Another first. I wouldn’t put it past her. Thank you, thank you, thank you.

 

yellowrose0127: Paula Henry, aka yellowrose0127: Ginny and Andy, thank you just doesn't feel like I am saying enough. What a continued blessing this site is. I am able to visit the nest from Maryland for 5 years now and I still cry at the sight of it. I have met many wonderful people, made lasting friends and share a bond that few people understand.😉 So my question is this----do you ever go to the church side and visit with the people who come there?? Part 1.

vlpritchett (Moderator): Paula, I do on occasion. Funny enough, I always feel so weird visiting because I feel like an outsider that nobody knows but do try to stop and introduce myself from time to time. I know Andy stops by more than I because he works on property and drives by everyday

 

Andy Pritchett (Admin): Hi everyone! I hate to have the leave early but my 2 year old is calling my name. THANK YOU to Everyone for your time and for joining us tonight. This will always be an experience i will never forget. Thank you to everyone again, it really does mean so much.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Bye Andy! And Thank YOU!!

Shelli22 (Admin): Thank you Andy!

Sue_Lyons (Admin): Thank you, Andy!

Raptor1 (Admin): Thank you for being here Andy

icecream247 (Admin): Thank you Andy !

LoisNY54 (Admin): Bye Andy and thank you for all you do to keep the cams running.

MsSmith57 (Admin): Thanks Andy Enjoy the little one!

GinnyLWI (Admin): Thank you Andy, Good night.

purpleagle (Admin): Thank you so much for an interesting evening Andy SED

wskrsnwings (Admin): Bye Andy. Happy Easter to you and the entire Pritchett family

 

Essec09 (Admin): I know some of our viewers posted earlier and we will get to those soon. Thank you for your patience.

 

Ilene Horwitz: Thank you so much for your time tonight! Like many chatters, E9 grabbed our hearts because he was so special and he added more fans( me included) of this site. Like Lauren,many of us have found the eagle family a great help during times of stress and illness. I wonder if you would consider going to hospitals and senior center with videos, books etc ?. It would be great for them!

vlpritchett (Moderator): IIlene, A great question. If you or anyone has suggestions on places or contacts, please do send to our email listed on the website

purpleagle (Admin): That sounds like a great idea Ginnie---many of our viewers have mentioned elderly parents who love the cam

 

neweagleluva: Andy & Ginnie, have never known about the lives of eagles until I found your eagle cam. Can not thank you enough for sharing these beautiful lives and knowledge with us (your moderators and zoomies are the fabulous). Have learned a tremendous amount since E9 and passed on to others the importance of eagle preservation and facts. Thank you, thank you.

anniep: Hi Andy and Ginny, thank you so very much for all you do so the rest of the world can see this fabulous family of eagles and other wildlife.

eaglesrawsm: Ginny & Andy, Thank you for sharing this site with the world It has opened the eyes of so many & we have really become a family of eagle lovers.❤️

 

Terri Wroblewski: I am so envious that you have a front row seat to this beautiful family. How do you get anything done ? I would be out in the area watching every move >

vlpritchett (Moderator): Terri- Sadly we do have lots of work that keeps us busy but they are an amazing distraction and we are so lucky to have them and the horses as our "work" neighbors

 

Grosbeak: Ginny and Andy, I have no question; just loads of gratitude for all the pleasure you have provided. The site is truly wonderful. And a special shout-out to wskrsnwings for all the great videos. They're a pleasure during the "dry" months! Finally,infinite thanks to Harriet and M15. What would we have without you?

 

AndrewNH26: Thank you Andy and ginnie for this wonderful gift .And for assembling our Stellar and Beloved Moderator team ( The Mod Squad ) ( Great And Powerful Mods )

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thanks for joining Andrew- Our Mod Team really is the best! We couldn't be half of what we are without them and their dedication and support.

 

LJohnson1776: What is it like to have eagles living in your backyard?

Megster: I would like to just say Thank You Ginnie and Andy for this amazing site you have provided for all of us. It has truly enriched my life. And thank you for assembling such an incredible array of administrators and zoomies to teach us all about these beautiful raptors, especially Harriet and M15 and all their babies..❤️

 

Pat Kwap Kemble: Question...How far from the nest is the gulf?

vlpritchett (Moderator): Good question Pat- Definitely not as close at the river. I will have to look at the map and see

 

hootie-hoo: Thank you for creating this platform for education of eagles.......the chat room is a circle a friends, "eagle friends" as I say.We not only love your eagles, we also support one another in sad times and happy times.

Lucie Hurtubise: Thank you so much Andy and Ginnie for this wonderful learning experience about bald eagles!! This is my third year watching Harriet, M15 and their offspring, I have become hooked since day 1.

CarrieB: Like me, many watch from work we get our work done &our bosses are smart watching relieves stress

NHDalGal: Andy and Ginnie, thank you for joining us this evening and answering all of our questions. I think we all feel that we know both of you a little bit better and have a better understanding of how SWFLEC came to be. We are so appreciative of this gift that you have provided to help everyone around the world learn about the life of the bald eagle.

 

MsSmith57 (Admin): Pat Kwap Kemble: The Gulf of Mexico is approximately 15 miles from North Ft. Myers. Charlotte Harbor is approximately 12 miles. Fort Myers Beach is approximately 18 miles from North Ft. Myers.

 

patlogan: I also dealt with a husband who was very sick over the last 3 years and he passed away in February. This place has been a place for me to come to for peace and to find something to smile about. Thank you for your wonderful gift❤️

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thank you Pat for joining along and best wishes to you family.

 

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thanks MsSmith!

 

jsheptwo: Has the idea of posting a speed limit on your driveway ever been considered? Or, a limit or restriction to people parking to watch the eagles while on your driveway?

vlpritchett (Moderator): jshep- that is a big debate in our family. We don't want to "regulate" our business driveway but do want to keep the Eagles best interest top of mind, that is how we compromised with the Signs during Fledge Time and beyond.

 

LuvsE9: A huge thank you to our mods and zoomies too! I hope this continues for many more years with all of you. Appreciated more than you will ever know.

GG1: Ginnie and Andie your generosity has been a wonderful lifeline for so many homebound people and those, for various reasons, who have limited social avenues to explore . I know that I speak for others with a heartfelt Thank You.

Nancy Phillips: I thought your property was just magical when I visited in Feb. You made this old lady from Ohio very happy, thank you for all you do and the opportunity for us to enjoy these beautiful Eagles.

MtGal30: Your family tossed a pebble in the pond and look what happens? The ripple continues to touch lives every single day because of the Pritchett Family ! SEH's

eaglesrawsm: Many thanks to whiskersnwings & ladyhawk also,for their contribution to this site.

Bgilm: You have lightened up so many lives by your kindness and generosity of sharing these dynamic eagles. I am homebound and you have made my life so much easier to endure. I look so forward each and every day to see what they are up to. Thank you from the bottom of my heart.

PamelaCStallings: I remember laughing at E9 taking time getting out of your way Andy, thinking its E9’s world we’re just living in it.He was adorable. 😂

Luv2fly: Thank you Andy and Ginny for sharing this wonderful experience with us all. No wonder the eagles built their home on your beautiful property! I'm sure they agree, it's Location,Location, Location

yz235b: Thank you so much to the Pritchett family for making this experience possible. The entire team makes this educational and fun. All of the people here are the best. Thanks so much!

Macky Miller: I will be there next February for a wedding on the 12th. If you see someone sitting in a chair from early morning until dusk, no, it will not be a new statue; it will be I who counted the days down for an entire year to be able to watch this phenomenal spectacle in person. I thank for for the incredible education I have received.

 

Beverly Morden Hall: How if at all has your life changed from this?

vlpritchett (Moderator): Bev- Every day of my life has changed for the better (honestly!)- I could have never in a million years this project would shape my life like it has.

 

Babs628: Bye Andy and thank you so much for your time and all that you do

 

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thank you all for joining us this evening! I hope we got to everyone's questions. If not, I think our amazing moderators are going to jump in and clean up the mess I made

 

Essec09 (Admin): I want to thank you for sharing your evening with us Andy and Ginnie. And please tell your family how much SWFEC has meant to ALL of us. You opened the door to your private world and shared a gift to all. I don’t think we need to tell you how much it has meant to be part of SWFEC’s family.

Essec09 (Admin): We will be posting this session on SWFEC’s Flickr so that everyone will be able to read it. Thank you again! Hope we can do this again soon!

 

Raptor1 (Admin): you didnt make a mess, thank you for spendng time with us

Jackie Brown: Andy, Ginnie, Thank you so very much for coming and spending time with us tonight. Please come back soon. Or just pop into chat and say hello. Ginnie, I sent you and email through your book site today.

Eagletoe06: Heartfelt thanks for this chat & the Pritchetts! You’re the best! Happy Easter & also H& M!

purpleagle (Admin): Thank you so much for your time with us this evening Ginnie--I know that everybody enjoyed it!!

 

Essec09 (Admin): I know many of you posted earlier and please be assured that the Pritchetts will read each and every one of the comments.

 

vlpritchett (Moderator): Thank you all! I hope everyone has a wonderful weekend and we can continue this annual chat in the future! And stay tuned in the coming weeks/months for updates on next season

 

Essec09 (Admin): We would like to respond to another question that was asked by Lisa Talbot: I wonder about the fate of the eaglets that are hatched second. Is there a difference in the survival rate between the first and second hatchling? I didn’t mean ultimate survival, but survival to fledge! Sorry I wasn't clear.

Essec09 (Admin): To our knowledge there isn’t any definitive research that addresses that. If we find anything we will be sure to post it, Lisa. Since most nests are not observed by cameras, it would be hard to determine a survival rate for 1st hatch and 2nd hatch.

 

Sue_Lyons (Admin): Ginnie, having you and Andy with us tonight has been such a special experience, thank you so very much for sharing your experiences and answering our questions, it has been just wonderful!

Shelli22 (Admin): Ginnie you rocked! Thank you so much for being here with us all this evening!

LoisNY54 (Admin): Ginnie it was so nice to see you and Andy on tonight and hope you will do it again. Thank you for all the support you give to the team.

MelodyCS: Thank you so much for joining us Ginnie. Happy Easter to you and your family. Much love from all of us❤

E9Lover2: Andy,Ginny, thank you so much for sharing in our chat tonight & making this experience possible. Happy Easter/Passover & SEDs until next time.

 

TinEar: Gin, I know you're well aware of tghe E9 phenomenon that started this whole thing. Local TV stations all over the country carried clips night after night of E9's progress and that drove the traffic to the site. Was that planned or was it just a generic happening?

purpleagle (Admin): TinEar they are gone for the evening but believe me it was not planned. Andy mentioned tonight how surprised he was

 

eaglelover60: Andy and Ginnie, have a Happy Easter and i'm saying SED's, thank you all for everything. E9 was my first eaglet.good night all!!

Megster: Thank you again and SED’S to the Pritchett’s and all our superb admins, Mods and zoomies-Peace

Magd: Hi Sam...cannot miss this.... the pritchetts really deserve the best

PurrCee: Ginnie & Andy thank you for being with us tonight..also thank you for giving us this precious and most generous gift of watching & learning about "our" eagle family! This is like no other...the mods, zoomies, ground crew are absolutely the best! I thank you from the bottom of my heart! You have touched so many in such a special way 💞

Diane Levick Lewis: I also want to thank Andy and Ginny for this great gift you have given us. My life hasn't been the same since that first year and I have learned so much about eagles than I could ever imagine.

sherbertt: Thanks so much for your time this evening! I have to say I have learned a lot this season with no sound. Body language and behavior. No sound necessary. So greatful for what we have!

SueUMc: Ginnie- can't wait for your second book and future projects. I watched your interview- your personality just shined and it was a joy to see your enthusiasm.

Maewood Hamlin: I couldn't ask for a better Birthday present than to have tge cams go live on October 1st! Thank you for making my birthday so special!

Pat Kwap Kemble: Thanks so much MsSmith57. I want to thank the Pritchett so much opening my eyes to eagles. For 2 winter seasons in CT I am a volunteer at an eagle observation center

plnlct: They're beautiful Andy, look so real.

 

Essec09 (Admin): Randy Hester: vlpritchett...you think maybe during the summer the sound will be fixed?

I think your question might have been missed once it was posted.Usually the cameras go through maintenance and a clean-up before they are installed in October.

 

Debbie Fortin: Thank you for answering our questions. It is special having the cam, mods, zoomies, and chats.

Carol Guarco Myers: Thank you for the greatest gift! I found H&M because the news press had an article right after I visited Fort Myers in December. The nest has truly brought so much joy. Thank you again

Susan Kiser: Hello Andy, Ginnie and everyone! I'm happy to be one of the many that SO enjoy the view of your beautiful property and have been following those wonderful eagles for 3 years now!

OVginger: Hola y'all Just tuned in & so very nice to see Ginny &Andy here. We do thank y'all so very much for this window onto Nature. Been enjoying your hospitality since E3 & 4 & your Modsquad is the BEST!!!

 

Sharon Davis: I would like to know if the Pritchett s have a favorite baby eagle besides or beautiful eagle mom and dad by the why thank you for have this time tonight

purpleagle (Admin): Sharon Davis Andy did say Hope and Honor---year one

 

TaraTrac: Ginnie and Ilene, I too have thought of volunteering at the assisted living center where my late mo-in-law lived and sharing SWFEC on their big screen. Many of them have dementia and live in the present, as do the eagles. They watch nature shows and I think they'd love it! Thanks again for all your family does,Ginnie. It got me through a year of cancer treatment with love in my heart. Have a good Easter weekend. {{Eagle hugs}}

Candy Larson: From Idaho here, wanted to say thank you so much Pritchett family for what you do for all of us and especially for the kids. The world would be better off with more people like you!Thank you..

calnurse: I love your book, and happy to hear #2 is in the pipeline.Watching the eagles is a comforting place to go when needing respite from the stresses of daily life. Thank you Pritchetts for your generosity in sharing your world with all of us.

Beaches: Ginnie & Andy, appreciate you taking the time to join us.Andy, my favorite is still E9 with your pickup. I will admit that Pond Princess has given me many chuckles this season too. Thanks again for all that you do.

BluSkye: Good Evening to all. Love all the questions and just wanted to add my thanks for this wonderful amazing experience that you are sharing with us....

 

Gerry Bohn: Good evening Andy and Ginnie. We're all so grateful to you for allowing us to experience behind the scenes. Could you tell us a little about the concept of the 24/7 cam?

Essec09 (Admin): Hi Gerry. I hope you read some of their remarks earlier. I think your question was addressed. At least I hope it was.

 

LCampbell75: how you guys fix the cam when they go down and not being able to go manually fix them?

MsSmith57 (Admin): LC they can only be fixed remotely if possible during eagle nesting season, by pc.

GinnyLWI (Admin): LC,, The cameras will be taken down and at that time they are able to do maintenance on them. They just cannot access the cameras during nesting season October 1 through May 15th

 

kittylove: Thank you so very much Andy & Ginnie! This is my first season and it has been amazing! I have learned so much about eagles! I really became addicted and I have had the cam going in the Operating Room where I work in Idaho at Eagle Eye Surgery!Everyone I work with has thoroughly enjoyed them as well. Lots of multi-tasking going on not wanting to miss anything!

Knothole: You have so much comtrol over everything but your eagle family . Must be strange especially in the beginning wondering if your eagle family would show up the next year

monieagl11: North Carolina here, Thank You SVM what a Blessing this has been for me. Learned so much from Our Patient Mods.You've kept the surrounding area so Beautiful and Serene for these Majestic Eagles. Again Thank You for the Privilege to see these Beautiful Eagles and other wildlife at the Pond. I'm bedridden, my Window into the Wide Blue Yonder😊💞

 

Debbie Nosse: Hi Ginnie and Andy . Do you know where Harriet and Ozzie's nest was before they built the nest on your propery ?

Essec09 (Admin): Hello Debbie. I believe they did know the approximate location of the nest across the main road.

 

beju: This year it seems the natural color of the eagles are quite dull in color are there any plans for a different cameras a few years ago the colors were beautiful from the cam

Essec09 (Admin): Beju, sometimes the settings on your own monitor affect the color. To me the colors have been very vivid. And except for one camera these are the same cameras that have been used for the past couple of years.

 

Elaine Herbert: Do you ever worry about the gator accross the street?Seems the eagles are avoiding that area this year.

samour17 (Admin): Hi ElaineH. There is really not much they can do about the gator at Yonder Pond and it is possible we are not seeing all the time when they are over there.

 

HOeagletfan1: We know Bayshore is a heavily trafficked street with roadkills that is food for the Eagle Family. I worry abt the adults possibly getting hit trying to get the road kills. Can FFW put up signage to warn traffic slow down and be on alert for any animal or eagles on the road ? This nest has seen great happiness and great sadness snd sure don't want to see the sadness once again if not planned well...

Essec09 (Admin): I think you mean something like we see "Deer Crossing" - I'm not sure they would do that for birds. But it is something to think about and maybe bring up to them,HOeagletfan.

 

Magd: What I liked the most is the fact that this livestream has gone much further than just watching some eagles. It is touching human feelings and helping too many people with their problems and stress... it is just do amazing

Cairnmom: Such a wonderful place to come and feel accepted. We smile, laugh, worry and ultimately shed tears of loss when the eaglets leave but also tears of joy and the amazing life they are heading for. Again thank you

DonnaFL47: What a wonderful night with Ginnie and Andy, thank you for doing this. The questions and answers were great. As what all of us have said in the past, thank you for our eagles and also, the wonderful Mods and zoomies. This chat is absolutely a family and it's because of the Pritchetts and our treasured eagles. See you soon, SED.

 

A fungus (pl.: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

 

A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

 

Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.

 

The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.

 

Etymology

The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel ('mold').

 

The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" (mycologicæ) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville. In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to mycology as the study of fungi.

 

A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular). The term mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora. The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that the phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and funga.

 

Characteristics

 

Fungal hyphae cells

Hyphal wall

Septum

Mitochondrion

Vacuole

Ergosterol crystal

Ribosome

Nucleus

Endoplasmic reticulum

Lipid body

Plasma membrane

Spitzenkörper

Golgi apparatus

 

Fungal cell cycle showing Dikaryons typical of Higher Fungi

Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among the general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around the start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:

 

With other eukaryotes: Fungal cells contain membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and coding regions called exons. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type. They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, which is also found in animals).

With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed organic compounds as energy sources.

With plants: Fungi have a cell wall and vacuoles. They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses) produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have haploid nuclei.

With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria produce the amino acid L-lysine in specific biosynthesis steps, called the α-aminoadipate pathway.

The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like (filamentous) structures called hyphae, which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles—cellular structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and other organic molecules—called the Spitzenkörper. Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells. In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous green algae, grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells. There are also single-celled fungi (yeasts) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi have both hyphal and yeast forms.

In common with some plant and animal species, more than one hundred fungal species display bioluminescence.

Unique features:

 

Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by budding or fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions.

The fungal cell wall is made of a chitin-glucan complex; while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods, fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose.

A whitish fan or funnel-shaped mushroom growing at the base of a tree.

Omphalotus nidiformis, a bioluminescent mushroom

Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.

 

Diversity

Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans, parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling them to propel itself through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.

 

As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2000 with a peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown The following year, 2905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups.

 

Mycology

Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.

 

The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.

 

History

Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy.

 

Morphology

Microscopic structures

Monochrome micrograph showing Penicillium hyphae as long, transparent, tube-like structures a few micrometres across. Conidiophores branch out laterally from the hyphae, terminating in bundles of phialides on which spherical condidiophores are arranged like beads on a string. Septa are faintly visible as dark lines crossing the hyphae.

An environmental isolate of Penicillium

Hypha

Conidiophore

Phialide

Conidia

Septa

Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells.

 

Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla,[63] and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.

 

Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.

 

Macroscopic structures

Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years.

 

The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.

 

Growth and physiology

Time-lapse photography sequence of a peach becoming progressively discolored and disfigured

Mold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.

The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues.[71] The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi).[71] The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes.

 

The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication.

 

Fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.

 

Reproduction

Two thickly stemmed brownish mushrooms with scales on the upper surface, growing out of a tree trunk

Polyporus squamosus

Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.

 

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.

 

Sexual reproduction

See also: Mating in fungi and Sexual selection in fungi

Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of the opposite mating type, whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself.

 

Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).

 

In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division, the formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.

 

Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section).

 

In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.

 

Spore dispersal

The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances.

 

Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.

 

Homothallism

In homothallic sexual reproduction, two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis. Homothallic fungi include species with an Aspergillus-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of the ascomycete genus Cochliobolus, and the ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii. The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction.

 

Other sexual processes

Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.

 

Evolution

In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.

 

The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times.

 

In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae, in the Canadian Arctic, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma).

 

Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.

 

Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary.

 

Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap".

 

Taxonomy

Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.

 

There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants, fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms).

 

The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar, "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and Tedersoo et al. 2018. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances.

 

The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. As of 2019, nine major lineages have been identified: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycotina, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.

 

Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). Previously considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought to be either a basal branch of the Fungi, or a sister group–each other's closest evolutionary relative.

 

The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.

 

The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.

 

The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.

 

Microscopic view of a layer of translucent grayish cells, some containing small dark-color spheres

Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.

Cross-section of a cup-shaped structure showing locations of developing meiotic asci (upper edge of cup, left side, arrows pointing to two gray cells containing four and two small circles), sterile hyphae (upper edge of cup, right side, arrows pointing to white cells with a single small circle in them), and mature asci (upper edge of cup, pointing to two gray cells with eight small circles in them)

Diagram of an apothecium (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.

Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.

 

The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., Neurospora crassa).

 

Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.

 

Fungus-like organisms

Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to an ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy.

 

Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.

 

The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.

 

The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" Rozella, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. Alternatively, Rozella can be classified as a basal fungal group.

 

The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. Many Actinomycetales (Actinomycetota), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.

 

Ecology

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.

 

Symbiosis

Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.

 

With plants

Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.

 

A microscopic view of blue-stained cells, some with dark wavy lines in them

The dark filaments are hyphae of the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala in the intercellular spaces of tall fescue leaf sheath tissue

The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at least 400 million years. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.

 

With algae and cyanobacteria

A green, leaf-like structure attached to a tree, with a pattern of ridges and depression on the bottom surface

The lichen Lobaria pulmonaria, a symbiosis of fungal, algal, and cyanobacterial species

Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.

 

With insects

Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the domatia (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods). Ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi growing in dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.

 

A thin brown stick positioned horizontally with roughly two dozen clustered orange-red leaves originating from a single point in the middle of the stick. These orange leaves are three to four times larger than the few other green leaves growing out of the stick, and are covered on the lower leaf surface with hundreds of tiny bumps. The background shows the green leaves and branches of neighboring shrubs.

The plant pathogen Puccinia magellanicum (calafate rust) causes the defect known as witch's broom, seen here on a barberry shrub in Chile.

 

Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab from a woman with candidiasis, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 µm in diameter.

Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch elm disease, Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, and Phymatotrichopsis omnivora causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as Magnaporthe oryzae, can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including Asterotremella albida, which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead.

 

Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.

 

As targets of mycoparasites

Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal diseases. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses.

 

Communication

Main article: Mycorrhizal networks

There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics.

 

Possible impact on climate

According to a study published in the academic journal Current Biology, fungi can soak from the atmosphere around 36% of global fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions.

 

Mycotoxins

(6aR,9R)-N-((2R,5S,10aS,10bS)-5-benzyl-10b-hydroxy-2-methyl-3,6-dioxooctahydro-2H-oxazolo[3,2-a] pyrrolo[2,1-c]pyrazin-2-yl)-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide

Ergotamine, a major mycotoxin produced by Claviceps species, which if ingested can cause gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations

Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.

 

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human use below.

 

Pathogenic mechanisms

Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1. The response protects U. maydis from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence. Furthermore, U. maydis has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.

 

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.

 

Human use

See also: Human interactions with fungi

Microscopic view of five spherical structures; one of the spheres is considerably smaller than the rest and attached to one of the larger spheres

Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells shown with DIC microscopy

The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms. Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy, with applications under research and development including use for textiles, meat substitution and general fungal biotechnology.

 

Therapeutic uses

Modern chemotherapeutics

Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs.

 

Antibiotics

Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.

 

Other

Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom. Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for therapeutic use and appears to cause global increases in brain network integration. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.

 

Traditional medicine

Upper surface view of a kidney-shaped fungus, brownish-red with a lighter yellow-brown margin, and a somewhat varnished or shiny appearance

Two dried yellow-orange caterpillars, one with a curly grayish fungus growing out of one of its ends. The grayish fungus is roughly equal to or slightly greater in length than the caterpillar, and tapers in thickness to a narrow end.

The fungi Ganoderma lucidum (left) and Ophiocordyceps sinensis (right) are used in traditional medicine practices

Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis.

 

Cultured foods

Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.

A devoted rail fan seen thru the underside of a hopper car on the passing Union Pacific RR Troy Grove local as it goes thru the small unincorporated hamlet of Elva, IL

Fountains Abbey is one of the largest and best preserved ruined Cistercian

monasteries in England. It is located approximately three miles south-west of Ripon.

 

The Abbey church was built in 1160, by a band of Cistercian monks who had devoted themselves to the worship of Christ. They had no room in their lives for dark romantic fantasies, and if one of them happened to feel a bit queasy around the time of a full moon, he would have taken himself straight off to the infirmary and asked for a fortifying herbal drink.

 

Cistercian monks were distinguished by their white robes, or habits. They believed in working the land so that their monastery was self-sufficient. This meant growing crops, keeping sheep and shearing them for wool, and grinding corn to bake bread. Any food left over from the monks’ table was given to the poor, and Fountains Abbey received a steady stream of hungry visitors once its reputation for generosity became widely known.

 

There were two kinds of monks living at Fountains Abbey: choir monks and lay brothers. The choir monks observed the Canonical Hours; seven times a day, the tolling of the bell in the lantern tower would summon them to prayer. Even at two o’clock in the morning, they would rise from their dormitory and walk down the stone stairs into the church below, guided only by candlelight. There was no point in complaining – the bell didn’t have a snooze button – and they had taken a vow of silence, anyway.

 

The lay brothers, on the other hand, did lots of manual labour. Their job was to plough the fields, harvest the crops, tend the livestock, operate the mill, tan hides for leather, brew ale, supervise the store-rooms and prepare meals. Some of them helped in the infirmary, while others were skilled stonemasons and carpenters.

 

It all seems such a peaceful rural idyll: no arguments, no suffering, no violence, and definitely no blood-letting. Wait…did I say no blood-letting?

 

Well, one thing that the monks were very careful about was their health. They ate a frugal but fairly varied diet, consisting mainly of vegetables, fruit and fish. However, during the Middle Ages, medical practices were primitive by today’s standards and science was mingled with folklore and fear. If diseases were unsavoury, sometimes the remedies were just as unpleasant. The abbot of Fountains Abbey obviously felt that prevention was better than cure, and every few months he gave orders for a bit of blood letting. Organised, peaceful blood letting however; not salivating, going-for-the-jugular kind of blood letting.

 

This procedure was believed to purge and purify the body, and it took place in the Warming Room, where massive log fires were left blazing. We don’t know how much blood was taken from each monk, but apparently it was considered sacred, and it was carried away and buried in the grounds of the Abbey. The monks were allowed to rest afterwards before resuming their duties.

 

What seems, to our modern eyes, a rather weird and gruesome practice was rooted in deeply-held beliefs: the monks were simply respecting the principles laid down by their holy order. But I’m sure at least some of them would have been glad to take a couple of vitamin tablets instead!

 

Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries Fountains Abbey grew to become one of Britain’s wealthiest monasteries, owning vast estates in the north of England and exporting fleeces to Flanders and Italy. But for the monks, time was running out.

 

In 1539, incensed with the Pope in not allowing his divorce of Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII hunted for revenge – and where better than the rich monasteries scattered across his country, all under the guardianship of the Roman Catholic church? He set about destroying them, seizing their assets, and turning the monks out of their homes. Four hundred years of worship at Fountains Abbey came to an undignified end. Today it stands in ruins, although an atmosphere of serenity still remains.

 

As you gaze up at the spectacular remains of Fountains Abbey, in its heyday one of the richest monasteries in medieval Britain, it strikes you as somewhat ironic that its founders had abandoned a comfortable lifestyle in favour of simplicity, servitude… and a considerable degree of suffering.

 

In December 1132, the atmosphere in the nearby Benedictine Abbey of St Mary’s in York was somewhat less than peaceful. Far from following the discipline prescribed by St Benedict in the sixth century, the monks at St Mary’s were indulging themselves a little too freely for the liking of some of their brethren.

 

According to reputable sources, a riot broke out and the rebels – 13 monks who craved a more spartan existence – fled to the Archbishop of York for protection. The Archbishop was not too badly off himself, owning extensive lands around Ripon, and he granted them permission to establish a new monastery in the valley of the River Skell.

 

Snowdrop carpetView from west, showing dormitory and cellariumGreat news for the monks… they could build a new life for themselves! The bad news was that it was winter, and they had nowhere to stay. The valley, far from being the rural idyll that it appears today, was considered at that time to be “more fit for wild beasts than men to inhabit.” It did, however, offer a degree of shelter as well as a plentiful source of building materials and a good supply of drinking water. The National Trust guidebook says that the monks lived under an elm tree and covered themselves with straw; if this was indeed the case, they were hardy and committed individuals.

 

Although the Archbishop of York sent regular supplies of bread, the monks needed support of a different kind. They wrote to Bernard, the Abbot of Clairvaux Abbey in France, who despatched a monk to instruct them in the observance of Canonical Hours; he would also teach them how to build an abbey in accordance with Cistercian principles.

 

DoorwayThe first church was made of wood, but soon afterwards a much more impressive edifice was rising from the valley floor: the present Abbey church, with its magnificent west front, was finished around 1160. Stonemasons used locally-hewn sandstone, and massive oak beams supported the roof. Inside, the white-painted walls reflected the sunlight that streamed in through the many windows, and the effect must have been both stunning and uplifting. What must it have been like to hear a choir singing in there?

 

The Cistercian order, which the monks had adopted, called for a life of self-imposed hardship; they wore coarse wool habits and followed a strict routine of prayer and meditation, which involved long night vigils as well as daytime worship. They must have been freezing for most of the time… although there is a crumb of comfort in the survival of a ‘warming room’, where huge log fires allowed them a precious few minutes of warmth before embarking on their next duty. In the south end of the transept there is still a doorway, through which the monks would have emerged at two o’clock in the morning as they made their way from their dormitory and down some stairs towards the church, their steps lit only by candlelight.

 

In 1170, around 60 monks were living at Fountains Abbey, along with 200 lay brothers. The lay brothers were essential to the survival of the Abbey, because they were skilled craftsmen such as stonemasons, shoemakers, smiths and tanners. Many more were farm labourers and shepherds, managing the monastery’s ever-expanding estates. Some of them slept in the large dormitory at Fountains Abbey, while others lived on neighbouring farms. The system worked so efficiently that, by the mid-1400s, the monastery was one of the richest in England, and fleeces from the sheep were being sold as far afield as Italy. Hardly the spartan establishment to which its founders had aspired.

 

With guest houses, abbots’ quarters, dormitories, a refectory, kitchens, a cellarium for food storage, an infirmary, and a muniment room for the safe keeping of important books and papers, this large complex required precise and careful management. The monks were pretty much self-sufficient: there was a mill just across the river, grinding wheat, rye, barley and oats for bread; in the wool house, fleeces from the Abbey’s sheep were made into clothes and blankets; a tannery ensured an ongoing supply of leather and skins, and fishponds offered a healthy source of food. Hillside springs provided fresh water, while the toilets or ‘reredorter’ were contained in a two-storey extension over the River Skell. Not a bad idea! Although chilly, I should imagine.

 

Passing travellers were always welcome, and beggars were given food left over from the monks’ table. While ordinary visitors were shown into modest accommodation, the more prestigious guests were entertained in style; there are records of minstrels, travelling players and a ‘strange fabulist’ in the Abbey’s expense sheets. The elderly and the sick were cared for in the infirmary, which was a sizeable building in itself. But no women were admitted within the sacred walls: they had to remain in the Outer Court.

 

Blood-letting was one of the monks’ less attractive pastimes, as if they didn’t already subject themselves to enough rigours. The practice, which was carried out three or four times a year, was intended to purify the body. (If I was ever in any doubt of my absolute unsuitability for a cloistered life, this seals the matter). The extracted blood was later buried in reverence.

 

It sounds as if they all did pretty well – blood-letting notwithstanding – but that’s not to say that the Abbey and its inhabitants never suffered hard times. There were years of poor harvests and famine, and these in turn led to skirmishes by desperate raiders from Scotland. In the mid-1300s the Black Death reared its ugly face, carrying away at least a third of the Abbey’s inhabitants and leaving a shortage of labourers to till the fields.

 

East frontThe Abbey’s most noticeable feature, the 167-foot tower known as Huby’s Tower, was a comparatively late addition; prior to this, there would have been a smaller ‘lantern tower’ placed centrally over the church. Built in 1500, Huby’s Tower was the inspiration of Abbot Marmaduke Huby, and it bears a Latin inscription on each face, as well as carvings and statues. Today its broken crenellations are home to a flock of jackdaws; when they all take flight, they look like bees around an enormous beehive.

 

Old bridgeThings went very badly pear-shaped in 1539, as they did for monasteries up and down the kingdom. Henry VIII, furious with the Pope for denying him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, hit on an ingenious but ruthless solution. He turned his back on the Roman Catholic Church and declared himself head of the new Church of England. No more Pope-worship for him – he preferred the seductive delights of Anne Boleyn.

 

England’s abbeys and nunneries, which had been rising to a state of comfortable wealth over the centuries, were now in the firing line. To Henry, they represented an establishment that he hated with a vengeance – but their assets would come in very handy. He lost no time in destroying the buildings, evicting their occupants and seizing their estates.

 

A deed of surrender was signed at Fountains Abbey in 1539. In keeping with Henry’s orders, the place had to be made unfit for worship. The roof was pulled off, the lead and glass were stripped from the windows and any remaining religious relics were removed. Stone was plundered for new buildings elsewhere, and nature began to reclaim the broken bones of former glory.

 

The story of Fountains Abbey didn’t end at that point, though it was over 200 years before it entered a surprising new chapter. In 1767 the estate was acquired by William Aislabie, who soon set to work designing an elegant pleasure park. He planted trees, dug lakes and created paths that led past Gothic-style temples and summerhouses to a point on the opposite side of the valley, where guests could enjoy a ‘surprise view’ of the Abbey in its picturesque state of decay. Poets and artists came to explore and be inspired: J M W Turner painted the Abbey on several occasions.

 

Today, the ruins of Fountains Abbey are carefully tended, so they don’t have quite the same romantic abandon which they must have presented in Turner’s time. On the other hand, they are in much less danger of imminent collapse! As you walk down the nave towards the Chapel of Nine Altars the great east window gapes in front of you, bereft of its beautiful tracery and glasswork, but breathtaking all the same. Anyone who entered the church in its heyday would have been almost struck dumb with awe.

 

Huby's TowerBlind doorways in Huby's TowerColumns and arches soar to dizzying heights, and as your gaze follows them upwards, your attention is drawn to isolated wooden doors, once clasped by cold, pious hands, now leading into nothing but thin air. Deep shadows lurk in the aisles and transept, intriguing but not unkindly. Sacrilegious though it might appear, I searched for ‘Fountains Abbey hauntings’ and found that the voices of a ghostly choir sometimes echo through the Chapel of Nine Altars. That’s something I’d quite like to hear.

 

With a sudden flapping of wings, a pigeon launches itself from a window ledge. The songs of blackbirds and thrushes float across from the woodland. Otherwise, silence reigns – and it’s a peaceful silence.

  

Construction of the Mini first began in 1959, with the car designed by the British Motor Corporation's (BMC) chief designer Sir Alec Issigonis, who envisaged a car that had as much space as was humanly possible devoted to the passenger so as to combine the practicality of a big car with the nippy nature of a Dune Buggy. The result was that 80% of the car's platform was available for use by both passengers and luggage. The car was also designed to be fuel efficient, built in response to the 1956 Suez Crisis which resulted in rising fuel prices and petrol rationing. During this period it became apparent that German 'Bubble Car' equivalents such as the Heinkel Kabine and various Messerschmitt designs were starting to corner the market, and thus the Mini project was launched under project name ADO15 (Amalgamated Drawing Office project number 15). Great care was taken to make sure that as much space was saved for the passenger, including the instalment of compact rubber springs instead of conventional metal and the small but powerful BMC A-Series four-cylinder engine tucked away at the front.

 

In April 1959 the car was launched to the press under the designation of both the Austin Seven and the Morris Mini-Minor (due to the amalgamation of the Austin and Morris brands under BMC). By the time the car was let loose thousands had already been sent abroad in an audacious promotional campaign. Things however started slow for the Mini, but this rising star soon became an icon during the 1960's, selling 1,190,000 by 1967.

 

But, behind all the shining sales figures, there were some major problems for BMC and their wonderchild. Baffled by the car, Ford bought one for the base price of £497 and took it apart, desperate to know how their rivals were doing it for the money. As it turns out they weren't, and were able to determine that BMC was losing at least £30 on every single car they sold. Novelty was the only way to get the car properly moving in this competitive new world, and the Mini was all about that. By 1970 the car had appeared in a variety of movies and TV shows, the most famous of which was their charge to glory in the 1969 film 'The Italian Job', where a trio of Minis were used to plunder gold from under the noses of the Mafia and the Italian Authorities. A Leyland Mini holds a place in the heart of British TV under the ownership of Mr. Bean and his various clumsy antics, usually involving an unfortunate Reliant Regal. At the same time it was a car of choice for TV and Music Stars who wanted to show off their quirks!

 

From then on the car continued to keep up its notorious status as a British symbol of motoring, with a huge variety of cars being made including a spacious van, a country camper, a pickup truck and the Moke dune buggy! There were also two almost identical saloon versions of the car known as the Wolseley Hornet and the Riley Elf that were built between 1961 and 1969 as more luxurious alternatives to the original.

 

In 1969 the first major facelift came in the form of the Clubman, designed under British Leyland to give the car a new lease of life, but ended up being something of a mongrel. Although functionally the same, the boys at British Leyland couldn't help but get things off to a bad start by relocating construction from the Cowley Plant to the Longbridge Plant, which meant that all kits and tools had to be moved too and thus initial sales were very slow. British Leyland's reliability reputation was soon to follow, with the unfortunate Mini becoming a victim of the shoddy workmanship that had mired so many of its other products.

 

Eventually the Clubman was killed off in 1980, although the original Mini design had been built alongside and was still selling strong. British Leyland however had plans to kill off the Mini in 1980 by introducing its new small economy car, the Austin Metro. Built very much to the same principals of the Mini, the Metro was a much more angular design but still a capable little family hatchback. But the angular lines and big bulky body did nothing for the Metro, and the car failed to sell in the numbers domestically than those of the Mini internationally!

 

Towards the end of the 1980's and 1990's, the car came in a variety of different 'Special Editions' as the car became less of a mass-market machine and more a fashion item. The iconic nature of the car had sealed its fate with new owners of the Rover Group, BMW, who intended to keep the car going for as long as possible. At the same time the car was a major seller in Japan, which gave a boost of sales in the early 1990's with 40,000 new cars being exported there.

 

Eventually however, the design was starting to look very tired and with Rover Group making heavy losses, the Mini and its spiritual cousin the Metro were killed off in 2000 and 1999, respectively. Rover was granted the ability to run-out the model to the very end before Rover itself was sold off in 2000. During the breakup, BMW designed a new version of the Mini which was launched in 2000 and is still being built today as quite a sleek and popular machine, a little bit more bulky than the original but certainly keeping the novelty and charm. The originals however ended on the 4th October 2000, with a red Mini Cooper S bringing an end to 5,387,862 cars.

 

However, although the original Mini is now very much dead, the novelty that surrounds these tiny little cars is enough to keep thousands and thousands of these machines preserved or in continual everyday usage. Older Mini-Minors are a bit hard to come by and the Clubmans rusted away before you could get them home from the showroom, but the later Mini's sold in the 1980's and 1990's are still alive and kicking on the roads of Britain, and can still draw the attention of passers by even 56 years after the first ones left the production line!

As a part of my thesis many years ago I studied Sir John Millais' Scottish landcsapes. During 2007-08 Tate Briain held a large retrospective exhibition of Millais' works, with a room devoted to the late landscapes. Flowing to the Sea, painted in 1871, was however not among them. It was Millais second large scale landscape painting and was a pendant to its more autumnal counterpart Flowing to the river, which was painted close to this scene.

 

As an artist who is very interested in the nature of the relationship between photography and painting etc these landcapes were of great interest to me. They still are. I post a few of them that are not featured in the 2007-08 exhibition.

www.flickr.com/groups/millais/discuss/72157603743700835/

Flowing to the Sea is not typical of Millais' later landscapes; being earlier in the season, possibly late September. It is in total contrast to his painting ChillOctober of the previous year. The colours are warm and the light still bright, a large expanse of the blue Tay as it rushes past Waullkmill Ferry. The spot is one of the most easy to identify of all of Millais' later landscapes as it has changed little in 140 years. His son John (later his biographer) and Miss Stibbard posed as models. The hens and milkmaid give the scene a bucolic feel possibly echoing some of Gainsborough's landscape paintigs. The milk pail occurs in two other landscapes, Winter Fuel and Lingering Autumn see below and featured in an earlier small genre piece of 1860's. The rich uniform of the Highlander gave Millais the chance to create a daring harmony of red against the blues of the river below. This painting has no direct narrative. The bright sunlight of the scene is similar to that seen in "The Boyhood of Raleigh" 1870, the brushwork too shows Millais' confident new style and a complete break with his transitional work of the 1860's. A few years later Millais painted "A Yeoman of The Guard" in similarly rich pigment. It was Millais' practice to have a small wooden hut constructed on site which formed a temporary studio, from this vantage point he would work for five weeks or so painting direct from the subject before him, this was in marked difference to earler landscape artists of C18 and even notable painters like Turner and Constable who painted from studies and smaller sketches made on the spot. Millais work although far removed in style from that of the impressionist artist in France was suprisingly original in iits style. Close inspection of Flowing to the Sea, shows a painter who shows complete mastery over his medium and a deftness of touch and accuracy of observation that makes this work very appealing. The painting is owned by Southampton Art Gallery.

 

Waldemar Januszczak

There is a type of career only British artists seem to have, which begins to go soft when they achieve some success, then rots to a mush when they get a knighthood. Or, worse, a peerage. These depressing careers, ruined by pats on the back from the Establishment, are a recurring event in British art. Remember Reynolds; remember Lord Leighton; remember, perish the thought, Sir Alfred Munnings? I suppose it happens in all walks of life, not just in art. Once someone is persuaded of their importance by the placating mechanisms of the state, they have no further need to prove it to the rest of us. It is no coincidence that the real achievers of British art – Hogarth, Gainsborough, Blake, Turner, Constable, Henry Moore, Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud – were not offered knighthoods, or, better still, turned them down. On the other side of the scales, I give you Sir Hubert von Herkomer, Sir James Thornhill, Sir Edward Poynter, Sir Charles Wheeler, Sir Thomas Monnington. Case closed, I believe.

 

All this is worth remembering as we turn our attention to Sir John Everett Millais, Bart, the first artist to receive a hereditary title, and the subject now of a stimulating tribute at the increasingly impressive Tate Britain. Not to be confused, of course, with the increasingly popular Tate Modern. Tate Britain has been ploughing manfully through the big British art careers in a determined effort to fulfil its remit and define our national characteristics. Most of the time, this has involved focusing on the rebels – Blake, Gainsborough, Constable – because they have been the real achievers. Occasionally, however, it pays to examine the lickspittles. Reynolds was a good show. Sargent, too. And Millais is a very good show.

 

Millais might almost be considered a paradigm of the “ruined by worldly success” story line. As a founder member of the preRaphaelite brotherhood in 1848, aged only 19, he played a key part in one of the noisiest rebellions in British art. Everything the preRaphaelites did annoyed the art establishment. You can see why as soon as you confront Christ in the House of his Parents, from 1850. We’re actually in Joseph’s workshop, where the child Jesus has punctured his hand on a carpenter’s nail and is being clucked over by his parents as the blood drips fatefully from his palm to his foot. Joseph goes: “There, there.” Mary offers him her cheek, in the manner of an underage Essex mum in a supermarket. And John the Baptist looks as if he is about to be sick. It’s a lurid, wild-eyed and ludicrous religious hallucination made up of heightened states.

 

I was less convinced by the late landscapes, for which so much is being claimed. Painted during Millais’s annual autumn sojourn in Scotland, they have not been shown in these sorts of numbers since his memorial exhibition in 1898. The best of them are a pleasant record of Scotland’s lovely colours and moody spans. But most are spoilt by coy and unnecessary human props, brought in to heighten the drama. A little girl lugs water across a bog. An old woman trudges down a forest path. An angelic angler fishes in a divided river. Millais’s old problem is back. He can’t turn off the sentiment.

 

— Millais, Tate Britain, SW1, until January 13

  

Second in a series of five photos of my mother entered in the 2025 Many Faces of Mom contest. Here are the third and first entries.

 

After retiring from competitive skating in 1954 mom married John and threw herself completely into her (subsequently) life-long pursuit of raising her five children in partnership with my father. She was attentive and sensitive to our various inclinations and needs, and with a seemingly inexhaustible store of energy and positivity (though I'm sure it didn't feel that way to her at times!). This is a photo of her with the five of us at Easter, 1968.

 

As one example of thousands, I credit her with my love of rock-climbing: when I was perhaps 7 or 8 years old the family was on a hike when we came across a somewhat rickety old fire tower. I was scared to follow my father and older brothers up, so my mother (who I learned many years later was even more terrified than I was) took me by the hand and told me "C'mon, it will be fun! Let's go!" -- she said she didn't want me to be limited by my fears.

 

www.flickr.com/photos/124838434@N03/25278725543/in/datepo...

 

Black verssion: marketplace.secondlife.com/p/Davoted-Collar-BLACK/8773591

 

White verssion: marketplace.secondlife.com/p/Davoted-Collar-White/8773592

The Cumberland University graduate was a devoted husband and father, a member of the Methodist Church, devout Bible reader and a gentleman who was respected by all. An attorney, he was an eloquent speaker who used his gift well as a politician. He ran for three political offices: state representative, governor and Congress winning the former and latter races.

Above all, he was resolute in his belief that the Union should not divide and dissolve into civil war. Yet, when the Southern states seceded, he cast his lot with Tennessee, and, eventually, the Confederacy, a decision that cost his life.

Robert Hopkins Hatton was born Nov. 2, 1826, in Youngstown or Steubenville, Ohio, to Robert Clopton Hatton, a Methodist Episcopal minister, and his wife Margaret. The couple had six children, two who died in infancy. Young Robert began school at six in Alleghany City, Pa., and the family moved to Nashville in 1835 when he was eight. In 1837 the Hattons relocated to a farm in the Beech Grove community of Sumner County. While his father preached in Gallatin and later clerked and taught school, the boy worked on the farm, enjoyed hunting foxes with his dogs and studying in school. In the fall of 1845, Cumberland University allowed an 18-year-old Hatton to enter the junior class. Two years later he graduated with his class of four in June 1847.

Helping relay the story of Hatton from this point will be Martin Frost, 61, a Lebanon resident who is semiretired from Kimbro Oil Company as an accountant and chief financial officer and who has been portraying General Hatton since 1998. “I first heard of Hatton the first year I was here in 1984 as we drove around the square. I asked who the General was on the top of the Confederate monument,” said Frost, a member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, the Robert H. Hatton Camp #723, which was named in memory and honor of Hatton.

Frost proceeded to study the General's life and then was asked to play Hatton at a Cedar Grove Cemetery candlelight tour. “I usually portray him three or four times a year at the fairgrounds or on the square for tourism visits, and different civic organizations have asked me to tell the story of Robert Hatton in uniform. It’s usually just here in the County because he’s not too widely known,” Frost said.

As for Hatton’s progress after graduation, Frost shares, “He entered Cumberland’s law school for one year and ran out of money, so he went to teach. He didn’t like that. He came back to Lebanon and obtained a license to practice law and studied and was able to pass the bar exam and worked as an attorney, and then Cumberland University gave him a law degree, probably because of the relationships he had with his professors.”

Hatton joined in the practice of law in 1850 in a partnership with Col. Jordan Stokes of Lebanon. In the spring of 1850 he was appointed by the board of managers of the Washington Monument in the District of Columbia as an agent to present its claims to the people of Tennessee. And on Dec. 16, 1852, he married Sophie K. Reilly, six months his junior, of Williamson County.

WLM - Robert HattonAbout this time, he dissolved his partnership with Stokes and formed a new one, the firm of Hatton and Green, attorneys- and counselors- at-law, with Nathan Green Jr.

In 1855 as a candidate for the Whig party, the Lebanon lawyer was elected as representative from Wilson County to the General Assembly of Tennessee. While he served in Nashville, his wife and children, Reilly, Manie and later, Emily, resided in Lebanon. Then he ran as the American and Whig party candidate for governor in 1857. By this time Lebanon townsfolk referred to him as “Our Bob”. “In this race against Isham Harris for governor, they were traveling together and stumping around the State. They were at odds in Fayetteville and had a fistfight on the platform. He whipped Harris, who was quite a bit older,” said Frost. “He won the fight but lost the election.”

In 1858 Hatton was elected Grand Master for the Order of Tennessee of the Grand Lodge of the Order of Odd Fellows, and in 1859, he ran and won the election to the U.S. Congress as Representative from the State’s Fifth District. “He did a lot of traveling while campaigning and as member of the Order of Odd Fellows,” said Frost. “I think he loved his wife a lot and enjoyed the children. He was very intelligent and must have been well liked. He seemed to succeed in everything he tried.”

Hatton traveled to the District of Columbia in November 1859, leaving his family at their home on the northeast corner of Lebanon’s West Main Street and Hatton Avenue, 327 W. Main, a site on Lebanon's Civil War Trail (today the location of the Shelter Insurance office).

A reporter for The New York Times provides a detailed description of the tall, 136-pound Hatton from Congress in mid-January 1860.

Robert Hatton, of Tennessee, then obtained the floor for a set speech, and at once commanded attention. He is rather tall, rather thin, with a large head and long face, made longer by a profusion of orange chinbeard, harmonizing well with pink cheeks, a large fair forehead, high and expansive; blue eyes, set wide apart on each side of a small irregular nose, high cheek bones, and a great quantity of thick brown hair, rather inclined to curl, but hardly having length sufficient to indulge its propensity. Decidedly, Mr. Hatton has more of the studied graces of an orator than any member yet seen upon the floor. His gestures are full, found, and appropriate—seldom violent—never grotesque, but always emphatic, and with an inclination to the florid order. His head shows imagination, and the perceptives largely developed—the qualities of causality and caution, however, not being visibly from this gallery—if at all existing. His voice is musical and full of the church-organ tone; and he speaks with the deliberativeness of a man determined to say nothing in support of which he is not willing to stand a pistol shot.

From his hotel in the nation’s capitol, Hatton wrote his wife frequently asking about the children and how much he missed family and home. His epistles often reported on sermons he heard while visiting a variety of church denominations. He kept Sophie up to- date on his Bible reading and commented frequently about the drinking of many of those serving in Congress. (Hatton wouldn’t touch a drop of wine or liquor while in D.C.)

Most fervent upon his heart and mind was the fact that a crack in the Union was unavoidable. Hatton wrote his wife Dec. 6, 1860: Now that I am here, my worst anticipations are more than realized. Disunion is inevitable. What will follow, God only knows. Have, today, listened to furious speeches from Wigfall, of Texas; Iverson, of Georgia; and Brown, of Mississippi. Go out of the Union, their States are determined to. So, with South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida and perhaps others. There is not wisdom or patriotism enough in the land to save it.

In his diary two days later, Hatton noted: What shall I write? That the government is upon the eve of disruption. It is. The indications today, are, that before the 4th day of March, five or six of the Southern States will secede. The probabilities are that all the other Southern States will follow, and very soon. The folly of mankind has never been greater than is now being exhibited by the politicians of the South, and the North. Disunion is ruin to both sections.

Hatton made an impassioned speech Feb. 8, 1861, to the U.S. House of Representatives, but war between the states was plunging nearer like a runaway steam locomotive without a brakeman. When the 36th Congress adjourned, Hatton returned to Lebanon, still speaking his piece on holding the country together. His most famous speech, according to Frost, was made April Fool’s Day 1861, as for 2½ hours he urged his fellow citizens to remain in the Union. That night, tempers flared. “A crowd of people, some seem to think they were students from Cumberland, came to his house after everyone had gone to bed and started yelling and beating on pots and pans,” said Frost. “It woke everybody up, and Hatton came out with a pistol and fired it a few times, and they dispersed. A little bit later on the square, he was burned in effigy.”

Whatever strong feelings Hatton held for the Union, attitudes would change upon the news from Fort Sumter, S.C., and the news of President Lincoln calling for 75,000 volunteers to “put down the rebellion”. Hatton volunteered his services to the State of Tennessee. In May he called for volunteers for the Provisional Army of Tennessee and was elected captain of a company of 100 or more men out of Lebanon. “Six companies, totaling about 600 men from Wilson County, left Lebanon on May 20, 1861, and were mustered in at Nashville, and then took the train to Camp Trousdale in Sumner County. They were half finished with basic training when Tennessee declared its independence and separation,” said Frost. “Six companies from Wilson County and four from Sumner, Smith and DeKalb counties formed the 7th Tennessee Infantry Regiment, and Capt. Hatton was elected colonel. He trained and armed them well, and about July 20, they loaded on a train and then went to Nashville to Chattanooga to Knoxville to Bristol and to Virginia.

“Hatton had made arrangements to meet his wife in Nashville just before he left, but she was unable to meet him. So when he left Lebanon, he never saw his family again other than the little boy who came over to training camp a few days.” Hatton and his men initially fought in some smaller battles of the war as he served with Gen. Robert E. Lee in the Cheat Mountain Campaign and then with Gen. Stonewall Jackson in the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley in fall and winter of 1861-62. He wrote numerous letters to his wife from Warm Springs, Va. In the spring Hatton’s troops were directed to the peninsula below Richmond, Va.

In his last correspondence, dated May 28, 1862, 6:30 p.m., from near Richmond, Hatton wrote: The struggle, will no doubt, be bloody; that we will triumph, and that gloriously, I am confident. Would that I might bind to my heart, before the battle, my wife and children. That pleasure may never again be granted to me. If so, farewell; and may the God of all mercy be to you and ours, a guardian and friend. “If we meet again, we’ll smile; If not, this parting has been well.” Affectionately your husband, R. Hatton.

On the evening of May 31, 1862, Hatton, who had been promoted to Brigadier General eight days previously, formed his line in the presence of Confederate President Jefferson Davis, General Lee and Gen. Joe Johnston at the Battle of Seven Pines, also known as the Battle of Fair Oaks. “He had been given command of the Tennessee brigade, and on the 31st the brigade was held in reserve,” said Frost. “But about 6 o’clock they were ordered to the front to make a charge. They did, and evidently did a fine job. Hatton was on his horse, and he was leading the charge. A charge was a walking movement to the front, an orderly advance to the front. Hatton, on his horse, he was a tremendous target.”

Last seen alive in the charge on Nine Mile Road, Hatton was waving his hat, and his voice cheered his men with his final words, “Forward, my brave boys! Forward!” When his favorite horse, Ball, was shot from beneath him, the young General got up, ran forward and in less then 30 steps later, he fell beneath the blast of a hostile gun. There is still an argument as to whether he was hit by rifle shot or cannon shot, but a missile to the head killed him instantly. The time was reported as sunset. Hatton was 35. (Of Hatton’s original 1,000 soldiers from Wilson, Smith, Sumner and DeKalb counties, only 47 survived when General Lee surrendered April 9, 1865, at Appomattox.) Hatton’s body was carried off the field of battle by two of his soldiers as the Tennessee Brigade fell back to the original line of the battle. His pistols were found by a Union soldier and returned to his family 30 years later.

WLM - Gen. Hattons widow Sophie who lived to 89“The body was placed on a train and shipped to Tennessee. Because the bridge across the Tennessee River at Chattanooga had been burned, they were not able to send the body back to Lebanon,” said Frost. “Someone made the decision to bury the body in Knoxville. It remained in Knoxville until spring of 1866, and in March the body was brought back.”

Nearly four years after his death, Hatton was buried on a rainy day, March 23, 1866. His mortal remains were taken from his house on West Main to the Methodist Church where every seat was filled. Thousands were reported to have attended the funeral of “the most popular man in Lebanon”. From the church, the mile-long procession to Cedar Grove Cemetery was fronted by Hatton’s slave, Jerry, who had accompanied him during the war. Jerry led a black mare that belonged to Hatton. The General was finally laid to rest in his hometown.

Nine years later, in 1875, Reilly, Hatton’s son, died at age 21½ on the eve before he was to graduate from Cumberland University. He was buried beside his father. As for Hatton’s other survivors, his widow Sophie lived a good, long life, serving 15 years as a missionary to Japan and for eight years as state librarian of Tennessee. She died in 1916 at the age of 89. Daughter Manie Campbell Hatton never wed and taught for 53 years in Middle Tennessee, 48 of those years at Howard School in Nashville. She died in 1938 at 82. Daughter Emily married missionary Willard Towson, and they carried the gospel to Japan for 22 years. She had two sons and a daughter. One son, Hatton D. Towson, served in World War I and was wounded in the Battle of Argonne in 1919 and died from his injuries later that year back home in Georgia.

General Hatton's closest living relative is Mary Em Towson Hobbs, of Decatur, Ga. Her father was Lambuth Reilly Towson, the son of Emily Hatton Towson, the General's youngest child. “There are five living descendants of four generations. I’m the oldest, 80 years old,” said Hobbs during a phone interview in January. “I’m the great-granddaughter, and my brother had two sons. One of them is 60 and one is 56, and one of them has a daughter and she has a nine-year-old son.”

WLM - Mary Em Townson Hobbs is Gen. Hattons closest living relativeAs for what she knows about her great-grandfather, pieces of family history were handed down from her parents and other family members, and she spent some time as a child with her great-aunt Manie, the General's daughter. She has also gleaned much from a half dozen or so trips to Lebanon, specifically from meeting with the local members of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, the Robert H. Hatton Camp, who have made her an honorary member. “Every time I come up there, I learn more from them than they learn from me, but it’s been thrilling,” she said.

During one visit in recent years, she and her nephew, Robert Hatton Towson, who lives in Goodlettsville, shared some of the family memorabilia with the group, such as Hatton's diaries. Asked for her conclusions about what she believes her greatgrandfather Hatton was like, and she answered, “I would say he had a personality to stand up for what he thought.”

Buried in Cedar Grove Cemetery, Hatton’s grave lies about 20 yards inside the entrance of Gate 2 on the north side of the road. A 16-foot-tall limestone obelisk, erected by the survivors of the 7th Tennessee, marks his grave, and nearby are interred his wife, his parents, his three children and a grandson.

Inscribed on the west face of the obelisk are the words:

General Robert Hatton

Born Nov. 2, 1826

Fell May 31, 1862

While leading the Tenn. Brigade in the Battle of Seven Pines, Va.

As for Lebanon’s most famous landmark, the monument topped by Hatton’s statue on the square?

“In the late 1800’s, the Confederate veterans began to feel compelled to erect monuments at cemeteries and town squares in memory of all their fallen comrades,” explained Frost. “It was happening all across the South. Here, they had already put one monument up in 1899 in Cedar Grove Cemetery. “I think the United Daughters of the Confederacy approached the City about putting up a statue in the center of square, and they were given ownership of the space to erect a Confederate monument. The veterans raised the money and designed the monument.”

Thus, on May 20, 1912, a monument unveiling occurred with great fanfare in Lebanon as the people of Wilson County honored their Confederate veterans. The area overflowed with people, horses and buggies, as the grandchildren of the veterans sang “Dixie” and a Tennessee National Guard detail fired a salute.

WLM- Limestone obelisk marks Hattons gravesite at Cedar Grove CemetryOn the western face of this limestone monument, GENL HATTON is etched below the officer’s feet. Beneath it reads: Erected in honor of the Confederate veterans of Wilson County and all other true Southern soldiers 1861-1865. The south face bears the words: As long as honor or courage is cherished the deeds of these heroes will live. Whether on the scaffold high or in the battles of van the fittest place for man to die is when he dies for man.” The east face reads: “To our mothers and daughters of the Confederacy from 1861 to the present;” and the north face informs: “Erected by the S.G. Shepard Camp No. 941 UCV with contributions from true friends of the Southern soldier.”

Curiously, some may notice, Hatton’s statue faces west. Noted Frost, “Most monuments of Confederate officers face either north or south—either facing the enemy or turning their back—but Hatton faces west and is standing, not mounted. The reason everyone understands is because when he left for Nashville, he was going west. That was the last time the townspeople saw him.

“Had he not been killed, had he survived during the war; no doubt he would have been a major general commanding a division,” opined Frost, who had two great-great-grandfathers serve in the Confederacy. Said Lebanon businessman Jack Cato, a true student of the Civil War whose greatgrandfather fought under Hatton, “He was a very bright young man, and he had served in the state legislature and had run for governor and been in Congress at the outbreak of the war. We just wonder what his legacy would have been had he lived.”

GENERAL ROBERT HOPKINS HATTON

 

Born: Nov. 2, 1826, in Youngstown or Steubenville, Ohio

Died: May 31, 1862, in the Battle of Seven Pines, aka the Battle of Fair Oaks

Buried: Cedar Grove Cemetery in Lebanon

Parents: Robert Clopton Hatton and Margaret Campbell Hatton

Wife: Sophia Keron Reilly

Children: Son Reilly, daughters Manie and Emily

Education: Graduate of Cumberland University

Career: Lawyer, politician-statesman, soldier

Military: Captain, Colonel of 7th Tennessee Infantry Regiment,

Brigadier General of Tennessee Brigade

Associations: Methodist Church, Grand Lodge of the Order of Odd Fellows

Other facts: Gifted orator, prodigious letter writer, tireless worker

Biography: Life of General Hatton by James Vaulx Drake, 1867. Reprints

of Hatton’s biography are available for $25 at the Lebanon City Hall.