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The Hmong (RPA: Hmoob/Moob, IPA: [m̥ɔ̃ŋ]) are an ethnic group from the mountainous regions of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Hmong are also one of the sub-groups of the Miao ethnicity (苗族) in southern China. Hmong groups began a gradual southward migration in the 18th century due to political unrest and to find more arable land.
During the first and second Indochina Wars, France and the United States recruited thousands of Hmong people in Laos to fight against forces from north and south Vietnam and communist Pathet Lao insurgents, known as the Secret War, during the Vietnam War and the Laotian Civil War. Hundreds of thousands of Hmong refugees fled to Thailand seeking political asylum. Thousands of these refugees have resettled in Western countries since the late 1970s, mostly the United States, but also in Australia, France, French Guiana, Canada, and Argentina. Others have returned to Laos under United Nations-sponsored repatriation programs.
SUBCULTURES
Hmong people have their own terms for their subcultural divisions. Hmong Der and Hmong Leng are the terms for two of the largest groups in America and Southeast Asia. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Moob Leeg/Moob Ntsuab (Blue/Green Mong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced.
White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of the Hmong language with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the voiceless /m̥/ in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in Romanized Popular Alphabet. Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of head-dress, or the provinces from which they come.
VIETNAM
Vietnamese Hmong women continuing to wear 'traditional' clothing tend to source much of their clothing as 'ready to wear' cotton (as opposed to traditional hemp) from markets, though some add embroidery as a personal touch. In SaPa, now with a 'standardised' clothing look, Black Hmong sub-groups have differentiated themselves by adopting different headwear; those with a large comb embedded in their long hair (but without a hat) call themselves Tao, those with a pillbox hat name themselves Giay, and those with a checked headscarf are Yao. For many, such as Flower Hmong, the heavily beaded skirts and jackets are manufactured in China.
NOMENCLATURE
In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông; Lao: ແມ້ວ (Maew) or ມົ້ງ (Mong); Thai: แม้ว (Maew) or ม้ง (Mong); Burmese: မုံလူမျိုး (mun lu-myo). The xenonym, "Mèo", and variants thereof, are considered highly derogatory by many Hmong people and are infrequently used today outside of Southeast Asia.
The Hmong people were also referred to by some European writers as the "Kings of the Jungle," because they used to live in the jungle of Laos. Because the Hmong lived mainly in the highland areas of Southeast Asia and China, the French occupiers of Southeast Asia gave them the name Montagnards or "mountain people", but this should not be confused with the Degar people of Vietnam, who were also referred to as Montagnards.
HMONG, MONG AND MIAO
Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate that the term Hmong be used not only for designating their dialect group, but also for the other Miao groups living in China. They generally claim that the word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adapted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status.
In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was actually members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao"-taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression.
Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong diaspora, have led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China that previously had no ethnic affiliation. Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly communicated via the Internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including Hmu and A Hmao people identifying as Hmong and, to a lesser extent, Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao," within the context of China. Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders, reflect a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao."
HISTORY
The Hmong claim an origin in the Yellow River region of China. According to Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied the same areas of southern China for at least the past 2,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong-Mien-speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although Hmong-speaking populations show more contact with Han than Mien populations. Chinese sources describe that area being inhabited by 'Miao' people, a group with whom Hmong people are often identified.
The ancient town of Zhuolu, is considered to be the legendary birthplace of the Miao. Today, a statue of Chi You, widely proclaimed as the first Hmong king, has been erected in the town. The Guoyu book, considers Chi You’s Jui Li tribe to be related to the ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San Miao people
CULTURE
The Hmong culture usually consists of a dominant hierarchy within the family. Males hold dominance over females and thus, a father is considered the head in each household. Courtships take place during the night when a man goes to visit a woman at her house and tries to woo her with sweet-talks through the thin walls of the house where the woman's bedroom may be located. If a man kidnaps an unwilling woman as a bride, she would have to marry him or risk having a tarnished reputation.
Today, bridenapping is uncommon because those marriages can end in divorce since women are no longer afraid of a tarnished reputation. During a marriage, the man pays the woman's family for taking away a daughter who is economically essential to her parents. Hmong women retain their own maiden names following marriage, but attends to the ancestors of their husbands. The children they bear take their husbands' clan names. Consequently, the Hmong favour having sons over daughters because sons perpetuate the clan.
The Hmong practice shamanism and ancestor worship. Like other animists, they also believe that all things are endowed with spiritual beings and so should be respected.
See Anne Fadiman's ethnography: The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down for more info.
Hmong families in Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos practice subsistence agriculture, supplemented by hunting and some foraging. Although they have chickens, pigs and cows, the traditional staple of the Hmong consists mostly of vegetable dishes and rice. Domestic animals are highly valued and killed for consumption only during special events such as the New Year's Festival or during events such as a birth, marriage, or funeral ritual.
GEOGRAPHY
Roughly 95% of the Hmong live in Asia. Linguistic data show that the Hmong of the Peninsula stem from the Miao of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong–Mien language family. Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common.
In China the majority of the Hmong today live in Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan. The Hmong population is estimated at 3 million. No precise census data exist on the Hmong in China since China does not officially recognise the ethnonym Hmong and instead, clusters that group within the wider Miao group (8,940,116 in 2000). A few centuries ago, the lowland Chinese started moving into the mountain ranges of China's southwest. This migration, combined with major social unrest in southern China in the 18th and 19th century, served to cause some minorities of Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan to migrate south. A number of Hmong thus settled in the ranges of the Indochina Peninsula to practise subsistence agriculture.
Vietnam, where their presence is attested from the late 18th century onwards, is likely to be the first Indochinese country into which the Hmong migrated. During the colonization of 'Tonkin' (north Vietnam) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists, while many Christianized Hmong sided with the French. After the Viet Minh victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and South Vietnam.
At the 2009 national census, there were 1,068,189 Hmong living in Vietnam, the vast majority of them in the north of the country. The traditional trade in coffin wood with China and the cultivation of the opium poppy – both prohibited only in 1993 in Vietnam – long guaranteed a regular cash income. Today, converting to cash cropping is the main economic activity. As in China and Laos, there is a certain degree of participation of Hmong in the local and regional administration. In the late 1990s, several thousands of Hmong have started moving to the Central Highlands and some have crossed the border into Cambodia, constituting the first attested presence of Hmong settlers in that country.
In 2005, the Hmong in Laos numbered 460,000. Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam. After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau were set up after World War II. There, a particular rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides and as a consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the Pathet Lao Communists, while perhaps as many were enrolled in the People's Liberation Army. As in Vietnam, numerous Hmong in Laos also genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime.
After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad. Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990.
In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080. The presence of Hmong settlements there is documented from the end of the 19th century. Initially, the Siamese paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum in the Peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while here again, many Hmong refused to take sides in the conflict. Communist guerrilla warfare stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority is since given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity.
Burma most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently.
As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. California became home to half this group, while the remainder went to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington, Pennsylvania, Montana, and North Carolina. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in French Guyana. Canada admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to Australia, 260 to China, and 250 to Argentina. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced.
WIKIPEDIA
Museum of Modern Art - MoMA
Exhibition 'The Project of Independence Architectures of Decolonization in South Asia, 1947–1985'
'Chittagong University, Bangladesh' by 'Muzharul Islam' (1965-1971) - photograph by 'Randhir Singh' (2020)
DSC00976
The Royal BC Museum once had a large and splendid First Peoples Gallery. Sadly, the 21st century form of censorship known as "decolonization" has made sure nobody can see it. This Big House interior is all that remains on public view.
Strangely, while the room's artistic, cultural and historical importance is self evident, the museum has chosen to leave visitors to the space completely uninformed. There is no physical signage of any kind in the room or outside the entrance. I found the text below hidden away under the "Past Exhibits" menu on the Royal BC Museum's web site.
Since BC's political and cultural establishment seems bent on erasing all history that does not conform to the dictates of decolonization ideology, why is the Jonathan Hunt House even open to the public? The Museum could have locked the door and painted it white to match the walls, and new visitors would have been none the wiser.
The answer may be found in the paragraphs that appear below. Simply put, Jonathan Hunt's descendants own what settler colonialists like me call the intellectual property to the installation. I want to think they were unwilling to go along with the Royal BC Museum's censorship, preferring instead to honor Jonathan Hunt's wish that the Big House be open to all visitors regardless of their ancestry.
Not all forms of restriction on the dissemination of information are alike. This is where cultural relativism enters the conversation. Even before the Royal BC Museum self-censored its account of the history of the Jonathan Hunt House, another category of information about the Big House appears not to have been available to the public. If a description of the meaning of the sculptures has ever been published, I have been unable to find it.
So be it.
Cultural relativism requires that we respect the values and practices of other cultures even (or especially) when we would not approve of them in our own society. Universal notions of morality impose limits on this principle. So does common sense.
I submit that the reason there isn't a printed or virtual interpretive guide to the sculptures and their imagery is that it constitutes secret tribal knowledge. That's evident in a key passage from the information provided by the Royal BC Museum:
"In the potlatch system, the Chief formally presents, to an invited audience, crest images, songs, names, and other prerogatives to which he claims inherited rights."
Jonathan Hunt and his heirs invited the general public to view the material culture inside the ceremonial room. They chose not to share "crest images, songs, names, and other prerogatives to which [they claim] inherited rights" with us.
It's likely that someone not of native ancestry who was versed in the conventions of Northwest art could name the types of beings the sculptures depict, but their particular significance to the clan as recounted in songs and stories would be forever out of reach.
This practice is likely as old as humankind. I can accept it even though the withholding of information by cultural institutions in Canadian and American institutions in service of decolonization ideology makes me see red.
If it turns out that I'm all wet because I simply failed to find the guide I was looking for, I'll gladly revise this text.
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A ceremonial house
In the First Peoples Gallery in the Royal British Columbia Museum, you are privileged to enter the house of Chief Kwakwabalasami, the late Jonathan Hunt, a Kwakwaka‘wakw chief who was born and lived his life in the community of Tsaxis (Fort Rupert) on the northeast coast of Vancouver Island.
The house is both a museum installation and a real ceremonial house. In the potlatch system, the Chief formally presents, to an invited audience, crest images, songs, names, and other prerogatives to which he claims inherited rights.
The audience’s recognition of the Chief’s claim is its legal validation. Jonathan Hunt potlatched twice for this house, once at Victoria and once at Alert Bay, and spent thousands of dollars in the appropriate manner to confirm his right to display the house and its images.
An arrangement between Jonathan Hunt, his descendants and the Royal BC Museum allows the Museum to exhibit the house permanently, while cultural ownership of the house and its images remains in the Hunt family.
www.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/visit/exhibitions/first-peoples-g...
This medal was issued in July 1974 to commemorate President General António de Spínola’s declaration that Portugal would grant independence to its overseas colonies. This came about after the Carnation Revolution in Portugal (25th April 1974) when the Estado Novo authoritarian regime (1926-1974) was overthrown by a military coup along with popular support and that would lead to the ending of the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961-1974). Most Portuguese people had become weary of the Colonial Wars and conscription, causing support for their colonies to wane and more so as the financial cost of the liberation wars hit home. The Portuguese African colonies to be granted independence were: Mozambique (25th June 1975), Angola (11th November 1975) and Portuguese Guinea-Bissau (10th September 1974).
GUINEA-BISSAU:
PAIGC Partido Africano de Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) was the liberation front that had been fighting for independence in Guinea-Bissau since the 1960s. They had unilaterally declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on 24 September 1973 and their declaration was immediately recognized by numerous United Nations Member States as well as the UN General Assembly condemning the continued presence of Portuguese forces in ‘The Republic of Guinea-Bissau’ as illegal. Still, Portugal only entered into negotiations with the PAIGC in the aftermath of the Carnation Revolution after which both agreed upon a ceasefire and signed the Algiers Accord on 26 August 1974. Guinea-Bissau was formally became Independent on the 10th September 1974.
MOZAMBIQUE:
FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Liberation Front of Mozambique) carried out their first attacks on Portuguese targets from 1964 and the guerrilla warfare continued until 1974. The terms of Independence were agreed at the Lusaka Agreement on the 7th September 1974 and they formally became an independent country on the 25th June 1975.
ANGOLA:
The liberation wars there lasted from 1961 until 1975, when terms of agreement for independence was signed off with the Alvor Accord ( 15th January 1975). Although Angola was formally declared independent on the 11th November 1975, the three Angolan liberation movements could not agree, and the country descended into a civil war that lasted a further twenty-seven years until 2002. The wars in Angola involved mainly three independence movements:
MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola).
FNLA Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (National Front for the Liberation of Angola).
UNITA União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola).
.
The obverse text reads: INDEPENDENCIA - GUINE - ANGOLA - MOCAMBIQUE - PAIGE - MPLA FNLA UNITA - FRELIMO - DISCURSO DO G. SPINOLA 27-7-1974
The reverse side show a representation of an African tribal art mask and the wording: DESCOLONIZACAO PORTUGUESA
.
References:
file:///C:/Users/Win7/Downloads/OPIL_Decolonization_Portuguese_Territories.pdf
unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000748/074894eo.pdf (UNESCO report titled PORTUGESE AFRICA – THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 26th November 1973).
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War (Portuguese Colonial Wars).
.
Enamels: n /a.
Finish: n /a
Material: Bronze
Size: 2 23/32” diameter (69mm).
Process: Lost-wax casting.
Weight: 186.6g
Imprint: On obverse MEDAGLIS (manufacturer’s name?). On reverse S.ILV&DOR (?). This medal is numbered 61 on the edge.
The Hmong (RPA: Hmoob/Moob, IPA: [m̥ɔ̃ŋ]) are an ethnic group from the mountainous regions of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Hmong are also one of the sub-groups of the Miao ethnicity (苗族) in southern China. Hmong groups began a gradual southward migration in the 18th century due to political unrest and to find more arable land.
During the first and second Indochina Wars, France and the United States recruited thousands of Hmong people in Laos to fight against forces from north and south Vietnam and communist Pathet Lao insurgents, known as the Secret War, during the Vietnam War and the Laotian Civil War. Hundreds of thousands of Hmong refugees fled to Thailand seeking political asylum. Thousands of these refugees have resettled in Western countries since the late 1970s, mostly the United States, but also in Australia, France, French Guiana, Canada, and Argentina. Others have returned to Laos under United Nations-sponsored repatriation programs.
SUBCULTURES
Hmong people have their own terms for their subcultural divisions. Hmong Der and Hmong Leng are the terms for two of the largest groups in America and Southeast Asia. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Moob Leeg/Moob Ntsuab (Blue/Green Mong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced.
White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of the Hmong language with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the voiceless /m̥/ in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in Romanized Popular Alphabet. Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of head-dress, or the provinces from which they come.
VIETNAM
Vietnamese Hmong women continuing to wear 'traditional' clothing tend to source much of their clothing as 'ready to wear' cotton (as opposed to traditional hemp) from markets, though some add embroidery as a personal touch. In SaPa, now with a 'standardised' clothing look, Black Hmong sub-groups have differentiated themselves by adopting different headwear; those with a large comb embedded in their long hair (but without a hat) call themselves Tao, those with a pillbox hat name themselves Giay, and those with a checked headscarf are Yao. For many, such as Flower Hmong, the heavily beaded skirts and jackets are manufactured in China.
NOMENCLATURE
In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông; Lao: ແມ້ວ (Maew) or ມົ້ງ (Mong); Thai: แม้ว (Maew) or ม้ง (Mong); Burmese: မုံလူမျိုး (mun lu-myo). The xenonym, "Mèo", and variants thereof, are considered highly derogatory by many Hmong people and are infrequently used today outside of Southeast Asia.
The Hmong people were also referred to by some European writers as the "Kings of the Jungle," because they used to live in the jungle of Laos. Because the Hmong lived mainly in the highland areas of Southeast Asia and China, the French occupiers of Southeast Asia gave them the name Montagnards or "mountain people", but this should not be confused with the Degar people of Vietnam, who were also referred to as Montagnards.
HMONG, MONG AND MIAO
Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate that the term Hmong be used not only for designating their dialect group, but also for the other Miao groups living in China. They generally claim that the word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adapted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status.
In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was actually members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao"-taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression.
Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong diaspora, have led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China that previously had no ethnic affiliation. Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly communicated via the Internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including Hmu and A Hmao people identifying as Hmong and, to a lesser extent, Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao," within the context of China. Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders, reflect a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao."
HISTORY
The Hmong claim an origin in the Yellow River region of China. According to Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied the same areas of southern China for at least the past 2,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong-Mien-speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although Hmong-speaking populations show more contact with Han than Mien populations. Chinese sources describe that area being inhabited by 'Miao' people, a group with whom Hmong people are often identified.
The ancient town of Zhuolu, is considered to be the legendary birthplace of the Miao. Today, a statue of Chi You, widely proclaimed as the first Hmong king, has been erected in the town. The Guoyu book, considers Chi You’s Jui Li tribe to be related to the ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San Miao people
CULTURE
The Hmong culture usually consists of a dominant hierarchy within the family. Males hold dominance over females and thus, a father is considered the head in each household. Courtships take place during the night when a man goes to visit a woman at her house and tries to woo her with sweet-talks through the thin walls of the house where the woman's bedroom may be located. If a man kidnaps an unwilling woman as a bride, she would have to marry him or risk having a tarnished reputation.
Today, bridenapping is uncommon because those marriages can end in divorce since women are no longer afraid of a tarnished reputation. During a marriage, the man pays the woman's family for taking away a daughter who is economically essential to her parents. Hmong women retain their own maiden names following marriage, but attends to the ancestors of their husbands. The children they bear take their husbands' clan names. Consequently, the Hmong favour having sons over daughters because sons perpetuate the clan.
The Hmong practice shamanism and ancestor worship. Like other animists, they also believe that all things are endowed with spiritual beings and so should be respected.
See Anne Fadiman's ethnography: The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down for more info.
Hmong families in Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos practice subsistence agriculture, supplemented by hunting and some foraging. Although they have chickens, pigs and cows, the traditional staple of the Hmong consists mostly of vegetable dishes and rice. Domestic animals are highly valued and killed for consumption only during special events such as the New Year's Festival or during events such as a birth, marriage, or funeral ritual.
GEOGRAPHY
Roughly 95% of the Hmong live in Asia. Linguistic data show that the Hmong of the Peninsula stem from the Miao of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong–Mien language family. Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common.
In China the majority of the Hmong today live in Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan. The Hmong population is estimated at 3 million. No precise census data exist on the Hmong in China since China does not officially recognise the ethnonym Hmong and instead, clusters that group within the wider Miao group (8,940,116 in 2000). A few centuries ago, the lowland Chinese started moving into the mountain ranges of China's southwest. This migration, combined with major social unrest in southern China in the 18th and 19th century, served to cause some minorities of Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan to migrate south. A number of Hmong thus settled in the ranges of the Indochina Peninsula to practise subsistence agriculture.
Vietnam, where their presence is attested from the late 18th century onwards, is likely to be the first Indochinese country into which the Hmong migrated. During the colonization of 'Tonkin' (north Vietnam) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists, while many Christianized Hmong sided with the French. After the Viet Minh victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and South Vietnam.
At the 2009 national census, there were 1,068,189 Hmong living in Vietnam, the vast majority of them in the north of the country. The traditional trade in coffin wood with China and the cultivation of the opium poppy – both prohibited only in 1993 in Vietnam – long guaranteed a regular cash income. Today, converting to cash cropping is the main economic activity. As in China and Laos, there is a certain degree of participation of Hmong in the local and regional administration. In the late 1990s, several thousands of Hmong have started moving to the Central Highlands and some have crossed the border into Cambodia, constituting the first attested presence of Hmong settlers in that country.
In 2005, the Hmong in Laos numbered 460,000. Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam. After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau were set up after World War II. There, a particular rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides and as a consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the Pathet Lao Communists, while perhaps as many were enrolled in the People's Liberation Army. As in Vietnam, numerous Hmong in Laos also genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime.
After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad. Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990.
In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080. The presence of Hmong settlements there is documented from the end of the 19th century. Initially, the Siamese paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum in the Peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while here again, many Hmong refused to take sides in the conflict. Communist guerrilla warfare stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority is since given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity.
Burma most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently.
As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. California became home to half this group, while the remainder went to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington, Pennsylvania, Montana, and North Carolina. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in French Guyana. Canada admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to Australia, 260 to China, and 250 to Argentina. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced.
WIKIPEDIA
Officially sanctioned histories of Sindh in Pakistan routinely describe the invasion and subsequent conquest of Sindh by Mohammad Bin Qasim in 711-13 as an event that liberated the masses of Sindh from Brahminical tyranny and oppressive caste rule, ushering in an era of unprecedented social equality that was facilitated by the introduction of Islam - a faith unparalleled in its egalitarian outlook and commitment to fairness and justice. It is also asserted that the Arab rulers of Sindh promoted education and learning on a large-scale, and that Sindh experienced a cultural renaissance that outperformed the achievements of any previous era in the land of the Indus river.
Since the glorification and preservation of the Islamic faith was supposedly the very foundational basis of Pakistan, it is hardly likely that official textbooks in Pakistan could describe the invasion by the Bin Qasim militias any differently. In a nation where even relatively innocuous violations of the country's blasphemy laws have lead to the death penalty, it not surprising that few Pakistani scholars and historians have taken on the risk of seriously investigating, let alone challenge such claims. Since so little scholarly work is available on this subject, the task of understanding the history of this period in any objective fashion is not easy. Nevertheless, it is possible to ask some reasonable questions and present sufficient circumstantial evidence that belie such official government claims concerning the Bin Qasim victory, and its impact on the people of Sindh.
The claim that Sindh during the 7th century was reeling from the hegemony of Brahminical authority is often accepted as truth simply because it has been made so frequently, and by such a variety of colonial and post-colonial historians and social scientists that few scholars have demanded any concrete evidence that might substantiate such a claim. But as the essay on the History of Social Relations in India illustrates, several 5th-7th C Gupta-period land decrees demonstrate that caste was a relatively flexible category, and that Brahmins did not enjoy social hegemony until the widespread proliferation of the agrahara villages, a practice that started towards the end of the Gupta-period in Bihar, spread very slowly in the rest of India, and took more than a few centuries to crystallize. In the neighboring regions of Punjab, Kutch, Gujarat and Rajasthan, there is little evidence that such agrahara villages ever took shape, and the history of these regions appears to be shaped as much (or more) by Rajputs, Jats, Buddhists and Jains as by Brahmins. Virtually all of Sindh's historians acknowledge that Rajputs and Jats also formed a substantial proportion of the Sindhi population at the time of the Bin Qasim invasion. The presence of Buddhists is also acknowledged, and has been verified by the discovery of Buddhist Stupas and other Buddhist artifacts in the state.
Although at the time of the Bin Qasim invasion, Sindh was ruled by a Brahmin king, just a generation earlier, Sindh had been ruled by Rajput kings who were believed to favor Buddhism. Although it is possible that Sindh's Raja Dahir lacked popularity, to suggest that Brahminical hegemony was established in a matter of just a few decades appears to strain credibility. Since the ascension of a Brahmin king could only have occurred with the tacit support of key Rajputs and other segments in society, at most one could speak of factional differences or factional rivalries amongst the elite that may have contributed to the downfall of Sindh.
(Sindhi historian G.M Syed (jailed in 1964 for his contradictory accounts of Sindh's history) however offers an altogether different interpretation, arguing instead that at the time of the invasions, Raja Dahir’s reign was marked by religious tolerance and liberal mindedness, on account of which people of various religions co-existed peacefully, where Hindus had their temples, the Parsis (Zoroastrians) their fire temples, the Buddhists their Stupas, and Arab Muslims (who had been given permission to settle along the coast) had their mosques. According to him, the primary motive for the Arab invasion of Sindh was revenge against Raja Dahir for providing shelter to Sassanian nobles/generals who had requested asylum in Sindh upon defeat in Persia. It is not inconceivable that the Umayyads feared a Sassanian counter-attack from Indian soil, and wished to preempt any possibility (real or imagined) of a Sindhi-Persian alliance that might thwart Arab expansion. The later migration of Parsis (Zoroastrians) to Gujarat and grant of asylum there would appear to bolster such a contention.)
While caste divisions may have indeed prevented Hindu society from offering united resistance to the Islamic invaders, it does not appear as though the advent of Islam actually liberated the most oppressed Jatis. According to Al-Beruni (b. Khiva, 973AD), those most discriminated in Hindu society were those associated with carrying out "unclean tasks", but it should be noted that in Sindh (and elsewhere in India), there are precisely such oppressed communities that were never converted to Islam, and continued to face discrimination at the hands of both Hindus and Muslims.
(It might also be noted that the 11-12th C Sumra rulers of Sindh were Rajput converts to Islam, as were the 13-14th C Samma rulers. After colonization, castes associated with trade and commerce such as Hindu Banias and Lohanas or their Muslim counterparts such as Memons exercised a powerful hold over cash-poor and indebted artisans and peasants. By and large, conversion to Islam did not end pre-existing caste-loyalties or eliminate differences in social rank. Also see Zarina Bhatty: "Social stratification among Muslims in India" from the book "Caste - its twentieth century avatar" by M N Srinivas, Viking, New Delhi, 1996, pp 249 - 253.)
While noting the similarities between the caste-system of India with ancient Persia, Al-Beruni, (in his descriptions of neighboring Punjab) also wrote of contact and association (even common lodgings) between the four main jatis or varnas in towns and villages, only observing that the antyajas (untouchable castes) formed eight separate guilds, and lived near (but apart from) the towns and villages. Going by his remarks, one could conclude that the antyajas suffered from an inferior status, but the social interaction that he noted between the four main castes suggests that the distance between the Brahmins or Ksahtriyas vis-a-vis the Vaishyas and Shudras was not as significant as is generally portrayed.
Al-Beruni also wrote little to suggest that Brahmins enjoyed exceptional status or power in society, but observed that on theological topics "at the utmost they (referring to the Hindus he had studied and interacted with) fight with words, but they will never stake their soul or body or their property on religious controversy." He also noted that the "Hindus have cultivated numerous branches of science and have boundless literature...". He was particularly impressed by the numerous step-wells he had seen in the country, and wrote: "In this they have attained to a very degree of art, so that our people (the Muslims), when they see them, wonder at them, and are unable to describe them, much less to construct anything like them."
Not only do Al-Beruni's descriptions of Punjab stand somewhat apart from the official characterizations of Hindu society, they raise a troubling paradox for Pakistan's official historians. Had Islam truly been a vehicle for the liberation of Hindu society from the evils of Brahminism (as is repeatedly proclaimed), how was it that three centuries after the unqualified triumph of "Islam" in Sindh, Hindu society continued to survive just next door in Punjab, and the Islamic faith was able to win few converts amongst the majority of the Hindus, and not even amongst the discriminated caste communities? And had Sindh become this great center of learning and culture after its conquest by Bin Qasim, how was it that Al-Beruni (an avowed Muslim) was studying Hindu scientific texts in Punjab, but not "Islamic" scientific texts in Sindh?
In fact, it is decidedly odd that there is virtually no archaeological evidence or surviving monuments from that era that might attest to claims of a great Arab civilization in Sindh. A British historian is supposed to have remarked: "Notwithstanding that their possession was partial and unstable, our native [British] soil teems with their [Roman] buildings, camps, roads, coins, utensils, in a manner to show completely they were master-spirits of that remote province [Britain]. But with regard to the Arab dominion in Sind, it is impossible for the traveler to wander through that land, without being struck with the absence of all record of their occupation."
This is all the more puzzling when one considers the very rich and impressive record of temples, step-wells, urban gateways, colleges and monasteries (built between the 8th and the 13th centuries) that have survived in the neighboring states of Rajasthan and Gujarat - states that successfully fended off the Arab invasions.
{In the 11th C, the Soomras, (who according to Sindhi historian, G.M. Syed were Rajputs and only nominally Muslim) took over the reins of power in Sindh, and ruled for three centuries. By then, Sindh had been freed from paying tribute to the Arab Khalifate, and monuments commissioned by the Soomras and the later Sammas have survived, though the greatest evidence of monumental building activity in Sindh emerges from after the 16th C.}
Although there are references to trade and agricultural productivity in post-conquest Sindh in the Arab records of the 9th and 10th centuries, these are not especially noteworthy, since the Arab lands were always poorer in agricultural terms, and positive references to Sindh are also to be found in the writings of Greek historians (who describe it as the most flourishing of all that the Greeks had seen), and a few centuries later, Sindh was mentioned as a rich country by Roman historians (with specific references to Patala in lower Sindh as an emporium of trade). What is more surprising is that there seems to have been an equally (or more) vigorous trade between the ports of Gujarat and the Arab ports as with Sindh after its Arab conquest.
A resolution to this apparent mystery may be found in the description of the conquest of Sindh in a Persian translation of the Chach-na'ma or Tari'kh-I Hind wa Sind, by Muhammad 'Ali bin Hamid bin Abu Bakr (Kufi, early 13th C) which reveals quite a different story. Contradicting any theory representing the arrival of Islam in the Indian subcontinent as a great social revolution, the Chach-na'ma reveals a pirate-like conquest that wreaked havoc on the local populations, transferring a considerable volume of plundered wealth such as gold, silver and jewelry, and also slaves, as tribute to the Umayyad governers. Bin Qasim and his military cohorts also profited greatly from the conquest, enriching themselves at the expense of the local population. Another history of the period, the Futuhu-l Bulda'n by Ahmad bin Yahya, bin Jabir, (892-3 AD) describes how some of the victories were achieved by the destruction (or salinization) of vital aqueducts that starved the populations of drinking water, leading to their surrender. Both documents describe the slaying of able-bodied soldiers and other townsmen, and the taking of women and children as slaves in large numbers.
With the looting of its savings of gold and silver and other assets, and the annual demands for tribute (estimated at a million dirhams annually) it is not surprising that Sindh was culturally and economically eclipsed by Gujarat and Rajasthan - its eastern neighbors who escaped such devastation. It is also interesting that references to Islam (by the victors) are made more as after-thoughts, and only after military triumphs, when the looting of wealth and taking of slaves is justified in the name of God, Islam, or the Holy Prophet. The conversion of temples to mosques also appear more as symbols of a successful military and political assault than as a religious victory per se.
What is remarkable in both these documents are some of the references to mass conversions. Conversion to Islam is offered as an option to defeated populations - and it is assumed that conversion to Islam would be taken as a token of surrender, as a willingness to pay tribute to the new authorities, and as a sign that the political suzerainty of the victors would not be challenged. Although, not everyone was required to convert, the greatest pressure to convert was applied on those considered most dangerous, and most able to resist the conquerors - i.e. on Rajputs and Jats, and on men, rather than women. The conversion of others simply followed.
This was apparently quite common during the period of Arab expansion, and led to the widely held belief that "the common people follow the religion of the ruler" - something emphasized repeatedly by Arab historian Ibn Khaldun (b, Tunis, 1332) in his "Muqaddimah - an Introduction to History". Ibn Khaldun's writings are particularly interesting because as an avowed Muslim, and defender of the sayings of the Prophet and the Quran, his descriptions of the Arab royal houses, and their origins as the Islamicized Bedouin tribes of the Arab peninsula carry a credibility and acceptance other historians may not receive. But his status as one of the pre-eminent historians of the Arab world has more to do with his questioning of exaggerated and wildly improbable claims made by historians like al-Masudi and al-Waqidi, and his intuitive awareness of what propelled royal power and prestige, and how dynasties rose and fell in the Arab world. Also of interest is the element of rationality that imbues some of his writings. Unlike the ideologues of the two-nation theory and zealous advocates of Islamic Jehad in Pakistan today, (who attempt to portray Islam as a radical and egalitarian force), Ibn Khaldun's analysis is far more revealing of Islam's role in cementing state power, in building and preserving larger and more stable empires.
Although Ibn Khaldun quotes frequently from the Quran, and there are repeated references to "such is God's Will" or "such are God's Ways", he shows little moral outrage or concern for equity or social justice when he writes about the excesses of royal conquests or royal authority. Speaking of how "the common people follow the religion of the ruler" he writes: "The ruler dominates those under him. His subjects imitate him because they see perfection in him, exactly as children imitate their parents, or students their teachers. God is wise and all-knowing". Although one may question this statement as an accurate description of why the masses accepted Islam, it does indicate that the Islamic-identified ruling class in the Arab world did not ascribe any independent agency to the masses in choosing or practicing their religion.
In the views of Ibn Khaldun dynasties arise from successfully marshalling "group feeling" which he believed originated from respect of blood ties or something akin to that. Because of the difficult conditions the Bedouins were exposed to in the desert, he saw the Bedouins as most capable of developing and harnessing "group feelings". He also noted the fearless manner in which they fought and subdued others - seeing in their "savagery", the seeds of royal power. However, he also saw the Bedouins as wild and anarchic - as all too capable of plundering the possessions of others, and destroying the civilizations of those whom they conquered, citing specifically the ruination of the civilizations of Yemen, Syria, Iraq, and the Sudan after Bedouin conquests. He thus argued that for the Bedouins to develop royal leadership, they needed the strong influence of a religion such as Islam, which he saw as being crucial to the initial success of the Arabs. It was the cohesive force of Islam that enabled the Arabs to combine strong "group feelings" with the political leadership that was necessary to win and sustain stable royal dynasties. He attributed their subsequent decline to their neglect of religion, and of losing their "group feeling" and leadership skills in the course of acquiring wealth and urban comforts.
In developing these elaborate theories on the rise and fall of dynastic rule, he acknowledges that a nation that is defeated, and comes under the rule of another quickly perishes citing the case of Persia after its Arab conquests. However, he saw nothing ethically or morally wrong in the subjugation of one nation by another. For instance, he dismissed any moral objections that might have arisen over the plight of the conquered nations of Sub-Saharan Africa, justifying their state of servitude to the Arab rulers as a consequence of their "weakness" and "lack of ability".
While Ibn Khaldun did not see the Arab conquests or the subsequent Islamization of the local populations as bringing any benefit to those who were thus defeated or subjugated, neither did he see in this any contradiction with Islamic ethics. What is implicit in his writings is that Islam was more the instrument for developing tribal leadership, and the means of cementing political control over those who shared in the "group feelings" of the ruling clans, or by extension, a means of controlling those that did not necessarily share in the "group feelings" of the ruling elites. Statements attributing a sense of "fairness" or "justice" to Islam appear more as rehetoric and as gratuitious justifications of the Arab conquests.
Thus although Ibn Khaldun makes no specific statements concerning the conquest of Sindh, his frank assessment of what happened to the civilizations of other territories that came under Bedouin attack or Arab control fits in quite well with what is described in the Chach-na'ma and the Futuhu-l Bulda'n. It is thus possible to infer from his writings that the Arab invasion and conquest of Sindh was part of a historic pattern and political trend that extended from Syria to Sindh, drowning each of the older civilizations as the Arab empires aggressively expanded their reach and control. This view of history would bring a new dimension to the discussion of what contributed to Arab successes, attributing the success to strong "group feeling" and military daring (effectively channelized by leadership derived from a common faith) - something that the materially more advanced, but sedentary urbanized civilizations could not resist.
What was probably common to all the defeated civilizations was that there were no strong bonds of communal loyalty that bound the populations. Socially fragmented - either due to religious tolerance and diversity, or due to caste/class divisions resulting from the growing specialization and differentiation of labour, (or both), it is possible that these civilizations were also riven by factional rivalries that further weakened their defences. Since these invasions swept aside Hindu, Buddhist, Manichean and Zoroastrian societies alike, this more general view of history would thus question the merit of postulations that place Brahminical hegemony or ossification of caste as unique or even primary factors in the equation.
(What is also plausible, and this is a subject that merits further investigation (see note below) is that with the decline of Buddhist rationalism, important sections of society had come to accept the role of Brahmins in providing astrological charts (janampatris), and in guiding personal and public rituals (such as hawans, mass aaratis and jagarans) that were leading society in an idealistic and impractical direction. This may have made the task of the invaders much easier. But it is important to note that the advent of Islam did not actually move society in a more rational and scientific direction. Arab rulers took great interest in Indian astrological theories themselves, and Islam developed its own body of spirit-defeating daily rituals that were in the long run more debilitating than the periodic rituals that may have become commonplace in Hindu society at that time.)
Although Ibn Khaldun's writings stress the role of Islam in the Arab successes, it is not possible to conclude from his writings (as some Islamist scholars have attempted) to claim the universality and superiority of Islam, and speak of its "natural tendency" towards raising the cultural levels of societies that adopted the faith. That Islam was more a political tool (than an inherently more advanced scientific, philosophical or cultural system) is borne out by how the Umayyads sought cultural inspiration from the very civilization they had sought to supplant and replace. This was even more the case with the Abbasids who succeeded the Umayyads. Both invited scholars (and those brought as slaves), were encouraged (or coerced) to translate scientific and philosophical texts from a variety of ancient and contemporary sources including Egyptian, Greek, Syriac, Babylonian and Indian.
It is especially important to note that there was a certain degree of separation of church and state during the reign of the Abbasids who were renowned patrons of art and scientific learning. This separation of church and state facilitated scientific investigation in Basra and Baghdad, and allowed the scholars in these courts to seek knowledge from a variety of sources.
According to Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, author of the Arab-o-Hind ke Tallukat, (and several other historians), mathematicians and philosophers from Sindh made outstanding contributions to the promotion of learning amongst the Arabs. Several physicians were called from Sindh for the treatment of the Caliphs among whom were Ganga and Manka who treated Haroon-al-Rashid. Another Sindhi doctor who made a mark was a newly converted Muslim, Saleh bin Bhahla (Bhalla). Sindhis such as Abul Ata Sindhi, Haroon bin Abdulla Multani, Abu Mohammad Mansuri (from Mansura), Mansoor Hindi, Musa bin Yakub, Saqafi, Abu Zila Sindhi and Kashajam-bin-Sindhi-bin-Shahak achieved eminence as Arabic poets and writers. Sindhi Pandits (scholars) and Veds (physicians) in Baghdad translated numerous texts from Sanskrit on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, literature and ethics into Arabic.
One must also disinguish between the role of the Quranic absolutists and the Sufi liberals, for it was the latter who made the most significant and enduring contributions to the art and culture of the nations that had come to accept Islam. As long as the Sufis were tolerated, there was a path towards progress, and Arab society was able to absorb positive elements from other cultures.
Several Arab scholars relied on Indian scientific texts in their own scholarly translations or adaptations. Noted scholars Al-Fazari (8th C) and his son Muhammad, and Ya'qub ibn Tariq are associated with translations of Sanskrit astronomical texts (Siddhanthas). Al-Kindi (b. Basra, early 9th C) wrote four mathematical texts describing the use of Indian numerals. Al-Khwarizmi (b. Khiva, d. 850) is credited with synthesizing the knowledge of the Greeks and the Hindus in mathematics, astronomy and geography during the reign of the Caliph, al-Ma'mun, (813 to 833). Others translated Indian writings on the scientific method, Chanakya's Arthashastra, the Mahabharatha, and the Panchatantra, which became popularized as Kahlila and Dimna. Widely translated into both Persian and Arabic, it was also reproduced in illustrated versions during the reign of the Abbasids.
Sindhi accountants were also popular and according to Jahez (d. 874 AD) all the 'Sarrafs' (money-changers) in Iraq were Sindhis. Sindh was also a major exporter of agricultural produce and cash crops, as well as a variety of leather goods - including colored and soft leather. The leather shoes of Mansura were particularly renowned. (cited in the Muruj-uz-Zahab, and by Imam Hanbal). Thus, Sindh had a profound influence on Arab science, culture and economic life.
But after forced Islamization, the progress of science in Sindh slowed, and the attention of Arab, Persian and Central Asian scholars turned to Punjab, Gujarat and other centres of learning in India. Hence, the claim that the introduction of Islam under the aegis of Arab invaders such as Bin Qasim was an event that heralded a radical and progressive new era of cultural growth and material prosperity for the people of Sindh, is a largely unproven claim, and in fact, almost untenable when the mass of contrary evidence (both concrete, and circumstantial) is taken into account. That it liberated the people of Sindh from unspeakable horrors is another speculation, driven more by political needs and Islamic chauvinism than by any clear and irrefutable historical evidence.
For the most part, the official histories of Sindh are sustainable only as illusions and myths. A deeply troubling and unstated implication behind such one-sided rhetoric is that the people of Sindh were impotent in fighting off local tyrants themselves, and needed the assistance of external agents to "liberate" them. In addition, there is the underlying assumption that the indigenous people of Sindh were incapable of producing anything of civilizational value on their own, and that the cultural and philosophical systems produced internally were inadequate, and needed to be replaced by those of outsiders. Not only can such assertions be damaging to a nation's self-esteem, these are precisely the sort of ideas that sustained colonial rule.
But since genuine decolonization was hardly on the minds of Pakistan's creators, such notions have gone largely unchallenged. Instead, the logic of the two-nation theory and partition has demanded the propagation of accentuated polemics - howsoever improbable, and howsoever damaging to the psyche of the Pakistani people themselves. Although it is unlikely that the history of Sindh will ever be presented in a truthful and accurate manner by the present ruling elites of Pakistan, ordinary Sindhis may well ask that if the introduction of Islam in Sindh were truly beneficial for the ordinary masses, (supposedly ushering in an era of expanded access to education and learning), how is it that the rural masses of Sindh rank as amongst the most illiterate and most oppressed in the world today? Isn't it ironic how the average literacy in neighboring Rajasthan (one of India's less developed states, with a primarily Hindu population) exceeds 61%, far ahead of Pakistan's currently projected literacy of 45% {Of course, the comparison with India's more industrialized state of Gujarat or agriculturally prosperous Punjab (both with 70% literacy) would make things look still worse.}
Today, Sindh, which was home to one of the world's earliest settled civilizations - i.e. the civilization of Harappa and Mohenjodaro is in a state of cultural and economic crisis - heavily dependant financially on repatriations from the Gulf oil kingdoms, struggling under the weight of a colonial past, and dictatorial present. Internecine religious wars bleed the state constantly, even as it suffers internal discrimination at the hands of the Punjabi military elite. Reclaiming its true history could be the first step it takes towards liberating itself not only from the shackles of its colonial past, but also from the false glorification of invasions and conquests that drained it of its wealth and brought it few tangible returns in exchange.
A more objective and dispassionate examination of the historical record may reveal that rather than Sindh being "liberated" and "civilized" by the Arab invaders, it was in fact, the other way around. Sindh helped educate and civilize the new Arab kingdoms, who in turn helped carry the knowledge of India to Europe. Instead of seeing its pre-Islamic history with contempt or disdain, Sindh (and the rest of present day Pakistan) might do better by acknowledging the positive aspects of the intellectual and cultural traditions that had developed prior to Islamic rule and played such an important role in shaping the civilizations of the Arab and Western worlds.
References:
Chacha Na'ma, Futuh-I Bulda'n (Translations/Excerpts from Arabic/Persian texts chronicling the invasion and conquest of Sindh)
Elliot and Dowson. The History of India as told by its own historians. New Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1996, vol. II
Futuhu-l Bulda'n by Ahmad bin Yahya, bin Jabir, d. 279 A.H., 892-3 CE. (In The History of India as Told by its own Historians. The Posthumous Papers of the Late Sir H. M. Elliot. John Dowson, ed. 1st ed. 1867. 2nd ed., Calcutta: Susil Gupta, 1956, vol. 7, pp. 14-31.)
Alberuni's India (Sachau E. C., translator). New Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1993.
Arab-o-Hind ke Talluqat, by Sulaiman Nadvi.
Ibn Khaldun: The Muqaddimah (An Introduction to History) trans. Franz Rosenthal, edited and abridged by N. J. Dawood; Bollingen Series, Princeton
Ancient Trade in Pakistan, by Mortimer Wheeler, Pakistan Quarterly, Vol VII #1957
Die philosophischen Abhandlungen des al-Kindi, Munster, 1897, H. Suter:
Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber, H. Suter:
Sindh on the Threshold of 21st century, Iqbal Tareen - ((Editorial published in special issue of Sindh Monitor during Tenth Annual Convention of Sindhi Association of North America on July 4, 1994)
Sindhudesh - G. M. Syed
Introduction to the Carnation Revolution
The Carnation Revolution, which took place on April 25, 1974, was a historic milestone for Portugal and had far-reaching consequences that shaped the country in the following decades.
Also known as April 25, this revolution was a military movement that put an end to a long period of dictatorship in Portugal.
Historical context until April 25, 1974
To fully understand the importance and impact of the Carnation Revolution, it is essential to examine the historical context in which it occurred.
Portugal was under the dictatorial regime of António de Oliveira Salazar since 1933.
Salazar established an authoritarian Estado Novo, characterized by censorship, political repression and lack of civil liberties.
During its government, Portugal was also involved in colonial conflicts in African colonies.
This political oppression and war in the African colonies led to growing discontent among the Portuguese people.
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The events of April 25, 1974
On April 25, 1974, a group of Portuguese soldiers led by the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) carried out a military coup to overthrow Salazar's dictatorial regime.
The coup was planned in secret and executed quickly and efficiently.
The military occupied strategic points in Lisbon and other important cities, deposing the existing government.
The Portuguese population, tired of the dictatorship, took to the streets in support of the military, offering them red carnations as a symbol of peace and freedom.
This image of civilians and military united with red carnations in their weapons became an icon of the Carnation Revolution.
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The main figures and their roles in the revolution
The Carnation Revolution saw the participation of several important figures who played crucial roles in the unfolding of events.
Standing out are General António de Spínola, who became the first president of Portugal after the revolution, and Captain Salgueiro Maia, one of the military leaders of the MFA.
Spínola played a fundamental role in the transition to democracy, while Maia was an emblematic figure during the events of April 25, leading the troops that occupied strategic points in Lisbon.
In addition to these figures, many other courageous soldiers and civilians also contributed to the success of the revolution.
The immediate consequences and the transition to democracy
After the Carnation Revolution, Portugal went through a period of political transition that led to the establishment of a democratic regime.
The provisional government was formed to administer the country until democratic elections could be held.
This transition period was marked by intense political debates, a new constitution and the release of political prisoners.
Democracy was eventually established in Portugal, with free elections and fundamental rights guaranteed.
The transition to democracy was an important milestone in the history of Portugal and one of the main legacies of the Carnation Revolution.
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The lasting consequences of the Carnation Revolution
The Carnation Revolution had lasting consequences in Portugal, which lasted for decades.
Politically, the revolution paved the way for democracy and the end of the dictatorial regime.
Socially, it brought greater freedom of expression, equal rights and a renewed sense of national identity.
Culturally, the revolution stimulated an artistic and cultural flourishing, with creative expressions that reflected the new era of freedom and openness.
Furthermore, African colonies were granted independence, resulting in decolonization and the end of the war.
The Carnation Revolution also had an international impact, inspiring democratic movements in other countries and receiving diverse reactions from the international community.
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Annual celebrations and celebrations on April 25
Annually, on April 25, Portugal celebrates the Carnation Revolution as a national holiday.
On this day, several ceremonies and events are held to honor the heroes of the revolution and remember the historical significance of that moment.
Celebrations include parades, political speeches, concerts and exhibitions that highlight the importance of freedom and democracy.
The Portuguese people come together to celebrate the achievement of freedom and to reaffirm their commitment to the democratic values that the Carnation Revolution represented.
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Conclusion: The Lasting Legacy of the Carnation Revolution
The Carnation Revolution, which took place on April 25, 1974, was a historic milestone for Portugal.
It put an end to decades of dictatorship and paved the way for democracy, freedom and equal rights.
The consequences of this revolution extended throughout this half century, shaping Portugal's politics, society and culture.
The Carnation Revolution also had an international impact, inspiring democratic movements in other countries.
The annual April 25th celebrations reaffirm Portugal's commitment to democratic values and remember the historical significance of this achievement.
The Carnation Revolution is a lasting legacy that should be cherished and preserved for future generations.
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Text & Painting: ©MárioSilva
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+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The North American FJ-4 Fury was a swept-wing carrier-capable fighter-bomber, originally developed for the United States Navy and Marine Corps. It was the final development in a lineage that included the Air Force's F-86 Sabre. The FJ-4 shared its general layout and engine with the earlier FJ-3, but featured an entirely new wing design. And it was, as a kind of final embodiment with the FJ-4B, a very different aircraft from the F-86 .
The first FJ-4 flew on 28 October 1954 and delivery began in February 1955. Of the original order for 221 FJ-4 fighters, the last 71 were modified into the FJ-4B fighter-bomber version, of which the Netherlands received 16 aircraft under the designation FJ-4B from the USA in the course of NATO support. Even though the main roles of the MLD were maritime patrol, anti-submarine warfare and search and rescue, the FJ-4B was a dedicated fighter-bomber, and these aircraft were to be used with the Dutch Navy’s Colossus-Class carrier HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81).
Compared to the lighter FJ-4 interceptor, the FJ-4B had a stronger wing with six instead of four underwing stations, a stronger landing gear and additional aerodynamic brakes under the aft fuselage. The latter made landing safer by allowing pilots to use higher thrust settings, and were also useful for dive attacks. Compared to the FJ-4, external load was doubled, and the US FJ-4Bs were capable of carrying a nuclear weapon on the inboard port station, a feature the MLD Furies lacked. The MLD aircraft were still equipped with the corresponding LABS or Low-Altitude Bombing System for accurate delivery of ordnance.
The Dutch Furies were primarily intended for anti-ship missions (toting up to five of the newly developed ASM-N-7 missiles - renamed in AGM-12B Bullpup after 1962 - plus a guidance pod) and CAS duties against coastal targets, as well as for precision strikes. In a secondary role, the FJ-4B could carry Sidewinder AAMs for interception purposes.
The MLD's FJ-4B became operational in 1956, just in time to enhance the firepower of the Karel Doorman, which just had its 24 WW-II era propeller driven Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighter/anti-ship aircraft backed up with 14 TBF Avenger ASW/torpedo bombers and 10 Hawker Sea Hawk fighters (the MLD owned 22 of these) for an ASW/Strike profile. The Furies joined the carrier in late 1957 and replaced the piston-engined attack aircraft.
In 1960, during the Dutch decolonization and planned independence of Western New Guinea, a territory which was also claimed by Indonesia, the Karel Doorman set sail along with two destroyers and a modified oil tanker to 'show the flag'. In order to avoid possible problems with Indonesia's ally Egypt at the Suez Canal, the carrier instead sailed around the horn of Africa. She arrived in Fremantle, Australia, where the local seamen's union struck in sympathy with Indonesia; the crew used the propeller thrust of aircraft chained down on deck to nudge the carrier into dock without tugs! In addition to her air wing, she was ferrying twelve Hawker Hunter fighters to bolster the local Dutch defense forces, which the Karel Doorman delivered when she arrived at Hollandia, New Guinea.
During the 1960 crisis, Indonesia prepared for a military action named Operation Trikora (in the Indonesian language, "Tri Komando Rakyat" means "The Three Commands of the People"). In addition to planning for an invasion, the TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Forces) hoped to sink the Karel Doorman with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers using AS-1 Kennel/KS-1 Kometa anti-ship missiles. This bomber-launched missile strike mission was cancelled on short notice, though, because of the implementation of the cease-fire between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This led to a Dutch withdrawal and temporary UN peacekeeping administration, followed by occupation and annexation through Indonesia. While the Dutch aircraft served actively during this conflict, flying patrols and demonstrating presence, visibly armed and in alert condition, no 'hot' sortie or casualty occured, even though one aircraft, 10-18, was lost in a start accident. The pilot ejected safely.
The MLD FJ-4Bs only served on the carrier until its overhaul in 1964, after which the carrier-borne attack role was eliminated and all aircraft were transferred to land bases (Valkenburg) or in reserve storage. The Seahawks were retired from service by the end of the 1960s after the sale of the Karel Doorman to Argentina, and the FJ-4Bs were returned to the United States, where they were re-integrated into the USMC until the end of the 1960ies, when all FJ-4 aircraft were phased out.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 36 ft 4 in (11.1 m)
Wingspan: 39 ft 1 in (11.9 m)
Height: 13 ft 11 in (4.2 m)
Wing area: 338.66 ft² (31.46 m²)
Empty weight: 13,210 lb (6,000 kg)
Loaded weight: 20,130 lb (9,200 kg)
Max. take-off weight: 23,700 lb (10,750 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright J65-W-16A turbojet, 7,700 lbf (34 kN)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 680 mph (1,090 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,670 m)
Range: 2,020 mi (3,250 km) with 2× 200 gal (760 l) drop tanks and 2× AIM-9 missiles
Service ceiling: 46,800 ft (14,300 m)
Rate of climb: 7,660 ft/min (38.9 m/s)
Wing loading: 69.9 lb/ft² (341.7 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: .325
Armament:
4× 20 mm (0.787 in) cannon
6× pylons under the wings for 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) external ordnance, including up to 6× AIM-9 Sidewinder AAMs, bombs and guided/unguided ASM, e .g. ASM-N-7 (AGM-12B Bullpup) missiles.
The kit and its assembly
Originally, this model project was inspired by a (whiffy) Dutch F3H Demon profile, designed by fellow user Darth Panda at whatifmodelers.com. I found the idea of a foreign/NATO user of one of these early carrier-borne jet fighters very inspiring – not only because of the strange design of many of these aircraft, but also since the USN and USMC had been the only real world users of many of these types.
Initially, I planned to convert a F3H accordingly. But with limited storage/display space at home I decided to apply the MLD idea to another smaller, but maybe even more exotic, type: the North American FJ-4B Fury, which was in 1962 recoded into AF-1E.
I like the beefy Sabre cousin very much. It’s one of those aircraft that received little attention, even from model kit manufacturers. In fact, in 1:72 scale there are only vintage vacu kits or the very basic Emhar kit available. Th Emhar kit, which I used here and which is a kind donation of a fellow modeler (Thanks a lot, André!), a rather rough thing with raised panel lines and much room for improvements. As a side note, there's also a FJ-4B from Revell, but it's just a 1996 re-issue with no improvements, whatsoever.
Another facet of the model: When I did legwork concerning a possible background story, I was surprised to find out that the Netherlands actually operated aircraft carriers in the 1950s, including carrier-borne, fixed-wing aircraft, even jets in the form of Hawker Sea Hawks. The real life FJ-4Bs service introduction, the naissance of NATO and the Indonesian conflict as well as the corresponding intervention of the Karel Doorman carrier all fell into a very plausible time frame – and so there’s a very good and plausible story why the MLD could actually have used the Fury fighter bomber!
The Emhar kit was not modified structurally, but saw some changes in detail. These include a scratch-built cockpit with side walls, side consoles and a new ejection seat, plus a Matchbox pilot figure, a new front wheel (from a Kangnam Yak-38, I believe), plus a lot of added blade aerials and a finer pitot.
The flaps were lowered, for a more lively look- Another new feature is the opened air intake, which features a central splitter - in fact a vertically placed piece of a Vicker Wellesley bomb container from Matchbox. At the rear end, the exhaust pipe was opened and lengthened internally.
The six weapon hardpoints were taken from the original kit, but I did not use the four Sidewinder AAMs and the rather bulky drop tanks. So, all ordnance is new: the Bullpups come from the Hasegawa air-to-ground missile set, the drop tanks are leftover pieces from a Hobby Boss F-86. They are much more 'delicate', and make the Fury look less stout and cumbersome. The guidance pod for the Bullpups (a typical FJ-4B feature with these weapons) is a WWII drop tank, shaped with the help of benchmark pictures. Certainly not perfect, but, hey - it's just a MODEL!
Painting and markings
I used mid-1950ies MLD Sea Furys and Sea Hawks as a design benchmark, but this Fury is placed just into the time frame around 1960 when the MLD introduced a new 3-digit code system. Before that, a code "6-XX" with the XX somewhere in the 70 region would have been appropriate, and I actually painted the fuselage sides a bit darker so as if the old code had recently been painted over.
Dutch MLD aircraft tended to keep their former users’ liveries, but in the FJ-4B’s case I thought that a light grey and white aircraft (USN style) with Dutch roundels would look a bit odd. So I settled for early NATO style with Extra Dark Sea Grey upper sides (Humbrol 123) and Sky from below (Testors 2049 from their Authentic Line).
I also went for an early design style with a low waterline - early Hawker Sea Furies were painted this way, and a high waterline would probably be more typical. But in the face of potential seriosu action, who knows...? Things tend to be toned down quickly, just remember the RN Harriers during the Falkland conflict. I'll admit that the aircraft looks a bit simple and dull now, but this IMHO just adds to the plausible look of this whif. I prefer such subtleties to garish designs.
The surfaces were weathered with dry-brushed lighter shades of the basic tones (mostly Humbrol 79, but also some 140 and 67, and Humbrol 90 and 166 below), including overpainted old codes in a slightly darker tone of EDSG, done with Revell 77. A light wash with black ink emphasizes edges and some details - the machine was not to look worn.
The interior was painted in medium grey (Humbrol 140), the landing gear is white (Humbrol 130), and some details like the air intake rim, the edges of the landing gear covers, the flaps or the tips of the wing fences were painted in bright red (Humbrol 174), for some contrast to the overall grey upper sides.
The MLD markings were puzzled together. The roundels come from an Xtradecal sheet for various Hawker Sea Furies, the '202' code comes, among others, from a Grumman Bearcat aftermarket sheet. The 'KON. MARINE' line is hand-made, letter by letter, from a TL Modellbau aftremarket sheet.
Most stencils and warning sign decals come from the original decal sheet, as well as from a FJ-4 Xtradecal aftermarket sheet, from F-86 kits and the scrap box. I wanted these details to provide the color to the aircraft, so that it would not look too uniform, but still without flashy decorations and like a rather utilarian military item.
finally, the model received a coat of semi-matt varnish (Tamiya Acryllic), since MLD aircraft had a pretty glossy finish. No dirt or soot stains were added - the Dutch kept their (few) shipborne aircraft very clean and tidy!
So, all in all, a simple looking aircraft, but this Dutch Fury has IMHO a certain, subtle charm - probably also because it is a rather rare and unpopular aircraft, which in itself has a certain whiffy aura.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The North American FJ-4 Fury was a swept-wing carrier-capable fighter-bomber, originally developed for the United States Navy and Marine Corps. It was the final development in a lineage that included the Air Force's F-86 Sabre. The FJ-4 shared its general layout and engine with the earlier FJ-3, but featured an entirely new wing design. And it was, as a kind of final embodiment with the FJ-4B, a very different aircraft from the F-86 .
The first FJ-4 flew on 28 October 1954 and delivery began in February 1955. Of the original order for 221 FJ-4 fighters, the last 71 were modified into the FJ-4B fighter-bomber version, of which the Netherlands received 16 aircraft under the designation FJ-4B from the USA in the course of NATO support. Even though the main roles of the MLD were maritime patrol, anti-submarine warfare and search and rescue, the FJ-4B was a dedicated fighter-bomber, and these aircraft were to be used with the Dutch Navy’s Colossus-Class carrier HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81).
Compared to the lighter FJ-4 interceptor, the FJ-4B had a stronger wing with six instead of four underwing stations, a stronger landing gear and additional aerodynamic brakes under the aft fuselage. The latter made landing safer by allowing pilots to use higher thrust settings, and were also useful for dive attacks. Compared to the FJ-4, external load was doubled, and the US FJ-4Bs were capable of carrying a nuclear weapon on the inboard port station, a feature the MLD Furies lacked. The MLD aircraft were still equipped with the corresponding LABS or Low-Altitude Bombing System for accurate delivery of ordnance.
The Dutch Furies were primarily intended for anti-ship missions (toting up to five of the newly developed ASM-N-7 missiles - renamed in AGM-12B Bullpup after 1962 - plus a guidance pod) and CAS duties against coastal targets, as well as for precision strikes. In a secondary role, the FJ-4B could carry Sidewinder AAMs for interception purposes.
The MLD's FJ-4B became operational in 1956, just in time to enhance the firepower of the Karel Doorman, which just had its 24 WW-II era propeller driven Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighter/anti-ship aircraft backed up with 14 TBF Avenger ASW/torpedo bombers and 10 Hawker Sea Hawk fighters (the MLD owned 22 of these) for an ASW/Strike profile. The Furies joined the carrier in late 1957 and replaced the piston-engined attack aircraft.
In 1960, during the Dutch decolonization and planned independence of Western New Guinea, a territory which was also claimed by Indonesia, the Karel Doorman set sail along with two destroyers and a modified oil tanker to 'show the flag'. In order to avoid possible problems with Indonesia's ally Egypt at the Suez Canal, the carrier instead sailed around the horn of Africa. She arrived in Fremantle, Australia, where the local seamen's union struck in sympathy with Indonesia; the crew used the propeller thrust of aircraft chained down on deck to nudge the carrier into dock without tugs! In addition to her air wing, she was ferrying twelve Hawker Hunter fighters to bolster the local Dutch defense forces, which the Karel Doorman delivered when she arrived at Hollandia, New Guinea.
During the 1960 crisis, Indonesia prepared for a military action named Operation Trikora (in the Indonesian language, "Tri Komando Rakyat" means "The Three Commands of the People"). In addition to planning for an invasion, the TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Forces) hoped to sink the Karel Doorman with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers using AS-1 Kennel/KS-1 Kometa anti-ship missiles. This bomber-launched missile strike mission was cancelled on short notice, though, because of the implementation of the cease-fire between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This led to a Dutch withdrawal and temporary UN peacekeeping administration, followed by occupation and annexation through Indonesia. While the Dutch aircraft served actively during this conflict, flying patrols and demonstrating presence, visibly armed and in alert condition, no 'hot' sortie or casualty occured, even though one aircraft, 10-18, was lost in a start accident. The pilot ejected safely.
The MLD FJ-4Bs only served on the carrier until its overhaul in 1964, after which the carrier-borne attack role was eliminated and all aircraft were transferred to land bases (Valkenburg) or in reserve storage. The Seahawks were retired from service by the end of the 1960s after the sale of the Karel Doorman to Argentina, and the FJ-4Bs were returned to the United States, where they were re-integrated into the USMC until the end of the 1960ies, when all FJ-4 aircraft were phased out.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 36 ft 4 in (11.1 m)
Wingspan: 39 ft 1 in (11.9 m)
Height: 13 ft 11 in (4.2 m)
Wing area: 338.66 ft² (31.46 m²)
Empty weight: 13,210 lb (6,000 kg)
Loaded weight: 20,130 lb (9,200 kg)
Max. take-off weight: 23,700 lb (10,750 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright J65-W-16A turbojet, 7,700 lbf (34 kN)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 680 mph (1,090 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,670 m)
Range: 2,020 mi (3,250 km) with 2× 200 gal (760 l) drop tanks and 2× AIM-9 missiles
Service ceiling: 46,800 ft (14,300 m)
Rate of climb: 7,660 ft/min (38.9 m/s)
Wing loading: 69.9 lb/ft² (341.7 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: .325
Armament:
4× 20 mm (0.787 in) cannon
6× pylons under the wings for 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) external ordnance, including up to 6× AIM-9 Sidewinder AAMs, bombs and guided/unguided ASM, e .g. ASM-N-7 (AGM-12B Bullpup) missiles.
The kit and its assembly
Originally, this model project was inspired by a (whiffy) Dutch F3H Demon profile, designed by fellow user Darth Panda at whatifmodelers.com. I found the idea of a foreign/NATO user of one of these early carrier-borne jet fighters very inspiring – not only because of the strange design of many of these aircraft, but also since the USN and USMC had been the only real world users of many of these types.
Initially, I planned to convert a F3H accordingly. But with limited storage/display space at home I decided to apply the MLD idea to another smaller, but maybe even more exotic, type: the North American FJ-4B Fury, which was in 1962 recoded into AF-1E.
I like the beefy Sabre cousin very much. It’s one of those aircraft that received little attention, even from model kit manufacturers. In fact, in 1:72 scale there are only vintage vacu kits or the very basic Emhar kit available. Th Emhar kit, which I used here and which is a kind donation of a fellow modeler (Thanks a lot, André!), a rather rough thing with raised panel lines and much room for improvements. As a side note, there's also a FJ-4B from Revell, but it's just a 1996 re-issue with no improvements, whatsoever.
Another facet of the model: When I did legwork concerning a possible background story, I was surprised to find out that the Netherlands actually operated aircraft carriers in the 1950s, including carrier-borne, fixed-wing aircraft, even jets in the form of Hawker Sea Hawks. The real life FJ-4Bs service introduction, the naissance of NATO and the Indonesian conflict as well as the corresponding intervention of the Karel Doorman carrier all fell into a very plausible time frame – and so there’s a very good and plausible story why the MLD could actually have used the Fury fighter bomber!
The Emhar kit was not modified structurally, but saw some changes in detail. These include a scratch-built cockpit with side walls, side consoles and a new ejection seat, plus a Matchbox pilot figure, a new front wheel (from a Kangnam Yak-38, I believe), plus a lot of added blade aerials and a finer pitot.
The flaps were lowered, for a more lively look- Another new feature is the opened air intake, which features a central splitter - in fact a vertically placed piece of a Vicker Wellesley bomb container from Matchbox. At the rear end, the exhaust pipe was opened and lengthened internally.
The six weapon hardpoints were taken from the original kit, but I did not use the four Sidewinder AAMs and the rather bulky drop tanks. So, all ordnance is new: the Bullpups come from the Hasegawa air-to-ground missile set, the drop tanks are leftover pieces from a Hobby Boss F-86. They are much more 'delicate', and make the Fury look less stout and cumbersome. The guidance pod for the Bullpups (a typical FJ-4B feature with these weapons) is a WWII drop tank, shaped with the help of benchmark pictures. Certainly not perfect, but, hey - it's just a MODEL!
Painting and markings
I used mid-1950ies MLD Sea Furys and Sea Hawks as a design benchmark, but this Fury is placed just into the time frame around 1960 when the MLD introduced a new 3-digit code system. Before that, a code "6-XX" with the XX somewhere in the 70 region would have been appropriate, and I actually painted the fuselage sides a bit darker so as if the old code had recently been painted over.
Dutch MLD aircraft tended to keep their former users’ liveries, but in the FJ-4B’s case I thought that a light grey and white aircraft (USN style) with Dutch roundels would look a bit odd. So I settled for early NATO style with Extra Dark Sea Grey upper sides (Humbrol 123) and Sky from below (Testors 2049 from their Authentic Line).
I also went for an early design style with a low waterline - early Hawker Sea Furies were painted this way, and a high waterline would probably be more typical. But in the face of potential seriosu action, who knows...? Things tend to be toned down quickly, just remember the RN Harriers during the Falkland conflict. I'll admit that the aircraft looks a bit simple and dull now, but this IMHO just adds to the plausible look of this whif. I prefer such subtleties to garish designs.
The surfaces were weathered with dry-brushed lighter shades of the basic tones (mostly Humbrol 79, but also some 140 and 67, and Humbrol 90 and 166 below), including overpainted old codes in a slightly darker tone of EDSG, done with Revell 77. A light wash with black ink emphasizes edges and some details - the machine was not to look worn.
The interior was painted in medium grey (Humbrol 140), the landing gear is white (Humbrol 130), and some details like the air intake rim, the edges of the landing gear covers, the flaps or the tips of the wing fences were painted in bright red (Humbrol 174), for some contrast to the overall grey upper sides.
The MLD markings were puzzled together. The roundels come from an Xtradecal sheet for various Hawker Sea Furies, the '202' code comes, among others, from a Grumman Bearcat aftermarket sheet. The 'KON. MARINE' line is hand-made, letter by letter, from a TL Modellbau aftremarket sheet.
Most stencils and warning sign decals come from the original decal sheet, as well as from a FJ-4 Xtradecal aftermarket sheet, from F-86 kits and the scrap box. I wanted these details to provide the color to the aircraft, so that it would not look too uniform, but still without flashy decorations and like a rather utilarian military item.
finally, the model received a coat of semi-matt varnish (Tamiya Acryllic), since MLD aircraft had a pretty glossy finish. No dirt or soot stains were added - the Dutch kept their (few) shipborne aircraft very clean and tidy!
So, all in all, a simple looking aircraft, but this Dutch Fury has IMHO a certain, subtle charm - probably also because it is a rather rare and unpopular aircraft, which in itself has a certain whiffy aura.
The Hmong (RPA: Hmoob/Moob, IPA: [m̥ɔ̃ŋ]) are an ethnic group from the mountainous regions of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Hmong are also one of the sub-groups of the Miao ethnicity (苗族) in southern China. Hmong groups began a gradual southward migration in the 18th century due to political unrest and to find more arable land.
During the first and second Indochina Wars, France and the United States recruited thousands of Hmong people in Laos to fight against forces from north and south Vietnam and communist Pathet Lao insurgents, known as the Secret War, during the Vietnam War and the Laotian Civil War. Hundreds of thousands of Hmong refugees fled to Thailand seeking political asylum. Thousands of these refugees have resettled in Western countries since the late 1970s, mostly the United States, but also in Australia, France, French Guiana, Canada, and Argentina. Others have returned to Laos under United Nations-sponsored repatriation programs.
SUBCULTURES
Hmong people have their own terms for their subcultural divisions. Hmong Der and Hmong Leng are the terms for two of the largest groups in America and Southeast Asia. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Moob Leeg/Moob Ntsuab (Blue/Green Mong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced.
White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of the Hmong language with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the voiceless /m̥/ in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in Romanized Popular Alphabet. Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of head-dress, or the provinces from which they come.
VIETNAM
Vietnamese Hmong women continuing to wear 'traditional' clothing tend to source much of their clothing as 'ready to wear' cotton (as opposed to traditional hemp) from markets, though some add embroidery as a personal touch. In SaPa, now with a 'standardised' clothing look, Black Hmong sub-groups have differentiated themselves by adopting different headwear; those with a large comb embedded in their long hair (but without a hat) call themselves Tao, those with a pillbox hat name themselves Giay, and those with a checked headscarf are Yao. For many, such as Flower Hmong, the heavily beaded skirts and jackets are manufactured in China.
NOMENCLATURE
In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông; Lao: ແມ້ວ (Maew) or ມົ້ງ (Mong); Thai: แม้ว (Maew) or ม้ง (Mong); Burmese: မုံလူမျိုး (mun lu-myo). The xenonym, "Mèo", and variants thereof, are considered highly derogatory by many Hmong people and are infrequently used today outside of Southeast Asia.
The Hmong people were also referred to by some European writers as the "Kings of the Jungle," because they used to live in the jungle of Laos. Because the Hmong lived mainly in the highland areas of Southeast Asia and China, the French occupiers of Southeast Asia gave them the name Montagnards or "mountain people", but this should not be confused with the Degar people of Vietnam, who were also referred to as Montagnards.
HMONG, MONG AND MIAO
Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate that the term Hmong be used not only for designating their dialect group, but also for the other Miao groups living in China. They generally claim that the word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adapted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status.
In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was actually members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao"-taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression.
Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong diaspora, have led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China that previously had no ethnic affiliation. Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly communicated via the Internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including Hmu and A Hmao people identifying as Hmong and, to a lesser extent, Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao," within the context of China. Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders, reflect a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao."
HISTORY
The Hmong claim an origin in the Yellow River region of China. According to Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied the same areas of southern China for at least the past 2,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong-Mien-speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although Hmong-speaking populations show more contact with Han than Mien populations. Chinese sources describe that area being inhabited by 'Miao' people, a group with whom Hmong people are often identified.
The ancient town of Zhuolu, is considered to be the legendary birthplace of the Miao. Today, a statue of Chi You, widely proclaimed as the first Hmong king, has been erected in the town. The Guoyu book, considers Chi You’s Jui Li tribe to be related to the ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San Miao people
CULTURE
The Hmong culture usually consists of a dominant hierarchy within the family. Males hold dominance over females and thus, a father is considered the head in each household. Courtships take place during the night when a man goes to visit a woman at her house and tries to woo her with sweet-talks through the thin walls of the house where the woman's bedroom may be located. If a man kidnaps an unwilling woman as a bride, she would have to marry him or risk having a tarnished reputation.
Today, bridenapping is uncommon because those marriages can end in divorce since women are no longer afraid of a tarnished reputation. During a marriage, the man pays the woman's family for taking away a daughter who is economically essential to her parents. Hmong women retain their own maiden names following marriage, but attends to the ancestors of their husbands. The children they bear take their husbands' clan names. Consequently, the Hmong favour having sons over daughters because sons perpetuate the clan.
The Hmong practice shamanism and ancestor worship. Like other animists, they also believe that all things are endowed with spiritual beings and so should be respected.
See Anne Fadiman's ethnography: The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down for more info.
Hmong families in Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos practice subsistence agriculture, supplemented by hunting and some foraging. Although they have chickens, pigs and cows, the traditional staple of the Hmong consists mostly of vegetable dishes and rice. Domestic animals are highly valued and killed for consumption only during special events such as the New Year's Festival or during events such as a birth, marriage, or funeral ritual.
GEOGRAPHY
Roughly 95% of the Hmong live in Asia. Linguistic data show that the Hmong of the Peninsula stem from the Miao of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong–Mien language family. Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common.
In China the majority of the Hmong today live in Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan. The Hmong population is estimated at 3 million. No precise census data exist on the Hmong in China since China does not officially recognise the ethnonym Hmong and instead, clusters that group within the wider Miao group (8,940,116 in 2000). A few centuries ago, the lowland Chinese started moving into the mountain ranges of China's southwest. This migration, combined with major social unrest in southern China in the 18th and 19th century, served to cause some minorities of Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan to migrate south. A number of Hmong thus settled in the ranges of the Indochina Peninsula to practise subsistence agriculture.
Vietnam, where their presence is attested from the late 18th century onwards, is likely to be the first Indochinese country into which the Hmong migrated. During the colonization of 'Tonkin' (north Vietnam) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists, while many Christianized Hmong sided with the French. After the Viet Minh victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and South Vietnam.
At the 2009 national census, there were 1,068,189 Hmong living in Vietnam, the vast majority of them in the north of the country. The traditional trade in coffin wood with China and the cultivation of the opium poppy – both prohibited only in 1993 in Vietnam – long guaranteed a regular cash income. Today, converting to cash cropping is the main economic activity. As in China and Laos, there is a certain degree of participation of Hmong in the local and regional administration. In the late 1990s, several thousands of Hmong have started moving to the Central Highlands and some have crossed the border into Cambodia, constituting the first attested presence of Hmong settlers in that country.
In 2005, the Hmong in Laos numbered 460,000. Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam. After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau were set up after World War II. There, a particular rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides and as a consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the Pathet Lao Communists, while perhaps as many were enrolled in the People's Liberation Army. As in Vietnam, numerous Hmong in Laos also genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime.
After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad. Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990.
In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080. The presence of Hmong settlements there is documented from the end of the 19th century. Initially, the Siamese paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum in the Peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while here again, many Hmong refused to take sides in the conflict. Communist guerrilla warfare stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority is since given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity.
Burma most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently.
As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. California became home to half this group, while the remainder went to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington, Pennsylvania, Montana, and North Carolina. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in French Guyana. Canada admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to Australia, 260 to China, and 250 to Argentina. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced.
WIKIPEDIA
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The North American FJ-4 Fury was a swept-wing carrier-capable fighter-bomber, originally developed for the United States Navy and Marine Corps. It was the final development in a lineage that included the Air Force's F-86 Sabre. The FJ-4 shared its general layout and engine with the earlier FJ-3, but featured an entirely new wing design. And it was, as a kind of final embodiment with the FJ-4B, a very different aircraft from the F-86 .
The first FJ-4 flew on 28 October 1954 and delivery began in February 1955. Of the original order for 221 FJ-4 fighters, the last 71 were modified into the FJ-4B fighter-bomber version, of which the Netherlands received 16 aircraft under the designation FJ-4B from the USA in the course of NATO support. Even though the main roles of the MLD were maritime patrol, anti-submarine warfare and search and rescue, the FJ-4B was a dedicated fighter-bomber, and these aircraft were to be used with the Dutch Navy’s Colossus-Class carrier HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81).
Compared to the lighter FJ-4 interceptor, the FJ-4B had a stronger wing with six instead of four underwing stations, a stronger landing gear and additional aerodynamic brakes under the aft fuselage. The latter made landing safer by allowing pilots to use higher thrust settings, and were also useful for dive attacks. Compared to the FJ-4, external load was doubled, and the US FJ-4Bs were capable of carrying a nuclear weapon on the inboard port station, a feature the MLD Furies lacked. The MLD aircraft were still equipped with the corresponding LABS or Low-Altitude Bombing System for accurate delivery of ordnance.
The Dutch Furies were primarily intended for anti-ship missions (toting up to five of the newly developed ASM-N-7 missiles - renamed in AGM-12B Bullpup after 1962 - plus a guidance pod) and CAS duties against coastal targets, as well as for precision strikes. In a secondary role, the FJ-4B could carry Sidewinder AAMs for interception purposes.
The MLD's FJ-4B became operational in 1956, just in time to enhance the firepower of the Karel Doorman, which just had its 24 WW-II era propeller driven Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighter/anti-ship aircraft backed up with 14 TBF Avenger ASW/torpedo bombers and 10 Hawker Sea Hawk fighters (the MLD owned 22 of these) for an ASW/Strike profile. The Furies joined the carrier in late 1957 and replaced the piston-engined attack aircraft.
In 1960, during the Dutch decolonization and planned independence of Western New Guinea, a territory which was also claimed by Indonesia, the Karel Doorman set sail along with two destroyers and a modified oil tanker to 'show the flag'. In order to avoid possible problems with Indonesia's ally Egypt at the Suez Canal, the carrier instead sailed around the horn of Africa. She arrived in Fremantle, Australia, where the local seamen's union struck in sympathy with Indonesia; the crew used the propeller thrust of aircraft chained down on deck to nudge the carrier into dock without tugs! In addition to her air wing, she was ferrying twelve Hawker Hunter fighters to bolster the local Dutch defense forces, which the Karel Doorman delivered when she arrived at Hollandia, New Guinea.
During the 1960 crisis, Indonesia prepared for a military action named Operation Trikora (in the Indonesian language, "Tri Komando Rakyat" means "The Three Commands of the People"). In addition to planning for an invasion, the TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Forces) hoped to sink the Karel Doorman with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers using AS-1 Kennel/KS-1 Kometa anti-ship missiles. This bomber-launched missile strike mission was cancelled on short notice, though, because of the implementation of the cease-fire between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This led to a Dutch withdrawal and temporary UN peacekeeping administration, followed by occupation and annexation through Indonesia. While the Dutch aircraft served actively during this conflict, flying patrols and demonstrating presence, visibly armed and in alert condition, no 'hot' sortie or casualty occured, even though one aircraft, 10-18, was lost in a start accident. The pilot ejected safely.
The MLD FJ-4Bs only served on the carrier until its overhaul in 1964, after which the carrier-borne attack role was eliminated and all aircraft were transferred to land bases (Valkenburg) or in reserve storage. The Seahawks were retired from service by the end of the 1960s after the sale of the Karel Doorman to Argentina, and the FJ-4Bs were returned to the United States, where they were re-integrated into the USMC until the end of the 1960ies, when all FJ-4 aircraft were phased out.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 36 ft 4 in (11.1 m)
Wingspan: 39 ft 1 in (11.9 m)
Height: 13 ft 11 in (4.2 m)
Wing area: 338.66 ft² (31.46 m²)
Empty weight: 13,210 lb (6,000 kg)
Loaded weight: 20,130 lb (9,200 kg)
Max. take-off weight: 23,700 lb (10,750 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright J65-W-16A turbojet, 7,700 lbf (34 kN)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 680 mph (1,090 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,670 m)
Range: 2,020 mi (3,250 km) with 2× 200 gal (760 l) drop tanks and 2× AIM-9 missiles
Service ceiling: 46,800 ft (14,300 m)
Rate of climb: 7,660 ft/min (38.9 m/s)
Wing loading: 69.9 lb/ft² (341.7 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: .325
Armament:
4× 20 mm (0.787 in) cannon
6× pylons under the wings for 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) external ordnance, including up to 6× AIM-9 Sidewinder AAMs, bombs and guided/unguided ASM, e .g. ASM-N-7 (AGM-12B Bullpup) missiles.
The kit and its assembly
Originally, this model project was inspired by a (whiffy) Dutch F3H Demon profile, designed by fellow user Darth Panda at whatifmodelers.com. I found the idea of a foreign/NATO user of one of these early carrier-borne jet fighters very inspiring – not only because of the strange design of many of these aircraft, but also since the USN and USMC had been the only real world users of many of these types.
Initially, I planned to convert a F3H accordingly. But with limited storage/display space at home I decided to apply the MLD idea to another smaller, but maybe even more exotic, type: the North American FJ-4B Fury, which was in 1962 recoded into AF-1E.
I like the beefy Sabre cousin very much. It’s one of those aircraft that received little attention, even from model kit manufacturers. In fact, in 1:72 scale there are only vintage vacu kits or the very basic Emhar kit available. Th Emhar kit, which I used here and which is a kind donation of a fellow modeler (Thanks a lot, André!), a rather rough thing with raised panel lines and much room for improvements. As a side note, there's also a FJ-4B from Revell, but it's just a 1996 re-issue with no improvements, whatsoever.
Another facet of the model: When I did legwork concerning a possible background story, I was surprised to find out that the Netherlands actually operated aircraft carriers in the 1950s, including carrier-borne, fixed-wing aircraft, even jets in the form of Hawker Sea Hawks. The real life FJ-4Bs service introduction, the naissance of NATO and the Indonesian conflict as well as the corresponding intervention of the Karel Doorman carrier all fell into a very plausible time frame – and so there’s a very good and plausible story why the MLD could actually have used the Fury fighter bomber!
The Emhar kit was not modified structurally, but saw some changes in detail. These include a scratch-built cockpit with side walls, side consoles and a new ejection seat, plus a Matchbox pilot figure, a new front wheel (from a Kangnam Yak-38, I believe), plus a lot of added blade aerials and a finer pitot.
The flaps were lowered, for a more lively look- Another new feature is the opened air intake, which features a central splitter - in fact a vertically placed piece of a Vicker Wellesley bomb container from Matchbox. At the rear end, the exhaust pipe was opened and lengthened internally.
The six weapon hardpoints were taken from the original kit, but I did not use the four Sidewinder AAMs and the rather bulky drop tanks. So, all ordnance is new: the Bullpups come from the Hasegawa air-to-ground missile set, the drop tanks are leftover pieces from a Hobby Boss F-86. They are much more 'delicate', and make the Fury look less stout and cumbersome. The guidance pod for the Bullpups (a typical FJ-4B feature with these weapons) is a WWII drop tank, shaped with the help of benchmark pictures. Certainly not perfect, but, hey - it's just a MODEL!
Painting and markings
I used mid-1950ies MLD Sea Furys and Sea Hawks as a design benchmark, but this Fury is placed just into the time frame around 1960 when the MLD introduced a new 3-digit code system. Before that, a code "6-XX" with the XX somewhere in the 70 region would have been appropriate, and I actually painted the fuselage sides a bit darker so as if the old code had recently been painted over.
Dutch MLD aircraft tended to keep their former users’ liveries, but in the FJ-4B’s case I thought that a light grey and white aircraft (USN style) with Dutch roundels would look a bit odd. So I settled for early NATO style with Extra Dark Sea Grey upper sides (Humbrol 123) and Sky from below (Testors 2049 from their Authentic Line).
I also went for an early design style with a low waterline - early Hawker Sea Furies were painted this way, and a high waterline would probably be more typical. But in the face of potential seriosu action, who knows...? Things tend to be toned down quickly, just remember the RN Harriers during the Falkland conflict. I'll admit that the aircraft looks a bit simple and dull now, but this IMHO just adds to the plausible look of this whif. I prefer such subtleties to garish designs.
The surfaces were weathered with dry-brushed lighter shades of the basic tones (mostly Humbrol 79, but also some 140 and 67, and Humbrol 90 and 166 below), including overpainted old codes in a slightly darker tone of EDSG, done with Revell 77. A light wash with black ink emphasizes edges and some details - the machine was not to look worn.
The interior was painted in medium grey (Humbrol 140), the landing gear is white (Humbrol 130), and some details like the air intake rim, the edges of the landing gear covers, the flaps or the tips of the wing fences were painted in bright red (Humbrol 174), for some contrast to the overall grey upper sides.
The MLD markings were puzzled together. The roundels come from an Xtradecal sheet for various Hawker Sea Furies, the '202' code comes, among others, from a Grumman Bearcat aftermarket sheet. The 'KON. MARINE' line is hand-made, letter by letter, from a TL Modellbau aftremarket sheet.
Most stencils and warning sign decals come from the original decal sheet, as well as from a FJ-4 Xtradecal aftermarket sheet, from F-86 kits and the scrap box. I wanted these details to provide the color to the aircraft, so that it would not look too uniform, but still without flashy decorations and like a rather utilarian military item.
finally, the model received a coat of semi-matt varnish (Tamiya Acryllic), since MLD aircraft had a pretty glossy finish. No dirt or soot stains were added - the Dutch kept their (few) shipborne aircraft very clean and tidy!
So, all in all, a simple looking aircraft, but this Dutch Fury has IMHO a certain, subtle charm - probably also because it is a rather rare and unpopular aircraft, which in itself has a certain whiffy aura.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
World War II (1941-1945)
World War II, or the Second World War,[1] was a global military conflict, the joining of what had initially been two separate conflicts. The first began in Asia in 1937 as the Second Sino-Japanese War; the other began in Europe in 1939 with the German invasion of Poland.
This global conflict split the majority of the world's nations into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. It involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, and placed the participants in a state of "total war", erasing the distinction between civil and military resources. This resulted in the complete activation of a nation's economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities for the purposes of the war effort. Over 60 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.[2] The financial cost of the war is estimated at about a trillion 1944 U.S. dollars worldwide,[3][4] making it the most costly war in capital as well as lives.
The Allies were victorious, and, as a result, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as the world's leading superpowers. This set the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in hopes of preventing another such conflict. The self determination spawned by the war accelerated decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Europe itself began moving toward integration.[5]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Background
* 2 Course of the war
o 2.1 War breaks out
o 2.2 Axis advances
o 2.3 The war becomes global
o 2.4 The tide turns
o 2.5 Allies gain momentum
o 2.6 Allies close in
o 2.7 Axis collapse, Allied victory
* 3 Aftermath
* 4 Casualties, civilian impact, and atrocities
o 4.1 Concentration camps and slave work
o 4.2 Chemical and bacteriological weapons
o 4.3 Bombings
o 4.4 War trials
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links
Background
In the aftermath of World War I, the defeated German Empire signed the Treaty of Versailles.[6] This restricted German military and territorial growth and required the payment of massive war reparations. Civil war in Russia led to the creation of the communist Soviet Union which soon was under the control of Joseph Stalin. In Italy, Benito Mussolini seized power as a fascist dictator promising to create a "New Roman Empire".[7] The ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against rebelling warlords in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China[8] as the first step of its right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as justification to invade Manchuria; the two nations then fought several small conflicts until the Tanggu Truce in 1933.
German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally
German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally
In 1933, National Socialist Adolf Hitler became the leader of Germany and began a massive rearming campaign.[9] This worried France and the United Kingdom, who had lost much in the previous war, as well as Italy, which saw its territorial ambitions threatened by those of Germany.[10] To secure its alliance, the French allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired to conquer. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Saarland was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, speeding up remilitarization and introducing conscription. Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front. The Soviet Union, also concerned due to Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, concluded a treaty of mutual assistance with France.
These alliances did not amount to much. The Franco-Soviet pact, required to go through the League of Nations bureaucracy before taking effect, was essentially toothless[11][12] and in June of 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany easing prior restrictions. The isolationist United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August.[13] In October Italy invaded Ethiopia, but was soon politically isolated, with Germany the only major European nation supporting its aggression. Alliances shifted, with Italy revoking its objections to Germany's goal of making Austria a satellite state.[14]
In March of 1936, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in direct violation of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, receiving little response from other European powers.[15] This strategy of giving an aggressor what they supposedly need in order to maintain peace is called appeasement. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July, Hitler and Mussolini supported fascist Generalísimo Francisco Franco in his civil war against the Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the conflict to test new weapons and methods of warfare.[16]
With tensions mounting, efforts to strengthen or consolidate power were made. In October, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis and a month later Germany and Japan, each believing communism–and the Soviet Union in particular–to be a threat, signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In China, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.[17]
Course of the war
See also: Timeline of World War II
War breaks out
Japanese forces during the Battle of Wuhan
Japanese forces during the Battle of Wuhan
In mid-1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japan began a full invasion of China. The Soviets quickly lent support to China, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany. Starting at Shanghai, the Japanese pushed Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanjing in December. In June of 1938 Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River. Though this bought time to prepare their defenses at Wuhan, the city was still taken by October.[18] During this time, Japanese and Soviet forces engaged in a minor skirmish at Lake Khasan; in May of 1939, they became involved in a more serious border war.[19]
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming bolder. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers.[20] Encouraged, Hitler began making claims on the Sudetenland; France and Britain conceded these for a promise of no further territorial demands.[21] Germany soon reneged, and in March 1939 fully occupied Czechoslovakia.
Soviet and German officers in Poland
Soviet and German officers in Poland
Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on Danzig, France and Britain guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece.[22] The Soviet Union also attempted to ally with France and Britain, but was rebuffed due to western suspicions about Soviet motives and capability.[23] Shortly after the Franco-British pledges to Poland, Germany and Italy formalized their own alliance with the Pact of Steel; following this, in a move that shocked all other major powers, Germany and the Soviet Union concluded a non-aggression pact, including a secret agreement to split Poland and eastern Europe between them.[24]
By the start of September 1939, the Soviets had routed Japanese forces and the Germans invaded Poland. France, Britain, and the countries of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany but lent little support other than a small French attack into the Saarland.[25] In mid-September, after signing an armistice with Japan, the Soviets launched their own invasion of Poland.[26] By early October, Poland had been divided between Germany and the Soviet Union. During the battle in Poland, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by early October.[27]
Axis advances
British and French soldiers taken prisoner in Northern France
British and French soldiers taken prisoner in Northern France
Following the invasion of Poland, the Soviets began moving troops into the Baltic region. Finnish resistance in late November led to a four-month war, ending with Finnish concessions.[28] France and the United Kingdom, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans[29] responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting its expulsion from the League of Nations.[29] Though China had the authority to veto such an action, it was unwilling to alienate itself from either the Western powers or the Soviet Union and instead abstained.[29] The Soviet Union was displeased by this course of action and as a result suspended all military aid to China.[29] By mid-1940, the Soviet Union's occupation of the Baltics was completed with the installation of pro-Soviet governments.[30]
In Western Europe, British troops deployed to the Continent, but neither Germany nor the Allies launched direct attacks on the other. In April, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure shipments of iron-ore from Sweden which the allies would try to disrupt. Denmark immediately capitulated, and despite Allied support Norway was conquered within two months.[31] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain by Winston Churchill on May 10, 1940.[32]
On that same day, Germany invaded France and the Low Countries, making rapid progress using blitzkrieg tactics. By the end of the month the Netherlands and Belgium had been overrun and British troops were forced to evacuate the continent, abandoning their heavy equipment.[33] On June 10th, Italy invaded, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom;[33] twelve days later France surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones,[34] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime. In early July, the British attacked the French fleet in Algeria to prevent their seizure by Germany.[35]
German bombers during the Battle of Britain
German bombers during the Battle of Britain
With France neutralized, the Axis was emboldened. Germany began an air superiority campaign over Britain to prepare for an invasion[36] and enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic.[37] Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in early September. Japan increased its blockade of China in September by seizing several bases in the northern part of the now-isolated French Indochina.[38]
Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow Cash and carry purchases by the Allies.[39] During 1940, the United States implemented a series of embargos, including oil, iron, steel and mechanical parts, against Japan;[40] in September it agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases.[41]
At the end of September the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Italy and Germany formalized the Axis Powers. As a warning to the United States, the pact stipulated that, with the exception of the Soviet Union, any country not currently in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.[42] The Soviet Union expressed interest in joining the Tripartite Pact, sending a modified draft to Germany in November and offering a very German-favourable economic deal;[43] while Germany remained silent on the former, they accepted the latter.[44] Regardless of the pact, the United States continued to support the United Kingdom and China by introducing the Lend-Lease policy[45] and creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic Ocean where the United States Navy protected British convoys.[46]
Soon after the pact, Italy's fortunes changed. In October, Italy invaded Greece but within days were repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred.[47] Shortly after this, in Africa, Commonwealth forces launched offensives against Libya and Italian East Africa. By early 1941, with Italian forces having been pushed back into Libya by the Commonwealth, Churchill ordered a dispatch of troops from Africa to bolster the Greeks. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission via carrier attack at Taranto, and several more warships neutralized at Cape Matapan.[48]
German paratroopers invading Crete
German paratroopers invading Crete
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February and by the end of March they had launched an offensive against the diminished Commonwealth forces. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions. In early April the Germans similarly intervened in the Balkans, invading Greece and Yugoslavia; here too they made rapid progress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May.[49]
The Allies did have some successes during this time though. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed a coup in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,[50] then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.[51] In the Atlantic, the British scored a much needed public morale boost by sinking the German flagship Bismarck.[52] Perhaps most importantly, the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and on May 11, 1941, Hitler called off the bombing campaign over Britain.[53]
In Asia, in spite of several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.[54] Mounting tensions between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.[55]
With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia the two powers signed a neutrality agreement in April, 1941.[56] By contrast the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, amassing forces on the Soviet border, particularly in Finland and Romania.[57]
The war becomes global
German soldiers in the Soviet Union, 1941
German soldiers in the Soviet Union, 1941
In late June, Germany, along with other European Axis members and Finland, invaded the Soviet Union. They made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting a large numbers of casualties, and by the start of December had almost reached Moscow, with only the besieged cities of Leningrad and Sevastopol behind their front-lines left unconquered.[58] With the onset of a fierce Soviet winter though, the Axis offensive was ground to a halt[59] and the Soviets launched a counter-offensive using reserve troops brought up from the border near Japanese Manchukuo.[60]
Following the German attack on the Soviets, the United Kingdom began to regroup. In July, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany[61] and shortly after jointly invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oilfields.[62] In August, the United Kingdom and United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter, a vision for a post-war world which included "the right of all peoples to choose their form of government".[63] In November, Commonwealth forces launched a counter-offensive in the desert, reclaiming all gains the Germans and Italians had made.[64]
In Asia, Japan was preparing for war. The Imperial General Headquarters plan was to create a large perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific in order to facilitate a defensive war while exploiting the resources of Southeast Asia; to prevent intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralize the United States Pacific Fleet on the outset.[65] In preparation, Japan seized military control of southern Indochina in July, 1941; an action the United States, United Kingdom and other western governments responded to by freezing all Japanese assets.[66] On December 7th Japan attacked British, Dutch and American holdings with near simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the American naval base of Pearl Harbor.[67]
These actions prompted the United States, United Kingdom, China, and other Western Allies to declare war on Japan. Italy, Germany, and the other members of the Tripartite Pact responded by declaring war on the United States. In January, the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China, along with twenty-two smaller or exiled governments, issued the Declaration by United Nations, affirming the Atlantic Charter[68] and formalizing their alliance against the Axis Powers. The Soviet Union did not adhere fully to the declaration though, as they maintained their neutrality agreement with Japan[69] and exempted themselves from the principle of self-determination.[63]
British soldiers surrendering from the Battle of Singapore
British soldiers surrendering from the Battle of Singapore
The Axis Powers, however, were able to continue their offensives. Japan had almost fully conquered Southeast Asia with minimal losses by the end of April, 1942, chasing the Allies out of Burma and taking large numbers of prisoners in the Philippines, Malaya, Dutch East Indies and Singapore.[70] They further bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia and sunk significant Allied warships not only at Pearl Harbor, but also in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean.[71] The only real successes against Japan were a repulsion of their renewed attack on Changsha in early January, 1942,[72] and a psychological strike from a bombing raid on Japan's capital Tokyo in April.[73]
Germany was able to regain the initiative as well. Exploiting American inexperience with submarine warfare, the German Navy sunk significant resources near the American Atlantic coast.[74] In the desert, they launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February.[75] In the Soviet Union, the Soviet's winter counter-offensive had ended by March.[76] In both the desert and the Soviet Union, there followed a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.[77][78]
The tide turns
American aircraft attacking a Japanese cruiser at Midway
American aircraft attacking a Japanese cruiser at Midway
In early May, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby via amphibious assault and thus sever the line of communications between the United States and Australia. The Allies, however, intercepted and turned back Japanese naval forces, preventing the invasion.[79] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier bombing on Tokyo, was to seize the Midway Atoll as this would seal a gap in their perimeter defenses, provide a forward base for further operations, and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands.[80] In early June, Japan put their operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the Japanese plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory over the Imperial Japanese Navy.[81] With their capacity for amphibious assault greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on an overland campaign on the Territory of Papua in another attempt to capture Port Moresby.[82] For the Americans, they planned their next move against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily against the island of Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the primary Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[83] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September the battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island.[84] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in a battle of attrition. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[85]
In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May of 1943.[86] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved dubious results.[87]
Soviet soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad
Soviet soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad
On the German's eastern front, they defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov[88] and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June, 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad which was in the path of the advancing German armies and by mid-November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad[89] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[90] By early February, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; their troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position prior to their summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front-line around the Russian city of Kursk.[91]
In the west, concerns that the Japanese might utilize bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May, 1942.[92] This success was off set soon after by an Axis offensive in Libya which pushed the Allies back into Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[93] On the Continent, Allied commandos had conducted a series of increasingly ambitious raids on strategic targets, culminating in the a disastrous amphibious raid on the German held port of Dieppe.[94] In August the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to get desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[95] A few months later the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[96] This was followed up shortly after by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa which resulted in the region joining the Allies.[97] Hitler responded to the defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France,[97] though the Vichy Admiralty managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces.[98] The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies by May, 1943.[99]
Allies gain momentum
U.S. soldiers in the Solomon Islands
U.S. soldiers in the Solomon Islands
Following the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan. In May, 1943, American forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians,[100] and soon after began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[101] By the end of March, 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralized another major Japanese base in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies then launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[102]
In mainland Asia, the Japanese launched two major offensives. The first, started in March, 1944, was against British positions in Assam, India[103] and soon led to Japanese forces besieging Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima;[104] by May however, other Japanese forces were being besieged in Myitkyina by Chinese forces which had invaded Northern Burma in late 1943.[105] The second was in China, with the goal of destroying China's main fighting forces, securing railways between Japanese-held territory, and capturing Allied airfields.[106] By June the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.[107]
In the Mediterranean, Allied forces launched an invasion of Sicily in early July, 1943. The attack on Italian soil, compounded with previous failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.[108] The Allies soon followed up with an invasion of the Italian mainland in early September, following an armistice with the Allies.[109] When this armistice was made public on September 8th, Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,[110] and setting up a series of defensive lines.[111] On September 12th, German special forces further rescued Mussolini who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy.[112] The Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[113] In January, 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks against the line at Monte Cassino and attempted to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By late May both of these offensives had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on June 4th Rome was captured.[114]
A Soviet tank during the Battle of Kursk
A Soviet tank during the Battle of Kursk
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, German submarine losses were so high that the naval campaign was temporarily called to a halt as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective.[115]
In the Soviet Union, the Germans spent the spring and early summer of 1943 making preparations for a large offensive in the region of Kursk; the Soviets anticipated such an action though and spent their time fortifying the area.[116] On July 4th, the Germans launched their attack, though only about a week later Hitler cancelled the operation.[117] The Soviets were then able to mount a massive counter-offensive and, by June 1944, had largely expelled Axis forces from the Soviet Union and made incursions into Romania.[118]
In November, 1943, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. At the former conference, the post-war return of Japanese territory was determined and in the latter, it was agreed that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.
Allies close in
Assault landing at Omaha Beach in Normandy
Assault landing at Omaha Beach in Normandy
In June, 1944, the Western Allies invaded northern France and in August, after reassigning several Allied divisions in Italy, then invaded southern France;[119] by 25 August the Allies had liberated Paris.[120] During the latter part of the year, the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe, and in Italy ran into the last major defensive line.
On the Germans eastern front, the Soviets launched a series of powerful offensives. Starting in early June the Soviets launched massive assaults against Finland, Belarus, Ukraine and Eastern Poland, Romania, and Hungary.[121] These operations resulted in great successes, with Bulgaria, Romania and Finland signing armistices with the Soviet Union,[122] and prompted Polish resistance forces to initiate several uprisings in Poland, though the largest of these, in Warsaw, was conducted without Soviet assistance and put down by German forces.[123]
By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[124] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[125] Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[126] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by the middle of December.[127]
In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In the middle of June, 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, scoring a decisive victory against Japanese forces in the Philippine Sea within a few days. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory against the Japanese in the Leyte Gulf.[128]
Axis collapse, Allied victory
Soviet Victory Banner being raised over the German Reichstag building
Soviet Victory Banner being raised over the German Reichstag building
On December 16, 1944, German forces counterattacked in the Ardennes against the Western Allies. It took six weeks for the Allies to repulse the attack. The Soviets attacked through Hungary, while the Germans abandoned Greece and Yugoslavia. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line.
In mid-January 1945, the Soviets attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[129]
On February 4, U.S., British, and Soviet leaders met in Yalta. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany,[130] and when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[131]
In February, Western Allied forces entered Germany and closed to the Rhine river, while the Soviets invaded Pomerania and Silesia. In March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling a large number of German troops, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while in late April Soviet forces stormed Berlin; the two forces linked up in Germany on April 26.[citation needed]
On April 12, U.S. President Roosevelt died; he was succeeded by Harry Truman. Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on April 28th[132] and two days later Hitler shot himself.[133]
German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29th and Germany itself surrendered on May 7.[134]
In the Pacific theater, American forces advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of 1944. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and Mindanao in March.[135] British and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma from October to March, then the British pushed on to Rangoon by May 3.[136]
Nuclear explosion at Nagasaki
Nuclear explosion at Nagasaki
American forces also moved toward Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by June.[137] American bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off Japanese imports.[138] But Japanese leaders decided to fight on, hoping for a bloody defeat of Allied invasion and then a negotiated peace.[citation needed]
On July 11, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[139] and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[140] During this conference the United Kingdom held its general election and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.
Japan rejected the Potsdam terms; the United States then dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). On August 8, the Soviets invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, as agreed at Yalta. On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered, ending the war.[134]
Aftermath
Main article: Aftermath of World War II
In an effort to maintain international peace,[141] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October, 1945.[142]
Regardless of this though, the alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over,[143] and the two powers each quickly established their own spheres of influence.[144] In Europe, the continent was essentially divided between Western and Soviet spheres by the so-called Iron Curtain which ran through and partitioned Allied occupied Germany and occupied Austria. In Asia, the United States occupied Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; the former Japanese governed Korea was divided and occupied between the two powers. Mounting tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union soon evolved into the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact military alliances and the start of the Cold War between them.[145]
In many parts of the world, conflict picked up again within a short time of World War II ending. In China, nationalist and communist forces quickly resumed their civil war. Communist forces were eventually victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland while nationalist forces ended up retreating to the reclaimed island of Taiwan. In Greece, civil war broke out between Anglo-American supported royalist forces and communist forces, with the royalist forces victorious. Soon after these conflicts ended, war broke out in Korea between South Korea, which was backed by the western powers, and North Korea, which was backed by the Soviet Union and China; the war resulted in essentially a stalemate and ceasefire.
Following the end of the war, a rapid period of decolonization also took place within the holdings of the various European colonial powers. These primarily occurred due to shifts in ideology, the economic exhaustion from the war and increased demand by indigenous people for self-determination. For the most part, these transitions happened relatively peacefully, though notable exceptions occurred in countries such as Indochina, Madagascar, Indonesia and Algeria.[146] In many regions, divisions, usually for ethnic or religious reasons, occurred following European withdrawal; this was seen prominently in the Mandate of Palestine, leading to the creation of Israel and Palestine, and in India, resulting in the creation of the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.
Economic recovery following the war was varied in differing parts of the world, though in general it was quite positive. In Europe, West Germany recovered quickly and doubled production from its pre-war levels by the 1950s.[147] Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition,[148] but by 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.[149] The United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin after the war,[150] and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.[151] France rebounded quite quickly, and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernization.[152] The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[153] In Asia, Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, and led to Japan becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[154] China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially a bankrupt nation.[155] By 1953, economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels.[156] This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was briefly interrupted by the disastrous Great Leap Forward economic experiment. At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the worlds industrial output; by the 1970s though, this dominance had lessened significantly.[157]
Casualties, civilian impact, and atrocities
Chart showing World War II deaths by country in millions as well as by percentage of population, and piechart with percentage of military and civilian deaths for the Allied and the Axis Powers.
Chart showing World War II deaths by country in millions as well as by percentage of population, and piechart with percentage of military and civilian deaths for the Allied and the Axis Powers.
See also: World War II casualties, War crimes during World War II, and Consequences of German Nazism
Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, but most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians.[158][159][160] Many civilians died because of disease, starvation, massacres, genocide. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II casualties.[161] Of the total deaths in World War II, approximately 85% were on the Allied side (mostly Soviet and Chinese) and 15% on the Axis side. One estimate is that 12 million civilians died in Holocaust camps, 1.5 million by bombs, 7 million in Europe from other causes, and 7.5 million in China from other causes.[162] Figures on the amount of total casualties vary to a wide extent because the majority of deaths were not documented.
From 9 to 11 million of these civilian casualties, including around six million Jews, were systematically killed in the Holocaust.[163] Likewise, Japanese military murdered from nearly 3,000,000 to over 10,000,000 civilians, mostly Chinese during the war.[164]
Concentration camps and slave work
Victims of the Holocaust.
Victims of the Holocaust.
The Holocaust was the killing of approximately six million European Jews, as well as six million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Roma) as part of a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist government in Germany led by Adolf Hitler. About 12 million forced laborers, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy inside the Nazi Germany.[165]
In addition to the Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet Gulag, or labor camps, led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POW) and even Soviet citizens themselves who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.[166] Sixty percent of Soviet POWs died during the war.[167] Vadim Erlikman estimates the number at 2.6 million Soviet POWs that died in German Captivity.[168] Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57% died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million.[169] The survivors on their return to the USSR were treated as traitors (see Order No. 270).[170]
Body disposal at Unit 731, the infamous Japanese biological warfare research unit.
Body disposal at Unit 731, the infamous Japanese biological warfare research unit.
Japanese POW camps also had high death rates, many were used as labour camps. According to the findings of the Tokyo tribunal, the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1% (American POWs died at a rate of 37%),[171] seven times that of POW's under the Germans and Italians[172] The death rate of Chinese was much larger as, according to the directive ratified on 5 August 1937 by Hirohito, the constraints of international law were removed on those prisoners.[173] Thus, if 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from Netherlands and 14,473 from USA were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.[174]
According to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by the Kōa-in for slave labor in Manchukuo and north China.[175] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.[176] According to Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2.7 million died during the Sankō Sakusen implemented in Heipei and Shantung by General Yasuji Okamura.
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945.
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945.
On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, and some emigrants from Hawaii who fled after the bombing of Pearl Harbor for the duration of the war. 150,000 Japanese-Americans were interned by the U.S. and Canadian governments, as well as nearly 11,000 German and Italian residents of the U.S.
Allied use of slave labor occurred mainly in the east, such as in Poland[2], but more than a million was also put to work in the west. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or maimed each month in mine-clearing accidents.[177]
Chemical and bacteriological weapons
Despite the international treaties and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on 14 May 1938 condemning the use of toxic gas by Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army frequently used chemical weapons. Because of fears of retaliation, however, those weapons were never used against Westerners but only against other Asians judged "inferior" by the imperial propaganda. According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, the authorization for the use of chemical weapons was given by specific orders (rinsanmei) issued by Hirohito himself. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the invasion of Wuhan, from August to October 1938.[178]
The biological weapons were experimented on human beings by many units incorporated in the Japanese army, such as the infamous Unit 731, integrated by Imperial decree in the Kwantung army in 1936. Those weapons were mainly used in China and, according to some Japanese veterans, against Mongolians and Soviet soldiers in 1939 during the Nomonhan incident.[179] According to documents found in the Australian national archives in 2004 by Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka, cyanide gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prisoners in November 1944 in the Kai islands.[180]
Bombings
Massive aerial bombing by both Axis and Allied air forces took the lives of hundreds of thousands of civilians. Anglo-American bombing of German cities claimed up to 600,000 civilian lives,[181] most notably, the bombing of Dresden. The city of London was heavily bombed by the German Luftwaffe from September, 1940 to May, 1941 during their blitz of Britain; at one point the city was bombed for 57 straight nights. For the first, and so far only, time, nuclear weapons were used in combat: two atomic bombs released by the United States over Japan devastated Hiroshima and, three days later, Nagasaki. The number of total casualties in these bombings has been estimated at 200,000.[182]
War trials
From 1945 to 1951, German and Japanese officials and personnel were prosecuted for war crimes. Charges included crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, waging wars of aggression, and other crimes. The most senior German officials were tried at the Nuremberg Trials, and many Japanese officials at the Tokyo War Crime Trial and other war crimes trials in the Asia-Pacific region. Many other minor officials were convicted in minor trials, including subsequent trials by the Nuremberg Tribunal, the Dachau Trials, and the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials. No significant trials were held against Allied violations of international law (notably the Soviet Invasion of Poland in 1939), or against Allied war crimes, such as the Allied terror bombings of Axis cities or Soviet atrocities in Eastern Europe.
The Hmong (RPA: Hmoob/Moob, IPA: [m̥ɔ̃ŋ]) are an ethnic group from the mountainous regions of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Hmong are also one of the sub-groups of the Miao ethnicity (苗族) in southern China. Hmong groups began a gradual southward migration in the 18th century due to political unrest and to find more arable land.
During the first and second Indochina Wars, France and the United States recruited thousands of Hmong people in Laos to fight against forces from north and south Vietnam and communist Pathet Lao insurgents, known as the Secret War, during the Vietnam War and the Laotian Civil War. Hundreds of thousands of Hmong refugees fled to Thailand seeking political asylum. Thousands of these refugees have resettled in Western countries since the late 1970s, mostly the United States, but also in Australia, France, French Guiana, Canada, and Argentina. Others have returned to Laos under United Nations-sponsored repatriation programs.
SUBCULTURES
Hmong people have their own terms for their subcultural divisions. Hmong Der and Hmong Leng are the terms for two of the largest groups in America and Southeast Asia. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Moob Leeg/Moob Ntsuab (Blue/Green Mong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced.
White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of the Hmong language with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the voiceless /m̥/ in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in Romanized Popular Alphabet. Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of head-dress, or the provinces from which they come.
VIETNAM
Vietnamese Hmong women continuing to wear 'traditional' clothing tend to source much of their clothing as 'ready to wear' cotton (as opposed to traditional hemp) from markets, though some add embroidery as a personal touch. In SaPa, now with a 'standardised' clothing look, Black Hmong sub-groups have differentiated themselves by adopting different headwear; those with a large comb embedded in their long hair (but without a hat) call themselves Tao, those with a pillbox hat name themselves Giay, and those with a checked headscarf are Yao. For many, such as Flower Hmong, the heavily beaded skirts and jackets are manufactured in China.
NOMENCLATURE
In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông; Lao: ແມ້ວ (Maew) or ມົ້ງ (Mong); Thai: แม้ว (Maew) or ม้ง (Mong); Burmese: မုံလူမျိုး (mun lu-myo). The xenonym, "Mèo", and variants thereof, are considered highly derogatory by many Hmong people and are infrequently used today outside of Southeast Asia.
The Hmong people were also referred to by some European writers as the "Kings of the Jungle," because they used to live in the jungle of Laos. Because the Hmong lived mainly in the highland areas of Southeast Asia and China, the French occupiers of Southeast Asia gave them the name Montagnards or "mountain people", but this should not be confused with the Degar people of Vietnam, who were also referred to as Montagnards.
HMONG, MONG AND MIAO
Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate that the term Hmong be used not only for designating their dialect group, but also for the other Miao groups living in China. They generally claim that the word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adapted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status.
In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was actually members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao"-taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression.
Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong diaspora, have led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China that previously had no ethnic affiliation. Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly communicated via the Internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including Hmu and A Hmao people identifying as Hmong and, to a lesser extent, Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao," within the context of China. Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders, reflect a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao."
HISTORY
The Hmong claim an origin in the Yellow River region of China. According to Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied the same areas of southern China for at least the past 2,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong-Mien-speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although Hmong-speaking populations show more contact with Han than Mien populations. Chinese sources describe that area being inhabited by 'Miao' people, a group with whom Hmong people are often identified.
The ancient town of Zhuolu, is considered to be the legendary birthplace of the Miao. Today, a statue of Chi You, widely proclaimed as the first Hmong king, has been erected in the town. The Guoyu book, considers Chi You’s Jui Li tribe to be related to the ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San Miao people
CULTURE
The Hmong culture usually consists of a dominant hierarchy within the family. Males hold dominance over females and thus, a father is considered the head in each household. Courtships take place during the night when a man goes to visit a woman at her house and tries to woo her with sweet-talks through the thin walls of the house where the woman's bedroom may be located. If a man kidnaps an unwilling woman as a bride, she would have to marry him or risk having a tarnished reputation.
Today, bridenapping is uncommon because those marriages can end in divorce since women are no longer afraid of a tarnished reputation. During a marriage, the man pays the woman's family for taking away a daughter who is economically essential to her parents. Hmong women retain their own maiden names following marriage, but attends to the ancestors of their husbands. The children they bear take their husbands' clan names. Consequently, the Hmong favour having sons over daughters because sons perpetuate the clan.
The Hmong practice shamanism and ancestor worship. Like other animists, they also believe that all things are endowed with spiritual beings and so should be respected.
See Anne Fadiman's ethnography: The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down for more info.
Hmong families in Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos practice subsistence agriculture, supplemented by hunting and some foraging. Although they have chickens, pigs and cows, the traditional staple of the Hmong consists mostly of vegetable dishes and rice. Domestic animals are highly valued and killed for consumption only during special events such as the New Year's Festival or during events such as a birth, marriage, or funeral ritual.
GEOGRAPHY
Roughly 95% of the Hmong live in Asia. Linguistic data show that the Hmong of the Peninsula stem from the Miao of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong–Mien language family. Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common.
In China the majority of the Hmong today live in Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan. The Hmong population is estimated at 3 million. No precise census data exist on the Hmong in China since China does not officially recognise the ethnonym Hmong and instead, clusters that group within the wider Miao group (8,940,116 in 2000). A few centuries ago, the lowland Chinese started moving into the mountain ranges of China's southwest. This migration, combined with major social unrest in southern China in the 18th and 19th century, served to cause some minorities of Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan to migrate south. A number of Hmong thus settled in the ranges of the Indochina Peninsula to practise subsistence agriculture.
Vietnam, where their presence is attested from the late 18th century onwards, is likely to be the first Indochinese country into which the Hmong migrated. During the colonization of 'Tonkin' (north Vietnam) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists, while many Christianized Hmong sided with the French. After the Viet Minh victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and South Vietnam.
At the 2009 national census, there were 1,068,189 Hmong living in Vietnam, the vast majority of them in the north of the country. The traditional trade in coffin wood with China and the cultivation of the opium poppy – both prohibited only in 1993 in Vietnam – long guaranteed a regular cash income. Today, converting to cash cropping is the main economic activity. As in China and Laos, there is a certain degree of participation of Hmong in the local and regional administration. In the late 1990s, several thousands of Hmong have started moving to the Central Highlands and some have crossed the border into Cambodia, constituting the first attested presence of Hmong settlers in that country.
In 2005, the Hmong in Laos numbered 460,000. Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam. After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau were set up after World War II. There, a particular rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides and as a consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the Pathet Lao Communists, while perhaps as many were enrolled in the People's Liberation Army. As in Vietnam, numerous Hmong in Laos also genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime.
After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad. Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990.
In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080. The presence of Hmong settlements there is documented from the end of the 19th century. Initially, the Siamese paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum in the Peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while here again, many Hmong refused to take sides in the conflict. Communist guerrilla warfare stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority is since given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity.
Burma most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently.
As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. California became home to half this group, while the remainder went to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington, Pennsylvania, Montana, and North Carolina. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in French Guyana. Canada admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to Australia, 260 to China, and 250 to Argentina. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced.
WIKIPEDIA
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81) was a Colossus-class aircraft carrier of the Royal Netherlands Navy. Formerly the British ship HMS Venerable, she was sold to the Netherlands in 1948 as a light attack carrier and operated Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighters, which were in 1958 replaced by Hawker Sea Hawk jet aircraft. In 1960, she was involved in the decolonization conflict in Western New Guinea with Indonesia. After a major refit in 1964, following the settlement of issues threatening its former colonial territories and changes in the mission for the Royal Netherlands Navy within NATO, the role was changed to anti-submarine warfare carrier and primarily ASW aircraft and helicopters were carried. At that time, the last Dutch Sea Hawks were phased out and the Koninlijke Marine ’s FJ-4B fighter bombers were relegated to land bases and soon handed back to the USA and re-integrated into USMC units. As an alternative multi-role aircraft that could both deliver strikes against ground as well as sea targets and provide aerial defense for the carrier or escort its slow and vulnerable ASW aircraft, the American Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was procured.
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta-winged, single turbojet-powered Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later by McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the U.S. Navy's pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk was a relatively light aircraft, with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds (11,100 kg), had a top speed of 670 miles per hour (1,080 km/h) and very good handling, making it a serious threat in an aerial dogfight. The aircraft's five hardpoints supported a variety of missiles, bombs, and other munitions.
The A4D (re-named into A-4 under the USA’s unified designation system) was capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of a World War II–era Boeing B-17 bomber and could even deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. The A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, but from the A-4E onwards, the more fuel efficient and powerful Pratt & Whitney J52 engine was used. The Skyhawk proved to be a relatively common United States Navy aircraft export of the postwar era. Due to its small size, it could be operated from the older, smaller World War II-era aircraft carriers still used by many smaller navies during the 1960s. These older ships were often unable to accommodate newer Navy fighters such as the F-4 Phantom II and F-8 Crusader, which were faster and more capable than the A-4, but significantly larger and heavier than older naval fighters.
At the same time as the Netherlands, Australia was looking for a new carrier-borne jet aircraft, too, and in negotiations with Douglas for newly built A-4s for the RAN's carrier HMAS Melbourne, a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier. These aircraft had a very similar duty profile to those the Royal Netherlands Navy was looking for, and in order to save development costs and speed up the procurement process, the Royal Netherlands Navy simply adopted the Australian specifications which became the unique A-4G variant, the Skyhawk’s first dedicated export version.
The A-4G was directly developed with minor variations from the current, most modern Skyhawk variant, the USN's A-4F. In particular, the A-4G was not fitted with the late Skyhawk variants' characteristic avionics "hump", had a simple ranging radar for air-to-air combat and was modified to carry four underwing Sidewinder AIM-9B missiles (instead of just two), increasing their Fleet Defense capability. Additionally, the A-4Gs for the Royal Netherlands Navy received the avionics package to deploy radio-controlled AGM-12 Bullpup missiles, which the Kon. Marine had been using together with the FJ-4Bs for some years, and Skyhawks’ capability to provide buddy-to-buddy refueling services with a special pod made them a vital asset for carrier operations, too.
A total of twenty A-4G Skyhawks were purchased by the Royal Australian Navy in two batches for operation from HMAS Melbourne, and the Koninlijke Marine ordered twelve. These aircraft were part of the first A-4G production batch and arrived in 1967, together with four TA-4J trainers, for a total fleet of sixteen aircraft. The machines were delivered in the contemporary US Navy high-visibility scheme in Light Gull Grey and White, but they were soon re-painted in a less conspicuous scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey on the upper surfaces and Sky underneath, conforming to NATO standards of the time. After initial conversion training from land bases the re-formed MLD 861 Squadron (a carrier-based unit that had operated Fairey during the Fifties) embarked upon HNLMS Karel Doorman in February 1968 with a standard contingent of six carrier-based aircraft. The rest was stationed at Valkenburg Naval Air Base for maintenance and training and frequently rotated to the carrier.
However, the Dutch Skyhawks' career at sea was very short – it lasted in fact only a couple of months! A boiler room fire on 26 April 1968 removed HNLMS Karel Doorman from Dutch service. To repair the fire damage, new boilers were transplanted from the incomplete HMS Leviathan. But this did not save the ship, and in 1969 it was decided that the costs for repairing the damage in relation to the relatively short time Karel Doorman was still to serve in the fleet proved to be her undoing and she was sold to the Argentine Navy, renamed Veinticinco de Mayo, where she would later play a role in the 1982 Falkland Islands Conflict.
Additionally, the fatal fire accident coincided with the arrival of land-based long range maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Netherlands Navy that were to take over the ASW role Karel Doorman had been tasked to perform ever since the start of the 1960s. These were one squadron of Breguet Atlantique sea-reconnaissance aircraft and one of P-2 Neptunes, while the international NATO anti-submarine commitment was taken over by a squadron of Westland Wasp helicopters operated from six Van Speijk-class anti-submarine frigates.
This left the Royal Netherlands Navy with a full operational squadron of almost brand-new aircraft that had overnight lost their raison d'être. To avoid sunk costs the government decided to keep the Skyhawks in active service, even though only land-based now and as part of the Netherlands air force's home defense – a plan that had been envisioned for the A-4Gs for the mid-Seventies, anyway.
In 1974, the A-4G's MLD 861 Squadron was disbanded (again) and the aircraft were formally transferred to the Royal Netherlands Air Force, where they received new tactical codes (H-30XX - H- 30YY) and formed the new RNLAF 332 Squadron, primary tasked with aerial support for the Netherlands Marine Corps. To avoid staff and equipment transfer costs to a different location, the Skyhawks stayed at their former home base, Valkenburg Naval Air Base, where they operated alongside the MLD’s new long-range maritime patrol aircraft.
At that time, the machines received a small update during regular overhauls, including the ability to deploy the new TV-guided AGM-65 Maverick missile (which replaced the unreliable and rather ineffective AGM-12) as well as more effective AIM-9J air-to-air missiles, and an AN/APQ-51 radar warning system, recognizable through small cone-shaped radomes under the nose, at the tail and under the wing roots. Being land-based now, some machines received a new NATO-style camouflage in Olive Drab and Dark Grey with Light Grey undersides, even though the Skyhawks’ full carrier capability was retained in case of a NATO deployment on another nation’s carrier.
In 1979, when the RNLAF received its first F-16A/B fighters, all Skyhawks eventually received a more subdued grey three-tone camouflage with toned-down markings which was effective both over the sea and in the sky, similar to the RNLAF’s NF-5A/B day fighters.
However, the arrival of the modern F-16, which was in any aspect superior to the A-4 except for a lack of carrier-capability, meant that the RNLAF Skyhawks’ career did not last much longer. In the early Eighties, all Dutch A-4Gs were replaced with license-built F-16A/B fighter bombers. They were placed in store and eventually sold to Israel in 1985, where they were revamped and re-sold with surplus A-4Es to Indonesia as attrition replacements after high losses during the anti-guerilla warfare in East Timor. They were delivered in 1986 and served in Indonesia until 2003, where the last Skyhawks were finally retired in 2007.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 40 ft 1.5 in (12.230 m)
Wingspan: 27 ft 6 in (8.38 m)
Height: 15 ft 2 in (4.62 m)
Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m²)
Airfoil: root: NACA 0008-1.1-25; tip: NACA 0005-.825-50
Empty weight: 9,853 lb (4,469 kg)
Gross weight: 16,216 lb (7,355 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 24,500 lb (11,113 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Pratt & Whitney J52-P-6A turbojet engine, 8,500 lbf (38 kN) thrust
Performance:
Maximum speed: 585 kn (673 mph, 1,083 km/h) at sea level
Range: 1,008 nmi (1,160 mi, 1,867 km)
Ferry range: 2,194 nmi (2,525 mi, 4,063 km)
g limits: +8/-3
Rate of climb: 5,750 ft/min (29.2 m/s)
Wing loading: 62.4 lb/sq ft (305 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.526
Armament:
2× 20 mm (0.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannon with 100 RPG
5× hardpoints with a total capacity of 8,500 lb (3,900 kg)
The kit and its assembly:
This what-if project was more or less a stopgap: I had a Hasegawa 1:72 A-4E/F kit in The Stash™, primarily bought for its separate avionics hump that is supposed to be transplanted on a Fujimi A-4C someday to create an A-4L, of which AFAIK no OOB kit exists. However, I played with potential fictional operators, and read about the Australian A-4Gs. When I compared them with the historic timeframe of the Dutch HNLMS Karel Doorman, I recognized very close parallels (see background above) so that a small Skyhawk fleet for a single carrier with a focus on ASW duties would make sense – even though Karel Doorman was soon struck by a fire and ended the story. However, this was a great framework to tell the story of Dutch Skyhawks that never had been, and my model depicts such an aircraft soon after its update and in late RNLAF colors.
The Hasegawa kit is not bad, but IMHO there are better offerings, you can see the mold’s age. It goes together easily, comes with a good pilot figure and offers optional parts for an E or F Skyhawk, plus lots of ordnance, but it comes with raised (yet very fine) panel lines and an odd canopy: the clear part is actually only the canopy’s glass, so that the frame is still molded into the fuselage. As a result, opening the cockpit is a VERY tricky stunt (which I eventually avoided), and the clear piece somehow does not fit well into its intended opening. The mold dates back to 1969, when the A-4E/F was brand new, and this was all acceptable in the Seventies and Eighties. But for today’s standards the Hasegawa kit is a bit outdated and, in many cases, overpriced. Permanent re-boxings and short-run re-issues do not make the old kit any better.
Despite these weaknesses the kit was built OOB, without big modifications or the optional camel hump for the A-4F, with the early straight IFR probe and with parts from the OOB ordnance. This included the ventral drop tank (which comes with an integral pylon) and the underwing pylons; from the outer pair the integral launch rails for the Bullpups were sanded away and replaced with a pair of longer launch rails for AIM-9B Sidewinder AAMs from the scrap box.
As a modern/contemporary detail I scratched a training/dummy AGM-65 Maverick without fins for one of the inner underwing stations, which would later become a colorful eye-catcher on the otherwise quite subdued aircraft. Additionally, some small blade antennae were added around the hull, e. g. on the front wheel well cover for the Bullpup guidance emitter.
Painting and markings:
A Kon. Marine Skyhawk offers a wide range of painting options, but I tweaked the background that I could incorporate a specific and unique Dutch paint scheme – the early Eighties livery of the RNLAF’s NF-5A/Bs. These aircraft initially wore a NATO-style green/grey livery with pale grey undersides, but they were in the late Seventies, with the arrival of the F-16s, repainted with the F-16s’ “Egypt One” colors (FS 36118, 36270 and 36375). However, the Egypt One scheme was not directly adopted, only the former RAF-style camouflage pattern was re-done with the new colors. Therefore, the Skyhawks were “in my world” transferred from the Dutch Navy to the Air Force and received this livery, too, for which I used Humbrol 125, 126 and 127. The pattern was adapted from the sleek NF-5s as good as possible to the stouter A-4 airframe, but it worked out.
However, the result reminds unintentionally a lot of the Australian A-4Gs’ late livery, even though the Aussie Skyhawks carried a different pattern and were painted in different tones. Even more strangely, the colors on the model looked odd in this striped paint scheme: the dark Gunship Gray appeared almost violet, while the Medium Gray had a somewhat turquoise hue? Weird! Thankfully, this disappeared when I did some post-panel-shading after a light black in washing…
The cockpit became Dark Gull Grey (FS 36231, Humbrol 140), even though there’s hardly anything recognizable through the small canopy: the pilot blocks anything. The landing gear and the respective wells became classic bright white (Revell 301), as well as the air intake ducts; the landing gear covers received a thin red outline.
The Sidewinders and their launch rails became white, the drop tank was painted in FS 36375 like the underside. The dummy AGM-65 was painted bright blue with a white tip for the live seeker head.
The decals were gathered from various sources. The RNLAF roundels came from a generic TL Modellbau sheet, the tactical code from a Swiss F-5E. The small fin flash is a personal addition (this was not common practice on RNLAF aircraft), the red unit badge with the seahorse comes from a French naval WWII unit. Most stencils were taken from the OOB sheet but supplemented with single bits from an Airfix Skyhawk sheet, e. g. for the red trim around the air intakes, which was tricky to create. The interior of the fuselage air brakes was painted in bright red, too.
After a Koninlijke Marine FJ-4B Fury some years ago, here’s a worthy and logical successor, even though it would have quickly lost its naval base, HNLMS Karel Doorman. Really bad timing! Even though not much was changed, this simple looking aircraft has IMHO a certain, subtle charm – even though the paint scheme makes the Dutch Skyhawk look more Australian than intended, despite representing an A-4G, too. But time frame and mission profiles would have been too similar to ignore this parallel. Not a spectacular model, but quite convincing.
The jury examined 133 works of 133 nominees from 25 countries.
List of nominees, selected on the first day of the Jury meeting:
Alejanfro Aravena Mori (Chile)
Fantastic Norway AS (Norway)
Paisajes Emergentes (Colombia)
L.E.FT (USA)
Vector Architects (China)
OFIS architects (Slovenia)
Standardarchitecture (China)
DECOLONIZING ARCHITECTURE (Israel)
Feld 72 (Austria)
Bailo+Rull (Spain)
DORELL.GHOTMEH.TANE (France)
Julien de Smedt (Belgium)
Nikita Asadov (Russia)
Jean-Christophe Quinton (France)
Didier Fiuza Faustino (France)
Gramazio & Kohler (Switzerland)
Ge Ming (China)
Sou Fujimoto (Japan)
Solid Objectives SO – IL (USA)
HOLLMEN REUTER SANDMAN Architects (Finland)
Helen & Hard (Norway)
List of nominees, selected on the final day of the Jury meeting:
Top ten.
Nikita Asadov (Russia)
Jean-Christophe Quinton (France)
Alejandro Aravena (Chile)
Ronald Rietveld (Netherlands)
Paisajes Emergentes (Colombia)
L.E.F.T (USA)
Standard Architecture (China)
Decolonizing Architecture (Israel)
Feld 72 (Austria)
Fantastic Norway AS (Norway)
Curator statement:
Stefano Boeri
The eye of the needle of local space
Manifesto for a new form of Localism
1.
Even if it may seem paradoxical, globalization has further emphasized the irreducible specificity of local spaces.
2.
Yet "local space" is not to be understood as a mere geographical context, or the localization of a determined object in a place of tradition and historical culture, but rather as a spatial (physical, mineral) device capable of concentrating structural tendencies that – developed locally –unfold at the moment in which external flows of transformation enter into contact with a determined territory.
3.
Even if moved by external and immaterial forces, any event that implies material transformation incites and intercepts this local device. And is inevitably conditioned by it. Local space acts, in other words, like the eye of a needle through which the thread of transformation must necessarily pass.
4.
International architecture must today be able to recognize and value this new form of "localism".
This does not imply an opposition to global propensities but rather the need to absorb and regenerate these through the selective filter of local culture and its materials.
5.
This new perspective brings back into discussion the concepts of Regionalism and Context and introduces within the architectural realm the notion of Translation. As with language (often regenerated through neologisms), local architecture must receive the spaces produced by new social behaviours - as is the case world wide of new places of worship or commerce or of new forms of solitude and cohabitation – and translate them into the device of local space.
6.
Yet this translation is neither a simple reproduction "in style" nor a free interpretation. Contemporary architecture cannot become an Esperanto that cancels geographical differences or a sum of dialects that refuses contamination with the world.
7.
The eye of the needle of local space is a creative device that transforms global flows into fuel for regenerating places. It uses the whole world to build a place.
East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (Tetum: Timor Lorosae; officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse, an exclave on the northwestern side of the island, within Indonesian West Timor. The small country of 15,410 km² (5,400 sq mi) is located about 640 km (400 mi) northwest of Darwin, Australia.
East Timor was colonized by Portugal in the 16th century, and was known as Portuguese Timor until Portugal's decolonization of the country. In late 1975, East Timor declared its independence, but later that year was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesia's 27th province the following year. In 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory and East Timor became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century on May 20, 2002. East Timor is one of only two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in Asia, the other being the Philippines.
East Timor is a lower-middle-income economy. It continues to suffer the aftereffects of a decades-long independence struggle against Indonesia, which damaged infrastructure and displaced thousands of civilians. It is placed 158th by Human Development Index (HDI) among the world's states, the second lowest in Asia.
Etymology and naming issues
"Timor" derives from timur, the word for "east" in Indonesian and Malay (hence the Indonesian Timor Timur) which became Timor in Portuguese and entered English as Portuguese Timor. Lorosa'e is also the word for "east" in Tetum, literally "rising sun".
The official names under the Constitution are República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese, which is almost universally used within the country, and in Tetum, Repúblika Demokrátika Timór Lorosa'e, which is infrequently used and is not standard across the many Tetum dialects. Following independence, the government requested the official name in all languages be Timor-Leste, but this has not been commonly adopted within English-speaking countries worldwide, where "East Timor" is the common usage. The Indonesian name Timor Timur, abbreviated as Timtim, is now less widely used, with the Indonesian government and media now using Timor Leste.
The official short form names of countries worldwide are set by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO 3166-1 official short name in English and all other languages is Timor-Leste. The ISO definition is adopted by the United Nations, the national standards organisations of France (AFNOR), the United States of America (ANSI), Britain (BSI), Germany (DIN) and Sweden (SIS) and is universally used by international NGOs. Timor–Leste is used as a matter of protocol by the departments of foreign affairs of almost all countries for example, the USA Department of State and the European Union, notable exceptions being Australia, which uses "East Timor".
The ISO name gives rise to the standard three letter country code TLS and two letter country code TL as in the country’s internet domain name. The old two letter country code, TP, is gradually being phased out.
History
Early history
The island of Timor was originally populated as part of the human migrations that have shaped Australasia more generally. It is believed that descendants from at least three waves of migration still live in the country. The first were related to the principal indigenous groups of New Guinea and Australia, and arrived before 40,000 years ago. Around 3000 BC, Austronesians migrated to Timor, and are possibly associated with the development of agriculture there.[citation needed] Thirdly, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. The mountainous terrain kept these groups separated, and this is why there is so much linguistic diversity in East Timor today.
Timor was incorporated into Chinese and Indian trading networks of the 14th century as an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey and wax. The earliest historical record about Timor island is 14th century Nagarakretagama, Canto 14, that identify Timur as an island within Majapahit's realm. Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the Wehali (Wehale) kingdom in central Timor, with its capital at Laran, West Timor, to which the Tetum, Bunaq and Kemak ethnic groups were aligned.
Portuguese colonization
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to colonize the Maritime Southeast Asia when they arrived in the sixteenth century. They established outposts in the (now Indonesian) Maluku Islands and Timor and surrounding islands. During the House of Habsburg's rule over Portugal (1580-1640), all surrounding outposts were lost and eventually came under Dutch control by the mid-seventeenth century. Effective European occupation of a small part of the territory only began after 1769, when the city of Dili, the capital of so-called Portuguese Timor, was founded. In the nineteenth century, the Netherlands gained a foothold on the western half of the island West Timor, and formally received it in 1859 through the Treaty of Lisbon. The definitive border was established by the Hague Treaty of 1916, and it remains the international boundary between the successor states East Timor and Indonesia.
For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education was minimal. Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies which met Timorese resistance.
In late 1941, Portuguese Timor was briefly occupied by Dutch and Australian troops in an attempt to preempt a Japanese invasion of the island. The Portuguese Governor protested the occupation, and Dutch forces returned to the Dutch side of the island. The Japanese landed and drove the small Australian force out of Dili, and the mountainous interior became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor. Waged by Allied forces and Timorese volunteers against the Japanese, the struggle resulted in the deaths of between 40,000 and 70,000 Timorese. Following the end of the war, Portuguese control was reinstated.
The process of decolonization in Portuguese Timor began in 1974, following the change of government in Portugal in the wake of the Carnation Revolution. Owing to political instability and more pressing concerns over the decolonisation of Angola and Mozambique, Portugal effectively abandoned East Timor and it unilaterally declared itself independent on November 28, 1975. Nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces before the declaration could be internationally recognized.
Indonesian occupation
As political parties began to form and emerge inside the country, the Indonesian military headed an operation that backed Apodeti, a pro-Indonesian party that encouraged divisions between the pro-independence parties of East Timor. A brief civil war occurred in 1975. Indonesia alleged that the East Timorese FRETILIN party, which received some vocal support from the People's Republic of China, was communist. Fearing a Communist domino effect in Southeast Asia—and in the wake of its South Vietnam campaign—the United States, along with its ally Australia, supported the pro-Western Indonesian government's actions. The UN Security Council had a unanimous vote for Indonesia to stop its invasion and to withdraw immediately from East Timor’s borders, and was blocked by the United States from imposing any economic sanctions or other means of enforcing this mandate.
The territory was declared the 27th province of Indonesia in July 1976. Its nominal status in the UN remained that of a "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration."
Indonesian rule in East Timor was often marked by extreme violence and brutality; estimates of the number of East Timorese who died during the occupation vary from 60,000 to 200,000, A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum bound of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness.
The East Timorese guerrilla force, Falintil, fought a campaign against the Indonesian forces from 1975–1999, some members being trained in Portugal by Portuguese special forces. The Dili Massacre proved a turning point for the East Timorese cause internationally, and a burgeoning East Timor solidarity movement grew in Portugal, Australia, and the United States.
Independence
Following a UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia, Portugal and the United States and a surprise decision by the Indonesian President B. J. Habibie, a UN-supervised popular referendum was held on August 30, 1999, to choose between Special Autonomy within Indonesia and independence. 78.5% of voters chose independence, but violent clashes, instigated primarily by elements within the Indonesian military and aided by Timorese pro-Indonesia militias led by Eurico Guterres, broke out soon afterwards. A peacekeeping force (INTERFET led by Australia) intervened to restore order. The militias fled across the border into Indonesian West Timor, from which sporadic armed raids were attempted. As these raids were repelled and international moral opinion forced Indonesia to withdraw tacit support,[citation needed] the militias dispersed. INTERFET was replaced by a UN force of International Police, the mission became known as UNTAET, and the UNTAET Crime Scene Detachment was formed to investigate alleged atrocities. UNTAET was headed by the late Sérgio Vieira de Mello as UN Transitional Administrator from December 1999 to May 2002. On December 2, 1999, De Mello established the National Consultative Council (NCC), a political body consisting of 11 East Timorese and four UNTAET members charged with overseeing the decision-making process during the transition period leading to independence. However, UNTAET experienced difficulties initially in establishing its credibility amongst the Timorese leadership, leading to street violence. An important workshop on March 1, 2000, brought the Timorese and UN leadership group together to tease out a revised strategy, and identify institutional needs. The workshop was organised by Francis Martin O'Donnell , and the Timorese delegation was led by José Ramos-Horta, and included Mari Alkatiri. The outcome was an agreed blueprint for a joint administration with executive powers, including leaders of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT), led by future president Xanana Gusmão. Further details were worked out in a conference in May 2000. De Mello presented the new blueprint to a donor conference in Lisbon, on June 22, 2000, and to the UN Security Council on June 27, 2000.On July 12, 2000, the NCC adopted a regulation establishing a Transitional Cabinet of four East Timorese and four UNTAET representatives. The revamped joint administration successfully laid the institutional foundations for independence, and on September 27, 2002, East Timor joined the United Nations.
Districts, subdistricts, and sucos
East Timor is divided into thirteen administrative districts:
1. Lautém 2. Baucau 3. Viqueque 4. Manatuto 5. Dili 6. Aileu 7. Manufahi 8. Liquiçá 9. Ermera 10. Ainaro 11. Bobonaro 12. Cova Lima 13. Oecusse Ambeno
The districts are subdivided into 65 subdistricts, 443 sucos and 2,336 towns, villages and hamlets
Geography
Located in southeast Asia, the island of Timor is part of the Maritime Southeast Asia, and is the largest and easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the mountainous island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait and the greater Banda Sea, to the south the Timor Sea separates the island from Australia, while to the west lies the Indonesian Province of East Nusa Tenggara. The highest mountain of East Timor is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 meters (9,721 ft).
The local climate is tropical and generally hot and humid, characterised by distinct rainy and dry seasons. The capital, largest city and main port is Dili, and the second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau.
The easternmost area of Timor-Leste consists of the Paitchau Range and Iralalaro area. This area has been proposed as the first conservation area in Timor-Leste as it contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country. It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated. The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk.
Other Info
Oficial Name:
Republika demokratika Timor Lorosa'e (Tetum)
Republica democratica de Timor Leste (Portuguese)
Independence :
Declared November 28, 1975
- Recognized May 20, 2002
Area:
14.604km2
Inhabitants:
830.000
Languages:
Adabe [adb] 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 1,000. Atauro Island, north of Dili on Timor Island. Alternate names: Ataura, Atauru, Atauro, Raklu-Un, Raklu Un. Dialects: Munaseli Pandai. Reported to be different from Galoli dialects on Atauro. No relationship to Kolana. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird's Head-Timor-Alor-Pantar, Timor-Alor-Pantar
More information.
Baikeno [bkx] 20,000 (2003 UKAW). Many are monolingual. Population includes several thousand refugees in west Timor. Ethnic population: 20,000. Oekusi enclave separated from the rest of East Timor. Traditional kingship of Ambeno on north coast of west Timor. The Kais Metan dialect is spoken in the Pantai Makasar and Oesilu districts. Tai Boko is spoken in the Nitib District. The two dialects together take up most of the northern part of Ambeno. Uis Tasae is spoken in the Pasab District, taking up the southern third. Kais Metan has two subdialects: Kais Metan in the north, and Bob Meto in the south. Alternate names: Baikenu, Vaikenu, Vaikino, Biqueno, Ambeno, Ambenu, Uab Meto, Uab Pah Meto, Oecussi, Oe Cusi, Oekusi. Dialects: Kais Metan (East Baikeno, Bob Meto), Tai Boko (West Baikeno), Uis Tasae (South Baikeno). Baikeno is linguistically a dialect of Uab Meto, but for political reasons has to be treated as a separate language for vernacular literature. It is intelligible with the Uab Meto dialects of Amfo'an, northern Mollo, and Insana. Significant differences with Amarasi block intelligibility. They see themselves as part of the wider Atoni cultural, linguistic, political, and historical network, in contrast to being Tetun, Helong, or Rote. They refer to themselves as 'atoni' (person), speaking 'uab meto' (the language of the dry). The Kais Metan dialect is the most populous and most influential, being around the town of Oekusi, the seat of the former king, and the commercial and government center. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, West
More information.
Bunak [bfn] 50,000 in East Timor (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Population total all countries: 100,000. Ethnic population: 50,000. Central interior Timor Island, south coast. Also spoken in Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara). Alternate names: Buna', Bunake, Bunaq. Dialects: Not closely related to other languages. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird's Head-Timor-Alor-Pantar, Timor-Alor-Pantar, Bunak
More information.
Fataluku [ddg] 30,000 (1989). Ethnic population: 30,000. Eastern tip of Timor Island around Los Palos. Alternate names: Dagaga, Dagoda', Dagada. Dialects: May be related to Oirata on nearby Kisar Island. Significant dialect variation. May turn out to be several languages. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird's Head-Timor-Alor-Pantar, Timor-Alor-Pantar, Fataluku
More information.
Galoli [gal] 50,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 50,000. North coast between Mambae and Makasae, regions of Laklo, Manatutu, Laleia, and We-Masin, Wetar Island. Alternate names: Galole. Dialects: Na Nahek, Edi, Dadua, Galoli, Baba, Hahak. Talur on Wetar Island in Maluku may be inherently intelligible. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Habu [hbu] 1,260 (2000 WCD). Northeast of Laclubar and the Idate language. Dialects: Many loanwords from Trans-New Guinea languages similar to Makasae, but with Austronesian structure. Related to Waima'a and Kairui. Classification needs further investigation. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, Waima'a
More information.
Idaté [idt] 5,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 5,000. Central East Timor, mountains of part of the Laclubar area, surrounded by the Mambae, Galoli, Kairui, and Tetun. Dialects: Closest to Lakalei and Galoli. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Kairui-Midiki [krd] 2,000 (2001). Ethnic population: 2,000. Central small mountainous area surrounded by Makasai, Waima'a, Tetun, Galoli. Alternate names: Cairui, Midiki. Dialects: Kairui, Midiki (Midik). Vocabulary is predominantly Trans-New Guinea, structure is Austronesian. Related to Waima'a and Habu. Classification needs further investigation. May be a co-dialect with Waima'a. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, Waima'a
More information.
Kemak [kem] 50,000 in East Timor (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population total all countries: 100,000. Ethnic population: 50,000. North central Timor Island, border area between East Timor and West Timor, mostly on eastern side. Also spoken in Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara). Alternate names: Ema. Dialects: Nogo (Nogo-Nogo), Kemak. Close to Tetun. Most closely related to Mambae and Tukudede. Also related to Uab Meto. Morris 1992 counts Nogo as a separate language from Kemak. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Lakalei [lka] 5,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 5,000. Central Timor Island, north of Same, northeast of Ainaro. Dialects: Close to Idate, Tetun, Galoli. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Makasae [mkz] 70,000 (1989). Ethnic population: 70,000. Timor Island, eastern end around Baucau and inland, west of Fataluku, from northern to southern coast in a dialect chain. Alternate names: Makassai, Macassai, Ma'asae, Makasai. Dialects: Maklere, Makasai. Not closely related to other languages. Non-Austronesian. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird's Head-Timor-Alor-Pantar, Timor-Alor-Pantar, Makasai-Alor-Pantar, Makasai
More information.
Maku'a [lva] 50 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 50. Northeast tip of Timor Island, around Tutuala. Alternate names: Lovaea, Lovaia. Classification: Trans-New Guinea, South Bird's Head-Timor-Alor-Pantar, Timor-Alor-Pantar, Maku'a
More information.
Mambae [mgm] 80,000 in East Timor (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 80,000. Mountains of central Timor, around Ermera, Aileu, and Ainaro. One of the dominant groups among Timorese communities in Australia. Also spoken in Australia. Alternate names: Mambai, Manbae. Dialects: Damata, Lolei, Manua, Mambai. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Nauete [nxa] 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 1,000. South coast, eastern tip of Timor Island, west of Tiomar. The main town is Uato Lari. Alternate names: Nauhete, Naueti, Naóti, Nauote, Nauoti. Dialects: Naumik, Oso Moko. Not closely related to any other language. Many loanwords from Trans-New Guinea languages like Makasae. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor
More information.
Portuguese [por] Alternate names: Português. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Iberian, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Portuguese-Galician
More information.
Tetun [tet] 50,000 in East Timor (2004). Western East Timor on the south coast from Suai to Viqueque. East of Atoni, west of Bunak (in Batagude) around Batibo, and in from the south coast around Viqueque and Soibada. Alternate names: Tetum, Tettum, Teto, Tetu, Tetung, Belu, Belo, Fehan, Tetun Belu. Dialects: Eastern Tetun (Soibada, Natarbora, Lakluta, Tetun Loos, Tetun Los), Southern Tetun (Lia Fehan, Plain Tetun, Tasi Mane, Belu Selatan, South Belu, South Tetun), Northern Tetun (Lia Foho, Hill Tetun, Tasi Feto, Belu Utara, North Belu, Tetun Terik, Tetun Therik). Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Tetun Dili [tdt] 50,000 (1995). First-language speakers concentrated in and around Dili on the north coast of East Timor. Second-language speakers scattered widely throughout the western part of East Timor. Alternate names: Tetun, Tetum, Tetum Prasa, Tetum Praça, Dili Tetum, Tetum Dili. Dialects: There are important differences with Tetun in parts of the grammar, morphology, functors, and much of the lexicon. There is heavy influence of Portuguese and some Indonesian or Malay loans in Tetun Dili. Classification: Creole, Tetun based
More information.
Tukudede [tkd] 63,170 (2000 WCD). Timor Island, north coast, regions of Maubara and Liquisa from the banks of the Lois River to Dili. Alternate names: Tukude, Tokodede, Tokodé, Tocod. Dialects: Keha (Keia), Tukudede. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, East
More information.
Waima'a [wmh] 3,000 (2001). Ethnic population: 3,000 or more. Northeast coast Timor Island, enclave within Makasae-speaking area. Alternate names: Uai Ma'a, Waimaha, Waimoa, Uaimo'a. Dialects: Many Trans-New Guinea loanwords similar to Makasae. Related to Habu and Kairui. Classification needs further investigation. May be a co-dialect with Kairui-Midiki. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Nuclear Timor, Waima'a
More information.
Extinct languages
Pidgin, Timor [tvy] Extinct. Timor Island, around Bidau, Dili, and Lifan. Alternate names: Timor Creole Portuguese. Dialects: Português de Bidau, Macaísta. Classification: Creole, Portuguese based
Capital city:
Díli
Meaning country name:
From the Malay word timur meaning "east". The local official Tetum language refers to East Timor as Timor Lorosae or "East Timor", or Timor-Leste in Portuguese. In neighbouring Indonesia it has the formal name Timor Timur - etymologically "eastern east". But Indonesians usually shorten the name to Tim-Tim.
Description Flag:
The flag of Timor-Leste (also known as East Timor) was adopted in 2002. It is the same as the 1975 flag.
At midnight on May 19, and during the first moments of Independence Day, 20 May 2002, the United Nations Flag was lowered and the flag of an independent East Timor was raised.
As per the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, the yellow (PMS 123) triangle represents "the traces of colonialism in East Timor's history". The black triangle represents "the obscurantism that needs to be overcome"; the red (PMS 485) base of the flag represents "the struggle for national liberation"; the star, or "the light that guides", is white to represent peace.
Official description of the flag
"The national flag is rectangular and is formed by two isosceles triangles, the bases of which are overlapping. One triangle is black and its height is equal to one-third of the length overlapped to the yellow triangle, whose height is equal to half the length of the Flag. In the center of the black triangle there is a white star of five ends, meaning the light that guides. The white star has one of its ends turned towards the left side end of the flag. The remaining part of the flag is red."
-The Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor, Part I, Section 15
Coat of arms:
The central emblem is the well known C.N.R.T. shield and the motto is also based on Falintil’s.
António Martins, 11 Sep 2002
Behind the shield there is a yellow sun with 14 rays. All surounded by a light blue circle with the black text "REPÚBLICA DEMOCRÁTICA DE TIMOR-LESTE" and between two white stars "RDTL". Under the circle is a red banner with the black words "HONRA, PÁTRIA E POVO".
Motto:
"Unidade, Acção, Progresso"
National Anthem: Pátria
Portuguese lyrics
Pátria, Pátria, Timor-Leste, nossa Nação.
Glória ao povo e aos heróis da nossa libertação.
Pátria, Pátria, Timor-Leste, nossa Nação.
Glória ao povo e aos heróis da nossa libertação.
Vencemos o colonialismo, gritamos:
abaixo o imperialismo.
Terra livre, povo livre,
não, não, não à exploitação.
Avante unidos firmes e decididos.
Na luta contra o imperialismo
o inimigo dos povos, até à vitória final.
Pelo caminho da revolução.
English translation
Fatherland, fatherland, East Timor our Nation
Glory to the people and to the heroes of our liberation
Fatherland, fatherland, East Timor our Nation
Glory to the people and to the heroes of our liberation
We vanquish colonialism, we cry: down with imperialism!
Free land, free people, no, no no to exploitation.
Let us go forward, united, firm and determined
In the struggle against imperialism, the enemy of people,
until final victory, onward to revolution.
Internet Page: www.timor-leste.gov.tl
East Timor in diferent languages
eng: East Timor; Timor-Leste
ast | cat | ina | lld-bad | spa: Timor Oriental
cor | fur | scn | srd: Timor Est
afr | lim: Oos-Timor
deu | ltz: Osttimor / Oſttimor
ind | msa: Timor Timur / تيمور تيمور
arg: Timor Oriental; Timor Este
aze: Şərqi Timor / Шәрги Тимор
bos: Istočni Timor / Источни Тимор
bre: Timor ar Reter
ces: Východní Timor
crh: Şarqiy Timor / Шаркъий Тимор
csb: Pòrënkòwi Timor
cym: Dwyrain Timor
dan: Østtimor
dsb: Pódzajtšny Timor
epo: Orienta Timoro
est: Ida-Timor
eus: Ekialdeko Timor
fao: Eystur Timor
fin: Itä-Timor
fra: Timor oriental; Timor-Leste
frp: Timor orientâl
fry: East Timor
gag: Günduusu Timor / Гӱндуусу Тимор
gla: Tiomor an Ear; Timor an Ear
gle: Tíomór Thoir / Tíomór Ṫoir
glg: Timor Leste
glv: Yn Teemor Hiar
hat: Timò oryantal
hrv: Istočni Timor
hsb: Wuchodny Timor
hun: Kelet-Timor
ibo: Timọ Iru-anyanwu
isl: Austur-Tímor
ita: Timor Est; Timor Orientale
jav: Timor Timur
jnf: Timor d’l’Êst
kaa: Shıgʻıs Timor / Шығыс Тимор
kmr: Tîmora Rohilata / Тимора Р’оһьлата / تیمۆرا ڕۆهلاتا; Tîmora Rojhelata / Тимора Р’ожһәлата / تیمۆرا ڕژۆهەلاتا; Tîmora Şerqê / Тимора Шәрqе / تیمۆرا شەرقێ
kur: Tîmor Rojhelat / تیمۆر رۆژهەلات
lat: Timoria Orientalis
lav: Austrumtimora
lin: Timor ya monyɛlɛ
lit: Rytų Timoras
lld-grd: Timor Urientel
mlg: Timora Atsinanana
mlt: Timor tal-Lvant
mol: Timorul de Est / Тиморул де Ест
nds: Oosttimor / Ooſttimor
nld: Oost-Timor
nno: Aust-Timor
nob: Øst-Timor
nrm: Timor-de-l’Êt
oci: Timòr Èst
pol: Timor Wschodni
por: Timor-Leste
que: Intichay Timur
rmy: Orientalutno Timoro / ओरिएन्तालुत्नो तिमोरो
roh: Timor da l’Ost
ron: Timorul de Est
rup: Timorul di Dat
slk: Východný Timor
slo: Vostokju Timor / Востокйу Тимор
slv: Vzhodni Timor
sme: Nuorta-Timor
smg: Rītū Timuors
som: Barriga Tiimoor
sqi: Timori Lindor
swa: Timor ya Mashariki
swe: Östtimor
tet: Timór-Leste; Timór Lorosa’e
tgl: Silangang Timor
tuk: Gündogar Timor / Гүндогар Тимор
tur: Doğu Timor
uzb: Sharqiy Timor / Шарқий Тимор
vie: Đông Ti-mo
vol: Lofüda-Timoreän
vor: Hummogu-Timor
wln: Timor Ess
wol: Timoor gu Penku
zza: Timurê Rocvetışi
abq: Восточна Тимор (Vostočna Timor)
alt: Кӱнчыгыш Тимор (Künčygyš Timor)
bak: Көнсығыш Тимор / Könsığış Timor
bel: Усходні Тымор / Uschodni Tymor; Тымор-Лешты / Tymor-Lešty; Тымор-Лешці / Tymor-Lešci
bul: Източен Тимор (Iztočen Timor)
che: Малхбали Тимор (Malḫbali Timor)
chm: Эрвел Тимор (Ėrvel Timor)
kaz: Шығыс Тимор / Şığıs Tïmor / شىعىس تيمور
kbd: Восточнэ Тимор (Vostočnă Timor)
kir: Чыгыш Тимор (Čygyš Timor)
kjh: Восточнай Тимор (Vostočnaj Timor)
kom: Восточнӧй Тимор (Vostočnöj Timor)
krc: Восток Тимор (Vostok Timor)
kum: Гюнтувуш Тимор (Güntuvuš Timor)
mkd: Источен Тимор (Istočen Timor)
mon: Зүүн Тимор (Dzüün Timor)
oss: Скӕсӕйнаг Тимор (Skäsäjnag Timor)
rus: Восточный Тимор (Vostočnyj Timor)
srp: Источни Тимор / Istočni Timor
tat: Көнчыгыш Тимор / Könçığış Timor
tgk: Тимори Шарқӣ / تیمار شرقی / Timori Şarqī
tyv: Чөөн-Тимор (Čöön-Timor)
udm: Шунды ӝужан пал Тимор (Šundy džužan pal Timor)
ukr: Східний Тимор (Sĥidnyj Tymor); Східний Тімор (Sĥidnyj Timor)
ara: تيمور الشرقية (Tīmūru š-Šarqīyâ); تيمور ليشتي (Tīmūr Līštī)
fas: تیمور شرقی / Timore Šarqi
prs: تیمور شرقی (Tīmōr-e Šarqī)
pus: ختيځ تيمور (Ḫatīź Tīmor)
uig: شەرقىي تىمور / Sherqiy Timor / Шәрқий Тимор
urd: مشرقی تیمور (Mašriqī Tīmor)
heb: מזרח-טימור (Mizraḥ-Ṭîmôr); טימור המזרחית (Ṭîmôr ha-Mizraḥît)
lad: טימור אוריינטאל / Timor Oriental
yid: מזרח טימאָר (Mizreḥ Timor)
ell-dhi: Ανατολικό Τιμόρ (Anatolikó Timór)
ell-kat: Ἀνατολικὸν Τιμόρ (Anatolikòn Timór)
hye: Արևելյան Տիմոր (Arevelyan Timor); Արևելյան Թիմոր (Arevelyan Ṭimor)
kat: აღმოსავლეთი ტიმორი (Aġmosavleṭi Timori)
hin: पूर्वी तिमोर (Pūrvī Timor)
ben: পূর্ব টিমোর (Pūrbô Ṭimor); পূর্ব তিমুর (Pūrbô Timur)
pan: ਟੀਮੁਰ-ਲੀਸਟੀ (Ṭīmur-Līsṭī)
kan: ಪೂರ್ವ ಟೀಮೋರ್ (Pūrva Ṭīmōr)
mal: കിഴക്കന് ടിമോര് (Kiḻakkan Ṭimōr); കിഴക്കന് തിമുര് (Kiḻakkan Timur)
tam: கிழக்குத் திமோர் (Kiḻakkut Timōr); திமோர் லெஸ்தே (Timōr Lestē)
tel: తూర్పు టిమోర్ (Tūrpu Ṭimōr)
zho: 东帝汶 (Dōng Dìwèn)
jpn: 東ティモール (Higashi Timōru); 東チモール (Higashi Chimōru)
kor: 동티모르 (Dong Timoreu)
mya: အရ္ဟေ့တီမော (Ášé Timɔ̀)
tha: ติมอร์ตะวันออก (Timɔ̄[r] Tawân'ɔ̄k); ติมอร์เลสเต (Timɔ̄[r] Lēttē)
khm: ទីម័រខាងកើត (Tīmŏr Kʰāṅkøt)
‘Sunni’ means tradition or trodden path.
Mesquita Central de Lisboa
Since 1974, and as a result of the Portuguese decolonization movement and the civil war that followed in the former Portuguese colonies, the number of Muslims increased in Portugal, and these were largely derived from the Portuguese-speaking African countries.
Although the construction of the mosque was only started in 1966, the construction of the mosque began only in 1979, with a project by the architects António Braga and João Paulo Conceição. The mosque would be inaugurated on March 29, 1985.
Its construction was the result of the contribution of Islamic countries, with Saudi Arabia (US $ 1 million) ahead of them, followed by Kuwait, Libya, the United Arab Emirates and Oman
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81) was a Colossus-class aircraft carrier of the Royal Netherlands Navy. Formerly the British ship HMS Venerable, she was sold to the Netherlands in 1948 as a light attack carrier and operated Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighters, which were in 1958 replaced by Hawker Sea Hawk jet aircraft. In 1960, she was involved in the decolonization conflict in Western New Guinea with Indonesia. After a major refit in 1964, following the settlement of issues threatening its former colonial territories and changes in the mission for the Royal Netherlands Navy within NATO, the role was changed to anti-submarine warfare carrier and primarily ASW aircraft and helicopters were carried. At that time, the last Dutch Sea Hawks were phased out and the Koninlijke Marine ’s FJ-4B fighter bombers were relegated to land bases and soon handed back to the USA and re-integrated into USMC units. As an alternative multi-role aircraft that could both deliver strikes against ground as well as sea targets and provide aerial defense for the carrier or escort its slow and vulnerable ASW aircraft, the American Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was procured.
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta-winged, single turbojet-powered Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later by McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the U.S. Navy's pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk was a relatively light aircraft, with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds (11,100 kg), had a top speed of 670 miles per hour (1,080 km/h) and very good handling, making it a serious threat in an aerial dogfight. The aircraft's five hardpoints supported a variety of missiles, bombs, and other munitions.
The A4D (re-named into A-4 under the USA’s unified designation system) was capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of a World War II–era Boeing B-17 bomber and could even deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. The A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, but from the A-4E onwards, the more fuel efficient and powerful Pratt & Whitney J52 engine was used. The Skyhawk proved to be a relatively common United States Navy aircraft export of the postwar era. Due to its small size, it could be operated from the older, smaller World War II-era aircraft carriers still used by many smaller navies during the 1960s. These older ships were often unable to accommodate newer Navy fighters such as the F-4 Phantom II and F-8 Crusader, which were faster and more capable than the A-4, but significantly larger and heavier than older naval fighters.
At the same time as the Netherlands, Australia was looking for a new carrier-borne jet aircraft, too, and in negotiations with Douglas for newly built A-4s for the RAN's carrier HMAS Melbourne, a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier. These aircraft had a very similar duty profile to those the Royal Netherlands Navy was looking for, and in order to save development costs and speed up the procurement process, the Royal Netherlands Navy simply adopted the Australian specifications which became the unique A-4G variant, the Skyhawk’s first dedicated export version.
The A-4G was directly developed with minor variations from the current, most modern Skyhawk variant, the USN's A-4F. In particular, the A-4G was not fitted with the late Skyhawk variants' characteristic avionics "hump", had a simple ranging radar for air-to-air combat and was modified to carry four underwing Sidewinder AIM-9B missiles (instead of just two), increasing their Fleet Defense capability. Additionally, the A-4Gs for the Royal Netherlands Navy received the avionics package to deploy radio-controlled AGM-12 Bullpup missiles, which the Kon. Marine had been using together with the FJ-4Bs for some years, and Skyhawks’ capability to provide buddy-to-buddy refueling services with a special pod made them a vital asset for carrier operations, too.
A total of twenty A-4G Skyhawks were purchased by the Royal Australian Navy in two batches for operation from HMAS Melbourne, and the Koninlijke Marine ordered twelve. These aircraft were part of the first A-4G production batch and arrived in 1967, together with four TA-4J trainers, for a total fleet of sixteen aircraft. The machines were delivered in the contemporary US Navy high-visibility scheme in Light Gull Grey and White, but they were soon re-painted in a less conspicuous scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey on the upper surfaces and Sky underneath, conforming to NATO standards of the time. After initial conversion training from land bases the re-formed MLD 861 Squadron (a carrier-based unit that had operated Fairey during the Fifties) embarked upon HNLMS Karel Doorman in February 1968 with a standard contingent of six carrier-based aircraft. The rest was stationed at Valkenburg Naval Air Base for maintenance and training and frequently rotated to the carrier.
However, the Dutch Skyhawks' career at sea was very short – it lasted in fact only a couple of months! A boiler room fire on 26 April 1968 removed HNLMS Karel Doorman from Dutch service. To repair the fire damage, new boilers were transplanted from the incomplete HMS Leviathan. But this did not save the ship, and in 1969 it was decided that the costs for repairing the damage in relation to the relatively short time Karel Doorman was still to serve in the fleet proved to be her undoing and she was sold to the Argentine Navy, renamed Veinticinco de Mayo, where she would later play a role in the 1982 Falkland Islands Conflict.
Additionally, the fatal fire accident coincided with the arrival of land-based long range maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Netherlands Navy that were to take over the ASW role Karel Doorman had been tasked to perform ever since the start of the 1960s. These were one squadron of Breguet Atlantique sea-reconnaissance aircraft and one of P-2 Neptunes, while the international NATO anti-submarine commitment was taken over by a squadron of Westland Wasp helicopters operated from six Van Speijk-class anti-submarine frigates.
This left the Royal Netherlands Navy with a full operational squadron of almost brand-new aircraft that had overnight lost their raison d'être. To avoid sunk costs the government decided to keep the Skyhawks in active service, even though only land-based now and as part of the Netherlands air force's home defense – a plan that had been envisioned for the A-4Gs for the mid-Seventies, anyway.
In 1974, the A-4G's MLD 861 Squadron was disbanded (again) and the aircraft were formally transferred to the Royal Netherlands Air Force, where they received new tactical codes (H-30XX - H- 30YY) and formed the new RNLAF 332 Squadron, primary tasked with aerial support for the Netherlands Marine Corps. To avoid staff and equipment transfer costs to a different location, the Skyhawks stayed at their former home base, Valkenburg Naval Air Base, where they operated alongside the MLD’s new long-range maritime patrol aircraft.
At that time, the machines received a small update during regular overhauls, including the ability to deploy the new TV-guided AGM-65 Maverick missile (which replaced the unreliable and rather ineffective AGM-12) as well as more effective AIM-9J air-to-air missiles, and an AN/APQ-51 radar warning system, recognizable through small cone-shaped radomes under the nose, at the tail and under the wing roots. Being land-based now, some machines received a new NATO-style camouflage in Olive Drab and Dark Grey with Light Grey undersides, even though the Skyhawks’ full carrier capability was retained in case of a NATO deployment on another nation’s carrier.
In 1979, when the RNLAF received its first F-16A/B fighters, all Skyhawks eventually received a more subdued grey three-tone camouflage with toned-down markings which was effective both over the sea and in the sky, similar to the RNLAF’s NF-5A/B day fighters.
However, the arrival of the modern F-16, which was in any aspect superior to the A-4 except for a lack of carrier-capability, meant that the RNLAF Skyhawks’ career did not last much longer. In the early Eighties, all Dutch A-4Gs were replaced with license-built F-16A/B fighter bombers. They were placed in store and eventually sold to Israel in 1985, where they were revamped and re-sold with surplus A-4Es to Indonesia as attrition replacements after high losses during the anti-guerilla warfare in East Timor. They were delivered in 1986 and served in Indonesia until 2003, where the last Skyhawks were finally retired in 2007.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 40 ft 1.5 in (12.230 m)
Wingspan: 27 ft 6 in (8.38 m)
Height: 15 ft 2 in (4.62 m)
Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m²)
Airfoil: root: NACA 0008-1.1-25; tip: NACA 0005-.825-50
Empty weight: 9,853 lb (4,469 kg)
Gross weight: 16,216 lb (7,355 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 24,500 lb (11,113 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Pratt & Whitney J52-P-6A turbojet engine, 8,500 lbf (38 kN) thrust
Performance:
Maximum speed: 585 kn (673 mph, 1,083 km/h) at sea level
Range: 1,008 nmi (1,160 mi, 1,867 km)
Ferry range: 2,194 nmi (2,525 mi, 4,063 km)
g limits: +8/-3
Rate of climb: 5,750 ft/min (29.2 m/s)
Wing loading: 62.4 lb/sq ft (305 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.526
Armament:
2× 20 mm (0.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannon with 100 RPG
5× hardpoints with a total capacity of 8,500 lb (3,900 kg)
The kit and its assembly:
This what-if project was more or less a stopgap: I had a Hasegawa 1:72 A-4E/F kit in The Stash™, primarily bought for its separate avionics hump that is supposed to be transplanted on a Fujimi A-4C someday to create an A-4L, of which AFAIK no OOB kit exists. However, I played with potential fictional operators, and read about the Australian A-4Gs. When I compared them with the historic timeframe of the Dutch HNLMS Karel Doorman, I recognized very close parallels (see background above) so that a small Skyhawk fleet for a single carrier with a focus on ASW duties would make sense – even though Karel Doorman was soon struck by a fire and ended the story. However, this was a great framework to tell the story of Dutch Skyhawks that never had been, and my model depicts such an aircraft soon after its update and in late RNLAF colors.
The Hasegawa kit is not bad, but IMHO there are better offerings, you can see the mold’s age. It goes together easily, comes with a good pilot figure and offers optional parts for an E or F Skyhawk, plus lots of ordnance, but it comes with raised (yet very fine) panel lines and an odd canopy: the clear part is actually only the canopy’s glass, so that the frame is still molded into the fuselage. As a result, opening the cockpit is a VERY tricky stunt (which I eventually avoided), and the clear piece somehow does not fit well into its intended opening. The mold dates back to 1969, when the A-4E/F was brand new, and this was all acceptable in the Seventies and Eighties. But for today’s standards the Hasegawa kit is a bit outdated and, in many cases, overpriced. Permanent re-boxings and short-run re-issues do not make the old kit any better.
Despite these weaknesses the kit was built OOB, without big modifications or the optional camel hump for the A-4F, with the early straight IFR probe and with parts from the OOB ordnance. This included the ventral drop tank (which comes with an integral pylon) and the underwing pylons; from the outer pair the integral launch rails for the Bullpups were sanded away and replaced with a pair of longer launch rails for AIM-9B Sidewinder AAMs from the scrap box.
As a modern/contemporary detail I scratched a training/dummy AGM-65 Maverick without fins for one of the inner underwing stations, which would later become a colorful eye-catcher on the otherwise quite subdued aircraft. Additionally, some small blade antennae were added around the hull, e. g. on the front wheel well cover for the Bullpup guidance emitter.
Painting and markings:
A Kon. Marine Skyhawk offers a wide range of painting options, but I tweaked the background that I could incorporate a specific and unique Dutch paint scheme – the early Eighties livery of the RNLAF’s NF-5A/Bs. These aircraft initially wore a NATO-style green/grey livery with pale grey undersides, but they were in the late Seventies, with the arrival of the F-16s, repainted with the F-16s’ “Egypt One” colors (FS 36118, 36270 and 36375). However, the Egypt One scheme was not directly adopted, only the former RAF-style camouflage pattern was re-done with the new colors. Therefore, the Skyhawks were “in my world” transferred from the Dutch Navy to the Air Force and received this livery, too, for which I used Humbrol 125, 126 and 127. The pattern was adapted from the sleek NF-5s as good as possible to the stouter A-4 airframe, but it worked out.
However, the result reminds unintentionally a lot of the Australian A-4Gs’ late livery, even though the Aussie Skyhawks carried a different pattern and were painted in different tones. Even more strangely, the colors on the model looked odd in this striped paint scheme: the dark Gunship Gray appeared almost violet, while the Medium Gray had a somewhat turquoise hue? Weird! Thankfully, this disappeared when I did some post-panel-shading after a light black in washing…
The cockpit became Dark Gull Grey (FS 36231, Humbrol 140), even though there’s hardly anything recognizable through the small canopy: the pilot blocks anything. The landing gear and the respective wells became classic bright white (Revell 301), as well as the air intake ducts; the landing gear covers received a thin red outline.
The Sidewinders and their launch rails became white, the drop tank was painted in FS 36375 like the underside. The dummy AGM-65 was painted bright blue with a white tip for the live seeker head.
The decals were gathered from various sources. The RNLAF roundels came from a generic TL Modellbau sheet, the tactical code from a Swiss F-5E. The small fin flash is a personal addition (this was not common practice on RNLAF aircraft), the red unit badge with the seahorse comes from a French naval WWII unit. Most stencils were taken from the OOB sheet but supplemented with single bits from an Airfix Skyhawk sheet, e. g. for the red trim around the air intakes, which was tricky to create. The interior of the fuselage air brakes was painted in bright red, too.
After a Koninlijke Marine FJ-4B Fury some years ago, here’s a worthy and logical successor, even though it would have quickly lost its naval base, HNLMS Karel Doorman. Really bad timing! Even though not much was changed, this simple looking aircraft has IMHO a certain, subtle charm – even though the paint scheme makes the Dutch Skyhawk look more Australian than intended, despite representing an A-4G, too. But time frame and mission profiles would have been too similar to ignore this parallel. Not a spectacular model, but quite convincing.
They often rode their bicycles into the surrounding region for exercise, exploration and visiting the nearby orchards and farms..
see more images below in the comments..
See Bomber Command Survivors reciting Rememberance poem..
"Wings of Thunder" ... youtu.be/K4kWYGrKdTk
from Gemini AI
what did the world do at the end of the war?
The world reacted to the end of World War II with a mix of jubilation, relief, and a somber understanding of the immense cost of the conflict. Here's a breakdown of some key responses:
Celebrations and Relief:
Widespread Joy: News of the surrenders (first Germany in May 1945, then Japan in August 1945) sparked massive celebrations in Allied countries. People filled the streets,embracing and cheering, marking the end of years of hardship, anxiety, and loss.
Return of Soldiers: The end of the war meant the return of soldiers to their home countries. This was a joyous occasion for families and communities, although it was also a period of readjustment for many veterans.
Reconstruction and Recovery:
Devastation in Europe and Asia: Many parts of Europe and Asia lay in ruins. Cities were bombed, infrastructure was destroyed, and economies were shattered. The immediate focus was on providing humanitarian aid, rebuilding infrastructure, and restarting economies.
The Marshall Plan: The United States launched the Marshall Plan, a massive economic aid program to help rebuild European economies. This was crucial in preventing further instability and fostering recovery.
Political and Geopolitical Shifts:
Emergence of Superpowers: The war significantly altered the global balance of power. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, leading to a period of geopolitical tension known as the Cold War.
Formation of the United Nations: In 1945, the United Nations was established with the goal of preventing future global conflicts through international cooperation and diplomacy.
Decolonization: The war weakened European colonial powers, contributing to the rise of independence movements in Asia and Africa.
Dealing with the Aftermath:
Nuremberg Trials: The Nuremberg trials were held to bring Nazi leaders to justice for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. This set a precedent for international criminal law.
Coming to Terms with the Holocaust: The full extent of the Holocaust was revealed after the war, shocking the world and leading to a greater understanding of the horrors of genocide.
A Desire for Peace:
"Never Again": The immense suffering caused by the war led to a widespread desire to prevent future global conflicts. This sentiment was reflected in the formation of the United Nations and other international efforts to promote peace and cooperation.
In summary, the end of World War II was met with widespread celebration and relief, but also marked the beginning of a long process of recovery, reconstruction, and dealing with the political and social consequences of the conflict. 1 The world was forever changed by the war, and its aftermath shaped the course of the 20th century. 2
1.
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
2.
How the legacy of the Second World War shaped the modern world | Imperial War Museums
Sources and related content
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War - Historical events in the European integration process (1945–2009) - CVCE
The Reconstruction of Europe - EU Learning - Carleton University
carleton.ca
Marshall Plan (1948) | National
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81) was a Colossus-class aircraft carrier of the Royal Netherlands Navy. Formerly the British ship HMS Venerable, she was sold to the Netherlands in 1948 as a light attack carrier and operated Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighters, which were in 1958 replaced by Hawker Sea Hawk jet aircraft. In 1960, she was involved in the decolonization conflict in Western New Guinea with Indonesia. After a major refit in 1964, following the settlement of issues threatening its former colonial territories and changes in the mission for the Royal Netherlands Navy within NATO, the role was changed to anti-submarine warfare carrier and primarily ASW aircraft and helicopters were carried. At that time, the last Dutch Sea Hawks were phased out and the Koninlijke Marine ’s FJ-4B fighter bombers were relegated to land bases and soon handed back to the USA and re-integrated into USMC units. As an alternative multi-role aircraft that could both deliver strikes against ground as well as sea targets and provide aerial defense for the carrier or escort its slow and vulnerable ASW aircraft, the American Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was procured.
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta-winged, single turbojet-powered Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later by McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the U.S. Navy's pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk was a relatively light aircraft, with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds (11,100 kg), had a top speed of 670 miles per hour (1,080 km/h) and very good handling, making it a serious threat in an aerial dogfight. The aircraft's five hardpoints supported a variety of missiles, bombs, and other munitions.
The A4D (re-named into A-4 under the USA’s unified designation system) was capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of a World War II–era Boeing B-17 bomber and could even deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. The A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, but from the A-4E onwards, the more fuel efficient and powerful Pratt & Whitney J52 engine was used. The Skyhawk proved to be a relatively common United States Navy aircraft export of the postwar era. Due to its small size, it could be operated from the older, smaller World War II-era aircraft carriers still used by many smaller navies during the 1960s. These older ships were often unable to accommodate newer Navy fighters such as the F-4 Phantom II and F-8 Crusader, which were faster and more capable than the A-4, but significantly larger and heavier than older naval fighters.
At the same time as the Netherlands, Australia was looking for a new carrier-borne jet aircraft, too, and in negotiations with Douglas for newly built A-4s for the RAN's carrier HMAS Melbourne, a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier. These aircraft had a very similar duty profile to those the Royal Netherlands Navy was looking for, and in order to save development costs and speed up the procurement process, the Royal Netherlands Navy simply adopted the Australian specifications which became the unique A-4G variant, the Skyhawk’s first dedicated export version.
The A-4G was directly developed with minor variations from the current, most modern Skyhawk variant, the USN's A-4F. In particular, the A-4G was not fitted with the late Skyhawk variants' characteristic avionics "hump", had a simple ranging radar for air-to-air combat and was modified to carry four underwing Sidewinder AIM-9B missiles (instead of just two), increasing their Fleet Defense capability. Additionally, the A-4Gs for the Royal Netherlands Navy received the avionics package to deploy radio-controlled AGM-12 Bullpup missiles, which the Kon. Marine had been using together with the FJ-4Bs for some years, and Skyhawks’ capability to provide buddy-to-buddy refueling services with a special pod made them a vital asset for carrier operations, too.
A total of twenty A-4G Skyhawks were purchased by the Royal Australian Navy in two batches for operation from HMAS Melbourne, and the Koninlijke Marine ordered twelve. These aircraft were part of the first A-4G production batch and arrived in 1967, together with four TA-4J trainers, for a total fleet of sixteen aircraft. The machines were delivered in the contemporary US Navy high-visibility scheme in Light Gull Grey and White, but they were soon re-painted in a less conspicuous scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey on the upper surfaces and Sky underneath, conforming to NATO standards of the time. After initial conversion training from land bases the re-formed MLD 861 Squadron (a carrier-based unit that had operated Fairey during the Fifties) embarked upon HNLMS Karel Doorman in February 1968 with a standard contingent of six carrier-based aircraft. The rest was stationed at Valkenburg Naval Air Base for maintenance and training and frequently rotated to the carrier.
However, the Dutch Skyhawks' career at sea was very short – it lasted in fact only a couple of months! A boiler room fire on 26 April 1968 removed HNLMS Karel Doorman from Dutch service. To repair the fire damage, new boilers were transplanted from the incomplete HMS Leviathan. But this did not save the ship, and in 1969 it was decided that the costs for repairing the damage in relation to the relatively short time Karel Doorman was still to serve in the fleet proved to be her undoing and she was sold to the Argentine Navy, renamed Veinticinco de Mayo, where she would later play a role in the 1982 Falkland Islands Conflict.
Additionally, the fatal fire accident coincided with the arrival of land-based long range maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Netherlands Navy that were to take over the ASW role Karel Doorman had been tasked to perform ever since the start of the 1960s. These were one squadron of Breguet Atlantique sea-reconnaissance aircraft and one of P-2 Neptunes, while the international NATO anti-submarine commitment was taken over by a squadron of Westland Wasp helicopters operated from six Van Speijk-class anti-submarine frigates.
This left the Royal Netherlands Navy with a full operational squadron of almost brand-new aircraft that had overnight lost their raison d'être. To avoid sunk costs the government decided to keep the Skyhawks in active service, even though only land-based now and as part of the Netherlands air force's home defense – a plan that had been envisioned for the A-4Gs for the mid-Seventies, anyway.
In 1974, the A-4G's MLD 861 Squadron was disbanded (again) and the aircraft were formally transferred to the Royal Netherlands Air Force, where they received new tactical codes (H-30XX - H- 30YY) and formed the new RNLAF 332 Squadron, primary tasked with aerial support for the Netherlands Marine Corps. To avoid staff and equipment transfer costs to a different location, the Skyhawks stayed at their former home base, Valkenburg Naval Air Base, where they operated alongside the MLD’s new long-range maritime patrol aircraft.
At that time, the machines received a small update during regular overhauls, including the ability to deploy the new TV-guided AGM-65 Maverick missile (which replaced the unreliable and rather ineffective AGM-12) as well as more effective AIM-9J air-to-air missiles, and an AN/APQ-51 radar warning system, recognizable through small cone-shaped radomes under the nose, at the tail and under the wing roots. Being land-based now, some machines received a new NATO-style camouflage in Olive Drab and Dark Grey with Light Grey undersides, even though the Skyhawks’ full carrier capability was retained in case of a NATO deployment on another nation’s carrier.
In 1979, when the RNLAF received its first F-16A/B fighters, all Skyhawks eventually received a more subdued grey three-tone camouflage with toned-down markings which was effective both over the sea and in the sky, similar to the RNLAF’s NF-5A/B day fighters.
However, the arrival of the modern F-16, which was in any aspect superior to the A-4 except for a lack of carrier-capability, meant that the RNLAF Skyhawks’ career did not last much longer. In the early Eighties, all Dutch A-4Gs were replaced with license-built F-16A/B fighter bombers. They were placed in store and eventually sold to Israel in 1985, where they were revamped and re-sold with surplus A-4Es to Indonesia as attrition replacements after high losses during the anti-guerilla warfare in East Timor. They were delivered in 1986 and served in Indonesia until 2003, where the last Skyhawks were finally retired in 2007.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 40 ft 1.5 in (12.230 m)
Wingspan: 27 ft 6 in (8.38 m)
Height: 15 ft 2 in (4.62 m)
Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m²)
Airfoil: root: NACA 0008-1.1-25; tip: NACA 0005-.825-50
Empty weight: 9,853 lb (4,469 kg)
Gross weight: 16,216 lb (7,355 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 24,500 lb (11,113 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Pratt & Whitney J52-P-6A turbojet engine, 8,500 lbf (38 kN) thrust
Performance:
Maximum speed: 585 kn (673 mph, 1,083 km/h) at sea level
Range: 1,008 nmi (1,160 mi, 1,867 km)
Ferry range: 2,194 nmi (2,525 mi, 4,063 km)
g limits: +8/-3
Rate of climb: 5,750 ft/min (29.2 m/s)
Wing loading: 62.4 lb/sq ft (305 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.526
Armament:
2× 20 mm (0.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannon with 100 RPG
5× hardpoints with a total capacity of 8,500 lb (3,900 kg)
The kit and its assembly:
This what-if project was more or less a stopgap: I had a Hasegawa 1:72 A-4E/F kit in The Stash™, primarily bought for its separate avionics hump that is supposed to be transplanted on a Fujimi A-4C someday to create an A-4L, of which AFAIK no OOB kit exists. However, I played with potential fictional operators, and read about the Australian A-4Gs. When I compared them with the historic timeframe of the Dutch HNLMS Karel Doorman, I recognized very close parallels (see background above) so that a small Skyhawk fleet for a single carrier with a focus on ASW duties would make sense – even though Karel Doorman was soon struck by a fire and ended the story. However, this was a great framework to tell the story of Dutch Skyhawks that never had been, and my model depicts such an aircraft soon after its update and in late RNLAF colors.
The Hasegawa kit is not bad, but IMHO there are better offerings, you can see the mold’s age. It goes together easily, comes with a good pilot figure and offers optional parts for an E or F Skyhawk, plus lots of ordnance, but it comes with raised (yet very fine) panel lines and an odd canopy: the clear part is actually only the canopy’s glass, so that the frame is still molded into the fuselage. As a result, opening the cockpit is a VERY tricky stunt (which I eventually avoided), and the clear piece somehow does not fit well into its intended opening. The mold dates back to 1969, when the A-4E/F was brand new, and this was all acceptable in the Seventies and Eighties. But for today’s standards the Hasegawa kit is a bit outdated and, in many cases, overpriced. Permanent re-boxings and short-run re-issues do not make the old kit any better.
Despite these weaknesses the kit was built OOB, without big modifications or the optional camel hump for the A-4F, with the early straight IFR probe and with parts from the OOB ordnance. This included the ventral drop tank (which comes with an integral pylon) and the underwing pylons; from the outer pair the integral launch rails for the Bullpups were sanded away and replaced with a pair of longer launch rails for AIM-9B Sidewinder AAMs from the scrap box.
As a modern/contemporary detail I scratched a training/dummy AGM-65 Maverick without fins for one of the inner underwing stations, which would later become a colorful eye-catcher on the otherwise quite subdued aircraft. Additionally, some small blade antennae were added around the hull, e. g. on the front wheel well cover for the Bullpup guidance emitter.
Painting and markings:
A Kon. Marine Skyhawk offers a wide range of painting options, but I tweaked the background that I could incorporate a specific and unique Dutch paint scheme – the early Eighties livery of the RNLAF’s NF-5A/Bs. These aircraft initially wore a NATO-style green/grey livery with pale grey undersides, but they were in the late Seventies, with the arrival of the F-16s, repainted with the F-16s’ “Egypt One” colors (FS 36118, 36270 and 36375). However, the Egypt One scheme was not directly adopted, only the former RAF-style camouflage pattern was re-done with the new colors. Therefore, the Skyhawks were “in my world” transferred from the Dutch Navy to the Air Force and received this livery, too, for which I used Humbrol 125, 126 and 127. The pattern was adapted from the sleek NF-5s as good as possible to the stouter A-4 airframe, but it worked out.
However, the result reminds unintentionally a lot of the Australian A-4Gs’ late livery, even though the Aussie Skyhawks carried a different pattern and were painted in different tones. Even more strangely, the colors on the model looked odd in this striped paint scheme: the dark Gunship Gray appeared almost violet, while the Medium Gray had a somewhat turquoise hue? Weird! Thankfully, this disappeared when I did some post-panel-shading after a light black in washing…
The cockpit became Dark Gull Grey (FS 36231, Humbrol 140), even though there’s hardly anything recognizable through the small canopy: the pilot blocks anything. The landing gear and the respective wells became classic bright white (Revell 301), as well as the air intake ducts; the landing gear covers received a thin red outline.
The Sidewinders and their launch rails became white, the drop tank was painted in FS 36375 like the underside. The dummy AGM-65 was painted bright blue with a white tip for the live seeker head.
The decals were gathered from various sources. The RNLAF roundels came from a generic TL Modellbau sheet, the tactical code from a Swiss F-5E. The small fin flash is a personal addition (this was not common practice on RNLAF aircraft), the red unit badge with the seahorse comes from a French naval WWII unit. Most stencils were taken from the OOB sheet but supplemented with single bits from an Airfix Skyhawk sheet, e. g. for the red trim around the air intakes, which was tricky to create. The interior of the fuselage air brakes was painted in bright red, too.
After a Koninlijke Marine FJ-4B Fury some years ago, here’s a worthy and logical successor, even though it would have quickly lost its naval base, HNLMS Karel Doorman. Really bad timing! Even though not much was changed, this simple looking aircraft has IMHO a certain, subtle charm – even though the paint scheme makes the Dutch Skyhawk look more Australian than intended, despite representing an A-4G, too. But time frame and mission profiles would have been too similar to ignore this parallel. Not a spectacular model, but quite convincing.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81) was a Colossus-class aircraft carrier of the Royal Netherlands Navy. Formerly the British ship HMS Venerable, she was sold to the Netherlands in 1948 as a light attack carrier and operated Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighters, which were in 1958 replaced by Hawker Sea Hawk jet aircraft. In 1960, she was involved in the decolonization conflict in Western New Guinea with Indonesia. After a major refit in 1964, following the settlement of issues threatening its former colonial territories and changes in the mission for the Royal Netherlands Navy within NATO, the role was changed to anti-submarine warfare carrier and primarily ASW aircraft and helicopters were carried. At that time, the last Dutch Sea Hawks were phased out and the Koninlijke Marine ’s FJ-4B fighter bombers were relegated to land bases and soon handed back to the USA and re-integrated into USMC units. As an alternative multi-role aircraft that could both deliver strikes against ground as well as sea targets and provide aerial defense for the carrier or escort its slow and vulnerable ASW aircraft, the American Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was procured.
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta-winged, single turbojet-powered Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later by McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the U.S. Navy's pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk was a relatively light aircraft, with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds (11,100 kg), had a top speed of 670 miles per hour (1,080 km/h) and very good handling, making it a serious threat in an aerial dogfight. The aircraft's five hardpoints supported a variety of missiles, bombs, and other munitions.
The A4D (re-named into A-4 under the USA’s unified designation system) was capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of a World War II–era Boeing B-17 bomber and could even deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. The A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, but from the A-4E onwards, the more fuel efficient and powerful Pratt & Whitney J52 engine was used. The Skyhawk proved to be a relatively common United States Navy aircraft export of the postwar era. Due to its small size, it could be operated from the older, smaller World War II-era aircraft carriers still used by many smaller navies during the 1960s. These older ships were often unable to accommodate newer Navy fighters such as the F-4 Phantom II and F-8 Crusader, which were faster and more capable than the A-4, but significantly larger and heavier than older naval fighters.
At the same time as the Netherlands, Australia was looking for a new carrier-borne jet aircraft, too, and in negotiations with Douglas for newly built A-4s for the RAN's carrier HMAS Melbourne, a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier. These aircraft had a very similar duty profile to those the Royal Netherlands Navy was looking for, and in order to save development costs and speed up the procurement process, the Royal Netherlands Navy simply adopted the Australian specifications which became the unique A-4G variant, the Skyhawk’s first dedicated export version.
The A-4G was directly developed with minor variations from the current, most modern Skyhawk variant, the USN's A-4F. In particular, the A-4G was not fitted with the late Skyhawk variants' characteristic avionics "hump", had a simple ranging radar for air-to-air combat and was modified to carry four underwing Sidewinder AIM-9B missiles (instead of just two), increasing their Fleet Defense capability. Additionally, the A-4Gs for the Royal Netherlands Navy received the avionics package to deploy radio-controlled AGM-12 Bullpup missiles, which the Kon. Marine had been using together with the FJ-4Bs for some years, and Skyhawks’ capability to provide buddy-to-buddy refueling services with a special pod made them a vital asset for carrier operations, too.
A total of twenty A-4G Skyhawks were purchased by the Royal Australian Navy in two batches for operation from HMAS Melbourne, and the Koninlijke Marine ordered twelve. These aircraft were part of the first A-4G production batch and arrived in 1967, together with four TA-4J trainers, for a total fleet of sixteen aircraft. The machines were delivered in the contemporary US Navy high-visibility scheme in Light Gull Grey and White, but they were soon re-painted in a less conspicuous scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey on the upper surfaces and Sky underneath, conforming to NATO standards of the time. After initial conversion training from land bases the re-formed MLD 861 Squadron (a carrier-based unit that had operated Fairey during the Fifties) embarked upon HNLMS Karel Doorman in February 1968 with a standard contingent of six carrier-based aircraft. The rest was stationed at Valkenburg Naval Air Base for maintenance and training and frequently rotated to the carrier.
However, the Dutch Skyhawks' career at sea was very short – it lasted in fact only a couple of months! A boiler room fire on 26 April 1968 removed HNLMS Karel Doorman from Dutch service. To repair the fire damage, new boilers were transplanted from the incomplete HMS Leviathan. But this did not save the ship, and in 1969 it was decided that the costs for repairing the damage in relation to the relatively short time Karel Doorman was still to serve in the fleet proved to be her undoing and she was sold to the Argentine Navy, renamed Veinticinco de Mayo, where she would later play a role in the 1982 Falkland Islands Conflict.
Additionally, the fatal fire accident coincided with the arrival of land-based long range maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Netherlands Navy that were to take over the ASW role Karel Doorman had been tasked to perform ever since the start of the 1960s. These were one squadron of Breguet Atlantique sea-reconnaissance aircraft and one of P-2 Neptunes, while the international NATO anti-submarine commitment was taken over by a squadron of Westland Wasp helicopters operated from six Van Speijk-class anti-submarine frigates.
This left the Royal Netherlands Navy with a full operational squadron of almost brand-new aircraft that had overnight lost their raison d'être. To avoid sunk costs the government decided to keep the Skyhawks in active service, even though only land-based now and as part of the Netherlands air force's home defense – a plan that had been envisioned for the A-4Gs for the mid-Seventies, anyway.
In 1974, the A-4G's MLD 861 Squadron was disbanded (again) and the aircraft were formally transferred to the Royal Netherlands Air Force, where they received new tactical codes (H-30XX - H- 30YY) and formed the new RNLAF 332 Squadron, primary tasked with aerial support for the Netherlands Marine Corps. To avoid staff and equipment transfer costs to a different location, the Skyhawks stayed at their former home base, Valkenburg Naval Air Base, where they operated alongside the MLD’s new long-range maritime patrol aircraft.
At that time, the machines received a small update during regular overhauls, including the ability to deploy the new TV-guided AGM-65 Maverick missile (which replaced the unreliable and rather ineffective AGM-12) as well as more effective AIM-9J air-to-air missiles, and an AN/APQ-51 radar warning system, recognizable through small cone-shaped radomes under the nose, at the tail and under the wing roots. Being land-based now, some machines received a new NATO-style camouflage in Olive Drab and Dark Grey with Light Grey undersides, even though the Skyhawks’ full carrier capability was retained in case of a NATO deployment on another nation’s carrier.
In 1979, when the RNLAF received its first F-16A/B fighters, all Skyhawks eventually received a more subdued grey three-tone camouflage with toned-down markings which was effective both over the sea and in the sky, similar to the RNLAF’s NF-5A/B day fighters.
However, the arrival of the modern F-16, which was in any aspect superior to the A-4 except for a lack of carrier-capability, meant that the RNLAF Skyhawks’ career did not last much longer. In the early Eighties, all Dutch A-4Gs were replaced with license-built F-16A/B fighter bombers. They were placed in store and eventually sold to Israel in 1985, where they were revamped and re-sold with surplus A-4Es to Indonesia as attrition replacements after high losses during the anti-guerilla warfare in East Timor. They were delivered in 1986 and served in Indonesia until 2003, where the last Skyhawks were finally retired in 2007.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 40 ft 1.5 in (12.230 m)
Wingspan: 27 ft 6 in (8.38 m)
Height: 15 ft 2 in (4.62 m)
Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m²)
Airfoil: root: NACA 0008-1.1-25; tip: NACA 0005-.825-50
Empty weight: 9,853 lb (4,469 kg)
Gross weight: 16,216 lb (7,355 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 24,500 lb (11,113 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Pratt & Whitney J52-P-6A turbojet engine, 8,500 lbf (38 kN) thrust
Performance:
Maximum speed: 585 kn (673 mph, 1,083 km/h) at sea level
Range: 1,008 nmi (1,160 mi, 1,867 km)
Ferry range: 2,194 nmi (2,525 mi, 4,063 km)
g limits: +8/-3
Rate of climb: 5,750 ft/min (29.2 m/s)
Wing loading: 62.4 lb/sq ft (305 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.526
Armament:
2× 20 mm (0.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannon with 100 RPG
5× hardpoints with a total capacity of 8,500 lb (3,900 kg)
The kit and its assembly:
This what-if project was more or less a stopgap: I had a Hasegawa 1:72 A-4E/F kit in The Stash™, primarily bought for its separate avionics hump that is supposed to be transplanted on a Fujimi A-4C someday to create an A-4L, of which AFAIK no OOB kit exists. However, I played with potential fictional operators, and read about the Australian A-4Gs. When I compared them with the historic timeframe of the Dutch HNLMS Karel Doorman, I recognized very close parallels (see background above) so that a small Skyhawk fleet for a single carrier with a focus on ASW duties would make sense – even though Karel Doorman was soon struck by a fire and ended the story. However, this was a great framework to tell the story of Dutch Skyhawks that never had been, and my model depicts such an aircraft soon after its update and in late RNLAF colors.
The Hasegawa kit is not bad, but IMHO there are better offerings, you can see the mold’s age. It goes together easily, comes with a good pilot figure and offers optional parts for an E or F Skyhawk, plus lots of ordnance, but it comes with raised (yet very fine) panel lines and an odd canopy: the clear part is actually only the canopy’s glass, so that the frame is still molded into the fuselage. As a result, opening the cockpit is a VERY tricky stunt (which I eventually avoided), and the clear piece somehow does not fit well into its intended opening. The mold dates back to 1969, when the A-4E/F was brand new, and this was all acceptable in the Seventies and Eighties. But for today’s standards the Hasegawa kit is a bit outdated and, in many cases, overpriced. Permanent re-boxings and short-run re-issues do not make the old kit any better.
Despite these weaknesses the kit was built OOB, without big modifications or the optional camel hump for the A-4F, with the early straight IFR probe and with parts from the OOB ordnance. This included the ventral drop tank (which comes with an integral pylon) and the underwing pylons; from the outer pair the integral launch rails for the Bullpups were sanded away and replaced with a pair of longer launch rails for AIM-9B Sidewinder AAMs from the scrap box.
As a modern/contemporary detail I scratched a training/dummy AGM-65 Maverick without fins for one of the inner underwing stations, which would later become a colorful eye-catcher on the otherwise quite subdued aircraft. Additionally, some small blade antennae were added around the hull, e. g. on the front wheel well cover for the Bullpup guidance emitter.
Painting and markings:
A Kon. Marine Skyhawk offers a wide range of painting options, but I tweaked the background that I could incorporate a specific and unique Dutch paint scheme – the early Eighties livery of the RNLAF’s NF-5A/Bs. These aircraft initially wore a NATO-style green/grey livery with pale grey undersides, but they were in the late Seventies, with the arrival of the F-16s, repainted with the F-16s’ “Egypt One” colors (FS 36118, 36270 and 36375). However, the Egypt One scheme was not directly adopted, only the former RAF-style camouflage pattern was re-done with the new colors. Therefore, the Skyhawks were “in my world” transferred from the Dutch Navy to the Air Force and received this livery, too, for which I used Humbrol 125, 126 and 127. The pattern was adapted from the sleek NF-5s as good as possible to the stouter A-4 airframe, but it worked out.
However, the result reminds unintentionally a lot of the Australian A-4Gs’ late livery, even though the Aussie Skyhawks carried a different pattern and were painted in different tones. Even more strangely, the colors on the model looked odd in this striped paint scheme: the dark Gunship Gray appeared almost violet, while the Medium Gray had a somewhat turquoise hue? Weird! Thankfully, this disappeared when I did some post-panel-shading after a light black in washing…
The cockpit became Dark Gull Grey (FS 36231, Humbrol 140), even though there’s hardly anything recognizable through the small canopy: the pilot blocks anything. The landing gear and the respective wells became classic bright white (Revell 301), as well as the air intake ducts; the landing gear covers received a thin red outline.
The Sidewinders and their launch rails became white, the drop tank was painted in FS 36375 like the underside. The dummy AGM-65 was painted bright blue with a white tip for the live seeker head.
The decals were gathered from various sources. The RNLAF roundels came from a generic TL Modellbau sheet, the tactical code from a Swiss F-5E. The small fin flash is a personal addition (this was not common practice on RNLAF aircraft), the red unit badge with the seahorse comes from a French naval WWII unit. Most stencils were taken from the OOB sheet but supplemented with single bits from an Airfix Skyhawk sheet, e. g. for the red trim around the air intakes, which was tricky to create. The interior of the fuselage air brakes was painted in bright red, too.
After a Koninlijke Marine FJ-4B Fury some years ago, here’s a worthy and logical successor, even though it would have quickly lost its naval base, HNLMS Karel Doorman. Really bad timing! Even though not much was changed, this simple looking aircraft has IMHO a certain, subtle charm – even though the paint scheme makes the Dutch Skyhawk look more Australian than intended, despite representing an A-4G, too. But time frame and mission profiles would have been too similar to ignore this parallel. Not a spectacular model, but quite convincing.
Local author Pemerika Tauiliili held a launching ceremony for his four books on 1-19-11. One of them was "The Rat & The Bat and Other Stories", pictured here.
NONE OF THE POEMS THAT FOLLOW APPEAR IN OR HAVE ANYTHING TO DO WITH THE PUBLICATION SHOWN ABOVE - I'M JUST RUNNING OUT OF ROOM BECAUSE THERE ARE SO MANY OF THEM
If you'd like to hear the work of someone who I think really works magic with words, go listen to the late Dan Hicks sing "News From Up The Street". Just a suggestion.
LONG DISTANCE DEMONS
Most esteemed monsignor,
exorcise my phone – those long
distance demons won’t leave me
alone. It shakes the foundations
of my faith as a believer when
hell’s banshees beckon through
my phone receiver. Unreasonable
reasoning, and when that fails,
they scream like a train flying
off of the rails. Firmly convinced,
puffed up at their proudest, they’ll
win hearts and minds just by
screaming the loudest. Tweet
goes the ring tone, straight up
goes my hair – the rest of my
head spins just like Linda Blair.
Speech too obscene for me
to even tape – it ain’t like phone
sex, no, it’s more like phone
rape. Cut the line, you advise -
but I hope in vain that an angel
might call, not the demons again.
ONE NIGHT
One night two lizards got it on
right in front of me, beneath
the living room lamp where
their kind congregate to catch
flying termites. How brazen,
shameless and graceless,
those two! From behind,
one mounted, teeth buried
in the other’s neck, a reptile
ritual old as time. Yeah, but
not in my house! I pondered
disruption by force to assert
moral authority, but then
it dawned on me, what does
it profit a man to dominate
lizards so uncultured they
could care less for subtlety?
One night I said whatever,
still mysteriously pissed about
the rude, ill-timed reminder
of what I might have missed.
LIT FEST
No, they wouldm't like a lit fest
unless the lit was green with
a dead president's portrait.
They might like a lit fest
as long as the lit expressed
their exhaulted history qute
extravagantly, tracing a line
from Nafanua to heroes in
World War Two to winning
the Superbowl. They might
provide a grant for a lit fest
as long as the lit kept
a respectable distance
from topics like poverty
in paradise, pockets full
of federal funds, even
children with a different
last name who somehow
have the greedy elite eyes
of some distinguished clan.
So let's do a lit fest just
to articulate and celebrate
the irony of being free
within certain restrictions.
UKULELE ANGELS
A band called Ukulele Angels
entertaining at the mall. Shop
to the soothing sounds, stop
to watch. Ascend, serenaded
by Ukulele Angels, to shopping
heaven where everything’s
30% off. In the mall, Camelot
of plenty, customers are royalty
and locals just here to serve.
Happy campers do a consumer
hula as Ukulele Angels strum
rhythmically. See paramedics
scurry across the mall with
some urgency. It’s alright –
just too much excitement for
some tourist eyeing his wife’s
store receipts. No one notices
the heartbroken provider exit
the mall on a stretcher while
Ukulele Angels sing happy
trails to you until we meet
again.
BLOOM
The sun in Aquarius caused
a bloom of poetry like a bloom
of algae in the sea. Oh, that’s
very convenient for me. I like
excuses handed to me on
a platter. The earth in Leo
caused a boost to the ego
that was truthfully much
needed. Sometimes it’s like
no one appreciates my genius.
The moon in whatever very
often makes me wonder why
I get so possessed. Uranus
in Sagittarius usually leads me
to guess inspiration will just
remain a mystery.
LITTLE BREEZES
Undo these restraints,
I want to be a hurricane -
brewing off your shores,
gathering anger to show
you what you’re asking
for when you push thin
air around. Air, by nature
thin, seeks out similar
energy – do you feel held
back unfairly, like me?
Then let’s marry forces
to restore the balance.
When the little breezes
have felt big long enough,
caused enough mayhem
to really feel tough, they
go their separate ways,
unity dissipated. Small
wonder they part as
unhappy as they started –
even their power can’t
make them feel together.
ROCKABILLY
Rockabilly - more personality
than Punk, and like Dracula it
just needs fresh blood mixed
with its dust to rise up again.
It waits patiently in its voodoo
cave, poised to seduce youth
culture, with Elvis as its new
Pied Piper. Kids tune in to his
rhythms, new way of talking.
Now nobody feels like doing
much besides rocking. Aliens
have landed, contaminating
our DNA –Rockabilly’s turning
the youth away from tradition,
and on to cosmic awareness.
Life shifts from claustrophobic
to limitless. You can forget
Russians invading -Rockabilly
overthrew the USA while you
weren’t looking.
PURITY
Old familiar roles. A villain with
intentions impure, whose desires
threaten disaster. A hero fated
to slay the proverbial dragon,
a knight in waiting, forced to be
brave. A convincing hero saves
the day, but a convincing villain
can’t just fail as if by design. His
defeat needs to reveal a moral
weakness, unlike the purity that
guides a hero to victory. Same
story told a thousand ways –
same message we’re reminded
of every day. Purity - a quality
we’re not inclined to naturally,
otherwise heroes would be
a dime a dozen.
ASKING FOR TROUBLE
Might be unwise to walk
up to a dragon and sing
Light My Fire. That would
be asking for trouble,
inviting yourself to the last
supper you’ll ever be part of.
Dragons just assume you’re
a threat – they haven’t
exactly made many friends
throughout history. You
probably won’t get as far
as saying you’ve come to
apologize for stereotyping
slashing claws as morally
flawed – hello breakfast –
make like bacon and get
ready to fry. You have to
admire the simplicity –
mutual dislike and distrust
accepted unquestioningly.
Either party surprising the
other with an unexpected
olive branch would clearly
be asking for trouble.
CHART
Number one this week – good
on you. Don’t take the chart
too seriously – next week it
could be me. Or some sibling
ensemble who we privately
think are terrible. Or some
has-been on the comeback
trail, like McArthur who told
the Philippines, I shall return,
and damn if he didn’t keep
his word. What determines
the results of this chart? It
mirrors of our fickle nature,
the shifting sands of what
fascinates the rank and file.
Freaks or solid citizens, our
chart lets everyone in, true
equality in popularity, maybe
our only real democracy. So
if you make number one,
congratulations. Just don’t
take the chart too seriously,
because next week it could
be me.
GREEN CERTIFICATES
You make it so someone can
take it from you, earn it just so
you can burn it. I wish I wasn’t
so concerned about these green
certificates. You need it if you
want to have any fun – if you’ve
got any time when your work day
is done. Someone might rob you
with a gun for green certificates.
You can trade it for just about
any old thing, but when it runs
out, what a sad song you sing.
And so we consider everything
in terms of green certificates.
It can make you assured when
you’re growing old and feeble –
unless you’ve got vices like
gambling or needles. People
connive, lie, and wheedle for
their green certificates. My
blood isn’t red now, I think
it’s turned green. No longer
my choice if I’m generous
or mean. All of my thoughts
and my dreams are of these
green certificates.
PUSHING FOOTWEAR
With no facts accessible,
it’s rumors to the rescue,
riding into the picture on
a bullshit brown horse,
here to force the hand
of that enigma called truth.
It’s none of your business,
but you’ll still get plenty
attention demonstrating
your superior reasoning
and unparalleled insight
by spreading rumors. So
what if it seems likely?
Likely to who? If it seems
so likely to you, shouldn’t
you be the one doing it?
Like some kind of tout
pushing footwear, we
try to match shoes to
feet they seem to fit.
MOON
You were named after the moon,
and like it you shine when it’s time
to shine and fade when it’s time
to fade. You’re always there, you
just appear different, going through
a phase – circular nature. Chasing
your own tail for eternity? Oh no,
be more complimentary – this is
balance in action, arranged so
dark and light both have their time.
Moon proves you can show both,
just never together. Delicate not
dominant, moonlight won’t try
to burn you, just illuminate your
path through the night.
BUILDINGS
Ground zero again - everything
built up now gone. Back to just
bones, muscle, and blood, back
to memories, living history.
They say don’t build on sand,
but even solid rock trembles,
shaking off our vanity as if it
were dandruff. Man builds
to celebrate himself – castles
to keep animals out, keep us
contained in comfort. Wood,
brick and steel, transformed
by ideas into buildings, made
to last, or so we believe. Then
most buildings collapse, circle
back to just an idea awaiting
realization. Ground zero again -
now a garden, just as it began.
Returning knows something
buildings don’t.
AN ULTIMATE GOOD (FOR STEPHEN HAWKING)
I won’t swim in the ocean,
I won’t rock and roll, I won’t
climb up a mountain, or dig
a small hole for the roses I’ll
never grow. Won’t explore
on my own going wherever
I please, never hammer
a nail nor chainsaw a tree
fallen in the path of the car
I’ll never drive. Never any
of this – why even bother
staying alive? My body’s
betrayed me, but I’ve still
got a mind that’s never
forgotten there’s so much
left to find. My runaway
speech left so much unsaid,
but I’ll still find a way to
share what’s in my head.
Can’t touch you with hands,
only with my belief there’s
an ultimate good more
for you than for me.
RISK BEING RIGHT
Uncertainty holds some kind
of safety, a sort of comfort,
a weary spirit’s last resort.
You can always say you just
don’t know, and no one can
argue with that. And if you’re
not sure if anything needs
doing, then who can blame
you for doing nothing? I’m
not even sure what your
name is anymore – I mean,
you may have changed it.
Since yesterday, you may
be different too – continuity
isn’t guaranteed. Sorry, I
can’t recall whether I ever
took you seriously. Define
yourself for me one more
time, please – that might
reverse my uncertainty.
No one wants to be wrong,
nor will they risk being right.
Just a symptom of our times.
PRESTIGE
Please don’t die – I can’t afford
the family crisis. Please don’t die
- make me demonstrate a love
I never felt. Please don’t die
- make me return all the favors
you never did for my family.
Please don’t die and make us
pay for respect. Is it the man
you want us to honor, or just
his imagined prestige? Will
Heaven be impressed by the
size of a funeral? Do the angels
all expect an envelope? Until
our land is blessed with money
growing on trees like coconuts,
please make an issue with my
employers why they don’t pay
me as much as you want me
to donate. Please don’t die –
those with little have to empty
their pockets to fill the purses
of those who already have
plenty. Before I die, please
strip my name of any prestige –
spare the loved ones I leave
behind this final exploitation.
YARDMEN
We’re not at war with nature,
but yardmen still serve as soldiers
in the battle to make something
beautiful. This beauty will only
be temporary, a mostly green
mandala, changing even while
you’re cleaning off the blades.
Chaos forced into order, ugly
transformed from a pumpkin
Into a princess, but only till
midnight – plants formenting
rebellion, writing their green
constitution till they tremble
at approaching Robespierre
wielding a weed eater. From
a casual glance, you’d never
see the drama of managing
plants – they’ll be back, it’s
force of habit, but so will you.
How plant-like, we humans –
maybe by nature we’re not
so beautiful, but with work
we can emerge as at least
half-presentable.
SUN
Sun, you life-giver, why do you
drain me so? Pass the kava,
Oliver Twist, twist that machete
at a cleaner angle, look how
much better the cut. Dance
in the ballroom of your mind
as you waltz the lawn mower
round again – the square gets
smaller. Weed eaters will get
you immediate results. If you’d
prefer a task more intimate,
take the clippers and trade
gossip with the shrubs while
sculpting their details. It looks
very nice in the end, but like
Hamlet, I’m too much in the
sun. Someone get this Dane
a decent pair of shades.
HUMPTY DUMPTY
Humpty Dumpty sitting merrily
on his wall, a celebrity, ready
to serenade all and sundry with
a happy tune. Why is it you can
always tell it's the friendly ones
headed for a fall? Humpty courts
disaster, perched precariously –
neither one side nor the other –
beaming neutrality. Forgets
his own fragility, how easily
he could fly out of the frying
pan into the fire, end up just
another omelet. I’m late for
breakfast with destiny, he
remembers suddenly from
high on his wall – she’ll just
have to wait till I’m ready.
Mortality dismissed as trivial,
but meanwhile the suspense
is killing me. How long more
can you balance like that,
Humpty? Fatalistic company
can be fun, he opines, better
catch this heart and mind
before it expires. Humpty
Dumpty’s already a memory,
though he’s not even gone.
Why wait till it’s all over, he
wonders, to join in the fun?
SUMMER
Summer again and I’m still waiting
for the world to catch up with me.
So many summers come and gone,
some with others, some alone.
Always the promise of starting
again – time for whatever was
yesterday to end. Again I find
I couldn’t finish something, only
defend my emotional Alamo till
summer brought reinforcements.
AREN'T WE ALL
Imagine a Hobbes without
a Calvin - he can be a bright,
shining presence, but needs
someone it means something
to, or else all that brightness
can't ignite. Aren't we all like
Peter Pan - able to amaze
and delight when we know
someone cares, but crippled
inside, a hollow echo of all
we can be, when we doubt
that anyone does.
FARM ANIMAL VALENTINE
Nature takes out insurance
every species will survive,
if not thrive. If thrive means
proliferate, it would appear
we’ve achieved our quota,
though there’s no future
for our fine young piglets,
save at breakfast tables
across the USA, where we
make sure America stays
on the go, and fuel national
expansion of your borders
and your waistbands. Eat
America, eat – we’ve
sacrificed our flesh, our
essence – just like some
Saint Valentine you’d find
In the supermarket.
POKER
It isn’t the hand that I wanted,
but the luck of the draw leaves
no other play. Losing at poker
while some wiser player takes
the prize. Hate the game all
you want, but one cannot win
being unwilling to risk it. Cards
just confuse me – representing
royalty – kings and queens with
their underlings, all competing
to outrank. Together forming
a narrative played out again
and again as long as anyone
can remember – wish for luck,
test your skill, kill or be killed.
SACRED
No, no, no, you’ve got it all
wrong – there’s lots of things
I think are sacred. Truth told
without putting in the boot
A smile without a price tag.
Puppies happy to see me.
Something actually good
on TV. A song’s that’s not
a carbon copy. Fine days,
fine people, fine music,
fine wine, finding there’s
as much joy as suffering.
All of this and more, all
sacred to me. The biggest
profanity is you thinking
I’m fooled so easily.
BUILDINGS
Beautiful buildings, if you look
at them right. Beautiful buildings
best seen from afar, the way
they interact with the landscape.
Beautiful buildings, see how
they reflect off the water
at night. The closer you get,
the less you sense their true
majesty. Beautiful buildings
can’t be judged by just one
door or window. You have
to see them in total. Kind of
like some people who’ll stun
you from a distance but don’t
seem beautiful at all up close.
OLD EUROPE
I want culture. I want history.
I want philosophy. I want
justification for not being
a barbarian. I want the best
that’s survived all the wars
since they started recording
this primal beast’s progress.
Progress always throwing up
something new but seldom
something lasting. Nothing
worthy of replacing all that
stays timeless in old Europe.
THE DEAL
Got no idea what the deal
really is, only so many
thoughts about what it
could be. Don't know for
sure what the deal really
means, only that if feels
like something's changed.
Wish I knew what the deal
is, because I try to take
care of my own, and let
those who don't want
to be my own go free.
TALKING DOG
I’m a talking dog, but I’ve
learned to keep quiet. I’m
a talking dog hurting for
good conversation, some
meaningful interaction,
cause with no one to talk
to, what’s the point being
able to talk at all? All this
buzz about magic lately -
vampires are chic, shape
shifters are cool, regular
people with superpowers
rule – must be symbolic
of something, like how
we have the gifts inside
us to rise up, overcome,
break free. So now I’ve
cast off the shackles of
animal speech and still,
no one wants to listen
to me. A bone for some
beautiful poetry…
HAPPINESS
Strange how you attract so
many enemies when you’re
happy. You’re seen as either
a total fool or as having some
unfair advantage. Oh woe all
the wrongs in the world, so
many hurting, it’s unfair that
anyone should be happy, it’s
an insult to all the suffering,
all the rapes, killing, stealing,
that anyone should find life
full of joy. Mea culpa, I didn’t
mean to, I was suffering just
like you, and then a beautiful
person said something that
changed my point of view
and I knew that if happiness
is really so rare, then we’d
better grab it. We’ll keep
it safe until it can come out
for more of you.
ZOMBIES
Now I know why zombies
are so popular. Deep down
inside, we know it’s really us
who are the zombies – we
stumble through life with
minds scrambled by poison
drugs, poison food and
worst of all, poison ideas.
Once in awhile someone
remembers they’re human,
but waking up to global
warming, world hunger,
economic disaster, racial
profiling, Al-Quida, school
shootings and Trump sends
them running right back
to the comfort of poison
oblivion. So in those high
rated shows, the zombies
might be the bad guys, but
somewhere inside we’re
thinking – go, zombies, go.
BLUES DONE BADLY
Blues done badly – let it
remain just a private joke
between friends. Cause
blues done really well
makes you feel, if not
forgiven, like at least
we still have moments
we transcend our flaws.
Blues don’t cast stones,
just eloquently screams
at humanity, hey, you
cut me open.
APIA SEAWALL
Apia - crazy rich or crazy poor,
no in-between. But both rich
and poor know not to go late
at night to the seawall – that’s
inviting trouble. Joe Foreigner,
loaded on liquid cheer, missing
home, doesn’t know better.
Hopes the ocean will restore
something. Crazy poor street
denizen sees money, not
a person. If he ever speaks
of this night, he’ll say it was
need. Feed a family, feed
a habit, feed resentment –
whatever. Joe Foreigner,
looking down on himself,
the seawall a launching pad
spring-boarding his soul
somewhere there’s no crazy
rich or crazy poor. Wonders -
I thought this was paradise –
what happened?
SWEET, SWEET, SWEET
I’m told it’s just a trick of history
the Indians didn’t eat the Pilgrims
instead of feeding them. British
flavor, I’m told, is bitter, unlike us
islanders, so sweet, sweet, sweet.
Our people here had apprehensions
of being eaten by Fijians – oral
histories of traumatic emotions
not so sweet, sweet, sweet. Bad
conflicts back then over food, over
women, land and titles, chiefs and
children, even men all made up as
maidens, appearing sweet, sweet,
sweet. Now such crude hunger’s
consigned to the past – these days
we do battle for money and class.
Back then we had muscles, now
we have gas – our cars are sweet,
sweet, sweet.
BETWEEN THE TREEES AND THE FLAMES
Smoke forcing us from our homes –
anywhere we can breathe. Guilty
of the sin of being flakey, we
preview the afterlife we’ll have
if we don’t change our too-cool-
for-school demeanor. California
has no answer to global warming –
danger won't just meditate forever.
This smoke is like a home invasion,
unconstitutional, but I don’t know
who to sue. I screwed over lots
of people to live comfortably,
and if that freak Mother Nature
thinks she can just move in with
me, then her huggers can go stand
between the trees and the flames.
MOMENT
Well, it was a thrill at the
moment. Facing pressure
to be amazing, you get
what you pay for, and
this isn’t Vegas. I pick
apart all the little flaws
in the performance, all
the moments some
different assumption
would have resulted
in something more
triumphant, and tell
myself what the hell,
that was me in that
moment just like this
is me in this one.
IN MY RADIO MIND
Beach Boys playing in my
radio mind, knowing Surfer
Girl’s answer is “no”. Waves
will still crash on the beach,
crabs will still scramble like
good professionals, suntan
lotion will still gob up in
quiet waters, lifeguards
will still lord it over guys
going to seed, kids will still
dig up buried treasure left
in the sand by dogs,
the beach will still need
attention from otherwise
good citizens compelled
into community service
on the weekends. It will
all still look the same – just
not to me in my radio mind.
BODY REBELLION
Body rebellion, even among
dear ones who always tried
to be strong for us. All this
time, were you crumbling
inside? My own weakness
was more to the surface,
but in you strength was all
I ever saw. Now, in your
time of need, it’s a familiar
helplessness I feel against
your body rebellion. Like
Marie Antoinette backed
into a corner by mobs, you
feel painfully aware of your
body’s demands, but know
it asks for more than you
have left to give.
NO LIMIT
No limit except the words
at your disposal to describe
your horizons. Get me that
dictionary, I want not only
to expand, but also to tell
it on the mountain.
SEALED
It’s sealed, not with a kiss,
but by the court. No one
will know but the lawyers.
Prejudicial, not beneficial
to anyone, now it’s sealed
like Pandora’s Box, for only
the foolish to open. Bury
it deep underground like
nuclear matter. Be clear
that this is a menace, not
a power. Delete the public
records, and let the only
mention of it be written
in Latin and stored deep
in the Vatican. Sure, there
may be speculation, but
mystery’s soon forgotten,
exposed as invention, as
obviously preposterous.
But for now, take masking
tape, wrap it with care -
just make sure it remains
sealed.
IF WE KNEW ALL THERE IS TO KNOW
We filter what we see through
our own particular lens, often
missing the big picture, but
maybe it's all for the better.
For if we knew all there is
to know, we might recoil
at how much danger we're
in just getting out of bed.
If we knew all there is to
know, we'd realize there
must be a God because
things don't always go
as wrong as they might.
We love and hate based
on what we think we know,
and emotion will call logic
into question, but maybe
it's all for the better.
LANGUAGE
We were given language
not just to build endless
towers to nowhere, but
to build bridges between
minds. A bridge between
hearts is a matter more
complicated, but it can
be accomplished. It can,
it can, it can, it can, it can.
Language, I'm counting
on you - get a message
across the wide canyons
of disbelief for me.
BIG FENCE
Big fence, not even built yet
but turning our country into
a gated community. You can
be master or slave, depending
on your wages, depending
on your tax breaks. Big fence –
not as nature intended, but
as reassurance of our purity.
Dirty hands won’t besmirch
a system working so perfectly
for us. If they want prosperity,
let them clean up their act.
We kicked out the British –
let them banish the Spanish,
decolonize their mentality.
The land of the free doesn’t
just mean charity, but we’re
still really nice guys from
behind our big fence.
I MUST BE ON DRUGS
Why is everybody on drugs?
Little drugs, big drugs, legal
drugs or otherwise, we’re all,
to some degree, on drugs.
You take drugs when you’re
sick, and we’re sick to death
of fear. Fear of Mexicans, fear
of Russians, fear of cops, fear
of robbers, fear of failure,
fear of success, fear of Satan,
fear of Jesus, fear of being
poor, fear of being rich, the
list goes on and on. Stop using
drugs and you won’t be afraid
any longer. You might still be
aware of all these scary things,
but you’ll just say whatever.
So if I just say whatever, don’t
do a Nancy Reagan and jump
to the conclusion I must be
on drugs.
SHREDS
Shreds – all that’s left of love
after the dogs of doubt have
had their way. Enemies smell
the same as friends, and to
the dogs of doubt, all comers
are deceivers. At the first sign
of threat to the heart, they’ll
attack regardless of innocence
or guilt. Shreds – lifeless, torn,
defenseless, ghosts of what
might have grown threatening
or glorious. If you must feed
the dogs of doubt, keep them
on a tight leash, lest your own
defense become your undoing.
ADVANCE
Such a slow advance -
molasses, moving by the
fraction. Any movement
is better than becoming
hard like a rock time’s
hammer can’t crack.
Such a slow advance –
not like Cong retaking
Saigon, driven by a zeal
bordering on the holy.
Such a slow advance –
Sherlock Holmes puzzled
at clues that don’t fit,
while crime thrives in
corners unlit. Such a slow
advance – the stone
at the top of the hill once
more. What separates
patience from insanity?
Only purpose, the free
choice to advance, no
matter how blindly, no
matter how slowly.
REFUND COUNTER
I take offense that I’m expending
all this love on you but you don’t
respond in kind. I take umbrage
and insist you owe me something.
My feelings don’t come cheap,
but I offered them at a discount,
then was injured beyond belief
when you decided you could
do without them. Do you shop
with your heart and love within
your budget? You do me great
dishonor taking my love to the
refund counter, returning it
unopened – denying it without
even trying it. No more will you
squeeze my merchandise then
leave it abandoned. Your status
of preferred customer is stripped,
and your credit’s no longer valid
at my outlet.
TRUE ONE
Over and over, through and
through - you don't recognize
the true one until after you've
been untrue. The true one
still believes after it seems
there's nothing left to believe
in. The true one makes you
feel forgiven by everyone
but yourself. The true one
conceals their true nature,
just to level the playing field.
but when you stop playing
around, inside the truth's
revealed. The true one
emerges as obvious, but
seldom at first. The true
one often wonders why
they even bother with you -
try to recognize the true one
before you've been untrue.
ONE-SIDED
How long do you think
a one-sided building
can stand? At the first
sign of adversity, see
it shake, foundations
swaying. A one-sided
building may put on
a brave front, but
even the blind see
through it. Life goes
on public display –
none but an egotist
can take it. Nature
abhors a one-sided
building, would deny
you a permit to even
design it like that.
A one-sided building,
like a house divided,
questions itself – is it
right that I even exist?
So before you break
ground – make sure
your structure includes
two sides, or alas it
may tower in sweet
dreams but collapse
in cold daylight.
TRAVEL COMPANIONS
A little piece of galaxy dust
drifting all alone. Once part
of something bigger, now
barely a memory, unaware
of its own history. Over time,
longer than we can imagine,
tiny specks in an infinite void
might find each other, turn
into a cloud, become solid,
achieve mass, explode into
a new sun. Events happen
slowly, longer than we have
time to wait. Our fate is to
go the way of dust in space,
maybe drift alone forever,
or maybe be lucky enough
to connect and perpetuate.
No matter how long it takes,
our nature is to find travel
companions while we wait
for something to happen.
SUN
Sun might come out, but
inside the night never ends.
Better to sleep through
the night than to listen –
darkness is voiceless for
a reason. Sun might come
up on a ravaged landscape,
a purgatory city populated
by fallen angels with bills
to pay, debts to negotiate,
old scores they’re hoping
eternity will settle. Sun,
we turn away from you
half the time, you divide
us by nature. Inside, still
waitiing for the dawn
to break, as if my flesh
and and bones could
ever be that transparent.
SUPPOSE
I can suppose good
things or bad. Damn,
these choices can be
so inconvenient. I go
by what's right in front
of my nose. Smell will
help me tell, I suppose.
WATCH MY FLOWERS
Alas, now’s your season
of returning to the soil.
You flowered, bloomed,
matured, then withered.
Now nature begins its
process all over, some
younger thing dreaming
of lasting forever. As I
watch my flowers thrive
and decline, their cycle
just going much quicker
than mine, I’m reminded
it’s all natural and there’s
no reason to feel I asked
for it, that this somehow
is punishment.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The North American FJ-4 Fury was a swept-wing carrier-capable fighter-bomber, originally developed for the United States Navy and Marine Corps. It was the final development in a lineage that included the Air Force's F-86 Sabre. The FJ-4 shared its general layout and engine with the earlier FJ-3, but featured an entirely new wing design. And it was, as a kind of final embodiment with the FJ-4B, a very different aircraft from the F-86 .
The first FJ-4 flew on 28 October 1954 and delivery began in February 1955. Of the original order for 221 FJ-4 fighters, the last 71 were modified into the FJ-4B fighter-bomber version, of which the Netherlands received 16 aircraft under the designation FJ-4B from the USA in the course of NATO support. Even though the main roles of the MLD were maritime patrol, anti-submarine warfare and search and rescue, the FJ-4B was a dedicated fighter-bomber, and these aircraft were to be used with the Dutch Navy’s Colossus-Class carrier HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81).
Compared to the lighter FJ-4 interceptor, the FJ-4B had a stronger wing with six instead of four underwing stations, a stronger landing gear and additional aerodynamic brakes under the aft fuselage. The latter made landing safer by allowing pilots to use higher thrust settings, and were also useful for dive attacks. Compared to the FJ-4, external load was doubled, and the US FJ-4Bs were capable of carrying a nuclear weapon on the inboard port station, a feature the MLD Furies lacked. The MLD aircraft were still equipped with the corresponding LABS or Low-Altitude Bombing System for accurate delivery of ordnance.
The Dutch Furies were primarily intended for anti-ship missions (toting up to five of the newly developed ASM-N-7 missiles - renamed in AGM-12B Bullpup after 1962 - plus a guidance pod) and CAS duties against coastal targets, as well as for precision strikes. In a secondary role, the FJ-4B could carry Sidewinder AAMs for interception purposes.
The MLD's FJ-4B became operational in 1956, just in time to enhance the firepower of the Karel Doorman, which just had its 24 WW-II era propeller driven Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighter/anti-ship aircraft backed up with 14 TBF Avenger ASW/torpedo bombers and 10 Hawker Sea Hawk fighters (the MLD owned 22 of these) for an ASW/Strike profile. The Furies joined the carrier in late 1957 and replaced the piston-engined attack aircraft.
In 1960, during the Dutch decolonization and planned independence of Western New Guinea, a territory which was also claimed by Indonesia, the Karel Doorman set sail along with two destroyers and a modified oil tanker to 'show the flag'. In order to avoid possible problems with Indonesia's ally Egypt at the Suez Canal, the carrier instead sailed around the horn of Africa. She arrived in Fremantle, Australia, where the local seamen's union struck in sympathy with Indonesia; the crew used the propeller thrust of aircraft chained down on deck to nudge the carrier into dock without tugs! In addition to her air wing, she was ferrying twelve Hawker Hunter fighters to bolster the local Dutch defense forces, which the Karel Doorman delivered when she arrived at Hollandia, New Guinea.
During the 1960 crisis, Indonesia prepared for a military action named Operation Trikora (in the Indonesian language, "Tri Komando Rakyat" means "The Three Commands of the People"). In addition to planning for an invasion, the TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Forces) hoped to sink the Karel Doorman with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers using AS-1 Kennel/KS-1 Kometa anti-ship missiles. This bomber-launched missile strike mission was cancelled on short notice, though, because of the implementation of the cease-fire between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This led to a Dutch withdrawal and temporary UN peacekeeping administration, followed by occupation and annexation through Indonesia. While the Dutch aircraft served actively during this conflict, flying patrols and demonstrating presence, visibly armed and in alert condition, no 'hot' sortie or casualty occured, even though one aircraft, 10-18, was lost in a start accident. The pilot ejected safely.
The MLD FJ-4Bs only served on the carrier until its overhaul in 1964, after which the carrier-borne attack role was eliminated and all aircraft were transferred to land bases (Valkenburg) or in reserve storage. The Seahawks were retired from service by the end of the 1960s after the sale of the Karel Doorman to Argentina, and the FJ-4Bs were returned to the United States, where they were re-integrated into the USMC until the end of the 1960ies, when all FJ-4 aircraft were phased out.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 36 ft 4 in (11.1 m)
Wingspan: 39 ft 1 in (11.9 m)
Height: 13 ft 11 in (4.2 m)
Wing area: 338.66 ft² (31.46 m²)
Empty weight: 13,210 lb (6,000 kg)
Loaded weight: 20,130 lb (9,200 kg)
Max. take-off weight: 23,700 lb (10,750 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright J65-W-16A turbojet, 7,700 lbf (34 kN)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 680 mph (1,090 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,670 m)
Range: 2,020 mi (3,250 km) with 2× 200 gal (760 l) drop tanks and 2× AIM-9 missiles
Service ceiling: 46,800 ft (14,300 m)
Rate of climb: 7,660 ft/min (38.9 m/s)
Wing loading: 69.9 lb/ft² (341.7 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: .325
Armament:
4× 20 mm (0.787 in) cannon
6× pylons under the wings for 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) external ordnance, including up to 6× AIM-9 Sidewinder AAMs, bombs and guided/unguided ASM, e .g. ASM-N-7 (AGM-12B Bullpup) missiles.
The kit and its assembly
Originally, this model project was inspired by a (whiffy) Dutch F3H Demon profile, designed by fellow user Darth Panda at whatifmodelers.com. I found the idea of a foreign/NATO user of one of these early carrier-borne jet fighters very inspiring – not only because of the strange design of many of these aircraft, but also since the USN and USMC had been the only real world users of many of these types.
Initially, I planned to convert a F3H accordingly. But with limited storage/display space at home I decided to apply the MLD idea to another smaller, but maybe even more exotic, type: the North American FJ-4B Fury, which was in 1962 recoded into AF-1E.
I like the beefy Sabre cousin very much. It’s one of those aircraft that received little attention, even from model kit manufacturers. In fact, in 1:72 scale there are only vintage vacu kits or the very basic Emhar kit available. Th Emhar kit, which I used here and which is a kind donation of a fellow modeler (Thanks a lot, André!), a rather rough thing with raised panel lines and much room for improvements. As a side note, there's also a FJ-4B from Revell, but it's just a 1996 re-issue with no improvements, whatsoever.
Another facet of the model: When I did legwork concerning a possible background story, I was surprised to find out that the Netherlands actually operated aircraft carriers in the 1950s, including carrier-borne, fixed-wing aircraft, even jets in the form of Hawker Sea Hawks. The real life FJ-4Bs service introduction, the naissance of NATO and the Indonesian conflict as well as the corresponding intervention of the Karel Doorman carrier all fell into a very plausible time frame – and so there’s a very good and plausible story why the MLD could actually have used the Fury fighter bomber!
The Emhar kit was not modified structurally, but saw some changes in detail. These include a scratch-built cockpit with side walls, side consoles and a new ejection seat, plus a Matchbox pilot figure, a new front wheel (from a Kangnam Yak-38, I believe), plus a lot of added blade aerials and a finer pitot.
The flaps were lowered, for a more lively look- Another new feature is the opened air intake, which features a central splitter - in fact a vertically placed piece of a Vicker Wellesley bomb container from Matchbox. At the rear end, the exhaust pipe was opened and lengthened internally.
The six weapon hardpoints were taken from the original kit, but I did not use the four Sidewinder AAMs and the rather bulky drop tanks. So, all ordnance is new: the Bullpups come from the Hasegawa air-to-ground missile set, the drop tanks are leftover pieces from a Hobby Boss F-86. They are much more 'delicate', and make the Fury look less stout and cumbersome. The guidance pod for the Bullpups (a typical FJ-4B feature with these weapons) is a WWII drop tank, shaped with the help of benchmark pictures. Certainly not perfect, but, hey - it's just a MODEL!
Painting and markings
I used mid-1950ies MLD Sea Furys and Sea Hawks as a design benchmark, but this Fury is placed just into the time frame around 1960 when the MLD introduced a new 3-digit code system. Before that, a code "6-XX" with the XX somewhere in the 70 region would have been appropriate, and I actually painted the fuselage sides a bit darker so as if the old code had recently been painted over.
Dutch MLD aircraft tended to keep their former users’ liveries, but in the FJ-4B’s case I thought that a light grey and white aircraft (USN style) with Dutch roundels would look a bit odd. So I settled for early NATO style with Extra Dark Sea Grey upper sides (Humbrol 123) and Sky from below (Testors 2049 from their Authentic Line).
I also went for an early design style with a low waterline - early Hawker Sea Furies were painted this way, and a high waterline would probably be more typical. But in the face of potential seriosu action, who knows...? Things tend to be toned down quickly, just remember the RN Harriers during the Falkland conflict. I'll admit that the aircraft looks a bit simple and dull now, but this IMHO just adds to the plausible look of this whif. I prefer such subtleties to garish designs.
The surfaces were weathered with dry-brushed lighter shades of the basic tones (mostly Humbrol 79, but also some 140 and 67, and Humbrol 90 and 166 below), including overpainted old codes in a slightly darker tone of EDSG, done with Revell 77. A light wash with black ink emphasizes edges and some details - the machine was not to look worn.
The interior was painted in medium grey (Humbrol 140), the landing gear is white (Humbrol 130), and some details like the air intake rim, the edges of the landing gear covers, the flaps or the tips of the wing fences were painted in bright red (Humbrol 174), for some contrast to the overall grey upper sides.
The MLD markings were puzzled together. The roundels come from an Xtradecal sheet for various Hawker Sea Furies, the '202' code comes, among others, from a Grumman Bearcat aftermarket sheet. The 'KON. MARINE' line is hand-made, letter by letter, from a TL Modellbau aftremarket sheet.
Most stencils and warning sign decals come from the original decal sheet, as well as from a FJ-4 Xtradecal aftermarket sheet, from F-86 kits and the scrap box. I wanted these details to provide the color to the aircraft, so that it would not look too uniform, but still without flashy decorations and like a rather utilarian military item.
finally, the model received a coat of semi-matt varnish (Tamiya Acryllic), since MLD aircraft had a pretty glossy finish. No dirt or soot stains were added - the Dutch kept their (few) shipborne aircraft very clean and tidy!
So, all in all, a simple looking aircraft, but this Dutch Fury has IMHO a certain, subtle charm - probably also because it is a rather rare and unpopular aircraft, which in itself has a certain whiffy aura.
My name is Sara General. I belong to the Turtle Clan and the Mohawk Nation and I live in the community of Six Nations of the Grand River on Turtle Island with my husband and three children. I am a writer, an artist, a researcher, and a language learner. I am grateful for the opportunity to share my work in this exhibit.
Jonrahdesgowah is a painting that was inspired by the story of the Peacemaker, who came amongst our people with a message of peace during a time of great upheaval and conflict. It tells of the acceptance of the Great Law of Peace by the five Haudenosaunee nations (later six) which led to the formation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.
Like other stories that create the foundation of the Haudenosaunee worldview, the story of the Great Law remains a source of inspiration for living well, in balance and with a care to our world and to others. For me, it has also felt like a kind of touch point for our spirits, in whatever place or time we may find ourselves. And whenever I think of this time, I cannot help but marvel at all of the energy that must have gone into it. The travel. The conversation. The deliberations. The vision and purpose that came out of all of this effort have been an enduring gift, to my people and to others.
I first created this image in 2020, when it accompanied a piece of writing I had done for Kayak, a Canadian children’s historical magazine. Anyone who has been involved in Indigenous matters here on Turtle Island, whether in education, art, history, law, language revitalization or policy, knows the challenges that can accompany such work. The work of truth telling, decolonizing, re-centering, and revitalizing does not happen overnight. Rather, these efforts are continually in motion, ongoing, and have been for many decades. So too, has been the effort given to continuation, to preserving our stories, our teachings and ways, and passing such knowledge forward for the coming generations. It was an honour then, to be given an opportunity to pass some of our knowledges on in an artistic and creative format, and I took a lot of joy in creating this image.
When I was younger, I used to imagine and hope that we might resolve some of the outstanding matters that exist between Indigenous Nations on Turtle Island and Canada, the ones concerning land most of all. And while I do not carry these exact same hopes today, I do carry something else—something equally important to the idea of a resolution, I think. It is hope that these stories and teachings will continue to help our people—today, tomorrow, always. That they will serve as a touchstone for the children of our future, both those belonging to Haudenosaunee nations and clans, and others, as we come through times of great change, duress, conflict—or unmasking—and remember always that there is a path laid out for us that leads to peace, health and wellbeing for all.
Nia:wen.
Artists' contact information:
All in Dorothy’s album
See. The new digitised records of women in WWIII. recordsearch.naa.gov.au/SearchNRetrieve/Interface/Details...
See NAA Records.. CORNELL DOROTHY MAY : Service Number - 110900 : Date of birth - 09 Sep 1920 : Place of birth - ELSTERNWICK VIC : Place of enlistment - MELBOURNE : Next of Kin - CORNELL HELEN - [Black and White negative - identity photograph]
3x5" print
from Gemini AI
what did the world do at the end of the war?
The world reacted to the end of World War II with a mix of jubilation, relief, and a somber understanding of the immense cost of the conflict. Here's a breakdown of some key responses:
Celebrations and Relief:
Widespread Joy: News of the surrenders (first Germany in May 1945, then Japan in August 1945) sparked massive celebrations in Allied countries. People filled the streets,embracing and cheering, marking the end of years of hardship, anxiety, and loss.
Return of Soldiers: The end of the war meant the return of soldiers to their home countries. This was a joyous occasion for families and communities, although it was also a period of readjustment for many veterans.
Reconstruction and Recovery:
Devastation in Europe and Asia: Many parts of Europe and Asia lay in ruins. Cities were bombed, infrastructure was destroyed, and economies were shattered. The immediate focus was on providing humanitarian aid, rebuilding infrastructure, and restarting economies.
The Marshall Plan: The United States launched the Marshall Plan, a massive economic aid program to help rebuild European economies. This was crucial in preventing further instability and fostering recovery.
Political and Geopolitical Shifts:
Emergence of Superpowers: The war significantly altered the global balance of power. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, leading to a period of geopolitical tension known as the Cold War.
Formation of the United Nations: In 1945, the United Nations was established with the goal of preventing future global conflicts through international cooperation and diplomacy.
Decolonization: The war weakened European colonial powers, contributing to the rise of independence movements in Asia and Africa.
Dealing with the Aftermath:
Nuremberg Trials: The Nuremberg trials were held to bring Nazi leaders to justice for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. This set a precedent for international criminal law.
Coming to Terms with the Holocaust: The full extent of the Holocaust was revealed after the war, shocking the world and leading to a greater understanding of the horrors of genocide.
A Desire for Peace:
"Never Again": The immense suffering caused by the war led to a widespread desire to prevent future global conflicts. This sentiment was reflected in the formation of the United Nations and other international efforts to promote peace and cooperation.
In summary, the end of World War II was met with widespread celebration and relief, but also marked the beginning of a long process of recovery, reconstruction, and dealing with the political and social consequences of the conflict. 1 The world was forever changed by the war, and its aftermath shaped the course of the 20th century. 2
1.
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
2.
How the legacy of the Second World War shaped the modern world | Imperial War Museums
Sources and related content
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War - Historical events in the European integration process (1945–2009) - CVCE
The Reconstruction of Europe - EU Learning - Carleton University
carleton.ca
Marshall Plan (1948) | National
Found and used as one of the Rats of Tobruk..
They were British or Australian and Harold recovered them fro an German Tank..
from Google Gemini AI
what did the world do at the end of the war?
The world reacted to the end of World War II with a mix of jubilation, relief, and a somber understanding of the immense cost of the conflict. Here's a breakdown of some key responses:
Celebrations and Relief:
Widespread Joy: News of the surrenders (first Germany in May 1945, then Japan in August 1945) sparked massive celebrations in Allied countries. People filled the streets,embracing and cheering, marking the end of years of hardship, anxiety, and loss.
Return of Soldiers: The end of the war meant the return of soldiers to their home countries. This was a joyous occasion for families and communities, although it was also a period of readjustment for many veterans.
Reconstruction and Recovery:
Devastation in Europe and Asia: Many parts of Europe and Asia lay in ruins. Cities were bombed, infrastructure was destroyed, and economies were shattered. The immediate focus was on providing humanitarian aid, rebuilding infrastructure, and restarting economies.
The Marshall Plan: The United States launched the Marshall Plan, a massive economic aid program to help rebuild European economies. This was crucial in preventing further instability and fostering recovery.
Political and Geopolitical Shifts:
Emergence of Superpowers: The war significantly altered the global balance of power. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, leading to a period of geopolitical tension known as the Cold War.
Formation of the United Nations: In 1945, the United Nations was established with the goal of preventing future global conflicts through international cooperation and diplomacy.
Decolonization: The war weakened European colonial powers, contributing to the rise of independence movements in Asia and Africa.
Dealing with the Aftermath:
Nuremberg Trials: The Nuremberg trials were held to bring Nazi leaders to justice for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. This set a precedent for international criminal law.
Coming to Terms with the Holocaust: The full extent of the Holocaust was revealed after the war, shocking the world and leading to a greater understanding of the horrors of genocide.
A Desire for Peace:
"Never Again": The immense suffering caused by the war led to a widespread desire to prevent future global conflicts. This sentiment was reflected in the formation of the United Nations and other international efforts to promote peace and cooperation.
In summary, the end of World War II was met with widespread celebration and relief, but also marked the beginning of a long process of recovery, reconstruction, and dealing with the political and social consequences of the conflict. 1 The world was forever changed by the war, and its aftermath shaped the course of the 20th century. 2
1.
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
2.
How the legacy of the Second World War shaped the modern world | Imperial War Museums
Sources and related content
The End of World War II 1945 | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War - Historical events in the European integration process (1945–2009) - CVCE
The Reconstruction of Europe - EU Learning - Carleton University
carleton.ca
Marshall Plan (1948) | National
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português) was the first global empire in history. It was also the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999.
Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa in 1419, leveraging the latest developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, by an accidental landfall on the South American coast for some, by the crown's secret design for others, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia. This commercial network brought great wealth to Portugal.
Between 1580 and 1640 Portugal became the junior partner to Spain in the union of the two countries' crowns. Though the empires continued to be administered separately, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain and envious of Iberian successes overseas: the Netherlands, England and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to effectively defend its overstretched network of trading posts, and the empire began a long and gradual decline.
Significant losses to the Dutch in Portuguese India and Southeast Asia during the 17th century brought an end to the Portuguese trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean. Brazil became Portugal's most valuable colony until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century, it broke away in 1822. Portugal's Empire was reduced to its colonies on the African coastline, which were expanded inland during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, East Timor, and enclaves in India and Macau.
After World War II, Portugal's leader, António Salazar, attempted to keep what remained of the pluricontinental Empire intact at a time when other European countries were beginning to withdraw from their colonies. In 1961 the handful of Portuguese troops garrisoned in Goa were unable to prevent Indian troops marching into the colony. Salazar began a long and bloody war to quell anti-colonialist forces in the African colonies. The unpopular war lasted until the overthrow of the regime in 1974. The new government immediately changed policy and recognised the independence of all its colonies, except for Macau, which by agreeement with the Chinese government was returned to China in 1999.
The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) is the cultural successor of the Empire
Origins (1139–1415)
The origins of the Portuguese Empire, and of Portugal itself, lay in the reconquista—the gradual Christian reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. After establishing itself as a separate kingdom in 1139, Portugal completed its reconquista by reaching Algarve in 1249, but its independence continued to be threatened by neighbouring Castile until the signing of the Treaty of Ayllón in 1411.
Free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought by other European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and towards a military expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa. There were several probable motives for an attack on the Marinid Sultanate in present-day Morocco. It offered the opportunity to continue the Christian crusade aspect of the reconquista against Islam. To the military class, it promised glory on the battlefield and the spoils of war. It was also a chance to expand Portuguese trade and to address Portugal's economic decline.
In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located Muslim city at the mouth of the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the terminal ports of the trans-Saharan gold and slave trades. The Battle of Ceuta was a military success, and marked one of the first steps in Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula, but it proved costly to defend against the Muslim forces that soon besieged it. The Portuguese were unable to use it as a base for further expansion into the hinterland, and the trans-Saharan trade routes shifted to use alternative Muslim ports.
Age of Discovery (1415–1542)
Although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. A key supporter of this policy was Prince Henry the Navigator, who had been involved in the capture of Ceuta, and who took the lead role in promoting and financing Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrative spice trade and perhaps to join forces with the long-lost Christian kingdom of Prester John that was rumoured to exist somewhere in the "Indies". Under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1420) and Azores (1427) were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal.
Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Prince Henry's captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast. In 1443 Prince Pedro, Henry's brother, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be enforced by the Papal bulls Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex (1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands. A major advance which accelerated this project was the introduction of the caravel in the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in Europe at the time. Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerly latitudes, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year. Senegal and Cape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445.
The first feitoria trade post overseas was established in 1445 on the island of Arguin off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the business in the routes traveled in North Africa. In 1446, António Fernandes pushed on almost as far as present-day Sierra Leone and the Gulf of Guinea was reached in the 1460s.
Expansion of sugarcane in Madeira started in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and (largely) Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt" rare in Europe. Already cultivated in Algarve, the accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Slaves were used, and the proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th century . "By 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. By the 1490s Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar." The success of sugar merchants such as Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel the investment in future travels.
In 1469, after prince Henry's death and as a result of meager returns of the African explorations, King Afonso V granted the monopoly of trade in part of the Gulf of Guinea to merchant Fernão Gomes. Gomes, who had to explore 100 miles of the coast each year for five years, discovered the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including São Tomé and Príncipe and found a thriving alluvial gold trade among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named Mina (the mine), where he established a trading post. Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew throughout a decade. In 1481, the recently-crowned João II decided to build São Jorge da Mina in order to ensure the protection of this trade, which was held again as a royal monopoly. The Equator was crossed by navigators sponsored by Fernão Gomes in 1473 and the Congo River by Diogo Cão in 1482. In 1486, Cão continued to Cape Cross, in present-day Namibia, near the Tropic of Capricorn.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa, proving false the view that had existed since Ptolemy that the Indian Ocean was land-locked. Simultaneously Pêro da Covilhã, traveling secretly overland, had reached Ethiopia, suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be forthcoming.
As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series of padrões, stone crosses engraved with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims, and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, they engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the African seaborne slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 per cent of the population.
Tordesillas division of the world (1492)
In 1492 Christopher Columbus's discovery for Spain of the New World, which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese. These were eventually settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Portuguese and the Spanish along a north-south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west of the Cape Verde islands. However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measure longitude, the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.
The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact taking place in secret during this time. Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded by Vasco da Gama.
Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean (1497-1542)
The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut in western India in May 1498. The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 under Pedro Álvares Cabral. While following the same south-westerly route as da Gama across the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line. Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant in pau-brasil, or brazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India.
Profiting from the rivalry between the Maharaja of Kochi and the Zamorin of Calicut, the Portuguese were well received and seen as allies, getting a permit to build a fort (Fort Manuel) and a trading post that were the first European settlement in India. In 1505 King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Francisco de Almeida first Viceroy of Portuguese India, establishing the Portuguese government in the east. That year the Portuguese conquered Kannur where they founded St. Angelo Fort. Lourenço de Almeida arrived in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of cinnamon.
In 1506 a Portuguese fleet under the command of Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque, conquered Socotra at the entrance of the Red Sea and Muscat in 1507, having failed to conquer Ormuz, following a strategy intended to close the entrances to the Indian Ocean. That same year were built fortresses in the Island of Mozambique and Mombasa on the Kenyan coast. Madagascar was partly explored by Tristão da Cunha and in the same year Mauritius was discovered.
In 1509, the Portuguese won the sea Battle of Diu against the combined forces of the Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II, Sultan of Gujarat, Mamlûk Sultan of Cairo, Samoothiri Raja of Kozhikode, Venetian Republic, and Ragusan Republic (Dubrovnik). The Portuguese victory was critical for its strategy of control of the Indian Sea: Turks and Egyptians withdraw their navies from India, leaving the seas to the Portuguese, setting its trade dominance for almost a century, and greatly assisting the growth of the Portuguese Empire. It marked also the beginning of the European colonial dominance in the Asia. A second Battle of Diu in 1538 finally ended Ottoman ambitions in India and confirmed Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean.
Under the government of Albuquerque, Goa was taken from the Bijapur sultanate in 1510 with the help of Hindu privateer Timoji. Coveted for being the best port in the region, mainly for the commerce of Arabian horses for the Deccan sultanates, it allowed to move on from the guest stay in Kochi. Despite constant attacks, it became the headquarters of the Portuguese state in India, with its conquest triggering compliance of neighbor kingdoms: Gujarat and Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and grants to fortify. Albuquerque began that year in Goa the first Portuguese mint in India, taking the opportunity to announce the achievement.
Initially king Manuel I and his council in Lisbon had tried to distribute power in the Indian Ocean, creating three areas of jurisdiction: Albuquerque was sent to the Red Sea, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to Southeast Asia, seeking an agreement with the Sultan of Malacca, and Jorge de Aguiar followed by Duarte de Lemos were sent to the area between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat. However, such posts were centralized by Afonso de Albuquerque and remained so in subsequent ruling.
Southeast Asia and the spice trade
In April 1511 Albuquerque sailed to Malacca in Malaysia, the most important east point in the trade network where Malay met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic traders, among others, described by Tomé Pires as of invaluable richness. The peninsula of Malacca became then the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia, under the Portuguese rule with its capital at Goa. To defend the city was erected a strong gate which, called the "A Famosa", still remains. Knowing of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque sent immediately Duarte Fernandes on a diplomatic mission to the kingdom of Siam (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between both kingdoms. In November that year, getting to know the location of the so-called "Spice Islands" in the Moluccas, he sent an expedition led by António de Abreu to find them, arriving in early 1512. Abreu went by Ambon while deputy commander Francisco Serrão came forward to Ternate, where a Portuguese fort was allowed. That same year, in Indonesia, the Portuguese took Makassar, reaching Timor in 1514. Departing from Malacca, Jorge Álvares came to southern China in 1513. This visit was followed the arrival in Guangzhou, where trade was established and later would be established Macau trade post.
The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf as Portugal contested control of the spice trade with the Ottoman Empire. In 1515, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered the Huwala state of Hormuz at the head of the Persian Gulf, establishing it as a vassal state. Aden, however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in that same year, and another attempt by Albuquerque's successor Lopo Soares de Albergaria in 1516, before capturing Bahrain in 1521, when a force led by Antonio Correia defeated the Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil. In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. With the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa since 1497, the island of Mozambique become a strategic port, and there was built Fort São Sebastião and an hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected the ships en route to Lisbon
In 1525, after Fernão de Magalhães's expedition (1519-1522), Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonize the Moluccas islands, claiming that they were in his zone of the Treaty of Tordesillas, since there was not a set limit to the east. García Jofre de Loaísa expedition reached the Moluccas, docking at Tidore. The conflict with the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate was inevitable, starting nearly a decade of skirmishes. An agreement was reached only with the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529), atributting the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.
In 1534 Gujarat was occupied by the Mughals and the Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to sign the Treaty of Bassein (1534) with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchange Daman, Diu, Mumbai and Bassein. In 1538 the fortress of Diu is again surrounded by Ottoman ships. Another siege failed in 1547 puting an end to the Ottoman ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony.
In 1542 Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Goa at the service of king John III of Portugal, in charge of an Apostolic Nunciature. At the same time Francisco Zeimoto and other traders arrived in Japan for the first time. According Fernão Mendes Pinto, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at Tanegashima, where the locals were impressed by firearms, that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale. In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle in Macau through an annual payment, creating a warehouse in the triangular trade between China, Japan and Europe. In 1570 the Portuguese bought a Japanese port where they founded the city of Nagasaki, thus creating a trading center for many years was the port from Japan to the world.
Portugal established trading ports at far-flung locations like Goa, Ormuz, Malacca, Kochi, the Maluku Islands, Macau, and Nagasaki. Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, such as the Basque Francis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman Catholic Christianity to Asia with mixed success.
First efforts of colonization in Brazil
In 1534, promoting settlement to overcome the need to defend the territory, John III organized the colonization of Brazil through land grants. As of 1520, the Portuguese had realized that Brazil was likely to be disputed, with Francis I of France challenging the Treaty of Tordesillas and supporting privateers. The increase in brazilwood smuggling pressed this effort to effective occupation of the territory, although since 1503 an expedition under the command of Gonçalo Coelho reported French raids on the Brazilian coasts and, in the same year, Martim Afonso de Sousa went to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French and create the first colonial towns: São Vicente on and São Paulo.
Fifteen longitudinal tracks, ranging from the coast to the Tordesillas limit, were created. This vast lands were donated in form of hereditary captaincies (Capitanias Hereditárias) to grantees rich enough to support settlement, as had been done successfully in Madeira and Cape Verde islands. Each captain-major should build settlements, grant allotments and administer justice, being responsible for developing and taking the costs of colonization, although not being the owner: he could transmit it to offspring, but not sell it. Twelve recipients came from Portuguese gentry who become prominent in Africa and India and senior officials of the court, such as João de Barros and Martim Afonso de Sousa.
Of the fifteen original captaincies (a two-month trip from Portugal), only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. Both dedicated to the crop of sugar cane and the settlers managed to maintain alliances with Native Americans. The establishment of the sugar cane industry demanded intensive labor which would be met with native American and, later, African slaves.
Deeming the capitanias system ineffective, the king decided to centralize the government of the colony, in order to "give help and assistance" to grantees. In 1548 he created the first General Government, sending in Tomé de Sousa as first governor and rescuing the captaincy of the Bay of All Saints, making it a royal captaincy, seat of the Government. This measure did not entailed the extinction of captaincies. Tomé de Sousa built the capital of Brazil, Salvador at the Bay of All Saints. The first Jesuits arrived the same year. From 1565 through 1567 Mem de Sá, a Portuguese colonial official and the third Governor General of Brazil, successfully destroyed a ten year-old French colony called France Antarctique, at Guanabara Bay. He and his nephew, Estácio de Sá, then founded the city of Rio de Janeiro in March 1567.
Iberian Union and rivalry with the Dutch (1580–1663)
In 1580, King Philip II of Spain invaded Portugal after a crisis of succession brought about by King Sebastian of Portugal's death during a disastrous Portuguese Alcazarquivir attack on Morocco in 1578. At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was crowned Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires under Spanish Habsburg rule in a dynastic Iberian Union. At Tomar Philip promised to keep the empires legally distinct, leaving the administration of the Portuguese Empire to Portuguese nationals, with a Spanish viceroy in Lisbon seeing to his interests. All the Portuguese colonies accepted the new state of affairs except for the Azores, which held out for António, a Portuguese rival claimant to the throne who had garnered the support of Catherine de Medici of France in exchange for the promise to cede Brazil. Spanish forces eventually captured the island in 1583.
The union with Spain entailed both benefits and drawbacks as far as the Portuguese Empire was concerned. Spanish imperial trade networks were opened to Portuguese merchants, which was particularly lucrative for Portuguese slave traders who could now sell slaves in Spanish America at a higher price than could be fetched in Brazil.
The Tordesillas boundary between Spanish and Portuguese control in South America was then increasingly ignored by the Portuguese, who pressed beyond it into the heart of Brazil, allowing to expand the territory to the west. Exploratory missions were carried out both ordered by the government, the "entradas" (entries), and by private initiative, the "bandeiras" (flags), by the "bandeirantes". These expeditions lasted for years venturing into unmapped regions, initially to capture natives and force them into slavery, and later focusing on finding gold, silver and diamond mines.
However, the union meant that Spain dragged Portugal into its conflicts with England, France and the Dutch Republic, countries which were beginning to establish their own overseas empires. The primary threat came from the Dutch, who had been engaged in a struggle for independence against Spain since 1568. In 1581 the Seventeen Provinces gained independence from the Habsburg rule, leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil where Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production.
In 1592, during the war with Spain, a British fleet captured a large Portuguese carrack off the Azores, the Madre de Deus. Loaded with 900 tons of merchandise from India and China, estimated at half a million pounds (nearly half the size of English Treasury at the time). This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanized English interest in the region. That same year, Cornelis de Houtman was sent by Dutch merchants to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could about the Spice Islands. In 1595, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, having traveled widely in the Indian Ocean at the service of the Portuguese, published a travel report in Amsterdam, the "Reys-gheschrift vande navigatien der Portugaloysers in Orienten" ("Report of a journey through the navigations of the Portuguese in the East").This included vast directions on how to navigate between Portugal and the East Indies and to Japan. Dutch and British interest fed on new information led to a movement of commercial expansion, and the foundation of the English East India Company, in 1600, and Dutch East India Company(VOC), in 1602, allowing the entry in of chartered companies in the so-called East Indies.
The Dutch took their fight overseas, attacking Spanish and Portuguese colonies and shipping, allying in turn with rival local leaders, and dismantling the Portuguese trade monopoly in Asia. The Portuguese Empire, consisting primarily of exposed coastal settlements vulnerable to being picked off one by one, proved to be an easier target than the Spanish Empire.
The Dutch–Portuguese War began with an attack on São Tomé and Príncipe in 1597 and lasted until 1663. The war was waged by the Dutch East India Company (established in 1602) and its West India counterpart (1621), commercial ventures whose aim was to take over the trade networks that the Portuguese had established in Asian spices, West African slaves and Brazilian sugar In Asia, the Dutch captured the Spice Islands (1605), Malacca (1641), Colombo (1656), Ceylon (1658), Nagappattinam (1660), Cranganore and Cochin (1662). Although Goa, the capital of Portuguese Asia, Diu and Macau were successfully defended, the expulsion of the Portuguese from Japan in 1639 excluded Portuguese merchants from the highly profitable China-Japan trade. Having successfully prevented the French from gaining a foothold in Portuguese Brazil at France Équinoxiale in 1615, Salvador da Bahia was lost to the Dutch in 1624 (though recaptured by a joint Spanish-Portuguese force the following year) and Pernambuco in 1630. In need of slaves for the sugar producing regions they had captured in Brazil, the Dutch began attacks on the Portuguese trading posts on the west coast of Africa, successfully taking Elmina (1638), Luanda (1641) and Axim (1642). By 1654, Portugal had succeeded in expelling the Dutch from Brazil and Luanda, though its preeminent position in Asia had been lost forever.
Imperial decline (1663–1822)
The loss of colonies was one of the reasons that contributed to the end of the personal union with Spain. In 1640 John IV was proclaimed King of Portugal and the Portuguese Restoration War began. In 1661 the Portuguese offered Bombay and Tangier to England as part of a dowry, and over the next hundred years the British gradually became the dominant trader in India, gradually excluding the trade of other powers. In 1668 Spain recognized the end of the Iberian Union and in exchange Portugal ceded Ceuta to the Spanish crown.
At the end of confrontations with the Dutch, Portugal was able to cling onto Goa and several minor bases in India, and managed to regain territories in Brazil and Africa, but lost forever to prominence in Asia as trade was diverted through increasing numbers of English, Dutch and French trading posts. Thus, throughout the century, Brazil gained increasing importance to the empire, which exported Brazilwood and sugar.
From 1693 the focus was in a Brazilian region that become known as Minas Gerais, where gold was discovered. Major discoveries of gold and, later, diamonds in Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso and Goias led to a "gold rush", with a large influx of migrants. The village founded in 1696, became the new economic center of the empire, with rapid settlement and some conflicts. This gold cycle led to the creation of an internal market and attracted a large number of immigrants. The population grew 750% between 1650 to 1770 and quickly became the largest in Brazil, contributing to the settlement of the interior. 78% of this population being of black people and mestizos, and also New Christians from the north of Portugal and the Azores and Madeira, who settled as important trade agents in the villages around Ouro Preto and Mariana.
The gold rush considerably increased the revenue of the Portuguese crown, who charged a fifth of all the ore mined, or the "fifth". Diversion and smuggling were frequent, so a whole set of bureaucratic controls were instituted. The gold production would have increased from 2 tonnes per year in 1701 to 14 tonnes in the 1750s but then began to decline sharply until exhausting before the end of the century. Gold surpassed the earnings of other products from the colonies and this trade has brought prosperity of Rio de Janeiro and to he kingdom.
In 1755 Lisbon suffered a catastrophic earthquake, which together with a subsequent tsunami killed more than 100,000 people out of a population of 275,000. This sharply checked Portuguese colonial ambitions in the late 18th century.
Unlike Spain, Portugal did not divide its colonial territory in America. The captaincies created there were subordinated to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. The eighteenth century was marked by increasing centralization of royal power throughout the Portuguese empire, with the power of the Jesuits, protective of the Indians against slavery, brutally suppressed by the Marquis of Pombal, leading to the dissolution of this religious order under ground Portuguese in 1759. In 1774, the two states of Brazil and the Grand Para and Maranhao merged into a single administrative entity.
The settlers began to express some dissatisfaction with the authorities in Lisbon as the decline of mining made it difficult to pay the taxes demanded by the Crown. In 1789, when it announced a tax of 20% of the gold removed, revolt broke out in Ouro Preto. Encouraged by the example of the United States of America, which had won its independence from Britain (1776-1781), the attempt centred in the colonial province of Minas Gerais was made in 1789 to achieve the same objective. However, the Inconfidência Mineira failed, the leaders arrested and, of the participants of the insurrections the one of lowest social position, Tiradentes, was hanged.
In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal, and Dom João, Prince Regent in place of his mother, Dona Maria I, ordered the transfer of the royal court to Brazil. In 1815 Brazil was elevated to the status of Kingdom, the Portuguese state officially becoming the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves), and the capital was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, the only instance of a European country being ruled from one of its colonies. There was also the election of Brazilian representatives to the Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas (Portuguese Constitutional Courts).
Although the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to a growing desire for independence amongst Brazilians. In 1822, the son of Dom João VI, then prince-regent Dom Pedro I, proclaimed the independence, September 7, 1822, and was crowned emperor. Unlike the Spanish colonies of South America, Brazil's independence was achieved without significant bloodshed.
Portuguese Africa and the overseas provinces (1822–1961)
At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portuguese territories eventually included the modern nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique.
Portugal pressed into the hinterland of Angola and Mozambique, and explorers Serpa Pinto, Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens were among the first Europeans to cross Africa west to east. The project to connect the two colonies, the Pink Map, was the Portuguese main objective in the second half of the 19th century. However, the idea was unacceptable to the British, who had their own aspirations of contiguous British territory running from Cairo to Cape Town. The British Ultimatum of 1890 was imposed upon King Carlos I of Portugal and the Pink Map came to an end. The King's reaction to the ultimatum was exploited by republicans. In 1908 King Carlos and Prince Luís Filipe were murdered in Lisbon. Luís Filipe's brother, Manuel, become King Manuel II of Portugal. Two years later Portugal became a republic.
In World War I German troops threatened Mozambique, and Portugal entered the war to protect its colonies.
António de Oliveira Salazar, who took power in 1933, considered Portuguese colonies as overseas provinces of Portugal. In the wake of World War II, the decolonization movements began to gain momentum. In the Portuguese Empire the first major clash occurred in São Tomé in the Batepá massacre of 1953. The Cold War also created instabilities among Portuguese overseas populations, as the United States and Soviet Union tried to increase their spheres of influence. In 1954 India invaded Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and in 1961 Portuguese India came to an end when Goa, Daman and Diu were also invaded. Also in 1961 the tiny Portuguese fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá in Ouidah, a remnant of the West African slave trade, was taken by the new government of Dahomey (now Benin).
But, despite these losses and unlike the other European colonial powers, Salazar attempted to resist the tide of decolonization and maintain the integrity of the empire. As a result, Portugal was the last nation to retain its major colonies.
End of the empire (1961–1999)
The rise of Soviet influence among the Movimento das Forças Armadas's military (MFA) and working class, and the cost and unpopularity of the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974), in which Portugal resisted to the emerging nationalist guerrilla movements in some of its African territories, eventually led to the collapse of the Estado Novo regime in 1974. Known as the "Carnation Revolution", one of the first acts of the MFA-led government which then came into power - the National Salvation Junta (Junta de Salvação Nacional) - was to end the wars and negotiate Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million Portuguese refugees - the retornados. Portugal's new ruling authorities also recognized Goa and other Portuguese India's territories invaded by India's military forces, as Indian territories. Benin's claims over São João Baptista de Ajudá, were also accepted by the Portuguese, and diplomatic relations were restored with both India and Benin.
Civil wars in both independent Mozambique and Angola promptly broke out, with incoming communist governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries) fighting against insurgent groups supported by nations like Zaire, South Africa, and the United States.
East Timor also declared independence at this time (1975), making an exodus of many Portuguese refugees to Portugal, also known as retornados. But was almost immediately invaded by neighbouring Indonesia, which occupied it until 1999. A United Nations-sponsored referendum that year resulted in East Timorese choosing independence, which was achieved in 2002.
The transfer of the sovereignty of Macau to China on December 20, 1999 under the terms of an agreement negotiated between People's Republic of China and Portugal twelve years earlier marked the end of the, Portuguese overseas empire.
Legacy
Seven of the former colonies of Portugal that are now independent nations with Portuguese as their official language, together with Portugal, are members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. Today Portuguese is one of the world's major languages, ranked 6th according to number of native speakers (between 177 and 191 million). It is the language of about half of South America, even though Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. It is also a major lingua franca in Portugal's former colonial possessions in Africa. It is an official language in eight countries, including East Timor, where it is co-official with Tetum. It is also co-official with Chinese in Macau.
A legacy of Portuguese intermarriage in Malacca during its time as a Portuguese settlement is the Kristang people.
Museum of Modern Art - MoMA
Exhibition 'The Project of Independence Architectures of Decolonization in South Asia, 1947–1985'
'Models I (Set of 36 photographs)' by 'Madan Mahatta'
DSC00972
In 1950, the Grenada United Labour Party was founded by Eric Gairy, who led a general strike the next year for better working conditions. The 'red sky days' led to universal suffrage, and the GULP soon dominated Grenada politically as decolonization continued in the Caribbean. Grenada became independent on 7 February 1974, with Gairy as Prime Minister after a disputed election. However his opponents declared the election illegitimate and formed the rival New Jewel Movement.
Gairy remained a controversial leader and in 1979 the NJM launched a successful coup while Gairy was out of the country, eventually forming a Marxist-Leninist People's Revolutionary Government under the lawyer Maurice Bishop. Rebuffed by the US (afraid of the spread of communism), Bishop received financial and logistical support from Cuba (angering the United States even more). Bishop moved to modernize Grenada, establishing a stronger police force and building the larger Point Saintes Airport.
The PRG soon began to break apart. Bishop broke against a faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard, who wanted a power-sharing agreement and eventually had Bishop placed under house arrest on 19 October 1983. A popular demonstration broke out, and a large crowd freed Bishop. Circumstances soon become unclear, but a group of soldiers apparently re-arrested Bishop and seven other cabinet members, including his partner Minister of Education Jacqueline Creft, drove them to the courtyard of Fort Rupert/ Fort George seen here, lined them up against the wall behind the basketball court, and had them all executed by firing squad.
Days later, Hudson Austin overthrew Coard and declared himself head of the Military Council of Grenada, ordering a four-day curfew where violators would be shot on sight. Six days later, supposedly at the request of the Prime Ministers of Barbados and Dominica, President Ronald Reagan ordered the Invasion of Grenada, deposing Austin and arresting Coard and Austin.
Both Austin and Coard were released around 2008 following truth and reconciliation deals. Fort George, perched on the harbor of St. George's is now headquarters of the Royal Grenada Police Force. The bullet-pockmarked basketball hoop and wall remain as well, with a sign:
"In Everlasting Memory of Prime Minister Maurice Bishop
Fitzroy Bain, Norris Bain, Evelyn Bullen, Jacqueline Creft, Keith Hayling, Evelyn Maitland, Unison Whiteman
Andy Sebastian Alexander, Simon Alexander, Gemma Belmar, Eric Dumont, Avis Ferguson, Vince Noel, Alleyne Romain, Nelson Steele
Killed at this fort, Oct. 19, 1983.
They have gone to join the stars, and will forever shine in glory"
Fort George, St. George's, Grenada
Report from the 2010 Prince Claus Awards Committee
June 2010
www.princeclausfund.org/en/what_we_do/awards/documents/20...
The Prince Claus Awards
The Prince Claus Fund’s Awards Programme celebrates and brings to
public attention outstanding achievements in the field of culture and
development. Awards are given annually to individuals, groups,
organisations or institutions in recognition of their contribution
within the Prince Claus Fund’s areas of interest.
Each year in December, the Principal Prince Claus Award of EUR 100,000
is presented to the Principal Laureate at a prestigious venue in
Amsterdam in the presence of members of the Royal family and an
audience of 600 international guests. The Prince Claus Awards of EUR
25,000 are presented to the recipients in their respective countries
by the Netherlands Ambassadors.
Procedures
Participants in the Fund’s expanding network of colleagues, partners
and experts in relevant fields are invited to nominate candidates for
the annual Prince Claus Awards, and are requested to provide insights
and give second opinions on potential laureates.
A total of 98 nominations were received for the 2010 Prince Claus
Awards. Research and documentation on these nominations was
considered at a first meeting of the 2010 Prince Claus Awards
Committee on 17 and 18 December 2009. A short list was established and
the staff of the Fund’s Bureau then carried out further research and
gathered extensive second opinions from advisors in the Fund’s
network. On 20-21 May 2010, the Awards Committee met again for
in-depth assessment of the short-listed candidates and the selection
of 11 recommended recipients of the 2010 Prince Claus Awards.
2010 Prince Claus Awards Committee
Peter Geschiere (Chair), Professor of Anthropology, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
N’Goné Fall, Curator, Architect, Cultural Consultant, Dakar, Senegal /
Paris, France
Rahul Mehrotra, Architect, Urban Designer, Professor of Architecture,
Mumbai, India / Cambridge, USA
Laksmi Pamuntjak, Poet, Writer, Jakarta, Indonesia
José Roca, Curator, Bogota, Colombia
Fariba de Bruin-Derakhshani is Secretary to the Committee.
Criteria and considerations
The Prince Claus Awards are presented to artists, intellectuals and
cultural operators in recognition of their outstanding achievements
and contributions in the field of culture and development. The awards
are given to individuals, groups and organisations around the globe,
but primarily in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean.
Quality is a sine qua non for a Prince Claus Award. The quality of a
laureate’s work is assessed in professional and personal contexts and
for its positive impact on wider cultural and social fields. The
creation of interactions and links between different cultures, the
fostering of commonalities and the initiation of shared cultural
currents are highly valued. The Prince Claus Awards recognise artistic
and intellectual qualities that are relevant in the contemporary
context. They legitimise experimentation and innovation, recognise
audacity and tenacity, support inspirational developments and seek to
enhance their beneficial impact on societies.
Policy
The Prince Claus Fund maintains a broad view of culture that
accommodates all types of artistic and intellectual disciplines. This
open approach encompasses the transmission of culture and achievements
in education, media and the applied arts. It includes fields such as
science and technology that interact with and impact on the domain of
culture and development. Proposals from every cultural field and area
of potential are welcomed. The Fund seeks originality, experimentation
and groundbreaking initiatives. Mutual exchange, interculturality and
the transcending of borders are high on the Fund’s agenda, and it has
a keen interest in vocabularies and vernaculars that develop into
universal languages linking people in different cultures.
The Prince Claus Fund aims to provide protection to culture in places
where it is threatened and to explore ‘zones of silence’. The Fund
continues its interest in previous themes, such as Humour and Satire,
Culture and Nature, the Positive Results of Asylum and Migration, and
Creating Spaces of Freedom.
2010 Theme: Frontiers of Reality
Frontiers of Reality is a crucial theme for contemporary culture and
development. Perceptions of reality vary according to our knowledge
and the cultural, political and social environment in which we live.
In former times, notions of reality were relatively established,
stabilised by fixed conventions and perspectives limited by time and
distance. Information about events and the impact of discoveries
filtered slowly into societies, and the borders and edges of reality
altered gradually. Today, new technologies and media provide increased
and accelerated access, spreading information quickly and bringing
voices from previously isolated or repressed groups. Many new versions
of reality are surfacing. It is the collage of this collective
experience that really makes our world so we need to assimilate and
make sense of these new perspectives.
At the same time, the universal human desire for security and
stability tends to resist knowledge that challenges established
definitions of reality. Communities and societies develop diverse
ways, both subtle and overt, of restricting and limiting alternative
views. The drive for dominance and power leads to aggressive and life
threatening control of the frontiers of reality. Discrimination,
censorship, criminalisation of expression, media distortion,
propaganda, border controls, travel restrictions and militarisation
are forms of reality control.
People who work at the frontiers, often in difficult or dangerous
contexts, are instrumental in bringing attention to different
experiences and cultural ideas. Their explorations and practices break
through current limits. In selecting the theme of Frontiers of
Reality, the Prince Claus Fund aims to honour those who open up
different perceptions and make significant contributions to the
construction of new knowledge, better understanding, empowerment and
greater equity – essential factors for local and global development
and stability.
Recommendations for the 2010 Prince Claus Awards
The 2010 Principal Prince Claus Award
Barzakh Editions
Algeria
Barzakh Editions is a remarkable independent publishing house that has
created a platform for a new generation of Algerian writers ¬and
opened a door for the flow of ideas between Algeria and the world.
Founded in 2000, in the aftermath of crisis and a context of cultural
isolation, economic crises and political violence, its name refers to
an intermediate zone where souls are in transit, where personal
realities are confronted and assessed against other realities. Many
Algerian writers had emigrated during the conflicts of the past
decades and the remaining writers had few possibilities. Connections
with neighbouring countries were limited. Most Algerian literature was
published in France, Lebanon or Egypt, expensive to import and thus
beyond the reach of the majority in Algeria. During this particularly
harsh period when it seemed that the country would become increasingly
isolated, Barzakh Editions succeeded in creating a space between an
authoritarian state and a powerful Islamist movement that seemed to
hold the country in a deadlock. Driven by a passion for books and a
conviction that freedom of thought and expression are essential for
development, co-founding editors Sofiane Hadjadj and Selma Hellal
began to make the work of local and exiled authors accessible and
affordable, to encourage creativity and experimentation, and to
provide publishing opportunities for local authors, both the
established and new voices.
Barzakh Editions has published more than 110 books of consistently
high quality in both content and presentation. Novels and poetry are
primary fields, alongside a range of genres and subjects such as
philosophy, urbanism, photography, theatre, social history, biography,
political essays and artists’ catalogues. Barzakh has succeeded in
breaking through restrictive frontiers that seemed to close up the
country and limit the space for cultural exchange in various ways.
Through its collaborations with French publishers, works by
Algeria-based authors are translated into French and Italian for wide
distribution. Barzakh publishes authors from francophone sub-Saharan
Africa and Arabic translations of French literature. It has developed
networks and exchanges with Arab, African and European countries, and
fosters the local audience through discussions, poetry readings and
art exhibitions.
The Principal Prince Claus Award honours Barzakh Editions for giving
concrete form to Algeria’s voices, for opening up a much needed space
for critical reflection on Algerian realities, for building a bridge
connecting different languages and cultures, and for creatively
breaking through the threatening cultural isolation of the country.
Ten 2010 Prince Claus Awards
Decolonizing Architecture institute (DAi)
Palestine
Decolonizing Architecture institute’s unique practice is dedicated to
the identification of architecture’s role as a central tool in spatial
power relations and in the making of conflict. It seeks to subvert and
propose new ways for the re-use of architecture’s dominating
potential. The work has significant implications for citizens,
strategists and policymakers in diverse regions and contexts around
the world, and is contributing to a new perspective on urban planning
and innovative methodologies for the processes of reclaiming spaces.
Founded in 2007, DAi is run by scholars, activists and architects
Sandi Hilal, Eyal Weizman and Alessandro Petti, as a residency
involving local and international practitioners. Looking forward to
the future evacuation of colonising forces from Palestinian
territories, Decolonizing Architecture offers practical possibilities
for their re-appropriation. Its materials document various methods of
dismantling and re-formulating Israeli settlements and military bases.
Drawings and projections show how spaces can be transformed, and
models also provide evidence in legal process. People can relate to
these visual representations and are empowered to imagine the
reconfiguration of their devastated environment. DAi’s plans reflect
both the place of refuge and site of origin, and offer visions for the
restoration of historical sites. Spreading their ideas through
exhibitions, lectures, videos and publications, DAi challenges
individuals and communities to think and plan for an unthreatening
built environment.
Decolonizing Architecture is honoured for introducing a
non-traditional approach to development in conflict and post-conflict
situations, for providing valuable speculation on the future realities
of disputed territories, for its critical challenge to outdated urban
planning theories based on a more peaceful world, and for highlighting
the role of architecture and visualisation in creating and altering
the frontiers of reality.
Maya Goded
Mexico
Photographer Maya Goded (Mexico City, 1967) creates subtle images of
hidden or shunned communities. Her first project, Tierra Negra (1994),
is a collection of moments from her three-year sojourn with Mexicans
of African descent, a group whose contribution to Mexican identity is
seldom acknowledged. Goded was then drawn to investigate female
sexuality, prostitution, tenderness and gender violence in a society
that defines women’s roles strictly and maintains notions of womanhood
wreathed in myths of purity, fragility and motherhood. Her five years
of intense interaction and work with prostitutes and pimps in Mexico
City are published in Plaza de Soledad (2006) and Good Girls (2007).
Her nine books to date include sensitive studies of the grief of
relatives of murdered and sexually abused women, the conditions of
traditional healers, and the endurance needed to attain socially
defined beauty.
Goded’s images are imbued with unusual intimacy and genuine presence
that spring from mutual trust established over a long period of time.
This bond is evident in the body language she captures, creating
empathy in the viewer. She explores people living in harsh situations
constructed around notions of power and control – both the strong,
whose refusal to conform threatens established norms, and the
vulnerable, whose lives are distorted by social prescription. Each
image is accompanied by the name of the person portrayed and a few
telling details that foster a sense of connection.
Maya Goded is honoured for her profound and intimate photography, for
challenging preconceptions and giving unique insight into little-known
realities, and for celebrating otherness and human commonalities that
transcend socially constructed barriers.
Jia Zhang-Ke
China
Filmmaker Jia Zhang-Ke (1970, Fenyang) breaks away from previous
generations’ historical dramas and political idealisations to convey
other kinds of realities. He depicts episodes in the life and
loyalties of a teenage pickpocket (Xiao Wu, 1997); working conditions
and workers facing unemployment, aging and broken state promises (24
City, 2008); the displaced and soon-to-be displaced figuring out how
to proceed as public buildings are demolished, houses submerge under
the rising waters of the Three Gorges Dam and human ties are stretched
to the limit (Still Life, 2006). The realities of home, belonging and
security for ordinary people in China unfold in parallel narratives
amid the demolition of social fabric and the erasure of memory and
connection in the name of economic progress.
Jia combines humanistic realism with striking aesthetics and rich
cultural texture. He uses local people and professional actors,
dialects, on-site sounds, improvisation and interpretive imagination
to express individual experiences as realistically as possible. A
master of the long shot that gradually fills with subtle gestures and
details, Jia makes time palpable and delights in ironies and
allusions: a spaceship lift-off, a tightrope-walker between
high-rises. He captures universal human experiences that exist
regardless of context, and shows Chinese ways of coping, maintaining
deeply held values, surviving with the quiet dignity, restraint and
resourcefulness of the ‘still living’.
Jia Zhang-Ke is honoured for the outstanding aesthetic and
intellectual qualities of his work, for his committed social
engagement in focusing on the realities of ordinary contemporary
lives, for his significant contribution to local cultural identity and
confidence, and for creatively transcending and altering the frontiers
of reality.
Gulnara Kasmalieva & Muratbek Djumaliev
Kyrgyzstan
Gulnara Kasmalieva (1960, Bishek) and Muratbek Djumaliev (1965,
Bishek) are cultural catalysts in the Central Asian region, which is
in many respects a Zone of Silence. Their practice embodies the
transition from a deeply rooted tradition of art making towards the
use of contemporary languages. Graduates of Kyrgyz State College of
Fine Art, they accessed international ideas when studying in Russia
during the period of perestroika. Returning to Bishek they
experimented with new technologies and developed documentary-style
videos and photography that provide unprecedented representations of
Kyrgyzstan’s passage to independence and the impact of Soviet-era
legacies on life and identity.
Their extensive practice includes the seminal video installation A New
Silk Road: Algorithm of Survival and Hope (2006), documenting
contemporary experiences along the historical trade route as it
encounters rapid globalisation. They weave different perspectives
together, picking up on popular visual culture, showing local
reinvention and adaptations, and bringing the new nation-states
together in an innovative exposé of intersecting frontiers of reality.
At ArtEast, the cultural centre they run in Bishek, Kasmalieva and
Djumaliev are active as curators and leaders with a mission to
stimulate the next generation. They provide gallery space for regional
and international exhibitions, courses in contemporary theory,
practice and art management, access to media equipment, workshops,
networking and collaborations, enabling young artists to get in touch
with artists, curators and critics in other contexts.
Gulnara Kasmalieva and Muratbek Djumaliev are awarded for their
groundbreaking art practices, for their significant contribution to
contemporary culture in Central Asia, for establishing a space of
freedom and opportunity for young artists, and for creating original
representations of the intersections of different realities.
Kwani Trust
Kenya
Kwani Trust is revolutionising creative literary production in Kenya
and across Anglophone Africa. Starting in 2003, it launched an
independent literary journal, Kwani? (Swahili for ‘So what?’), to
challenge the institutionalised academic control of authorship and
entrenched literary conventions of an older generation. Kwani’s
editors, Binyavanga Wainaina and Billy Kahura, actively encourage new
talent, original sensibilities and creative use of language. Poetry
has a strong presence, alongside humour and slang. The wide range of
stories, personal narratives and commentaries reflect day-to-day
realities, exploring topics such as urbanisation, relationships,
ethnicity, injustice and politics. The pool of contributors is
constantly expanding and includes writers from many African countries.
Positive response to the journal led to a variety of popular
activities: Poetry Open Mic, a monthly performance event; Sunday Salon
Nairobi, a prose reading series; writers’ forums, public debates,
workshops and competitions; and the annual Kwani? Literary Festival,
which features continental and global cultural figures.
Kwani Trust publishes short-story collections and books such as The
Life and Times of Richard Onyango (a Kenyan artist) and Kenya Burning
(a visual narrative of 2007 post-election violence). Recognising the
economic constraints of local readers, it also produces affordable
pocket-sized editions and distributes literature from other African
countries. It uses new technologies to reach wider audiences, has
built a global network and facilitates local participation in
international events.
Kwani Trust is honoured for establishing a dynamic platform for new
African voices and perspectives, for its progressive influence and
energetic dedication to developing a supportive environment for
literary expression, and for crossing social and cultural frontiers to
expose new facets of reality.
Dinh Q. Lê
Vietnam
Visual artist Dinh Q. Lê (1968, Ha-Tien) is the co-founder of two
transformative institutions that are opening up possibilities for
Vietnamese artists. The Vietnam Foundation for the Arts is a Los
Angeles-based centre that counteracts isolation through exchanges and
collaboration. And Sàn Art, the first independent not-for-profit art
space in Ho Chi Minh City, runs local and international exhibitions,
residencies, projects, a reading room, discussions, lectures and
networking opportunities.
Brought up in Vietnam during the American war, Dinh Q. Lê moved to
the USA aged 10. Surrounded by Hollywood and western media
interpretations of his homeland, he studied and began his art
practice. He devised an innovative technique based on Vietnamese craft
heritage, literally and metaphorically weaving images and fragments
into complex combinations of different traditions, histories and
modernities. These ‘surreal memory landscapes’ dramatically portray
the schizophrenic realities of exiles and migrants.
Returning to Vietnam, aged 25, he continues his explorations of
contradictory realities. The Farmers and the Helicopter (2006), a
documentary video on passionate local desire to recreate the iconic
destroyer of Vietnam’s traumatic past, contrasts with South China Sea
Pishkun (2009), a 3D animation of the mass crashing of helicopters
into the South China Sea during America’s panicked retreat from Saigon
– the Vietnamese view still widely unknown. Other works examine
genocide, consumerist glitz in disadvantaged places, and the promotion
of Vietnam as idyllic paradise for tourists.
The Prince Claus Award honours Dinh Q. Lê for his strong creative work
exploring different constructions of reality, for providing
inspiration and practical opportunities for young artists, and for
advancing free thought and contemporary visual expression in a context
of indifference and hostility.
Ana Maria Machado
Brazil
Ana Maria Machado (1941, Rio de Janeiro) creates compelling children’s
stories that deal with prejudices and human rights. She developed a
passion for storytelling during her traditional rural upbringing,
studied humanities, became a visual artist and curator, was arrested
and exiled during the dictatorship, completed a PhD in linguistics and
semiotics, lectured and worked as journalist. The author of more than
100 books, translated into 11 languages, she opened the first
children’s literature bookshop in Brazil.
Machado shares a way of looking at the world that is original, funny
and poetic. She has a mother’s faith in the child’s imagination, an
ear for natural patterns of everyday spoken language and a painter’s
eye for colour, composition and detail. Her experiments with narrative
structure, symbolic language and combinations of the real and the
fantastic are evidence of her consummate mastery of the writer’s
craft. Above all, Machado is able to express complex concepts with
skilful simplicity and subtle passion. Edged with excitement, tension
and humour, the intriguing scenarios she creates become personal
encounters with difficult subjects such as racism, gender
discrimination, poverty and identity. Machado interrogates Brazil’s
historical memory, bringing past experiences alive as part of everyday
life in a way that appeals to children. In From Another World (2005),
her characters and the readers confront the realities of slavery
through the unquiet ghost of a slave girl who seeks their help.
Presenting distilled wisdom in an unpretentious style, her stories
encompass understanding of difference, courage in the face of tyranny
and respect for others, and insist on delight and the joy of living.
Ana Maria Machado is awarded for her outstanding children’s
literature, for opening frontiers of reality for young people and
communicating essential human values to impressionable minds and
hearts, and for her significant contribution to recognition of the
importance of children’s literature in the formation of worldviews.
Mehrdad Oskouei
Iran
Independent filmmaker Mehrdad Oskouei (Tehran, 1969) penetrates
subaltern segments of Iranian society to give voice to unknown
perspectives, challenge preconceptions and offer unique readings of
people’s lives and experiences. Graduating from Tehran’s University of
Arts, he started in theatre and short fiction films before turning
towards realistic reporting. He has developed a hybrid cinematic
language that combines documentary, poetic and dramatic sensibilities,
enabling him to convey the multiple layers of reality.
Oskouei’s personal concern and commitment to the people he films
creates trust, which is the vital spark in his works. In The Other
Side of the Burka (2004), an investigation of high female suicide
rates in a patriarchal enclave in southern Iran, he achieves an
unprecedented degree of openness. The women tell their own stories,
describe their suffering and discuss their situation with honesty and
clarity in close-up face-to-face interviews; documentary facts ¬of the
women’s rooms, work, routines and the community rituals enacted to
deal with symptoms are interwoven with evocative metaphors and moments
of psychological pain, the glimpse of a shoulder, the corpse beneath
the burial cloth.
His 24 films offer in-depth encounters with orphans, widowers and
juvenile delinquents, and examine Iranian experience of broken homes,
rhinoplasty and urban youth cultures. Passionate about the role of
film in social development, Oskouei founded the Short Film Society and
runs workshops to stimulate young filmmakers.
Mehrdad Oskouei is honoured for his moving, informative and evocative
films, for his honest engagement with his subjects and his commitment
to accurately representing their concerns, and for working in
difficult contexts to break down prejudice and generate social
justice.
Yoani Sánchez
Cuba
Yoani Sánchez (1975, Havana) is a leading figure in the use of social
networking technologies to breach imposed frontiers. A graduate in
philology, she is now dedicated to computer sciences and their
capacity to alter perceptions and generate social change. She works as
a webmaster, columnist and editor for Desde Cuba, an online news
portal. Determined to promote freedom of information and to speak out
regardless of danger, in 2007, Yoani Sánchez set up a blog, Generation
Y.
Her regular posts offer punchy accounts of the day-to-day environment.
Avoiding direct criticism and global politics, her blog provides
subjective insights into the practical difficulties people face.
Emphasising the vital importance of material autonomy for any form of
active citizenship, her subjects include unaffordable food, shortage
of proteins and vegetables, the turgid proceedings of parliament and
the lack of meaningful reforms.
Sánchez operates in a context of strict control and censorship,
working clandestinely, under threat of arrest. Local access to
internet is limited and filters set up by the authorities slow and
block connection to Generation Y. Local supporters circulate her
writings in emails and USB memories, and volunteers translate her
Spanish reports into 22 languages. Generation Y’s growth has been
exponential. It is now one of the most-followed blogs in cyberspace,
and a compilation has been published as Cuba Libre.
Yoani Sánchez is awarded for raising global awareness of daily Cuban
realities through her blog, for her inspiring and courageous example
in giving a voice to the silenced, and for demonstrating the immense
impact internet communications technologies can have as tools for
social change and development.
Aung Zaw
Burma/Thailand
Aung Zaw (1968) is the founder and director of The Irrawaddy, the most
reliable source of information on realities in Burma. A committed
pro-democracy activist, he started in student politics, setting up an
underground network to organise resistance to authoritarian rule in
1987. He was arrested and released several times, tortured during
interrogation and, following the military coup in 1988, went into
exile in Thailand.
Recognising the urgency of keeping channels of communication open
between Burma and the world, Aung Zaw founded the Burma Information
Group to document human rights violations, lobby for democracy and
provide information to international newspapers and human rights
organisations. In 1993 he launched The Irrawaddy, the first
independent publication on Burma and the most significant resource for
up-to-date news on the situation. As editor and contributor he has
built up an extraordinary network of trusted sources on the ground,
inside one of the world’s most repressive states. In 2000, he set up
the website to increase access. Published in Burmese and English, The
Irrawaddy is officially banned and the website is largely blocked in a
context of almost total control and surveillance of media and
information. Dedicated to democracy for all, and to objective
journalism, Aung Zaw remains unaffiliated to any political group and
he has recently expanded coverage to related regional developments.
Aung Zaw is honoured for his active dedication to achieving democratic
government in Burma, for building such a valuable resource for
exposing realities that those in power want to hide, for maintaining
the flow of ideas and upholding freedom of information, and for his
inspiring role in transgressing the containment of violently enforced
political boundaries.
Me inspira la historía de fotografía amateur y cinematografía domestica mediante mi identidad asiatica a simular el capitalismo de cultura oeste de años 90 para recontextar el feminismo metaforicamente y tipologiamente a expresar el concreto de mujer con la relación naturalizad artificial de decolonización.
It's a cultural and artistic phenomenon, it's an amateur and domestic medium, it's an identity, it's a simulation of capitalism, it's a cult, it's from the 90s, it's a metamorphosis and it's a typology, it's a natural phenomenon of decolonization.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The North American FJ-4 Fury was a swept-wing carrier-capable fighter-bomber, originally developed for the United States Navy and Marine Corps. It was the final development in a lineage that included the Air Force's F-86 Sabre. The FJ-4 shared its general layout and engine with the earlier FJ-3, but featured an entirely new wing design. And it was, as a kind of final embodiment with the FJ-4B, a very different aircraft from the F-86 .
The first FJ-4 flew on 28 October 1954 and delivery began in February 1955. Of the original order for 221 FJ-4 fighters, the last 71 were modified into the FJ-4B fighter-bomber version, of which the Netherlands received 16 aircraft under the designation FJ-4B from the USA in the course of NATO support. Even though the main roles of the MLD were maritime patrol, anti-submarine warfare and search and rescue, the FJ-4B was a dedicated fighter-bomber, and these aircraft were to be used with the Dutch Navy’s Colossus-Class carrier HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81).
Compared to the lighter FJ-4 interceptor, the FJ-4B had a stronger wing with six instead of four underwing stations, a stronger landing gear and additional aerodynamic brakes under the aft fuselage. The latter made landing safer by allowing pilots to use higher thrust settings, and were also useful for dive attacks. Compared to the FJ-4, external load was doubled, and the US FJ-4Bs were capable of carrying a nuclear weapon on the inboard port station, a feature the MLD Furies lacked. The MLD aircraft were still equipped with the corresponding LABS or Low-Altitude Bombing System for accurate delivery of ordnance.
The Dutch Furies were primarily intended for anti-ship missions (toting up to five of the newly developed ASM-N-7 missiles - renamed in AGM-12B Bullpup after 1962 - plus a guidance pod) and CAS duties against coastal targets, as well as for precision strikes. In a secondary role, the FJ-4B could carry Sidewinder AAMs for interception purposes.
The MLD's FJ-4B became operational in 1956, just in time to enhance the firepower of the Karel Doorman, which just had its 24 WW-II era propeller driven Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighter/anti-ship aircraft backed up with 14 TBF Avenger ASW/torpedo bombers and 10 Hawker Sea Hawk fighters (the MLD owned 22 of these) for an ASW/Strike profile. The Furies joined the carrier in late 1957 and replaced the piston-engined attack aircraft.
In 1960, during the Dutch decolonization and planned independence of Western New Guinea, a territory which was also claimed by Indonesia, the Karel Doorman set sail along with two destroyers and a modified oil tanker to 'show the flag'. In order to avoid possible problems with Indonesia's ally Egypt at the Suez Canal, the carrier instead sailed around the horn of Africa. She arrived in Fremantle, Australia, where the local seamen's union struck in sympathy with Indonesia; the crew used the propeller thrust of aircraft chained down on deck to nudge the carrier into dock without tugs! In addition to her air wing, she was ferrying twelve Hawker Hunter fighters to bolster the local Dutch defense forces, which the Karel Doorman delivered when she arrived at Hollandia, New Guinea.
During the 1960 crisis, Indonesia prepared for a military action named Operation Trikora (in the Indonesian language, "Tri Komando Rakyat" means "The Three Commands of the People"). In addition to planning for an invasion, the TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Forces) hoped to sink the Karel Doorman with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers using AS-1 Kennel/KS-1 Kometa anti-ship missiles. This bomber-launched missile strike mission was cancelled on short notice, though, because of the implementation of the cease-fire between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This led to a Dutch withdrawal and temporary UN peacekeeping administration, followed by occupation and annexation through Indonesia. While the Dutch aircraft served actively during this conflict, flying patrols and demonstrating presence, visibly armed and in alert condition, no 'hot' sortie or casualty occured, even though one aircraft, 10-18, was lost in a start accident. The pilot ejected safely.
The MLD FJ-4Bs only served on the carrier until its overhaul in 1964, after which the carrier-borne attack role was eliminated and all aircraft were transferred to land bases (Valkenburg) or in reserve storage. The Seahawks were retired from service by the end of the 1960s after the sale of the Karel Doorman to Argentina, and the FJ-4Bs were returned to the United States, where they were re-integrated into the USMC until the end of the 1960ies, when all FJ-4 aircraft were phased out.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 36 ft 4 in (11.1 m)
Wingspan: 39 ft 1 in (11.9 m)
Height: 13 ft 11 in (4.2 m)
Wing area: 338.66 ft² (31.46 m²)
Empty weight: 13,210 lb (6,000 kg)
Loaded weight: 20,130 lb (9,200 kg)
Max. take-off weight: 23,700 lb (10,750 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright J65-W-16A turbojet, 7,700 lbf (34 kN)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 680 mph (1,090 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,670 m)
Range: 2,020 mi (3,250 km) with 2× 200 gal (760 l) drop tanks and 2× AIM-9 missiles
Service ceiling: 46,800 ft (14,300 m)
Rate of climb: 7,660 ft/min (38.9 m/s)
Wing loading: 69.9 lb/ft² (341.7 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: .325
Armament:
4× 20 mm (0.787 in) cannon
6× pylons under the wings for 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) external ordnance, including up to 6× AIM-9 Sidewinder AAMs, bombs and guided/unguided ASM, e .g. ASM-N-7 (AGM-12B Bullpup) missiles.
The kit and its assembly
Originally, this model project was inspired by a (whiffy) Dutch F3H Demon profile, designed by fellow user Darth Panda at whatifmodelers.com. I found the idea of a foreign/NATO user of one of these early carrier-borne jet fighters very inspiring – not only because of the strange design of many of these aircraft, but also since the USN and USMC had been the only real world users of many of these types.
Initially, I planned to convert a F3H accordingly. But with limited storage/display space at home I decided to apply the MLD idea to another smaller, but maybe even more exotic, type: the North American FJ-4B Fury, which was in 1962 recoded into AF-1E.
I like the beefy Sabre cousin very much. It’s one of those aircraft that received little attention, even from model kit manufacturers. In fact, in 1:72 scale there are only vintage vacu kits or the very basic Emhar kit available. Th Emhar kit, which I used here and which is a kind donation of a fellow modeler (Thanks a lot, André!), a rather rough thing with raised panel lines and much room for improvements. As a side note, there's also a FJ-4B from Revell, but it's just a 1996 re-issue with no improvements, whatsoever.
Another facet of the model: When I did legwork concerning a possible background story, I was surprised to find out that the Netherlands actually operated aircraft carriers in the 1950s, including carrier-borne, fixed-wing aircraft, even jets in the form of Hawker Sea Hawks. The real life FJ-4Bs service introduction, the naissance of NATO and the Indonesian conflict as well as the corresponding intervention of the Karel Doorman carrier all fell into a very plausible time frame – and so there’s a very good and plausible story why the MLD could actually have used the Fury fighter bomber!
The Emhar kit was not modified structurally, but saw some changes in detail. These include a scratch-built cockpit with side walls, side consoles and a new ejection seat, plus a Matchbox pilot figure, a new front wheel (from a Kangnam Yak-38, I believe), plus a lot of added blade aerials and a finer pitot.
The flaps were lowered, for a more lively look- Another new feature is the opened air intake, which features a central splitter - in fact a vertically placed piece of a Vicker Wellesley bomb container from Matchbox. At the rear end, the exhaust pipe was opened and lengthened internally.
The six weapon hardpoints were taken from the original kit, but I did not use the four Sidewinder AAMs and the rather bulky drop tanks. So, all ordnance is new: the Bullpups come from the Hasegawa air-to-ground missile set, the drop tanks are leftover pieces from a Hobby Boss F-86. They are much more 'delicate', and make the Fury look less stout and cumbersome. The guidance pod for the Bullpups (a typical FJ-4B feature with these weapons) is a WWII drop tank, shaped with the help of benchmark pictures. Certainly not perfect, but, hey - it's just a MODEL!
Painting and markings
I used mid-1950ies MLD Sea Furys and Sea Hawks as a design benchmark, but this Fury is placed just into the time frame around 1960 when the MLD introduced a new 3-digit code system. Before that, a code "6-XX" with the XX somewhere in the 70 region would have been appropriate, and I actually painted the fuselage sides a bit darker so as if the old code had recently been painted over.
Dutch MLD aircraft tended to keep their former users’ liveries, but in the FJ-4B’s case I thought that a light grey and white aircraft (USN style) with Dutch roundels would look a bit odd. So I settled for early NATO style with Extra Dark Sea Grey upper sides (Humbrol 123) and Sky from below (Testors 2049 from their Authentic Line).
I also went for an early design style with a low waterline - early Hawker Sea Furies were painted this way, and a high waterline would probably be more typical. But in the face of potential seriosu action, who knows...? Things tend to be toned down quickly, just remember the RN Harriers during the Falkland conflict. I'll admit that the aircraft looks a bit simple and dull now, but this IMHO just adds to the plausible look of this whif. I prefer such subtleties to garish designs.
The surfaces were weathered with dry-brushed lighter shades of the basic tones (mostly Humbrol 79, but also some 140 and 67, and Humbrol 90 and 166 below), including overpainted old codes in a slightly darker tone of EDSG, done with Revell 77. A light wash with black ink emphasizes edges and some details - the machine was not to look worn.
The interior was painted in medium grey (Humbrol 140), the landing gear is white (Humbrol 130), and some details like the air intake rim, the edges of the landing gear covers, the flaps or the tips of the wing fences were painted in bright red (Humbrol 174), for some contrast to the overall grey upper sides.
The MLD markings were puzzled together. The roundels come from an Xtradecal sheet for various Hawker Sea Furies, the '202' code comes, among others, from a Grumman Bearcat aftermarket sheet. The 'KON. MARINE' line is hand-made, letter by letter, from a TL Modellbau aftremarket sheet.
Most stencils and warning sign decals come from the original decal sheet, as well as from a FJ-4 Xtradecal aftermarket sheet, from F-86 kits and the scrap box. I wanted these details to provide the color to the aircraft, so that it would not look too uniform, but still without flashy decorations and like a rather utilarian military item.
finally, the model received a coat of semi-matt varnish (Tamiya Acryllic), since MLD aircraft had a pretty glossy finish. No dirt or soot stains were added - the Dutch kept their (few) shipborne aircraft very clean and tidy!
So, all in all, a simple looking aircraft, but this Dutch Fury has IMHO a certain, subtle charm - probably also because it is a rather rare and unpopular aircraft, which in itself has a certain whiffy aura.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81) was a Colossus-class aircraft carrier of the Royal Netherlands Navy. Formerly the British ship HMS Venerable, she was sold to the Netherlands in 1948 as a light attack carrier and operated Fairey Firefly strike fighters and Hawker Sea Fury fighters, which were in 1958 replaced by Hawker Sea Hawk jet aircraft. In 1960, she was involved in the decolonization conflict in Western New Guinea with Indonesia. After a major refit in 1964, following the settlement of issues threatening its former colonial territories and changes in the mission for the Royal Netherlands Navy within NATO, the role was changed to anti-submarine warfare carrier and primarily ASW aircraft and helicopters were carried. At that time, the last Dutch Sea Hawks were phased out and the Koninlijke Marine ’s FJ-4B fighter bombers were relegated to land bases and soon handed back to the USA and re-integrated into USMC units. As an alternative multi-role aircraft that could both deliver strikes against ground as well as sea targets and provide aerial defense for the carrier or escort its slow and vulnerable ASW aircraft, the American Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was procured.
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk was a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta-winged, single turbojet-powered Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later by McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the U.S. Navy's pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk was a relatively light aircraft, with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds (11,100 kg), had a top speed of 670 miles per hour (1,080 km/h) and very good handling, making it a serious threat in an aerial dogfight. The aircraft's five hardpoints supported a variety of missiles, bombs, and other munitions.
The A4D (re-named into A-4 under the USA’s unified designation system) was capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of a World War II–era Boeing B-17 bomber and could even deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. The A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, but from the A-4E onwards, the more fuel efficient and powerful Pratt & Whitney J52 engine was used. The Skyhawk proved to be a relatively common United States Navy aircraft export of the postwar era. Due to its small size, it could be operated from the older, smaller World War II-era aircraft carriers still used by many smaller navies during the 1960s. These older ships were often unable to accommodate newer Navy fighters such as the F-4 Phantom II and F-8 Crusader, which were faster and more capable than the A-4, but significantly larger and heavier than older naval fighters.
At the same time as the Netherlands, Australia was looking for a new carrier-borne jet aircraft, too, and in negotiations with Douglas for newly built A-4s for the RAN's carrier HMAS Melbourne, a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier. These aircraft had a very similar duty profile to those the Royal Netherlands Navy was looking for, and in order to save development costs and speed up the procurement process, the Royal Netherlands Navy simply adopted the Australian specifications which became the unique A-4G variant, the Skyhawk’s first dedicated export version.
The A-4G was directly developed with minor variations from the current, most modern Skyhawk variant, the USN's A-4F. In particular, the A-4G was not fitted with the late Skyhawk variants' characteristic avionics "hump", had a simple ranging radar for air-to-air combat and was modified to carry four underwing Sidewinder AIM-9B missiles (instead of just two), increasing their Fleet Defense capability. Additionally, the A-4Gs for the Royal Netherlands Navy received the avionics package to deploy radio-controlled AGM-12 Bullpup missiles, which the Kon. Marine had been using together with the FJ-4Bs for some years, and Skyhawks’ capability to provide buddy-to-buddy refueling services with a special pod made them a vital asset for carrier operations, too.
A total of twenty A-4G Skyhawks were purchased by the Royal Australian Navy in two batches for operation from HMAS Melbourne, and the Koninlijke Marine ordered twelve. These aircraft were part of the first A-4G production batch and arrived in 1967, together with four TA-4J trainers, for a total fleet of sixteen aircraft. The machines were delivered in the contemporary US Navy high-visibility scheme in Light Gull Grey and White, but they were soon re-painted in a less conspicuous scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey on the upper surfaces and Sky underneath, conforming to NATO standards of the time. After initial conversion training from land bases the re-formed MLD 861 Squadron (a carrier-based unit that had operated Fairey during the Fifties) embarked upon HNLMS Karel Doorman in February 1968 with a standard contingent of six carrier-based aircraft. The rest was stationed at Valkenburg Naval Air Base for maintenance and training and frequently rotated to the carrier.
However, the Dutch Skyhawks' career at sea was very short – it lasted in fact only a couple of months! A boiler room fire on 26 April 1968 removed HNLMS Karel Doorman from Dutch service. To repair the fire damage, new boilers were transplanted from the incomplete HMS Leviathan. But this did not save the ship, and in 1969 it was decided that the costs for repairing the damage in relation to the relatively short time Karel Doorman was still to serve in the fleet proved to be her undoing and she was sold to the Argentine Navy, renamed Veinticinco de Mayo, where she would later play a role in the 1982 Falkland Islands Conflict.
Additionally, the fatal fire accident coincided with the arrival of land-based long range maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Netherlands Navy that were to take over the ASW role Karel Doorman had been tasked to perform ever since the start of the 1960s. These were one squadron of Breguet Atlantique sea-reconnaissance aircraft and one of P-2 Neptunes, while the international NATO anti-submarine commitment was taken over by a squadron of Westland Wasp helicopters operated from six Van Speijk-class anti-submarine frigates.
This left the Royal Netherlands Navy with a full operational squadron of almost brand-new aircraft that had overnight lost their raison d'être. To avoid sunk costs the government decided to keep the Skyhawks in active service, even though only land-based now and as part of the Netherlands air force's home defense – a plan that had been envisioned for the A-4Gs for the mid-Seventies, anyway.
In 1974, the A-4G's MLD 861 Squadron was disbanded (again) and the aircraft were formally transferred to the Royal Netherlands Air Force, where they received new tactical codes (H-30XX - H- 30YY) and formed the new RNLAF 332 Squadron, primary tasked with aerial support for the Netherlands Marine Corps. To avoid staff and equipment transfer costs to a different location, the Skyhawks stayed at their former home base, Valkenburg Naval Air Base, where they operated alongside the MLD’s new long-range maritime patrol aircraft.
At that time, the machines received a small update during regular overhauls, including the ability to deploy the new TV-guided AGM-65 Maverick missile (which replaced the unreliable and rather ineffective AGM-12) as well as more effective AIM-9J air-to-air missiles, and an AN/APQ-51 radar warning system, recognizable through small cone-shaped radomes under the nose, at the tail and under the wing roots. Being land-based now, some machines received a new NATO-style camouflage in Olive Drab and Dark Grey with Light Grey undersides, even though the Skyhawks’ full carrier capability was retained in case of a NATO deployment on another nation’s carrier.
In 1979, when the RNLAF received its first F-16A/B fighters, all Skyhawks eventually received a more subdued grey three-tone camouflage with toned-down markings which was effective both over the sea and in the sky, similar to the RNLAF’s NF-5A/B day fighters.
However, the arrival of the modern F-16, which was in any aspect superior to the A-4 except for a lack of carrier-capability, meant that the RNLAF Skyhawks’ career did not last much longer. In the early Eighties, all Dutch A-4Gs were replaced with license-built F-16A/B fighter bombers. They were placed in store and eventually sold to Israel in 1985, where they were revamped and re-sold with surplus A-4Es to Indonesia as attrition replacements after high losses during the anti-guerilla warfare in East Timor. They were delivered in 1986 and served in Indonesia until 2003, where the last Skyhawks were finally retired in 2007.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 40 ft 1.5 in (12.230 m)
Wingspan: 27 ft 6 in (8.38 m)
Height: 15 ft 2 in (4.62 m)
Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m²)
Airfoil: root: NACA 0008-1.1-25; tip: NACA 0005-.825-50
Empty weight: 9,853 lb (4,469 kg)
Gross weight: 16,216 lb (7,355 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 24,500 lb (11,113 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Pratt & Whitney J52-P-6A turbojet engine, 8,500 lbf (38 kN) thrust
Performance:
Maximum speed: 585 kn (673 mph, 1,083 km/h) at sea level
Range: 1,008 nmi (1,160 mi, 1,867 km)
Ferry range: 2,194 nmi (2,525 mi, 4,063 km)
g limits: +8/-3
Rate of climb: 5,750 ft/min (29.2 m/s)
Wing loading: 62.4 lb/sq ft (305 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.526
Armament:
2× 20 mm (0.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannon with 100 RPG
5× hardpoints with a total capacity of 8,500 lb (3,900 kg)
The kit and its assembly:
This what-if project was more or less a stopgap: I had a Hasegawa 1:72 A-4E/F kit in The Stash™, primarily bought for its separate avionics hump that is supposed to be transplanted on a Fujimi A-4C someday to create an A-4L, of which AFAIK no OOB kit exists. However, I played with potential fictional operators, and read about the Australian A-4Gs. When I compared them with the historic timeframe of the Dutch HNLMS Karel Doorman, I recognized very close parallels (see background above) so that a small Skyhawk fleet for a single carrier with a focus on ASW duties would make sense – even though Karel Doorman was soon struck by a fire and ended the story. However, this was a great framework to tell the story of Dutch Skyhawks that never had been, and my model depicts such an aircraft soon after its update and in late RNLAF colors.
The Hasegawa kit is not bad, but IMHO there are better offerings, you can see the mold’s age. It goes together easily, comes with a good pilot figure and offers optional parts for an E or F Skyhawk, plus lots of ordnance, but it comes with raised (yet very fine) panel lines and an odd canopy: the clear part is actually only the canopy’s glass, so that the frame is still molded into the fuselage. As a result, opening the cockpit is a VERY tricky stunt (which I eventually avoided), and the clear piece somehow does not fit well into its intended opening. The mold dates back to 1969, when the A-4E/F was brand new, and this was all acceptable in the Seventies and Eighties. But for today’s standards the Hasegawa kit is a bit outdated and, in many cases, overpriced. Permanent re-boxings and short-run re-issues do not make the old kit any better.
Despite these weaknesses the kit was built OOB, without big modifications or the optional camel hump for the A-4F, with the early straight IFR probe and with parts from the OOB ordnance. This included the ventral drop tank (which comes with an integral pylon) and the underwing pylons; from the outer pair the integral launch rails for the Bullpups were sanded away and replaced with a pair of longer launch rails for AIM-9B Sidewinder AAMs from the scrap box.
As a modern/contemporary detail I scratched a training/dummy AGM-65 Maverick without fins for one of the inner underwing stations, which would later become a colorful eye-catcher on the otherwise quite subdued aircraft. Additionally, some small blade antennae were added around the hull, e. g. on the front wheel well cover for the Bullpup guidance emitter.
Painting and markings:
A Kon. Marine Skyhawk offers a wide range of painting options, but I tweaked the background that I could incorporate a specific and unique Dutch paint scheme – the early Eighties livery of the RNLAF’s NF-5A/Bs. These aircraft initially wore a NATO-style green/grey livery with pale grey undersides, but they were in the late Seventies, with the arrival of the F-16s, repainted with the F-16s’ “Egypt One” colors (FS 36118, 36270 and 36375). However, the Egypt One scheme was not directly adopted, only the former RAF-style camouflage pattern was re-done with the new colors. Therefore, the Skyhawks were “in my world” transferred from the Dutch Navy to the Air Force and received this livery, too, for which I used Humbrol 125, 126 and 127. The pattern was adapted from the sleek NF-5s as good as possible to the stouter A-4 airframe, but it worked out.
However, the result reminds unintentionally a lot of the Australian A-4Gs’ late livery, even though the Aussie Skyhawks carried a different pattern and were painted in different tones. Even more strangely, the colors on the model looked odd in this striped paint scheme: the dark Gunship Gray appeared almost violet, while the Medium Gray had a somewhat turquoise hue? Weird! Thankfully, this disappeared when I did some post-panel-shading after a light black in washing…
The cockpit became Dark Gull Grey (FS 36231, Humbrol 140), even though there’s hardly anything recognizable through the small canopy: the pilot blocks anything. The landing gear and the respective wells became classic bright white (Revell 301), as well as the air intake ducts; the landing gear covers received a thin red outline.
The Sidewinders and their launch rails became white, the drop tank was painted in FS 36375 like the underside. The dummy AGM-65 was painted bright blue with a white tip for the live seeker head.
The decals were gathered from various sources. The RNLAF roundels came from a generic TL Modellbau sheet, the tactical code from a Swiss F-5E. The small fin flash is a personal addition (this was not common practice on RNLAF aircraft), the red unit badge with the seahorse comes from a French naval WWII unit. Most stencils were taken from the OOB sheet but supplemented with single bits from an Airfix Skyhawk sheet, e. g. for the red trim around the air intakes, which was tricky to create. The interior of the fuselage air brakes was painted in bright red, too.
After a Koninlijke Marine FJ-4B Fury some years ago, here’s a worthy and logical successor, even though it would have quickly lost its naval base, HNLMS Karel Doorman. Really bad timing! Even though not much was changed, this simple looking aircraft has IMHO a certain, subtle charm – even though the paint scheme makes the Dutch Skyhawk look more Australian than intended, despite representing an A-4G, too. But time frame and mission profiles would have been too similar to ignore this parallel. Not a spectacular model, but quite convincing.
INDIGNEZ-VOUS! GET ANGRY! CRY OUT
by Stéphane Hessel
After 93 years, it is almost the final act. The end for me is not very far off any more. But it still leaves me a chance to be able to remind others of what acted as the basis of my political engagement. It was the years of resistance to the Nazi occupation -- and the program of social rights worked out 66 years ago by the National Council of the Resistance!
It is to Jean Moulin [murdered founder of the Council] that we owe, as part of this Council, the uniting of all elements of occupied France -- the movements, the parties, the labor unions -- to proclaim their membership in Fighting France, and we owe this to the only leader that it acknowledged, General de Gaulle. From London, where I had joined de Gaulle in March 1941, I learned that this Council had completed a program and adopted it on March 15th, 1944, that offered for liberated France a group of principles and values on which would rest the modern democracy of our country. [Note 1]
These principles and these values, we need today more than ever. It is up to us to see to it, all together, that our society becomes a society of which we are proud, not this society of immigrants without papers -- expulsions, suspicion regarding the immigrants. Not this society where they call into question social security and national retirement and health plans. Not this society where mass media are in the hands of the rich. These are things that we would have refused to give in to if we had been the true heirs of the National Council of the Resistance.
From 1945, after a dreadful drama [WWII], it was an ambitious resurrection of society to which the remaining contingent of the Council of the Resistance devoted itself. Let us remember them while creating national health and pensions plans such as the Resistance wished, as its program stipulated, "a full plan of French national health and social security, aimed at assuring all citizens
1
the means of existence whenever they are unable to obtain them by a job; a retirement allowing the old workers to finish their days with dignity."
The sources of energy, electricity, and gas, mines, the big banks, were nationalized. Now this was as the program recommended: "... the return to the nation of big monopolized means of production, fruits of common labor, sources of energy, wealth from the mines, from insurance companies and from big banks; the institution of a true economic and social democracy involving the ousting of the big economic and financial fiefdoms from the direction of the economy."
General interest must dominate over special interest. The just man believes that wealth created in the realm of labor should dominate over the power of money.
The Resistance proposed, "a rational organization of the economy assuring the subordination of special interests to general interest, and the emancipation of 'slaves' of the professional dictatorship that was instituted just as in the fascist states," which had used the interim [for two years after the war] government of the Republic as an agent.
A true democracy needs an independent press, and the Resistance acknowledged it, demanded it, by defending "the freedom of the press, its honor, and its independence from the State, the power of money and foreign influence." This is what relieved restrictions on the press from 1944 on. And press freedom is definitely what is in danger today.
The Resistance called for a "real possibility for all French children to benefit from the most advanced education," without discrimination. Reforms offered in 2008 go contrary to this plan. Young teachers, whose actions I support, went so far as refusing to apply them, and they saw their salaries cut by way of punishment. They were indignant, "disobeyed," judging these reforms too far from the ideal of the democratic school, too much in the service of a society of commerce and not developing the inventive and critical mind enough.
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All the foundations of the social conquests of the Resistance are threatened today. [Note 2]
The motive of the Resistance: indignation (Indignez-vous!)
Some dare to say to us that the State cannot afford the expenses of these measures for citizens any more. But how can there be today a lack of money to support and extend these conquests while the production of wealth has been considerably augmented since the Liberation period when Europe was in ruins? On the contrary, the problem is the power of money, so much opposed by the Resistance, and of the big, boldfaced, selfish man, with his own servants in the highest spheres of the State.
Banks, since privatized again, have proved to be concerned foremost for their dividends and for the very high salaries of their leaders, not the general interest. The disparity between the poorest and the richest has never been so great, and amassing money, competition, so encouraged.
The basic motive of the Resistance was indignation!
We, the veterans of the resistance movements and combat forces of Free France, we call on the young generation to live by, to transmit, the legacy of the Resistance and its ideals. We say to them: Take our place, "Indignez-vous!" [Get angry! or Cry out!].
The political, economic, intellectual leaders, and the whole society do not have to give in, nor allow oppression by an actual international dictatorship of the financial markets, which threatens peace and democracy.
I wish for you all, each of you, to have your own motive for indignation. It is precious. When something outrages you as I was outraged by Nazism, then people become militant, strong, and engaged. They join this current of history, and the great current of history must continue thanks to each individual. And this current goes towards more justice, more freedom, but not this unbridled freedom of the fox in the henhouse. The rights contained in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 are just that, universal.
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If you meet somebody who does not benefit from it, feel sorry for them but help them to win their rights.
Two visions of history
When I try to understand what caused fascism, what made it so we were overcome by Hitler and the Vichy [French government that collaborated with Hitler], I tell myself that the propertied, with their selfishness, were terrifically afraid of Bolshevik revolution. They were allowed to lead with their fear.
But if, today as then, an active minority stands up, it will be enough; we shall be the leavening that makes the bread rise. Certainly, the experience of a very old person like me, born in 1917, is different from the experience of the today's young persons. I often ask professors for the opportunity to interact with their students, and I say to them: You don't have the same obvious reasons to engage you. For us, to resist was not to accept German occupation, defeat. It was comparatively simple. Simple as what followed, decolonization. Then the war in Algeria.
It was necessary that Algeria become independent, it was obvious. As for Stalin, we all applauded the victory of the Red Army against the Nazis in 1943. But already we had known about the big Stalinist trials of 1935, and even if it was necessary to keep an ear open towards communism to compensate against American capitalism, the necessity to oppose this unbearable form of totalitarianism had established itself as an obviousness. My long life presented a succession of reasons to outrage me.
These reasons were born less from an emotion than a deliberate commitment. As a young student at normal school [teachers college] I was very influenced by Sartre, a fellow student. His "Nausea" [a novel], "The Wall," [play], and "The Being and Nothingness" [essay] were very important in the training of my thought. Sartre taught us, "You are responsible as individuals." It was a libertarian message. The responsibility of a person can not be assigned by a power or an authority. On the contrary, it is necessary to get involved in the name of one's responsibility as a human being.
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When I entered the French Ecole Normale Superieure, Ulm Street, in Paris in 1939, I entered it as a fervent adherent of the philosopher Hegel, and I adhered to the thought of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. His teaching explored concrete experience, that of the body and of its relations with the senses, one big singular sense faced with a plurality of senses. But my natural optimism, which wants all that is desirable to be possible, carried me rather towards Hegel. Hegelism interprets the long history of humanity as having a meaning: It is the freedom of man progressing step by step. History is made of successive shocks, and the taking into account of challenges. The history of societies thus advances; and in the end, man having attained his full freedom, we have the democratic state in its ideal form.
There is certainly another understanding of history. It says progress is made by "freedom" of competition, striving for "always more"; it can be as if living in a devastating hurricane. That's what it represented to a friend of my father, the man who shared with him an effort to translate into German "The Search for Time Lost" [novel] by Marcel Proust.
That was the German philosopher Walter Benjamin. He had drawn a pessimistic view from a painting by the Swiss painter Paul Klee, "Angelus Novus," where the face of the angel opens arms as if to contain and push back a tempest, which he identifies with progress. For Benjamin, who would commit suicide in September 1940 to escape Nazism, the sense of history is the overpowering progression of disaster upon disaster.
Indifference: the worst of attitudes
It is true the reasons to be indignant can seem today less clearly related or the world too complex. Who's doing the ordering, who decides? It is not always easy to differentiate between all the currents that govern us. We are not any more dealing with a small elite whose joint activities can be clearly seen. It is a vast world, of which we have a feeling of interdependence. We
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live in an interconnectivity as never before. But in this world there still are intolerable things. To see them, it is well and necessary to look, to search. I say to the young people, Search little, and that is what you are going to find. The worst of attitudes is indifference, to say "I can do nothing there, I'l just manage to get by." By including yourself in that, you lose one of the essential elements that makes the human being: the faculty of indignation and the commitment that is a consequence of it.
They [young people] can already identify two big new challenges:
1. The huge gap which exists between the very poor and the very rich and that does not cease increasing. It is an innovation of the 20th and 21st centuries. The very poor in the today's world earn barely two dollars a day. The new generation cannot let this gap become even greater. The official reports alone should provoke a commitment.
2. Human rights and state of the planet: I had the chance after the Liberation to join in the writing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations organization, on December 10th, 1948, in Paris at the palace of Chaillot. It was as principal private secretary of Henry Laugier, the adjunct general-secretary of the UN, and as and secretary of the Commission on Human Rights that I with others was led to participate in the writing of this statement. I wouldn't know how to forget the role in its elaboration of René Cassin, who was national commissioner of justice and education in the government of Free France in London in 1941 and won the Nobel peace prize in 1968, nor that of Pierre Mendès-France in the Economic and Social Council, to whom the text drafts we worked out were submitted before being considered by the Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural) of the General Assembly. It was ratified by the 54 member states in session of the United Nations, and I certified it as secretary.
It is to René Cassin that we owe the term "universal rights" instead of
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"international rights" as offered by our American and British friends. This [universal versus international] was key because, at the end of the Second World War, what was at stake was to become emancipated from the threats of totalitarianism that had weighed on humanity.
To become emancipated, it was necessary to acquire from the member states of the UN a promise to respect these universal rights. It was a way to outmaneuver the argument of "full sovereignty," which a nation can emphasize while it devotes itself to crimes against humanity on its own soil. Such was the case of Hitler, who felt himself supreme and authorized to carry out a genocide. This universal statement owed much to universal revulsion towards Nazism, fascism, and totalitarianism -- and owes a lot, in our minds, to the spirit of the Resistance.
I had a feeling that it was necessary to move quickly so as not to be dupes of the hypocrisy that there was in the UN membership, some whom claimed these values already won but had no intention at all to promote them faithfully -- claimed that we were trying to impose values on them. [Note 3]
I can not resist the desire to quote Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): "Everyone has the right to a nationality." Article 22 says, "Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international cooperation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality." And if this statement has a declarative scope, and not statutory, the Declaration nevertheless has played a powerful role since 1948. It saw colonized people take it up in their fight for independence; it sowed minds in a battle for freedom.
I note with pleasure that in the course of last decades there has been an increase in nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and social movements
such as ATTAC (Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions);
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also FIDH (International Federation for Human Rights) and Amnesty International, which are active and competitive. It is obvious that to be effective today it is necessary to act in a network, to use all modern means of communication.
To the young people, I say: Look around you, you will find topics that justify your indignation — facts about treatment of immigrants, of "illegal" immigrants, of the Roma [aka Gypsies]. You will find concrete situations that lead you to strong citizen action. Search and you shall find!
My indignation regarding Palestine outrages by Israel [Indignez-vous!]
Today, my main indignation concerns Palestine, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of Jordan. This conflict is outrageous. It is absolutely essential to read the report by Richard Goldstone, of September 2009, on Gaza, in which this South African, Jewish judge, who claims even to be a Zionist, accuses the Israeli army of having committed "acts comparable to war crimes and perhaps, in certain circumstances, crimes against humanity" during its "Operation Cast Lead," which lasted three weeks.
I went back to Gaza in 2009 myself, when I was able to enter with my wife thanks to our diplomatic passports, to study first-hand what this report said. People who accompanied us were not authorized to enter the Gaza Strip. There and in the West Bank of Jordan. We also visited the Palestinian refugee camps set up from 1948 by the United Nations agency UNRWA, where more than three million Palestinians expelled off their lands by Israel wait even yet for a more and more problematical return.
As for Gaza, it is a roofless prison for one and a half million Palestinians. A prison where people get organized just to survive. Despite material destruction such as that of the Red Crescent hospital by Operation Cast Lead, it is the behavior of the Gazans, their patriotism, their love of the sea and beaches, their constant preoccupation for the welfare of their children,
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who are innumerable and cheerful, that haunt our memory. We were impressed by how ingeniously they face up to all the scarcities that are imposed on them. We saw them making bricks, for lack of cement, to rebuild the thousands of houses destroyed by tanks. They confirmed to us that there had been 1400 deaths — including women, children, and oldsters in the Palestinian camp — during this Operation Cast Lead led by the Israeli army, compared to only 50 injured men on the Israeli side. I share conclusions of the South African judge. That Jews can, themselves, perpetrate war crimes is unbearable. Alas, history does not give enough examples of people who draw lessons from their own history.
[The author, Stéphane Hessel, had a Jewish father.]
Terrorism, or exasperation?
I know that Hamas [party of Palestine freedom fighters], which had won the last legislative elections, could not help it that rockets were launched on Israeli cities in response to the situation of isolation and blockade in which Gazans exist. I think, naturally, that terrorism is unacceptable; but it is necessary to acknowledge (from experience in France) that when people are occupied by forces immensely superior to their own, popular reaction cannot be altogether bloodless.
Does it serve Hamas to send rockets onto the town of Sdérot [Israeli town across the border from Gaza]?
The answer is no. This does not serve their purpose, but they can explain this gesture by the exasperation of Gazans. In the notion of exasperation, it is necessary to understand violence as the regrettable conclusion of situations not acceptable to those who are subjected them.
Thus, they can tell themselves, terrorism is a form of exasperation. And that this "terrorism" is a misnomer. One should not have to resort to this exasperation, but it is necessary to have hope. Exasperation is a denial of hope. It is comprehensible, I would say almost natural, but it still is not acceptable. Because it does not allow one to acquire results that hope can possibly, eventually produce.
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Nonviolence: the way we must learn to follow
I am persuaded that the future belongs to nonviolence, to reconciliation of different cultures. It is by this way that humanity will have to enter its next stage. But on this I agree with Sartre: We cannot excuse the terrorists who throw bombs, but we can understand them. Sartre wrote in 1947: "I recognize that violence in whatever form it may manifest itself is a setback. But it is an inevitable setback because we are in a world of violence. And if it is true that recourse to violence risks perpetuating it, it is also true it is the sure means to make it stop." [Note 4]
To that I would add that nonviolence is a surer means of making violence stop. One can not condone the terrorism, using Sartre or in the name of this principle, during the war of Algeria, nor during the Munich Games of 1972 the murder attempt made against Israeli athletes. Terrorism is not productive, and Sartre himself would end up wondering at the end of his life about the sense of violence and doubt its reason for being.
However, to proclaim "violence is not effective" is more important than to know whether one must condemn or not those who devote themselves to it. Terrorism is not effective. In the notion of effectiveness, a bloodless hope is needed. If there is a violent hope, it is in the poem of William Apollinaire "that hope is violent," and not in policy.
Sartre, in March 1980, within three weeks of his death, declared: "It is necessary to try to explain why the world of today, which is horrible, is only an instant in a long historical development, that hope always has been one of the dominant forces in revolutions and insurrections, and how I still feel hope as my conception of the future." [Note 5]
It is necessary to understand that violence turns its back on hope. It is necessary to prefer to it hope, hope over violence. Nonviolence is the way that we must learn to follow. So must the oppressors.
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It is necessary to arrive at negotiations to remove oppression; it is what will allow you to have no more terrorist violence. That's why you should not let too much hate pile up.
The message of Mandela and Martin Luther King finds all its pertinence in the world that overcame the confrontation of ideologies [e.g., Nazism] and conquered totalitarianism [e.g.,Hitler]. It is also a message of hope in the capacity of modern societies to overcome conflicts by a mutual understanding and a vigilant patience. To reach that point is necessarily based on rights, against which violation, whomever is the author, must cause our indignation. There is to be no compromise on these rights.
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For a peaceful insurrection
I noted, and I am not the only one, the reaction of the Israeli government when confronted by the way that every Friday the citizens of Bil'in, Palestine, advance -- without throwing stones or using force -- up to the separation wall against which they protest. Israeli authorities characterized this step as "bloodless terrorism." That's a good one .... It is necessary to be Israeli to qualify nonviolence as terrorist. It is especially necessary to be embarrassed [as Israelis are] by the effectiveness of nonviolence, which is found to provoke support, understanding -- the support of all those in the world who are the adversaries of oppression.
Crises today
The thought process advanced by the West drew the world into a crisis from which it must emerge by a radical break: "always more," in the financial domain but also in the fields of science and technology . It's high time that concerns about ethics, justice, and LASTING EQUILIBRIUM (economic and environmental) prevail. Because the most serious risks threaten us. They can put an end to the human adventure on the planet, which they can make unfit for habitation by man.
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But it remains true that important progress was made after 1948 [year of UN founding and Declaration of Human Rights]: decolonization, the end of apartheid, destruction of the Soviet empire, fall of the Berlin Wall. On the other hand, the first ten years of the 21st century were a period of degeneration. This degeneration is explained partly by the American presidency of George Bush, the September 11th events, and disastrous consequences that involved the United States, such as the military intervention in Iraq.
We had this economic crisis, but we still did not initiate a new policy of development. Also, the summit of Copenhagen against climatic warming did not bring about a true policy for the preservation of the planet.
We are on a threshold between the terror of the first decade and the possibilities of following decades. But it is necessary to hope, it is always necessary to hope. The previous decade, that of 1990s, had been a time of great progress. The United Nations had enough wisdom to call conferences such as those of Rio on environment, in 1992, and that of Beijing on women, in 1995. In September 2000, on the initiative of the general secretary of United Nations, Kofi Annan, the 191 member countries adopted a statement on the "eight objectives of the millennium for development," by which they notably promised to reduce poverty in the world by half before 2015.
My big regret is that neither Obama nor the European Union has yet committed themselves to what should be the provision for a useful forum bearing on the fundamental values.
Conclusion
How to conclude this call to be indignant? By saying still what, on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of the program of the National Council of the Resistance, we said on March 8th, 2004 -- we veterans of the resistance movements and combat forces of Free France (1940-1945) -- that certainly "Nazism was conquered, thanks to the sacrifice of our brothers and sisters of the Resistance and United Nations
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against fascist barbarism. But this threat did not completely disappear, and our anger against injustice is ever intact." [Note 6] Also, let us always be called in "a truly peaceful insurrection against means of mass communication that offer as a vista for our youth only the consumption of mass trivia, contempt of the weakest and the culture, a generalized amnesia, and the hard competition of all against all."
To those who will make the 21st century, we say with our affection:
TO CREATE IS TO RESIST; TO RESIST IS TO CREATE.
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